FAR23

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt.
23
§ 21.621 Transferability and duration. 23.155 Elevator control force in maneuvers.

23.157 Rate of roll.
A TSO authorization or letter of TSO
design approval issued under this part TRIM
is not transferable and is effective 23.161 Trim.
until surrendered, withdrawn, or other-
wise terminated by the Administrator. STABILITY
23.171 General.
PART 23—AIRWORTHINESS STAND- 23.173 Static longitudinal stability.
23.175 Demonstration of static longitudinal
ARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY, ACRO- stability.
BATIC, AND COMMUTER CAT- 23.177 Static directional and lateral sta-
EGORY AIRPLANES bility.
23.181 Dynamic stability.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
STALLS
SFAR NO. 23 23.201 Wings level stall.
SFAR NO. 41 [NOTE] 23.203 Turning flight and accelerated turn-
ing stalls.
Subpart A—General 23.207 Stall warning.
Sec. SPINNING
23.1 Applicability.
23.2 Special retroactive requirements. 23.221 Spinning.
23.3 Airplane categories.
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
Subpart B—Flight
23.231 Longitudinal stability and control.
GENERAL 23.233 Directional stability and control.
23.21 Proof of compliance. 23.235 Operation on unpaved surfaces.
23.23 Load distribution limits. 23.237 Operation on water.
23.25 Weight limits. 23.239 Spray characteristics.
23.29 Empty weight and corresponding cen-
ter of gravity. MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
23.31 Removable ballast. 23.251 Vibration and buffeting.
23.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits. 23.253 High speed characteristics.
PERFORMANCE Subpart C—Structure
23.45 General.
23.49 Stalling period. GENERAL
23.51 Takeoff speeds. 23.301 Loads.
23.53 Takeoff performance. 23.302 Canard or tandem wing configura-
23.55 Accelerate–stop distance. tions.
23.57 Takeoff path. 23.303 Factor of safety.
23.59 Takeoff distance and takeoff run. 23.305 Strength and deformation.
23.61 Takeoff flight path. 23.307 Proof of structure.
23.63 Climb: General.
23.65 Climb: All engines operating. FLIGHT LOADS
23.66 Takeoff climb: One-engine inoperative.
23.321 General.
23.67 Climb: One engine inoperative.
23.331 Symmetrical flight conditions.
23.69 Enroute climb/descent.
23.333 Flight envelope.
23.71 Glide: Single-engine airplanes.
23.335 Design airspeeds.
23.73 Reference landing approach speed.
23.337 Limit maneuvering load factors.
23.75 Landing distance.
23.341 Gust loads factors.
23.77 Balked landing.
23.343 Design fuel loads.
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS 23.345 High lift devices.
23.347 Unsymmetrical flight conditions.
23.141 General. 23.349 Rolling conditions.
23.351 Yawing conditions.
CONTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY
23.361 Engine torque.
23.143 General. 23.363 Side load on engine mount.
23.145 Longitudinal control. 23.365 Pressurized cabin loads.
23.147 Directional and lateral control. 23.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to engine
23.149 Minimum control speed. failure.
23.151 Acrobatic maneuvers. 23.369 Rear lift truss.
23.153 Control during landings. 23.371 Gyroscopic and aerodynamic loads.
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Pt. 23 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
23.373 Speed control devices. EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS 23.561 General.

23.562 Emergency landing dynamic condi-
23.391 Control surface loads. tions.
23.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
23.395 Control system loads. FATIGUE EVALUATION
23.397 Limit control forces and torques. 23.571 Metallic pressurized cabin structures.
23.399 Dual control system. 23.572 Metallic wing, empennage, and asso-
23.405 Secondary control system. ciated structures.
23.407 Trim tab effects. 23.573 Damage tolerance and fatigue evalua-
23.409 Tabs. tion of structure.
23.415 Ground gust conditions. 23.574 Metallic damage tolerance and fa-
tigue evaluation of commuter category
HORIZONTAL STABILIZING AND BALANCING airplanes.
SURFACES 23.575 Inspections and other procedures.
23.421 Balancing loads.
23.423 Maneuvering loads.
Subpart D—Design and Construction
23.425 Gust loads. 23.601 General.
23.427 Unsymmetrical loads. 23.603 Materials and workmanship.
23.605 Fabrication methods.
VERTICAL SURFACES 23.607 Fasteners.
23.441 Maneuvering loads. 23.609 Protection of structure.
23.443 Gust loads. 23.611 Accessibility provisions.
23.445 Outboard fins or winglets. 23.613 Material strength properties and de-
sign values.
AILERONS AND SPECIAL DEVICES 23.619 Special factors.
23.621 Casting factors.
23.455 Ailerons.
23.623 Bearing factors.
23.459 Special devices.
23.625 Fitting factors.
GROUND LOADS 23.627 Fatigue strength.
23.629 Flutter.
23.471 General.
23.473 Ground load conditions and assump- WINGS
tions. 23.641 Proof of strength.
23.477 Landing gear arrangement.
23.479 Level landing conditions. CONTROL SURFACES
23.481 Tail down landing conditions.
23.651 Proof of strength.
23.483 One-wheel landing conditions. 23.655 Installation.
23.485 Side load conditions. 23.657 Hinges.
23.493 Braked roll conditions. 23.659 Mass balance.
23.497 Supplementary conditions for tail
wheels. CONTROL SYSTEMS
23.499 Supplementary conditions for nose
23.671 General.
wheels.
23.672 Stability augmentation and auto-
23.505 Supplementary conditions for ski-
matic and power-operated systems.
planes.
23.673 Primary flight controls.
23.507 Jacking loads.
23.675 Stops.
23.509 Towing loads. 23.677 Trim systems.
23.511 Ground load; unsymmetrical loads on 23.679 Control system locks.
multiple-wheel units. 23.681 Limit load static tests.
WATER LOADS 23.683 Operation tests.
23.685 Control system details.
23.521 Water load conditions. 23.687 Spring devices.
23.523 Design weights and center of gravity 23.689 Cable systems.
positions. 23.691 Artificial stall barrier system.
23.525 Application of loads. 23.693 Joints.
23.527 Hull and main float load factors. 23.697 Wing flap controls.
23.529 Hull and main float landing condi- 23.699 Wing flap position indicator.
tions. 23.701 Flap interconnection.
23.531 Hull and main float takeoff condi- 23.703 Takeoff warning system.
tion.
23.533 Hull and main float bottom pressures. LANDING GEAR
23.535 Auxiliary float loads. 23.721 General.
23.537 Seawing loads. 23.723 Shock absorption tests.
164
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23
23.725 Limit drop tests. 23.903 Engines.
23.726 Ground load dynamic tests. 23.904 Automatic power reserve system.
23.727 Reserve energy absorption drop test. 23.905 Propellers.
23.729 Landing gear extension and retrac- 23.907 Propeller vibration.
tion system. 23.909 Turbocharger systems.
23.731 Wheels. 23.925 Propeller clearance.
23.733 Tires. 23.929 Engine installation ice protection.
23.735 Brakes. 23.933 Reversing systems.
23.737 Skis. 23.934 Turbojet and turbofan engine thrust
23.745 Nose/tail wheel steering. reverser systems tests.
FLOATS AND HULLS 23.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting sys-
tems.
23.751 Main float buoyancy. 23.939 Powerplant operating characteristics.
23.753 Main float design. 23.943 Negative acceleration.
23.755 Hulls.
23.757 Auxiliary floats. FUEL SYSTEM
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS 23.951 General.

23.953 Fuel system independence.
23.771 Pilot compartment. 23.954 Fuel system lightning protection.
23.773 Pilot compartment view. 23.955 Fuel flow.
23.775 Windshields and windows. 23.957 Flow between interconnected tanks.
23.777 Cockpit controls. 23.959 Unusable fuel supply.
23.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls.
23.961 Fuel system hot weather operation.
23.781 Cockpit control knob shape.
23.963 Fuel tanks: General.
23.783 Doors.
23.965 Fuel tank tests.
23.785 Seats, berths, litters, safety belts,
and shoulder harnesses. 23.967 Fuel tank installation.
23.787 Baggage and cargo compartments. 23.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
23.791 Passenger information signs. 23.971 Fuel tank sump.
23.803 Emergency evacuation. 23.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
23.805 Flightcrew emergency exits. 23.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor vapor
23.807 Emergency exits. vents.
23.811 Emergency exit marking. 23.977 Fuel tank outlet.
23.812 Emergency lighting. 23.979 Pressure fueling systems.
23.813 Emergency exit access.
23.815 Width of aisle. FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
23.831 Ventilation. 23.991 Fuel pumps.
23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
PRESSURIZATION 23.994 Fuel system components.
23.841 Pressurized cabins. 23.995 Fuel valves and controls.
23.843 Pressurization tests. 23.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
23.999 Fuel system drains.
FIRE PROTECTION 23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system.
23.851 Fire extinguishers.
OIL SYSTEM
23.853 Passenger and crew compartment in-
teriors. 23.1011 General.
23.855 Cargo and baggage compartment fire 23.1013 Oil tanks.
protection. 23.1015 Oil tank tests.
23.859 Combustion heater fire protection. 23.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
23.863 Flammable fluid fire protection. 23.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
23.865 Fire protection of flight controls, en- 23.1021 Oil system drains.
gine mounts, and other flight structure. 23.1023 Oil radiators.
23.1027 Propeller feathering system.
ELECTRICAL BONDING AND LIGHTNING
PROTECTION COOLING
23.867 Electrical bonding and protection 23.1041 General.
against lightning and static electricity. 23.1043 Cooling tests.
23.1045 Cooling test procedures for turbine
MISCELLANEOUS
engine powered airplanes.
23.871 Leveling means. 23.1047 Cooling test procedures for recipro-
cating engine powered airplanes.
Subpart E—Powerplant
LIQUID COOLING
GENERAL
23.1061 Installation.
23.901 Installation. 23.1063 Coolant tank tests.
165
INDUCTION SYSTEM 23.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
23.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory
23.1091 Air induction system.
lights.
23.1093 Induction system icing protection.
23.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
23.1095 Carburetor deicing fluid flow rate.
23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid system ca- 23.1325 Static pressure system.
pacity. 23.1326 Pitot heat indication systems.
23.1099 Carburetor deicing fluid system de- 23.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
tail design. 23.1329 Automatic pilot system.
23.1101 Induction air preheater design. 23.1331 Instruments using a power source.
23.1103 Induction system ducts. 23.1335 Flight director systems.
23.1105 Induction system screens. 23.1337 Powerplant instruments installa-
23.1107 Induction system filters. tion.
23.1109 Turbocharger bleed air system.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air system.
23.1351 General.
EXHAUST SYSTEM 23.1353 Storage battery design and installa-
23.1121 General. tion.
23.1123 Exhaust system. 23.1357 Circuit protective devices.
23.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers. 23.1359 Electrical system fire protection.
23.1361 Master switch arrangement.
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES 23.1365 Electric cables and equipment.
23.1141 Powerplant controls: General. 23.1367 Switches.
23.1142 Auxiliary power unit controls.
LIGHTS
23.1143 Engine controls.
23.1145 Ignition switches. 23.1381 Instrument lights.
23.1147 Mixture controls. 23.1383 Taxi and landing lights.
23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls. 23.1385 Position light system installation.
23.1153 Propeller feathering controls. 23.1387 Position light system dihedral an-
23.1155 Turbine engine reverse thrust and gles.
propeller pitch settings below the flight 23.1389 Position light distribution and in-
regime. tensities.
23.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls. 23.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori-
23.1163 Powerplant accessories. zontal plane of position lights.
23.1165 Engine ignition systems. 23.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical
plane of position lights.
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION 23.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping
23.1181 Designated fire zones; regions in- beams of position lights.
cluded. 23.1397 Color specifications.
23.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls. 23.1399 Riding light.
23.1183 Lines, fittings, and components. 23.1401 Anticollision light system.
23.1189 Shutoff means.
23.1191 Firewalls. SAFETY EQUIPMENT
23.1192 Engine accessory compartment dia- 23.1411 General.
phragm. 23.1415 Ditching equipment.
23.1193 Cowling and nacelle. 23.1416 Pneumatic de-icer boot system.
23.1195 Fire extinguishing systems. 23.1419 Ice protection.
23.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
23.1199 Extinguishing agent containers. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
23.1201 Fire extinguishing systems mate-
23.1431 Electronic equipment.
rials.
23.1435 Hydraulic systems.
23.1203 Fire detector system.
23.1437 Accessories for multiengine air-
planes.
Subpart F—Equipment
23.1438 Pressurization and pneumatic sys-
GENERAL tems.
23.1441 Oxygen equipment and supply.
23.1301 Function and installation. 23.1443 Minimum mass flow of supplemental
23.1303 Flight and navigation instruments. oxygen.
23.1305 Powerplant instruments. 23.1445 Oxygen distribution system.
23.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. 23.1447 Equipment standards for oxygen dis-
23.1309 Equipment, systems, and installa- pensing units.
tions. 23.1449 Means for determining use of oxy-
gen.
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
23.1450 Chemical oxygen generators.
23.1311 Electronic display instrument sys- 23.1451 Fire protection for oxygen equip-
tems. ment.
166
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, SFAR No. 23
23.1453 Protection of oxygen equipment AUTHORITY: 49 U.S.C. 106(g), 40113, 44701–
from rupture. 44702, 44704.
23.1457 Cockpit voice recorders. SOURCE: Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec.
23.1459 Flight recorders. 18. 1964; 30 FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, unless other-
23.1461 Equipment containing high energy wise noted.
rotors.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION
Subpart G—Operating Limitations and REGULATIONS SFAR NO. 23
Information
1. Applicability. An applicant is entitled to
23.1501 General. a type certificate in the normal category for
23.1505 Airspeed limitations. a reciprocating or turbopropeller multien-
23.1507 Operating maneuvering speed. gine powered small airplane that is to be cer-
23.1511 Flap extended speed. tificated to carry more than 10 occupants
23.1513 Minimum control speed. and that is intended for use in operations
23.1519 Weight and center of gravity. under Part 135 of the Federal Aviation Regu-
23.1521 Powerplant limitations. lations if he shows compliance with the ap-
23.1522 Auxiliary power unit limitations. plicable requirements of Part 23 of the Fed-
23.1523 Minimum flight crew. eral Aviation Regulations, as supplemented
23.1524 Maximum passenger seating configu- or modified by the additional airworthiness
ration. requirements of this regulation.
23.1525 Kinds of operation. 2. References. Unless otherwise provided, all
23.1527 Maximum operating altitude. references in this regulation to specific sec-
23.1529 Instructions for Continued Air- tions of Part 23 of the Federal Aviation Reg-
worthiness. ulations are those sections of Part 23 in ef-
fect on March 30, 1967.
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
23.1541 General.
23.1543 Instrument markings: General. 3. General. Compliance must be shown with
23.1545 Airspeed indicator. the applicable requirements of Subpart B of
23.1547 Magnetic direction indicator. Part 23 of the Federal Aviation Regulations
23.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary power unit in effect on March 30, 1967, as supplemented
instruments. or modified in sections 4 through 10 of this
23.1551 Oil quantity indicator. regulation.
23.1553 Fuel quantity indicator.
PERFORMANCE
23.1555 Control markings.
23.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac- 4. General. (a) Unless otherwise prescribed
ards. in this regulation, compliance with each ap-
23.1559 Operating limitations placard. plicable performance requirement in sections
23.1561 Safety equipment. 4 through 7 of this regulation must be shown
23.1563 Airspeed placards. for ambient atmospheric conditions and still
23.1567 Flight maneuver placard. air.
(b) The performance must correspond to
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL AND APPROVED the propulsive thrust available under the
MANUAL MATERIAL particular ambient atmospheric conditions
and the particular flight condition. The
23.1581 General.
available propulsive thrust must correspond
23.1583 Operating limitations.
to engine power or thrust, not exceeding the
23.1585 Operating procedures.
approved power or thrust less—
23.1587 Performance information.
(1) Installation losses; and
23.1589 Loading information.
(2) The power or equivalent thrust ab-
APPENDIX A TO PART 23—SIMPLIFIED DESIGN sorbed by the accessories and services appro-
LOAD CRITERIA priate to the particular ambient atmospheric
APPENDIX B TO PART 23 [RESERVED] conditions and the particular flight condi-
APPENDIX C TO PART 23—BASIC LANDING CON- tion.
DITIONS (c) Unless otherwise prescribed in this reg-
APPENDIX D TO PART 23—WHEEL SPIN-UP AND ulation, the applicant must select the take-
SPRING-BACK LOADS off, en route, and landing configurations for
APPENDIX E TO PART 23 [RESERVED] the airplane.
APPENDIX F TO PART 23—TEST PROCEDURE (d) The airplane configuration may vary
APPENDIX G TO PART 23—INSTRUCTIONS FOR with weight, altitude, and temperature, to
CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS the extent they are compatible with the op-
APPENDIX H TO PART 23—INSTALLATION OF AN erating procedures required by paragraph (e)
AUTOMATIC POWER RESERVE (APR) SYS- of this section.
TEM (e) Unless otherwise prescribed in this reg-
APPENDIX I TO PART 23—SEAPLANE LOADS ulation, in determining the critical engine
167
Pt. 23, SFAR No. 23 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
inoperative takeoff performance, the accel- at the speed V1. The landing gear must re-
erate-stop distance, takeoff distance, main in the extended position and maximum
changes in the airplane’s configuration, braking may be utilized during deceleration.
speed, power, and thrust, must be made in (2) Means other than wheel brakes may be
accordance with procedures established by used to determine the accelerate-stop dis-
the applicant for operation in service. tance if that means is available with the
(f) Procedures for the execution of balked critical engine inoperative and—
landings must be established by the appli- (i) Is safe and reliable;
cant and included in the Airplane Flight
(ii) Is used so that consistent results can
Manual.
be expected under normal operating condi-
(g) The procedures established under para-
tions; and
graphs (e) and (f) of this section must—
(1) Be able to be consistently executed in (iii) Is such that exceptional skill is not re-
service by a crew of average skill; quired to control the airplane.
(2) Use methods or devices that are safe (d) All engines operating takeoff distance.
and reliable; and The all engine operating takeoff distance is
(3) Include allowance for any time delays, the horizontal distance required to takeoff
in the execution of the procedures, that may and climb to a height of 50 feet above the
reasonably be expected in service. takeoff surface according to procedures in
5. Takeoff—(a) General. The takeoff speeds FAR 23.51(a).
described in paragraph (b), the accelerate- (e) One-engine-inoperative takeoff. The max-
stop distance described in paragraph (c), and imum weight must be determined for each
the takeoff distance described in paragraph altitude and temperature within the oper-
(d), must be determined for— ational limits established for the airplane, at
(1) Each weight, altitude, and ambient which the airplane has takeoff capability
temperature within the operational limits after failure of the critical engine at or
selected by the applicant; above V1 determined in accordance with
(2) The selected configuration for takeoff; paragraph (b) of this section. This capability
(3) The center of gravity in the most unfa- may be established—
vorable position; (1) By demonstrating a measurably posi-
(4) The operating engine within approved tive rate of climb with the airplane in the
operating limitation; and takeoff configuration, landing gear extended;
(5) Takeoff data based on smooth, dry, or
hard-surface runway. (2) By demonstrating the capability of
(b) Takeoff speeds. (1) The decision speed V1 maintaining flight after engine failure uti-
is the calibrated airspeed on the ground at lizing procedures prescribed by the appli-
which, as a result of engine failure or other cant.
reasons, the pilot is assumed to have made a 6. Climb—(a) Landing climb: All-engines-oper-
decision to continue or discontinue the take- ating. The maximum weight must be deter-
off. The speed V1 must be selected by the ap- mined with the airplane in the landing con-
plicant but may not be less than— figuration, for each altitude, and ambient
(i) 1.10 Vs1; temperature within the operational limits
(ii) 1.10 VMC;
established for the airplane and with the
(iii) A speed that permits acceleration to
most unfavorable center of gravity and out-
V1 and stop in accordance with paragraph (c)
of-ground effect in free air, at which the
allowing credit for an overrun distance equal
steady gradient of climb will not be less than
to that required to stop the airplane from a
3.3 percent, with:
ground speed of 35 knots utilizing maximum
braking; or (1) The engines at the power that is avail-
(iv) A speed at which the airplane can be able 8 seconds after initiation of movement
rotated for takeoff and shown to be adequate of the power or thrust controls from the
to safely continue the takeoff, using normal mimimum flight idle to the takeoff position.
piloting skill, when the critical engine is (2) A climb speed not greater than the ap-
suddenly made inoperative. proach speed established under section 7 of
(2) Other essential takeoff speeds necessary this regulation and not less than the greater
for safe operation of the airplane must be de- of 1.05MC or 1.10VS1.
termined and shown in the Airplane Flight (b) En route climb, one-engine-inoperative. (1)
Manual. the maximum weight must be determined
(c) Accelerate-stop distance. (1) The accel- with the airplane in the en route configura-
erate-stop distance is the sum of the dis- tion, the critical engine inoperative, the re-
tances necessary to— maining engine at not more than maximum
(i) Accelerate the airplane from a standing continuous power or thrust, and the most
start to V1; and unfavorable center of gravity, at which the
(ii) Decelerate the airplane from V1 to a gradient at climb will be not less than—
speed not greater than 35 knots, assuming (i) 1.2 percent (or a gradient equivalent to
that in the case of engine failure, failure of 0.20 Vso 2, if greater) at 5,000 feet and an am-
the critical engine is recognized by the pilot bient temperature of 41° F. or
168
(ii) 0.6 percent (or a gradient equivalent to (v) The airplane trimmed for level flight
0.01 Vso 2, if greater) at 5,000 feet and ambient with the power specified in subparagraph
temperature of 81° F. (iii) of this paragraph.
(2) The minimum climb gradient specified VFC/MFC may not be less than a speed mid-
in subdivisions (i) and (ii) of subparagraph (1) way between VMO/MMO and VDF/MDF, except
of this paragraph must vary linearly between that, for altitudes where Mach number is the
41° F. and 81° F. and must change at the same limiting factor, MFC need not exceed the
rate up to the maximum operational tem- Mach number at which effective speed warn-
perature approved for the airplane. ing occurs.
7. Landing. The landing distance must be (c) Climb stability. For turbopropeller powered
determined for standard atmosphere at each airplanes only. In showing compliance with
weight and altitude in accordance with FAR FAR 23.175(a), an applicant must in lieu of
23.75(a), except that instead of the gliding ap- the power specified in FAR 23.175(a)(4), use
proach specified in FAR 23.75(a)(1), the land- the maximum power or thrust selected by
ing may be preceded by a steady approach the applicant as an operating limitation for
down to the 50-foot height at a gradient of use during climb at the best rate of climb
descent not greater than 5.2 percent (3°) at a speed except that the speed need not be less
calibrated airspeed not less than 1.3s1. than 1.4 Vs1.
TRIM STALLS
8. Trim—(a) Lateral and directional trim. The 10. Stall warning. If artificial stall warning
airplane must maintain lateral and direc- is required to comply with the requirements
tional trim in level flight at a speed of Vh or of FAR 23.207, the warning device must give
VMO/MMO, whichever is lower, with landing clearly distinguishable indications under ex-
gear and wing flaps retracted. pected conditions of flight. The use of a vis-
(b) Longitudinal trim. The airplane must ual warning device that requires the atten-
maintain longitudinal trim during the fol- tion of the crew within the cockpit is not ac-
lowing conditions, except that it need not ceptable by itself.
maintain trim at a speed greater than VMO/
MMO: CONTROL SYSTEMS
(1) In the approach conditions specified in 11. Electric trim tabs. The airplane must
FAR 23.161(c)(3) through (5), except that in- meet the requirements of FAR 23.677 and in
stead of the speeds specified therein, trim addition it must be shown that the airplane
must be maintained with a stick force of not is safely controllable and that a pilot can
more than 10 pounds down to a speed used in perform all the maneuvers and operations
showing compliance with section 7 of this necessary to effect a safe landing following
regulation or 1.4 Vs1 whichever is lower. any probable electric trim tab runaway
(2) In level flight at any speed from VH or which might be reasonably expected in serv-
VMO/MMO, whichever is lower, to either Vx or ice allowing for appropriate time delay after
1.4 Vs1, with the landing gear and wing flaps pilot recognition of the runaway. This dem-
retracted. onstration must be conducted at the critical
airplane weights and center of gravity posi-
STABILITY tions.
9. Static longitudinal stability. (a) In showing
compliance with the provisions of FAR INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
23.175(b) and with paragraph (b) of this sec- 12. Arrangement and visibility. Each instru-
tion, the airspeed must return to within ±71⁄2 ment must meet the requirements of FAR
percent of the trim speed. 23.1321 and in addition—
(b) Cruise stability. The stick force curve (a) Each flight, navigation, and powerplant
must have a stable slope for a speed range of instrument for use by any pilot must be
±50 knots from the trim speed except that plainly visible to him from his station with
the speeds need not exceed VFC/MFC or be less the minimum practicable deviation from his
than 1.4 Vs1. This speed range will be consid- normal position and line of vision when he is
ered to begin at the outer extremes of the looking forward along the flight path.
friction band and the stick force may not ex- (b) The flight instruments required by FAR
ceed 50 pounds with— 23.1303 and by the applicable operating rules
(i) Landing gear retracted; must be grouped on the instrument panel
(ii) Wing flaps retracted; and centered as nearly as practicable about
(iii) The maximum cruising power as se- the vertical plane of each pilot’s forward vi-
lected by the applicant as an operating limi- sion. In addition—
tation for turbine engines or 75 percent of (1) The instrument that most effectively
maximum continuous power for recipro- indicates the attitude must be on the panel
cating engines except that the power need in the top center position;
not exceed that required at VMO/MMO: (2) The instrument that most effectively
(iv) Maximum takeoff weight; and indicates airspeed must be adjacent to and
169
directly to the left of the instrument in the production variations will be taken into ac-
top center position; count.
(3) The instrument that most effectively 16. Minimum flight crew. In addition to
indicates altitude must be adjacent to and meeting the requirements of FAR 23.1523, the
directly to the right of the instrument in the applicant must establish the minimum num-
top center position; and ber and type of qualified flight crew per-
(4) The instrument that most effectively sonnel sufficient for safe operation of the
indicates direction of flight must be adjacent airplane considering—
to and directly below the instrument in the (a) Each kind of operation for which the
top center position. applicant desires approval;
13. Airspeed indicating system. Each airspeed (b) The workload on each crewmember con-
indicating system must meet the require- sidering the following:
ments of FAR 23.1323 and in addition— (1) Flight path control.
(a) Airspeed indicating instruments must (2) Collision avoidance.
be of an approved type and must be cali- (3) Navigation.
brated to indicate true airspeed at sea level (4) Communications.
in the standard atmosphere with a (5) Operation and monitoring of all essen-
mimimum practicable instrument calibra- tial aircraft systems.
tion error when the corresponding pilot and (6) Command decisions; and
static pressures are supplied to the instru- (c) The accessibility and ease of operation
ments. of necessary controls by the appropriate
(b) The airspeed indicating system must be
crewmember during all normal and emer-
calibrated to determine the system error,
gency operations when at his flight station.
i.e., the relation between IAS and CAS, in
17. Airspeed indicator. The airspeed indi-
flight and during the accelerate takeoff
cator must meet the requirements of FAR
ground run. The ground run calibration must
23.1545 except that, the airspeed notations
be obtained between 0.8 of the mimimum
and markings in terms of VNO and VNE must
value of V1 and 1.2 times the maximum value
be replaced by the VMO/MMO notations. The
of V1, considering the approved ranges of al-
airspeed indicator markings must be easily
titude and weight. The ground run calibra-
tion will be determined assuming an engine read and understood by the pilot. A placard
failure at the mimimum value of V1. adjacent to the airspeed indicator is an ac-
(c) The airspeed error of the installation ceptable means of showing compliance with
excluding the instrument calibration error, the requirements of FAR 23.1545(c).
must not exceed 3 percent or 5 knots which- AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
ever is greater, throughout the speed range
from VMO to 1.3S1 with flaps retracted and 18. General. The Airplane Flight Manual
from 1.3 VSO to VFE with flaps in the landing must be prepared in accordance with the re-
position. quirements of FARs 23.1583 and 23.1587, and
(d) Information showing the relationship in addition the operating limitations and
between IAS and CAS must be shown in the performance information set forth in sec-
Airplane Flight Manual. tions 19 and 20 must be included.
14. Static air vent system. The static air vent 19. Operating limitations. The Airplane
system must meet the requirements of FAR Flight Manual must include the following
23.1325. The altimeter system calibration limitations—
must be determined and shown in the Air- (a) Airspeed limitations. (1) The maximum
plane Flight Manual. operating limit speed VMO/MMO and a state-
ment that this speed limit may not be delib-
OPERATING LIMITATIONS AND INFORMATION erately exceeded in any regime of flight
15. Maximum operating limit speed VMO/MMO. (climb, cruise, or descent) unless a higher
Instead of establishing operating limitations speed is authorized for flight test or pilot
based on VME and VNO, the applicant must training;
establish a maximum operating limit speed (2) If an airspeed limitation is based upon
VMO/MMO in accordance with the following: compressibility effects, a statement to this
(a) The maximum operating limit speed effect and information as to any symptoms,
must not exceed the design cruising speed Vc the probable behavior of the airplane, and
and must be sufficiently below VD/MD or VDF/ the recommended recovery procedures; and
MDF to make it highly improbable that the (3) The airspeed limits, shown in terms of
latter speeds will be inadvertently exceeded VMO/MMO instead of VNO and VNE.
in flight. (b) Takeoff weight limitations. The max-
(b) The speed Vmo must not exceed 0.8 VD/ imum takeoff weight for each airport ele-
MD or 0.8 VDF/MDF unless flight demonstra- vation, ambient temperature, and available
tions involving upsets as specified by the Ad- takeoff runway length within the range se-
ministrator indicates a lower speed margin lected by the applicant. This weight may not
will not result in speeds exceeding VD/MD or exceed the weight at which:
VDF. Atmospheric variations, horizontal (1) The all-engine operating takeoff dis-
gusts, and equipment errors, and airframe tance determined in accordance with section
170
5(d) or the accelerate-stop distance deter- AIRFRAME REQUIREMENTS
mined in accordance with section 5(c), which
FLIGHT LOADS
ever is greater, is equal to the available run-
way length; 24. Engine torque. (a) Each turbopropeller
(2) The airplane complies with the one-en- engine mount and its supporting structure
gine-inoperative takeoff requirements speci- must be designed for the torque effects of—
fied in section 5(e); and (1) The conditions set forth in FAR
(3) The airplane complies with the one-en- 23.361(a).
gine-inoperative en route climb require- (2) The limit engine torque corresponding
to takeoff power and propeller speed, multi-
ments specified in section 6(b), assuming
plied by a factor accounting for propeller
that a standard temperature lapse rate ex-
control system malfunction, including quick
ists from the airport elevation to the alti- feathering action, simultaneously with 1 g
tude of 5,000 feet, except that the weight may level flight loads. In the absence of a ration-
not exceed that corresponding to a tempera- al analysis, a factor of 1.6 must be used.
ture of 41° F at 5,000 feet. (b) The limit torque is obtained by multi-
20. Performance information. The Airplane plying the mean torque by a factor of 1.25.
Flight Manual must contain the performance 25. Turbine engine gyroscopic loads. Each
information determined in accordance with turbopropeller engine mount and its sup-
the provisions of the performance require- porting structure must be designed for the
ments of this regulation. The information gyroscopic loads that result, with the en-
must include the following: gines at maximum continuous r.p.m., under
(a) Sufficient information so that the take- either—
off weight limits specified in section 19(b) (a) The conditions prescribed in FARs
23.351 and 23.423; or
can be determined for all temperatures and
(b) All possible combinations of the fol-
altitudes within the operation limitations
lowing:
selected by the applicant. (1) A yaw velocity of 2.5 radius per second.
(b) The conditions under which the per- (2) A pitch velocity of 1.0 radians per sec-
formance information was obtained, includ- ond.
ing the airspeed at the 50-foot height used to (3) A normal load factor of 2.5.
determine landing distances. (4) Maximum continuous thrust.
(c) The performance information (deter- 26. Unsymmetrical loads due to engine failure.
mined by extrapolation and computed for the (a) Turbopropeller powered airplanes must
range of weights between the maximum be designed for the unsymmetrical loads re-
landing and takeoff weights) for— sulting from the failure of the critical engine
(1) Climb in the landing configuration; and including the following conditions in com-
bination with a single malfunction of the
(2) Landing distance.
propeller drag limiting system, considering
(d) Procedure established under section 4 of the probable pilot corrective action on the
this regulation related to the limitations flight controls.
and information required by this section in (1) At speeds between VMC and VD, the
the form of guidance material including any loads resulting from power failure because of
relevant limitations or information. fuel flow interruption are considered to be
(e) An explanation of significant or un- limit loads.
usual flight or ground handling characteris- (2) At speeds between VMC and VC, the
tics of the airplane. loads resulting from the disconnection of the
(f) Airspeeds, as indicated airspeeds, cor- engine compressor from the turbine or from
responding to those determined for takeoff loss of the turbine blades are considered to
in accordance with section 5(b). be ultimate loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust decay
21. Maximum operating altitudes. The max-
and drag buildup occurring as a result of the
imum operating altitude to which operation prescribed engine failures must be substan-
is permitted, as limited by flight, structural, tiated by test or other data applicable to the
powerplant, functional, or equipment char- particular engine-propeller combination.
acteristics, must be specified in the Airplane (4) The timing and magnitude of the prob-
Flight Manual. able pilot corrective action must be conserv-
22. Stowage provision for Airplane Flight atively estimated, considering the character-
Manual. Provision must be made for stowing istics of the particular engine-propeller-air-
the Airplane Flight Manual in a suitable plane combination.
fixed container which is readily accessible to (b) Pilot corrective action may be assumed
the pilot. to be initiated at the time maximum yawing
23. Operating procedures. Procedures for re- velocity is reached, but not earlier than two
starting turbine engines in flight (including seconds after the engine failure. The mag-
the effects of altitude) must be set forth in nitude of the corrective action may be based
the Airplane Flight Manual. on the control forces specified in FAR 23.397
except that lower forces may be assumed
171
where it is shown by analysis or test that (a) The significant elastic, inertia, and aer-
these forces can control the yaw and roll re- odynamic forces associated with the rota-
sulting from the prescribed engine failure tions and displacements of the plane of the
conditions. propeller; and
(b) Engine-propeller-nacelle stiffness and
GROUND LOADS damping variations appropriate to the par-
27. Dual wheel landing gear units. Each dual ticular configuration.
wheel landing gear unit and its supporting
structure must be shown to comply with the LANDING GEAR
following: 30. Flap operated landing gear warning de-
(a) Pivoting. The airplane must be assumed vice. Airplanes having retractable landing
to pivot about one side of the main gear with gear and wing flaps must be equipped with a
the brakes on that side locked. The limit warning device that functions continuously
vertical load factor must be 1.0 and the coef- when the wing flaps are extended to a flap
ficient of friction 0.8. This condition need position that activates the warning device to
apply only to the main gear and its sup- give adequate warning before landing, using
porting structure. normal landing procedures, if the landing
(b) Unequal tire inflation. A 60–40 percent gear is not fully extended and locked. There
distribution of the loads established in ac- may not be a manual shut off for this warn-
cordance with FAR 23.471 through FAR 23.483 ing device. The flap position sensing unit
must be applied to the dual wheels. may be installed at any suitable location.
(c) Flat tire. (1) Sixty percent of the loads The system for this device may use any part
specified in FAR 23.471 through FAR 23.483 of the system (including the aural warning
must be applied to either wheel in a unit. device) provided for other landing gear warn-
(2) Sixty percent of the limit drag and side ing devices.
loads and 100 percent of the limit vertical
load established in accordance with FARs PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
23.493 and 23.485 must be applied to either 31. Cargo and baggage compartments. Cargo
wheel in a unit except that the vertical load and baggage compartments must be designed
need not exceed the maximum vertical load to meet the requirements of FAR 23.787 (a)
in paragraph (c)(1) of this section. and (b), and in addition means must be pro-
FATIGUE EVALUATION vided to protect passengers from injury by
the contents of any cargo or baggage com-
28. Fatigue evaluation of wing and associated partment when the ultimate forward inertia
structure. Unless it is shown that the struc- force is 9g.
ture, operating stress levels, materials, and 32. Doors and exits. The airplane must meet
expected use are comparable from a fatigue the requirements of FAR 23.783 and FAR
standpoint to a similar design which has had 23.807 (a)(3), (b), and (c), and in addition:
substantial satisfactory service experience, (a) There must be a means to lock and
the strength, detail design, and the fabrica- safeguard each external door and exit
tion of those parts of the wing, wing carry- against opening in flight either inadvert-
through, and attaching structure whose fail- ently by persons, or as a result of mechan-
ure would be catastrophic must be evaluated ical failure. Each external door must be op-
under either— erable from both the inside and the outside.
(a) A fatigue strength investigation in (b) There must be means for direct visual
which the structure is shown by analysis, inspection of the locking mechanism by
tests, or both to be able to withstand the re- crewmembers to determine whether external
peated loads of variable magnitude expected doors and exits, for which the initial opening
in service; or movement is outward, are fully locked. In
(b) A fail-safe strength investigation in addition, there must be a visual means to
which it is shown by analysis, tests, or both signal to crewmembers when normally used
that catastrophic failure of the structure is external doors are closed and fully locked.
not probable after fatigue, or obvious partial (c) The passenger entrance door must qual-
failure, of a principal structural element, ify as a floor level emergency exit. Each ad-
and that the remaining structure is able to ditional required emergency exit except floor
withstand a static ultimate load factor of 75 level exits must be located over the wing or
percent of the critical limit load factor at must be provided with acceptable means to
Vc. These loads must be multiplied by a fac- assist the occupants in descending to the
tor of 1.15 unless the dynamic effects of fail- ground. In addition to the passenger en-
ure under static load are otherwise consid- trance door:
ered. (1) For a total seating capacity of 15 or
less, an emergency exit as defined in FAR
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
23.807(b) is required on each side of the cabin.
29. Flutter. For Multiengine turbopropeller (2) For a total seating capacity of 16
powered airplanes, a dynamic evaluation through 23, three emergency exits as defined
must be made and must include— in 23.807(b) are required with one on the same
172
side as the door and two on the side opposite designs, to analysis and tests performed by
the door. the applicant for a type certificated model.
(d) An evacuation demonstration must be 35. Maintenance information. The applicant
conducted utilizing the maximum number of must make available to the owner at the
occupants for which certification is desired. time of delivery of the airplane the informa-
It must be conducted under simulated night tion he considers essential for the proper
conditions utilizing only the emergency maintenance of the airplane. That informa-
exits on the most critical side of the aircraft. tion must include the following:
The participants must be representative of (a) Description of systems, including elec-
average airline passengers with no prior trical, hydraulic, and fuel controls.
practice or rehearsal for the demonstration. (b) Lubrication instructions setting forth
Evacuation must be completed within 90 sec- the frequency and the lubricants and fluids
onds. which are to be used in the various systems.
(e) Each emergency exit must be marked (c) Pressures and electrical loads applica-
with the word ‘‘Exit’’ by a sign which has ble to the various systems.
white letters 1 inch high on a red back- (d) Tolerances and adjustments necessary
ground 2 inches high, be self-illuminated or for proper functioning.
independently internally electrically illumi- (e) Methods of leveling, raising, and tow-
nated, and have a minimum luminescence ing.
(brightness) of at least 160 microlamberts.
(f) Methods of balancing control surfaces.
The colors may be reversed if the passenger
(g) Identification of primary and secondary
compartment illumination is essentially the
structures.
same.
(f) Access to window type emergency exits (h) Frequency and extent of inspections
must not be obstructed by seats or seat necessary to the proper operation of the air-
backs. plane.
(g) The width of the main passenger aisle (i) Special repair methods applicable to the
at any point between seats must equal or ex- airplane.
ceed the values in the following table. (j) Special inspection techniques, including
those that require X-ray, ultrasonic, and
Minimum main passenger aisle magnetic particle inspection.
width (k) List of special tools.
Total seating capacity
Less than 25 25 inches and
inches from floor more from floor PROPULSION
10 through 23 ........... 9 inches ............. 15 inches. GENERAL
36. Vibration characteristics. For turbo-

MISCELLANEOUS propeller powered airplanes, the engine in-
33. Lightning strike protection. Parts that stallation must not result in vibration char-
are electrically insulated from the basic air- acteristics of the engine exceeding those es-
frame must be connected to it through light- tablished during the type certification of the
ning arrestors unless a lightning strike on engine.
the insulated part— 37. In-flight restarting of engine. If the en-
(a) Is improbable because of shielding by gine on turbopropeller powered airplanes
other parts; or cannot be restarted at the maximum cruise
(b) Is not hazardous. altitude, a determination must be made of
34. Ice protection. If certification with ice the altitude below which restarts can be con-
protection provisions is desired, compliance sistently accomplished. Restart information
with the following requirements must be must be provided in the Airplane Flight
shown: Manual.
(a) The recommended procedures for the 38. Engines—(a) For turbopropeller powered
use of the ice protection equipment must be airplanes. The engine installation must com-
set forth in the Airplane Flight Manual. ply with the following requirements:
(b) An analysis must be performed to es- (1) Engine isolation. The powerplants must
tablish, on the basis of the airplane’s oper- be arranged and isolated from each other to
ational needs, the adequacy of the ice protec- allow operation, in at least one configura-
tion system for the various components of tion, so that the failure or malfunction of
the airplane. In addition, tests of the ice pro- any engine, or of any system that can affect
tection system must be conducted to dem- the engine, will not—
onstrate that the airplane is capable of oper- (i) Prevent the continued safe operation of
ating safely in continuous maximum and the remaining engines; or
intermittent maximum icing conditions as (ii) Require immediate action by any crew-
described in FAR 25, appendix C. member for continued safe operation.
(c) Compliance with all or portions of this (2) Control of engine rotation. There must be
section may be accomplished by reference, a means to individually stop and restart the
where applicable because of similarity of the rotation of any engine in flight except that
173
engine rotation need not be stopped if con- drag in excess of that for which the airplane
tinued rotation could not jeopardize the safe- was designed. Failure of structural elements
ty of the airplane. Each component of the of the drag-limiting systems need not be con-
stopping and restarting system on the engine sidered if the probability of this kind of fail-
side of the firewall, and that might be ex- ure is extremely remote.
posed to fire, must be at least fire resistant. 41. Turbine engine powerplant operating
If hydraulic propeller feathering systems are characteristics. For turbopropeller powered
used for this purpose, the feathering lines airplanes, the turbine engine powerplant op-
must be at least fire resistant under the operating characteristics must be investigated
erating conditions that may be expected to in flight to determine that no adverse char-
exist during feathering. acteristics (such as stall, surge, or flameout)
(3) Engine speed and gas temperature control are present to a hazardous degree, during
devices. The powerplant systems associated normal and emergency operation within the
with engine control devices, systems, and in- range of operating limitations of the air-
strumentation must provide reasonable as- plane and of the engine.
surance that those engine operating limita- 42. Fuel flow. (a) For turbopropeller pow-
tions that adversely affect turbine rotor ered airplanes—
structural integrity will not be exceeded in (1) The fuel system must provide for con-
service. tinuous supply of fuel to the engines for nor-
(b) For reciprocating-engine powered air- mal operation without interruption due to
planes. To provide engine isolation, the pow- depletion of fuel in any tank other than the
erplants must be arranged and isolated from main tank; and
each other to allow operation, in at least one (2) The fuel flow rate for turbopropeller en-
configuration, so that the failure or malfunc- gine fuel pump systems must not be less
tion of any engine, or of any system that can than 125 percent of the fuel flow required to
affect that engine, will not— develop the standard sea level atmospheric
(1) Prevent the continued safe operation of conditions takeoff power selected and in-
the remaining engines; or cluded as an operating limitation in the Air-
(2) Require immediate action by any crew- plane Flight Manual.
member for continued safe operation. (b) For reciprocating engine powered air-
39. Turbopropeller reversing systems. (a) Tur- planes, it is acceptable for the fuel flow rate
bopropeller reversing systems intended for for each pump system (main and reserve sup-
ground operation must be designed so that ply) to be 125 percent of the takeoff fuel con-
no single failure or malfunction of the sys- sumption of the engine.
tem will result in unwanted reverse thrust
under any expected operating condition. FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Failure of structural elements need not be 43. Fuel pumps. For turbopropeller powered
considered if the probability of this kind of airplanes, a reliable and independent power
failure is extremely remote. source must be provided for each pump used
(b) Turbopropeller reversing systems in- with turbine engines which do not have pro-
tended for in-flight use must be designed so visions for mechanically driving the main
that no unsafe condition will result during pumps. It must be demonstrated that the
normal operation of the system, or from any pump installations provide a reliability and
failure (or reasonably likely combination of durability equivalent to that provided by
failures) of the reversing system, under any FAR 23.991(a).
anticipated condition of operation of the air- 44. Fuel strainer or filter. For turbopropeller
plane. Failure of structural elements need powered airplanes, the following apply:
not be considered if the probability of this (a) There must be a fuel strainer or filter
kind of failure is extremely remote. between the tank outlet and the fuel meter-
(c) Compliance with this section may be ing device of the engine. In addition, the fuel
shown by failure analysis, testing, or both strainer or filter must be—
for propeller systems that allow propeller (1) Between the tank outlet and the en-
blades to move from the flight low-pitch po- gine-driven positive displacement pump
sition to a position that is substantially less inlet, if there is an engine-driven positive
than that at the normal flight low-pitch stop displacement pump;
position. The analysis may include or be sup- (2) Accessible for drainage and cleaning
ported by the analysis made to show compli- and, for the strainer screen, easily remov-
ance with the type certification of the pro- able; and
peller and associated installation compo- (3) Mounted so that its weight is not sup-
nents. Credit will be given for pertinent ported by the connecting lines or by the
analysis and testing completed by the engine inlet or outlet connections of the strainer or
and propeller manufacturers. filter itself.
40. Turbopropeller drag-limiting systems. Tur- (b) Unless there are means in the fuel sys-
bopropeller drag-limiting systems must be tem to prevent the accumulation of ice on
designed so that no single failure or malfunc- the filter, there must be means to automati-
tion of any of the systems during normal or cally maintain the fuel flow if ice-clogging of
emergency operation results in propeller the filter occurs; and
174
(c) The fuel strainer or filter must be of out its flight power range without adverse
adequate capacity (with respect to operating effect on engine operation or serious loss of
limitations established to insure proper serv- power or thrust, under the icing conditions
ice) and of appropriate mesh to insure proper specified in appendix C of FAR 25. In addi-
engine operation, with the fuel contaminated tion, there must be means to indicate to ap-
to a degree (with respect to particle size and propriate flight crewmembers the func-
density) that can be reasonably expected in tioning of the powerplant ice protection sys-
service. The degree of fuel filtering may not tem.
be less than that established for the engine 49. Turbine engine bleed air systems. Turbine
type certification. engine bleed air systems of turbopropeller
45. Lightning strike protection. Protection powered airplanes must be investigated to
must be provided against the ignition of determine—
flammable vapors in the fuel vent system (a) That no hazard to the airplane will re-
due to lightning strikes. sult if a duct rupture occurs. This condition
must consider that a failure of the duct can
COOLING occur anywhere between the engine port and
46. Cooling test procedures for turbopropeller the airplane bleed service; and
powered airplanes. (a) Turbopropeller powered (b) That if the bleed air system is used for
airplanes must be shown to comply with the direct cabin pressurization, it is not possible
requirements of FAR 23.1041 during takeoff, for hazardous contamination of the cabin air
climb en route, and landing stages of flight system to occur in event of lubrication sys-
that correspond to the applicable perform- tem failure.
ance requirements. The cooling test must be
EXHAUST SYSTEM
conducted with the airplane in the configu-
ration and operating under the conditions 50. Exhaust system drains. Turbopropeller
that are critical relative to cooling during engine exhaust systems having low spots or
each stage of flight. For the cooling tests a pockets must incorporate drains at such lo-
temperature is ‘‘stabilized’’ when its rate of cations. These drains must discharge clear of
change is less than 2° F. per minute. the airplane in normal and ground attitudes
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized under to prevent the accumulation of fuel after the
the conditions from which entry is made into failure of an attempted engine start.
each stage of flight being investigated unless
the entry condition is not one during which POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
component and engine fluid temperatures 51. Engine controls. If throttles or power le-
would stabilize, in which case, operation vers for turbopropeller powered airplanes are
through the full entry condition must be such that any position of these controls will
conducted before entry into the stage of reduce the fuel flow to the engine(s) below
flight being investigated in order to allow that necessary for satisfactory and safe idle
temperatures to reach their natural levels at operation of the engine while the airplane is
the time of entry. The takeoff cooling test in flight, a means must be provided to pre-
must be preceded by a period during which vent inadvertent movement of the control
the powerplant component and engine fluid into this position. The means provided must
temperatures are stabilized with the engines incorporate a positive lock or stop at this
at ground idle. idle position and must require a separate and
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of flight distinct operation by the crew to displace
must be continued until— the control from the normal engine oper-
(1) The component and engine fluid tem- ating range.
peratures stabilize; 52. Reverse thrust controls. For turbo-
(2) The stage of flight is completed; or propeller powered airplanes, the propeller re-
(3) An operating limitation is reached. verse thrust controls must have a means to
prevent their inadvertent operation. The
INDUCTION SYSTEM
means must have a positive lock or stop at
47. Air induction. For turbopropeller pow- the idle position and must require a separate
ered airplanes— and distinct operation by the crew to dis-
(a) There must be means to prevent haz- place the control from the flight regime.
ardous quantities of fuel leakage or overflow 53. Engine ignition systems. Each turbo-
from drains, vents, or other components of propeller airplane ignition system must be
flammable fluid systems from entering the considered an essential electrical load.
engine intake system; and 54. Powerplant accessories. The powerplant
(b) The air inlet ducts must be located or accessories must meet the requirements of
protected so as to minimize the ingestion of FAR 23.1163, and if the continued rotation of
foreign matter during takeoff, landing, and any accessory remotely driven by the engine
taxiing. is hazardous when malfunctioning occurs,
48. Induction system icing protection. For there must be means to prevent rotation
turbopropeller powered airplanes, each tur- without interfering with the continued oper-
bine engine must be able to operate through- ation of the engine.
175
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION (1) The instruments required by FAR
23.1305.
55. Fire detector system. For turbopropeller
(2) A cylinder head temperature indicator
powered airplanes, the following apply:
for each engine.
(a) There must be a means that ensures
(3) A manifold pressure indicator for each
prompt detection of fire in the engine com-
engine.
partment. An overtemperature switch in
each engine cooling air exit is an acceptable SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENTS
method of meeting this requirement.
(b) Each fire detector must be constructed GENERAL
and installed to withstand the vibration, in- 59. Function and installation. The systems
ertia, and other loads to which it may be and equipment of the airplane must meet the
subjected in operation. requirements of FAR 23.1301, and the fol-
(c) No fire detector may be affected by any lowing:
oil, water, other fluids, or fumes that might (a) Each item of additional installed equip-
be present. ment must—
(d) There must be means to allow the flight (1) Be of a kind and design appropriate to
crew to check, in flight, the functioning of its intended function;
each fire detector electric circuit. (2) Be labeled as to its identification, func-
(e) Wiring and other components of each tion, or operating limitations, or any appli-
fire detector system in a fire zone must be at cable combination of these factors, unless
least fire resistant. misuse or inadvertent actuation cannot cre-
56. Fire protection, cowling and nacelle skin. ate a hazard;
For reciprocating engine powered airplanes, (3) Be installed according to limitations
the engine cowling must be designed and specified for that equipment; and
constructed so that no fire originating in the (4) Function properly when installed.
engine compartment can enter, either (b) Systems and installations must be de-
through openings or by burn through, any signed to safeguard against hazards to the
other region where it would create addi- aircraft in the event of their malfunction or
tional hazards. failure.
57. Flammable fluid fire protection. If flam- (c) Where an installation, the functioning
mable fluids or vapors might be liberated by of which is necessary in showing compliance
the leakage of fluid systems in areas other with the applicable requirements, requires a
than engine compartments, there must be power supply, such installation must be con-
means to— sidered an essential load on the power sup-
(a) Prevent the ignition of those fluids or ply, and the power sources and the distribu-
vapors by any other equipment; or tion system must be capable of supplying the
(b) Control any fire resulting from that ig- following power loads in probable operation
nition. combinations and for probable durations:
(1) All essential loads after failure of any
EQUIPMENT prime mover, power converter, or energy
58. Powerplant instruments. (a) The fol- storage device.
lowing are required for turbopropeller air- (2) All essential loads after failure of any
planes: one engine on two-engine airplanes.
(1) The instruments required by FAR (3) In determining the probable operating
23.1305 (a)(1) through (4), (b)(2) and (4). combinations and durations of essential
(2) A gas temperature indicator for each loads for the power failure conditions de-
engine. scribed in subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this
(3) Free air temperature indicator. paragraph, it is permissible to assume that
(4) A fuel flowmeter indicator for each en- the power loads are reduced in accordance
gine. with a monitoring procedure which is con-
(5) Oil pressure warning means for each en- sistent with safety in the types of operations
gine. authorized.
(6) A torque indicator or adequate means 60. Ventilation. The ventilation system of
for indicating power output for each engine. the airplane must meet the requirements of
(7) Fire warning indicator for each engine. FAR 23.831, and in addition, for pressurized
(8) A means to indicate when the propeller aircraft the ventilating air in flight crew and
blade angle is below the low-pitch position passenger compartments must be free of
corresponding to idle operation in flight. harmful or hazardous concentrations of
(9) A means to indicate the functioning of gases and vapors in normal operation and in
the ice protection system for each engine. the event of reasonably probable failures or
(b) For turbopropeller powered airplanes, malfunctioning of the ventilating, heating,
the turbopropeller blade position indicator pressurization, or other systems, and equip-
must begin indicating when the blade has ment. If accumulation of hazardous quan-
moved below the flight low-pitch position. tities of smoke in the cockpit area is reason-
(c) The following instruments are required ably probable, smoke evacuation must be
for reciprocating-engine powered airplanes: readily accomplished.
176
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 23.2
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT must have individual and exclusive circuit
protection.
61. General. The electrical systems and
equipment of the airplane must meet the re- [Doc. No. 8070, 34 FR 189, Jan. 7, 1969, as
quirements of FAR 23.1351, and the following: amended by SFAR 23–1, 34 FR 20176, Dec. 24,
(a) Electrical system capacity. The required 1969; 35 FR 1102, Jan. 28, 1970]
generating capacity, and number and kinds
of power sources must— SFAR NO. 41
(1) Be determined by an electrical load
analysis, and EDITORIAL NOTE: For the text of SFAR No.
(2) Meet the requirements of FAR 23.1301. 41, see part 21 of this chapter.
(b) Generating system. The generating sys-
tem includes electrical power sources, main Subpart A—General
power busses, transmission cables, and asso-
ciated control, regulation, and protective de- § 23.1 Applicability.
vices. It must be designed so that— (a) This part prescribes airworthiness
(1) The system voltage and frequency (as standards for the issue of type certifi-
applicable) at the terminals of all essential cates, and changes to those certifi-
load equipment can be maintained within cates, for airplanes in the normal, util-
the limits for which the equipment is de-
ity, acrobatic, and commuter cat-
signed, during any probable operating condi-
tions;
egories.
(2) System transients due to switching,
(b) Each person who applies under
fault clearing, or other causes do not make Part 21 for such a certificate or change
essential loads inoperative, and do not cause must show compliance with the appli-
a smoke or fire hazard; cable requirements of this part.
(3) There are means, accessible in flight to [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
appropriate crewmembers, for the individual amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1825, Jan. 15,
and collective disconnection of the electrical 1987]
power sources from the system; and
(4) There are means to indicate to appro- § 23.2 Special retroactive require-
priate crewmembers the generating system ments.
quantities essential for the safe operation of (a) Notwithstanding §§ 21.17 and 21.101
the system, including the voltage and cur-
of this chapter and irrespective of the
rent supplied by each generator.
type certification basis, each normal,
62. Electrical equipment and installation.
Electrical equipment controls, and wiring
utility, and acrobatic category air-
must be installed so that operation of any plane having a passenger seating con-
one unit or system of units will not ad- figuration, excluding pilot seats, of
versely affect the simultaneous operation of nine or less, manufactured after De-
to the safe operation. cember 12, 1986, or any such foreign air-
63. Distribution system. (a) For the purpose plane for entry into the United States
of complying with this section, the distribu- must provide a safety belt and shoulder
tion system includes the distribution busses, harness for each forward- or aft-facing
their associated feeders and each control and seat which will protect the occupant
protective device. from serious head injury when sub-
(b) Each system must be designed so that jected to the inertia loads resulting
essential load circuits can be supplied in the from the ultimate static load factors
event of reasonably probable faults or open prescribed in § 23.561(b)(2) of this part,
circuits, including faults in heavy current or which will provide the occupant pro-
carrying cables.
tection specified in § 23.562 of this part
(c) If two independent sources of electrical
when that section is applicable to the
power for particular equipment or systems
are required by this regulation, their elec-
airplane. For other seat orientations,
trical energy supply must be insured by the seat/restraint system must be de-
means such as duplicate electrical equip- signed to provide a level of occupant
ment, throwover switching, or multichannel protection equivalent to that provided
or loop circuits separately routed. for forward- or aft-facing seats with a
64. Circuit protective devices. The circuit safety belt and shoulder harness in-
protective devices for the electrical circuits stalled.
of the airplane must meet the requirements (b) Each shoulder harness installed at
of FAR 23.1357, and in addition circuits for a flight crewmember station, as re-
loads which are essential to safe operation quired by this section, must allow the
177
§ 23.3 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
crewmember, when seated with the necessary as a result of required flight

safety belt and shoulder harness fas- tests.
tened, to perform all functions nec- (d) The commuter category is limited
essary for flight operations. to propeller-driven, multiengine air-
(c) For the purpose of this section, planes that have a seating configura-
the date of manufacture is: tion, excluding pilot seats, of 19 or less,
(1) The date the inspection accept- and a maximum certificated takeoff
ance records, or equivalent, reflect weight of 19,000 pounds or less. The
that the airplane is complete and commuter category operation is lim-
meets the FAA approved type design ited to any maneuver incident to nor-
data; or mal flying, stalls (except whip stalls),
(2) In the case of a foreign manufac- and steep turns, in which the angle of
tured airplane, the date the foreign bank is not more than 60 degrees.
civil airworthiness authority certifies (e) Except for commuter category,
the airplane is complete and issues an airplanes may be type certificated in
original standard airworthiness certifi- more than one category if the require-
cate, or the equivalent in that country. ments of each requested category are
met.
[Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30812, Aug. 15, 1988]
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
§ 23.3 Airplane categories. amended by Amdt. 23–4, 32 FR 5934, Apr. 14,
1967; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1825, Jan. 15, 1987; 52
(a) The normal category is limited to FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR
airplanes that have a seating configu- 5183, Feb. 9, 1996]
ration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or
less, a maximum certificated takeoff Subpart B—Flight
weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and in-
tended for nonacrobatic operation. GENERAL
Nonacrobatic operation includes:
(1) Any maneuver incident to normal § 23.21 Proof of compliance.
flying; (a) Each requirement of this subpart
(2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and must be met at each appropriate com-
(3) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep bination of weight and center of grav-
turns, in which the angle of bank is not ity within the range of loading condi-
more than 60 degrees. tions for which certification is re-
(b) The utility category is limited to quested. This must be shown—
airplanes that have a seating configu- (1) By tests upon an airplane of the
ration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or type for which certification is re-
less, a maximum certificated takeoff quested, or by calculations based on,
weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and in- and equal in accuracy to, the results of
tended for limited acrobatic operation. testing; and
Airplanes certificated in the utility (2) By systematic investigation of
category may be used in any of the op- each probable combination of weight
erations covered under paragraph (a) of and center of gravity, if compliance
this section and in limited acrobatic cannot be reasonably inferred from
operations. Limited acrobatic oper- combinations investigated.
ation includes: (b) The following general tolerances
(1) Spins (if approved for the par- are allowed during flight testing. How-
ticular type of airplane); and ever, greater tolerances may be al-
(2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep lowed in particular tests:
turns, or similar maneuvers, in which
Item Tolerance
the angle of bank is more than 60 de-
grees but not more than 90 degrees. Weight ............................................... +5%, –10%.
Critical items affected by weight ....... +5%, –1%.
(c) The acrobatic category is limited C.G .................................................... ±7% total travel.
to airplanes that have a seating con-
figuration, excluding pilot seats, of
nine or less, a maximum certificated § 23.23 Load distribution limits.
takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, (a) Ranges of weights and centers of
and intended for use without restric- gravity within which the airplane may
tions, other than those shown to be be safely operated must be established.
178
If a weight and center of gravity com- be established so that it is not more

bination is allowable only within cer- than the sum of—
tain lateral load distribution limits (1) The empty weight determined
that could be inadvertently exceeded, under § 23.29;
these limits must be established for the (2) The weight of the required min-
corresponding weight and center of imum crew (assuming a weight of 170
gravity combinations. pounds for each crewmember); and
(b) The load distribution limits may (3) The weight of—
not exceed any of the following: (i) For turbojet powered airplanes, 5
(1) The selected limits; percent of the total fuel capacity of
(2) The limits at which the structure that particular fuel tank arrangement
is proven; or under investigation, and
(3) The limits at which compliance (ii) For other airplanes, the fuel nec-
with each applicable flight require- essary for one-half hour of operation at
ment of this subpart is shown. maximum continuous power.
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993] [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13086, Aug. 13,
§ 23.25 Weight limits. 1969; Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2317, Jan. 16, 1978;
(a) Maximum weight. The maximum Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1825, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt.
weight is the highest weight at which 23–45, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61
FR 5183, Feb. 9, 1996]
compliance with each applicable re-
quirement of this part (other than § 23.29 Empty weight and cor-
those complied with at the design land- responding center of gravity.
ing weight) is shown. The maximum
weight must be established so that it (a) The empty weight and cor-
is— responding center of gravity must be
(1) Not more than the least of— determined by weighing the airplane
(i) The highest weight selected by the with—
applicant; or (1) Fixed ballast;
(ii) The design maximum weight, (2) Unusable fuel determined under
which is the highest weight at which § 23.959; and
compliance with each applicable struc- (3) Full operating fluids, including—
tural loading condition of this part (i) Oil;
(other than those complied with at the (ii) Hydraulic fluid; and
design landing weight) is shown; or (iii) Other fluids required for normal
(iii) The highest weight at which operation of airplane systems, except
compliance with each applicable flight potable water, lavatory precharge
requirement is shown, and water, and water intended for injection
(2) Not less than the weight with— in the engines.
(i) Each seat occupied, assuming a (b) The condition of the airplane at
weight of 170 pounds for each occupant the time of determining empty weight
for normal and commuter category air- must be one that is well defined and
planes, and 190 pounds for utility and can be easily repeated.
acrobatic category airplanes, except [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
that seats other than pilot seats may FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
be placarded for a lesser weight; and 21, 43 FR 2317, Jan. 16, 1978]
(A) Oil at full capacity, and
(B) At least enough fuel for max- § 23.31 Removable ballast.
imum continuous power operation of at Removable ballast may be used in
least 30 minutes for day-VFR approved showing compliance with the flight re-
airplanes and at least 45 minutes for quirements of this subpart, if—
night-VFR and IFR approved airplanes; (a) The place for carrying ballast is
or properly designed and installed, and is
(ii) The required minimum crew, and marked under § 23.1557; and
fuel and oil to full tank capacity. (b) Instructions are included in the
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum airplane flight manual, approved man-
weight (the lowest weight at which ual material, or markings and plac-
compliance with each applicable re- ards, for the proper placement of the
quirement of this part is shown) must removable ballast under each loading
179
§ 23.33 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
condition for which removable ballast more than the maximum approved
is necessary. overspeed.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6,
13, 37 FR 20023, Sept. 23, 1972] 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5183, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.33 Propeller speed and pitch lim- PERFORMANCE

its.
§ 23.45 General.
(a) General. The propeller speed and
pitch must be limited to values that (a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
will assure safe operation under normal performance requirements of this part
operating conditions. must be met for—
(b) Propellers not controllable in flight. (1) Still air and standard atmosphere;
For each propeller whose pitch cannot and
be controlled in flight— (2) Ambient atmospheric conditions,
(1) During takeoff and initial climb for commuter category airplanes, for
at the all engine(s) operating climb reciprocating engine-powered airplanes
speed specified in § 23.65, the propeller of more than 6,000 pounds maximum
must limit the engine r.p.m., at full weight, and for turbine engine-powered
airplanes.
throttle or at maximum allowable
takeoff manifold pressure, to a speed (b) Performance data must be deter-
not greater than the maximum allow- mined over not less than the following
able takeoff r.p.m.; and ranges of conditions—
(1) Airport altitudes from sea level to
(2) During a closed throttle glide, at
10,000 feet; and
VNE, the propeller may not cause an en-
gine speed above 110 percent of max- (2) For reciprocating engine-powered
imum continuous speed. airplanes of 6,000 pounds, or less, max-
imum weight, temperature from stand-
(c) Controllable pitch propellers without
ard to 30 °C above standard; or
constant speed controls. Each propeller
(3) For reciprocating engine-powered
that can be controlled in flight, but
airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds
that does not have constant speed con-
maximum weight and turbine engine-
trols, must have a means to limit the
powered airplanes, temperature from
pitch range so that—
standard to 30 °C above standard, or
(1) The lowest possible pitch allows the maximum ambient atmospheric
compliance with paragraph (b)(1) of temperature at which compliance with
this section; and the cooling provisions of § 23.1041 to
(2) The highest possible pitch allows § 23.1047 is shown, if lower.
compliance with paragraph (b)(2) of (c) Performance data must be deter-
this section. mined with the cowl flaps or other
(d) Controllable pitch propellers with means for controlling the engine cool-
constant speed controls. Each control- ing air supply in the position used in
lable pitch propeller with constant the cooling tests required by § 23.1041 to
speed controls must have— § 23.1047.
(1) With the governor in operation, a (d) The available propulsive thrust
means at the governor to limit the must correspond to engine power, not
maximum engine speed to the max- exceeding the approved power, less—
imum allowable takeoff r.p.m.; and (1) Installation losses; and
(2) With the governor inoperative, (2) The power absorbed by the acces-
the propeller blades at the lowest pos- sories and services appropriate to the
sible pitch, with takeoff power, the air- particular ambient atmospheric condi-
plane stationary, and no wind, either— tions and the particular flight condi-
(i) A means to limit the maximum tion.
engine speed to 103 percent of the max- (e) The performance, as affected by
imum allowable takeoff r.p.m., or engine power or thrust, must be based
(ii) For an engine with an approved on a relative humidity:
overspeed, a means to limit the max- (1) Of 80 percent at and below stand-
imum engine and propeller speed to not ard temperature; and
180
(2) From 80 percent, at the standard mospheric conditions reasonably ex-

temperature, varying linearly down to pected to be encountered in service;
34 percent at the standard temperature (ii) Use methods or devices that are
plus 50 °F. safe and reliable; and
(f) Unless otherwise prescribed, in de- (iii) Include allowance for any rea-
termining the takeoff and landing dis- sonably expected time delays in the
tances, changes in the airplane’s con- execution of the procedures.
figuration, speed, and power must be
made in accordance with procedures es- [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5184, Feb. 9, 1996]
tablished by the applicant for oper-
ation in service. These procedures must § 23.49 Stalling period.
be able to be executed consistently by (a) VSO and VS1 are the stalling speeds
pilots of average skill in atmospheric or the minimum steady flight speeds,
conditions reasonably expected to be in knots (CAS), at which the airplane
encountered in service. is controllable with—
(g) The following, as applicable, must
(1) For reciprocating engine-powered
be determined on a smooth, dry, hard-
airplanes, the engine(s) idling, the
surfaced runway—
(1) Takeoff distance of § 23.53(b); throttle(s) closed or at not more than
(2) Accelerate-stop distance of § 23.55; the power necessary for zero thrust at
(3) Takeoff distance and takeoff run a speed not more than 110 percent of
of § 23.59; and the stalling speed;
(4) Landing distance of § 23.75. (2) For turbine engine-powered air-
NOTE: The effect on these distances of op- planes, the propulsive thrust not great-
eration on other types of surfaces (for exam- er than zero at the stalling speed, or, if
ple, grass, gravel) when dry, may be deter- the resultant thrust has no appreciable
mined or derived and these surfaces listed in effect on the stalling speed, with en-
the Airplane Flight Manual in accordance
with § 23.1583(p).
gine(s) idling and throttle(s) closed;
(h) For commuter category airplanes, (3) The propeller(s) in the takeoff po-
the following also apply: sition;
(1) Unless otherwise prescribed, the (4) The airplane in the condition ex-
applicant must select the takeoff, isting in the test, in which VSO and VS1
enroute, approach, and landing con- are being used;
figurations for the airplane. (5) The center of gravity in the posi-
(2) The airplane configuration may tion that results in the highest value of
vary with weight, altitude, and tem- VSO and VS1; and
perature, to the extent that they are (6) The weight used when VSO and VS1
compatible with the operating proce- are being used as a factor to determine
dures required by paragraph (h)(3) of compliance with a required perform-
this section. ance standard.
(3) Unless otherwise prescribed, in de- (b) VSO and VS1 must be determined
termining the critical-engine-inoper- by flight tests, using the procedure and
ative takeoff performance, takeoff meeting the flight characteristics spec-
flight path, and accelerate-stop dis- ified in § 23.201.
tance, changes in the airplane’s con- (c) Except as provided in paragraph
figuration, speed, and power must be
(d) of this section, VSO and VS1 at max-
made in accordance with procedures es-
imum weight must not exceed 61 knots
tablished by the applicant for oper-
for—
ation in service.
(4) Procedures for the execution of (1) Single-engine airplanes; and
discontinued approaches and balked (2) Multiengine airplanes of 6,000
landings associated with the conditions pounds or less maximum weight that
prescribed in § 23.67(c)(4) and § 23.77(c) cannot meet the minimum rate of
must be established. climb specified in § 23.67(a) (1) with the
(5) The procedures established under critical engine inoperative.
paragraphs (h)(3) and (h)(4) of this sec- (d) All single-engine airplanes, and
tion must— those multiengine airplanes of 6,000
(i) Be able to be consistently exe- pounds or less maximum weight with a
cuted by a crew of average skill in at- VSO of more than 61 knots that do not
181
§ 23.51 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
meet the requirements of § 23.67(a)(1), discontinue the takeoff. The takeoff

must comply with § 23.562(d). decision speed, V1, must be selected by
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5184, Feb. 9, 1996] the applicant but must not be less than
VEF plus the speed gained with the crit-
§ 23.51 Takeoff speeds. ical engine inoperative during the time
(a) For normal, utility, and acrobatic interval between the instant at which
category airplanes, rotation speed, VR, the critical engine is failed and the in-
is the speed at which the pilot makes a stant at which the pilot recognizes and
control input, with the intention of reacts to the engine failure, as indi-
lifting the airplane out of contact with cated by the pilot’s application of the
the runway or water surface. first retarding means during the accel-
(1) For multiengine landplanes, VR, erate-stop determination of § 23.55.
must not be less than the greater of (2) The rotation speed, VR, in terms
1.05 VMC; or 1.10 VS1; of calibrated airspeed, must be selected
(2) For single-engine landplanes, VR, by the applicant and must not be less
must not be less than VS1; and than the greatest of the following:
(3) For seaplanes and amphibians (i) V1;
taking off from water, VR, may be any (ii) 1.05 VMC determined under
speed that is shown to be safe under all
§ 23.149(b);
reasonably expected conditions, includ-
ing turbulence and complete failure of (iii) 1.10 VS1; or
the critical engine. (iv) The speed that allows attaining
(b) For normal, utility, and acrobatic the initial climb-out speed, V2, before
category airplanes, the speed at 50 feet reaching a height of 35 feet above the
above the takeoff surface level must takeoff surface in accordance with
not be less than: § 23.57(c)(2).
(1) or multiengine airplanes, the (3) For any given set of conditions,
highest of— such as weight, altitude, temperature,
(i) A speed that is shown to be safe and configuration, a single value of VR
for continued flight (or emergency must be used to show compliance with
landing, if applicable) under all reason- both the one-engine-inoperative take-
ably expected conditions, including off and all-engines-operating takeoff
turbulence and complete failure of the requirements.
critical engine; (4) The takeoff safety speed, V2, in
(ii) 1.10 VMC; or terms of calibrated airspeed, must be
(iii) 1.20 VS1. selected by the applicant so as to allow
(2) For single-engine airplanes, the the gradient of climb required in § 23.67
higher of— (c)(1) and (c)(2) but mut not be less
(i) A speed that is shown to be safe than 1.10 VMC or less than 1.20 VS1.
under all reasonably expected condi- (5) The one-engine-inoperative take-
tions, including turbulence and com- off distance, using a normal rotation
plete engine failure; or
rate at a speed 5 knots less than VR, es-
(ii) 1.20 VS1.
tablished in accordance with paragraph
(c) For commuter category airplanes,
(c)(2) of this section, must be shown
the following apply:
(l) V1 must be established in relation not to exceed the corresponding one-
to VEF as follows: engine-inoperative takeoff distance,
(i) VEF is the calibrated airspeed at determined in accordance with § 23.57
which the critical engine is assumed to and § 23.59(a)(1), using the established
fail. VEF must be selected by the appli- VR. The takeoff, otherwise performed
cant but must not be less than 1.05 VMC in accordance with § 23.57, must be con-
determined under § 23.149(b) or, at the tinued safely from the point at which
option of the applicant, not less than the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff
VMCG determined under § 23.149(f). surface and at a speed not less than the
(ii) The takeoff decision speed, V1, is established V2 minus 5 knots.
the calibrated airspeed on the ground (6) The applicant must show, with all
at which, as a result of engine failure engines operating, that marked in-
or other reasons, the pilot is assumed creases in the scheduled takeoff dis-
to have made a decision to continue or tances, determined in accordance with
182
§ 23.59(a)(2), do not result from over-ro- § 23.57 Takeoff path.

tation of the airplane or out-of-trim
For each commuter category air-
conditions.
plane, the takeoff path is as follows:
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5184, Feb. 9, 1996] (a) The takeoff path extends from a
standing start to a point in the takeoff
§ 23.53 Takeoff performance. at which the airplane is 1500 feet above
(a) For normal, utility, and acrobatic the takeoff surface at or below which
category airplanes, the takeoff dis- height the transition from the takeoff
tance must be determined in accord- to the enroute configuration must be
ance with paragraph (b) of this section, completed; and
using speeds determined in accordance (1) The takeoff path must be based on
with § 23.51 (a) and (b). the procedures prescribed in § 23.45;
(b) For normal, utility, and acrobatic (2) The airplane must be accelerated
category airplanes, the distance re- on the ground to VEF at which point the
quired to takeoff and climb to a height critical engine must be made inoper-
of 50 feet above the takeoff surface ative and remain inoperative for the
must be determined for each weight, rest of the takeoff; and
altitude, and temperature within the (3) After reaching VEF, the airplane
operational limits established for take- must be accelerated to V2.
off with— (b) During the acceleration to speed
(1) Takeoff power on each engine; V2, the nose gear may be raised off the
(2) Wing flaps in the takeoff posi- ground at a speed not less than VR.
tion(s); and However, landing gear retraction must
(3) Landing gear extended. not be initiated until the airplane is
(c) For commuter category airplanes, airborne.
takeoff performance, as required by (c) During the takeoff path deter-
§§ 23.55 through 23.59, must be determination, in accordance with para-
mined with the operating engine(s) graphs (a) and (b) of this section—
within approved operating limitations. (1) The slope of the airborne part of
the takeoff path must not be negative
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5185, Feb. 9, 1996]
at any point;
§ 23.55 Accelerate-stop distance. (2) The airplane must reach V2 before
it is 35 feet above the takeoff surface,
For each commuter category air- and must continue at a speed as close
plane, the accelerate-stop distance as practical to, but not less than V2,
must be determined as follows: until it is 400 feet above the takeoff
(a) The accelerate-stop distance is surface;
the sum of the distances necessary to— (3) At each point along the takeoff
(1) Accelerate the airplane from a path, starting at the point at which the
standing start to VEF with all engines airplane reaches 400 feet above the
operating; takeoff surface, the available gradient
(2) Accelerate the airplane from VEF of climb must not be less than—
to V1, assuming the critical engine (i) 1.2 percent for two-engine air-
fails at VEF; and planes;
(3) Come to a full stop from the point (ii) 1.5 percent for three-engine air-
at which V1 is reached. planes;
(b) Means other than wheel brakes (iii) 1.7 percent for four-engine air-
may be used to determine the accel- planes; and
erate-stop distances if that means— (4) Except for gear retraction and
(1) Is safe and reliable; automatic propeller feathering, the
(2) Is used so that consistent results airplane configuration must not be
can be expected under normal oper- changed, and no change in power that
ating conditions; and requires action by the pilot may be
(3) Is such that exceptional skill is made, until the airplane is 400 feet
not required to control the airplane. above the takeoff surface.
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1826, Jan. 15, 1987, as (d) The takeoff path to 35 feet above
amended by Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5185, Feb. 9, the takeoff surface must be determined
1996] by a continuous demonstrated takeoff.
183
§ 23.59 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(e) The takeoff path to 35 feet above § 23.61 Takeoff flight path.
the takeoff surface must be determined
For each commuter category air-
by synthesis from segments; and
plane, the takeoff flight path must be
(1) The segments must be clearly de-
fined and must be related to distinct determined as follows:
changes in configuration, power, and (a) The takeoff flight path begins 35
speed; feet above the takeoff surface at the
(2) The weight of the airplane, the end of the takeoff distance determined
configuration, and the power must be in accordance with § 23.59.
assumed constant throughout each seg- (b) The net takeoff flight path data
ment and must correspond to the most must be determined so that they rep-
critical condition prevailing in the seg- resent the actual takeoff flight paths,
ment; and as determined in accordance with
(3) The takeoff flight path must be § 23.57 and with paragraph (a) of this
based on the airplane’s performance section, reduced at each point by a gra-
without utilizing ground effect. dient of climb equal to—
(1) 0.8 percent for two-engine air-
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1827, Jan. 15, 1987, as
amended by Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5185, Feb. 9,
planes;
1996] (2) 0.9 percent for three-engine air-
planes; and
§ 23.59 Takeoff distance and takeoff (3) 1.0 percent for four-engine air-
run. planes.
For each commuter category air- (c) The prescribed reduction in climb
plane, the takeoff distance and, at the gradient may be applied as an equiva-
option of the applicant, the takeoff lent reduction in acceleration along
run, must be determined. that part of the takeoff flight path at
(a) Takeoff distance is the greater which the airplane is accelerated in
of— level flight.
(1) The horizontal distance along the
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1827, Jan. 15, 1987]
takeoff path from the start of the take-
off to the point at which the airplane is § 23.63 Climb: General.
35 feet above the takeoff surface as de-
termined under § 23.57; or (a) Compliance with the require-
(2) With all engines operating, 115 ments of §§ 23.65, 23.66, 23.67, 23.69, and
percent of the horizontal distance from 23.77 must be shown—
the start of the takeoff to the point at (1) Out of ground effect; and
which the airplane is 35 feet above the (2) At speeds that are not less than
takeoff surface, determined by a proce- those at which compliance with the
dure consistent with § 23.57. powerplant cooling requirements of
(b) If the takeoff distance includes a §§ 23.1041 to 23.1047 has been dem-
clearway, the takeoff run is the greater onstrated; and
of— (3) Unless otherwise specified, with
(1) The horizontal distance along the one engine inoperative, at a bank angle
takeoff path from the start of the take- not exceeding 5 degrees.
off to a point equidistant between the (b) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
liftoff point and the point at which the category reciprocating engine-powered
airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less max-
surface as determined under § 23.57; or imum weight, compliance must be
(2) With all engines operating, 115 shown with § 23.65(a), § 23.67(a), where
percent of the horizontal distance from appropriate, and § 23.77(a) at maximum
the start of the takeoff to a point equi- takeoff or landing weight, as appro-
distant between the liftoff point and priate, in a standard atmosphere.
the point at which the airplane is 35 (c) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
feet above the takeoff surface, deter- category reciprocating engine-powered
mined by a procedure consistent with airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds
§ 23.57. maximum weight, and turbine engine-
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1827, Jan. 15, 1987, as powered airplanes in the normal, util-
amended by Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5185, Feb. 9, ity, and acrobatic category, compli-
1996] ance must be shown at weights as a
184
function of airport altitude and ambi- § 23.66 Takeoff climb: One-engine inop-
ent temperature, within the oper- erative.
ational limits established for takeoff For normal, utility, and acrobatic
and landing, respectively, with— category reciprocating engine-powered
(1) Sections 23.65(b) and 23.67(b) (1) airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds
and (2), where appropriate, for takeoff, maximum weight, and turbine engine-
and powered airplanes in the normal, util-
(2) Section 23.67(b)(2), where appro- ity, and acrobatic category, the steady
priate, and § 23.77(b), for landing. gradient of climb or descent must be
(d) For commuter category airplanes, determined at each weight, altitude,
compliance must be shown at weights and ambient temperature within the
as a function of airport altitude and operational limits established by the
ambient temperature within the oper- applicant with—
ational limits established for takeoff (a) The critical engine inoperative
and landing, respectively, with— and its propeller in the position it rap-
(1) Sections 23.67(c)(1), 23.67(c)(2), and idly and automatically assumes;
23.67(c)(3) for takeoff; and (b) The remaining engine(s) at take-
(2) Sections 23.67(c)(3), 23.67(c)(4), and off power;
23.77(c) for landing. (c) The landing gear extended, except
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5186, Feb. 9, 1996] that if the landing gear can be re-
tracted in not more than seven sec-
§ 23.65 Climb: All engines operating. onds, the test may be conducted with
(a) Each normal, utility, and acro- the gear retracted;
batic category reciprocating engine- (d) The wing flaps in the takeoff posi-
powered airplane of 6,000 pounds or less tion(s):
maximum weight must have a steady (e) The wings level; and
climb gradient at sea level of at least (f) A climb speed equal to that
8.3 percent for landplanes or 6.7 percet achieved at 50 feet in the demonstra-
for seaplanes and amphibians with— tion of § 23.53.
(1) Not more than maximum contin- [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5186, Feb. 9, 1996]
uous power on each engine;
(2) The landing gear retracted; § 23.67 Climb: One engine inoperative.
(3) The wing flaps in the takeoff posi- (a) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
tion(s); and category reciprocating engine-powered
(4) A climb speed not less than the airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less max-
greater of 1.1 VMC and 1.2 VS1 for multi- imum weight, the following apply:
engine airplanes and not less than 1.2 (1) Except for those airplanes that
VS1 for single—engine airplanes. meet the requirements prescribed in
(b) Each normal, utility, and acro- § 23.562(d), each airplane with a VSO of
batic category reciprocating engine- more than 61 knots must be able to
powered airplane of more than 6,000 maintain a steady climb gradient of at
pounds maximum weight and turbine least 1.5 percent at a pressure altitude
engine-powered airplanes in the nor- of 5,000 feet with the—
mal, utility, and acrobatic category (i) Critical engine inoperative and its
must have a steady gradient of climb propeller in the minimum drag posi-
after takeoff of at least 4 percent with tion;
(1) Take off power on each engine; (ii) Remaining engine(s) at not more
(2) The landing gear extended, except than maximum continuous power;
that if the landing gear can be re- (iii) Landing gear retracted;
tracted in not more than sven seconds,
(iv) Wing flaps retracted; and
the test may be conducted with the
(v) Climb speed not less than 1.2 VS1.
gear retracted;
(2) For each airplane that meets the
(3) The wing flaps in the takeoff posi-
requirements prescribed in § 23.562(d),
tion(s); and
or that has a VSO of 61 knots or less,
(4) A climb speed as specified in
the steady gradient of climb or descent
§ 23.65(a)(4).
at a pressure altitude of 5,000 feet must
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5186, Feb. 9, 1996] be determined with the—
185
§ 23.67 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(i) Critical engine inoperative and its (v) The wings level; and
propeller in the minimum drag posi- (vi) A climb speed equal to V2.
tion; (2) Takeoff; landing gear retracted. The
(ii) Remaining engine(s) at not more steady gradient of climb at an altitude
than maximum continuous power; of 400 feet above the takeoff surface
(iii) Landing gear retracted; must be not less than 2.0 percent of
(iv) Wing flaps retracted; and two-engine airplanes, 2.3 percent for
(v) Climb speed not less than 1.2VS1. three-engine airplanes, and 2.6 percent
(b) For normal, utility, and acrobatic for four-engine airplanes with—
category reciprocating engine-powered (i) The critical engine inoperative
airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds and its propeller in the position it rap-
maximum weight, and turbine engine- idly and automatically assumes;
powered airplanes in the normal, util- (ii) The remaining engine(s) at take-
ity, and acrobatic category— off power;
(1) The steady gradient of climb at an (iii) The landing gear retracted;
altitude of 400 feet above the takeoff (iv) The wing flaps in the takeoff po-
must be measurably positive with the— sition(s);
(i) Critical engine inoperative and its (v) A climb speed equal to V2.
propeller in the minimum drag posi- (3) Enroute. The steady gradient of
tion; climb at an altitude of 1,500 feet above
(ii) Remaining engine(s) at takeoff the takeoff or landing surface, as ap-
power; propriate, must be not less than 1.2
(iii) Landing gear retracted; percent for two-engine airplanes, 1.5
(iv) Wing flaps in the takeoff posi- percent for three-engine airplanes, and
tion(s); and 1.7 percent for four-engine airplanes
(v) Climb speed equal to that with—
achieved at 50 feet in the demonstra- (i) The critical engine inoperative
tion of § 23.53. and its propeller in the minimum drag
(2) The steady gradient of climb must position;
not be less than 0.75 percent at an alti- (ii) The remaining engine(s) at not
tude of 1,500 feet above the takeoff sur- more than maximum continuous
face, or landing surface, as appropriate, power;
with the— (iii) The landing gear retracted;
(i) Critical engine inoperative and its (iv) The wing flaps retracted; and
propeller in the minimum drag posi- (v) A climb speed not less than 1.2
tion; VS1.
(ii) Remaining engine(s) at not more (4) Discontinued approach. The steady
than maximum continuous power; gradient of climb at an altitude of 400
(iii) Landing gear retracted; feet above the landing surface must be
(iv) Wing flaps retracted; and not less than 2.1 percent for two-engine
(v) Climb speed not less than 1.2 VS1. airplanes, 2.4 percent for three-engine
(c) For commuter category airplanes, airplanes, and 2.7 percent for four-en-
the following apply: gine airplanes, with—
(1) Takeoff; landing gear extended. The (i) The critical engine inoperative
steady gradient of climb at the altitude and its propeller in the minimum drag
of the takeoff surface must be measur- position;
ably positive for two-engine airplanes,
(ii) The remaining engine(s) at take-
not less than 0.3 percent for three-en-
off power;
gine airplanes, or 0.5 percent for four-
(iii) Landing gear retracted;
engine airplanes with—
(iv) Wing flaps in the approach posi-
(i) The critical engine inoperative
tion(s) in which VS1 for these posi-
and its propeller in the position it rap-
tion(s) does not exceed 110 percent of
idly and automatically assumes;
the VS1 for the related all-engines-oper-
(ii) The remaining engine(s) at take-
ated landing position(s); and
off power;
(v) A climb speed established in con-
(iii) The landing gear extended, and
nection with normal landing proce-
all landing gear doors open;
dures but not exceeding 1.5 VS1.
(iv) The wing flaps in the takeoff po-
sition(s); [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5186, Feb. 9, 1996]
186
§ 23.69 Enroute climb/descent. powered airplanes in the normal, util-

(a) All engines operating. The steady ity, and acrobatic category, the ref-
gradient and rate of climb must be de- erence landing approach speed, VREF,
termined at each weight, altitude, and must not be less than the greater of
ambient temperature within the oper- VMC, determined in § 23.149(c), and 1.3
ational limits established by the appli- VSO.
(c) For commuter category airplanes,
cant with—
the reference landing approach speed,
(1) Not more than maximum contin-
VREF, must not be less than the greater
uous power on each engine;
of 1.05 VMC, determined in § 23.149(c),
(2) The landing gear retracted;
(3) The wing flaps retracted; and and 1.3 VSO.
(4) A climb speed not less than 1.3 [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5187, Feb. 9, 1996]
VS1.
(b) One engine inoperative. The steady § 23.75 Landing distance.
gradient and rate of climb/descent The horizontal distance necessary to
must be determined at each weight, al- land and come to a complete stop from
titude, and ambient temperature with- a point 50 feet above the landing sur-
in the operational limits established by face must be determined, for standard
the applicant with— temperatures at each weight and alti-
(1) The critical engine inoperative tude within the operational limits es-
and its propeller in the minimum drag tablished for landing, as follows:
position; (a) A steady approach at not less
(2) The remaining engine(s) at not than VREF, determined in accordance
more than maximum continuous with § 23.73 (a), (b), or (c), as appro-
power; priate, must be maintained down to the
(3) The landing gear retracted; 50 foot height and—
(4) The wing flaps retracted; and (1) The steady approach must be at a
(5) A climb speed not less than 1.2 gradient of descent not greater than 5.2
VS1. percent (3 degrees) down to the 50-foot
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5187, Feb. 9, 1996]
height.
(2) In addition, an applicant may
§ 23.71 Glide: Single-engine airplanes. demonstrate by tests that a maximum
steady approach gradient steeper than
The maximum horizontal distance
5.2 percent, down to the 50-foot height,
traveled in still air, in nautical miles,
is safe. The gradient must be estab-
per 1,000 feet of altitude lost in a glide,
lished as an operating limitation and
and the speed necessary to achieve this
the information necessary to display
must be determined with the engine in-
the gradient must be available to the
operative, its propeller in the min-
pilot by an appropriate instrument.
imum drag position, and landing gear (b) A constant configuration must be
and wing flaps in the most favorable maintained throughout the maneuver.
available position. (c) The landing must be made with-
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5187, Feb. 9, 1996] out excessive vertical acceleration or
tendency to bounce, nose over, ground
§ 23.73 Reference landing approach loop, porpoise, or water loop.
speed. (d) It must be shown that a safe tran-
(a) For normal, utility, and acrobatic sition to the balked landing conditions
category reciprocating engine-powered of § 23.77 can be made from the condi-
airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less max- tions that exist at the 50 foot height, at
imum weight, the reference landing ap- maximum landing weight, or at the
proach speed, VREF, must not be less maximum landing weight for altitude
than the greater of VMC, determined in and temperature of § 23.63 (c)(2) or
§ 23.149(b) with the wing flaps in the (d)(2), as appropriate.
most extended takeoff position, and 1.3 (e) The brakes must be used so as to
VSO. not cause excessive wear of brakes or
(b) For normal, utility, and acrobatic tires.
category reciprocating engine-powered (f) Retardation means other than
airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds wheel brakes may be used if that
maximum weight, and turbine engine- means—
187
§ 23.77 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) Is safe and reliable; and after initiation of movement of the

(2) Is used so that consistent results power controls from the minimum
can be expected in service. flight idle position;
(g) If any device is used that depends (2) Landing gear extended;
on the operation of any engine, and the (3) Wing flaps in the landing position;
landing distance would be increased and
when a landing is made with that en- (4) A climb speed equal to VREF, as de-
gine inoperative, the landing distance fined in § 23.73(c).
must be determined with that engine
inoperative unless the use of other [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5187, Feb. 9, 1996]
compensating means will result in a
landing distance not more than that FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
with each engine operating.
§ 23.141 General.
[Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 16, 1978, as
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, The airplane must meet the require-
1987; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 351, Jan. 3, 1991; ments of §§ 23.143 through 23.253 at all
Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5187, Feb. 9, 1996] practical loading conditions and oper-
ating altitudes for which certification
§ 23.77 Balked landing. has been requested, not exceeding the
(a) Each normal, utility, and acro- maximum operating altitude estab-
batic category reciprocating engine- lished under § 23.1527, and without re-
powered airplane at 6,000 pounds or less quiring exceptional piloting skill,
maximum weight must be able to alertness, or strength.
maintain a steady gradient of climb at
sea level of at least 3.3 percent with— [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993]
(1) Takeoff power on each engine;
CONTROLLABILITY AND
(2) The landing gear extended;
MANEUVERABILITY
(3) The wing flaps in the landing posi-
tion, except that if the flaps may safely § 23.143 General.
be retracted in two seconds or less
without loss of altitude and without (a) The airplane must be safely con-
sudden changes of angle of attack, they trollable and maneuverable during all
may be retracted; and flight phases including—
(4) A climb speed equal to VREF, as de- (1) Takeoff;
fined in § 23.73(a). (2) Climb;
(b) Each normal, utility, and acro- (3) Level flight;
batic category reciprocating engine- (4) Descent;
powered airplane of more than 6,000 (5) Go-around; and
pounds maximum weight and each nor- (6) Landing (power on and power off)
mal, utility, and acrobatic category
with the wing flaps extended and re-
turbine engine-powered airplane must
tracted.
be able to maintain a steady gradient
of climb of at least 2.5 percent with— (b) It must be possible to make a
(1) Not more than the power that is smooth transition from one flight con-
available on each engine eight seconds dition to another (including turns and
after initiation of movement of the slips) without danger of exceeding the
power controls from minimum flight- limit load factor, under any probable
idle position; operating condition (including, for
(2) The landing gear extended; multiengine airplanes, those condi-
(3) The wing flaps in the landing positions normally encountered in the sud-
tion; and den failure of any engine).
(4) A climb speed equal to VREF, as de- (c) If marginal conditions exist with
fined in § 23.73(b). regard to required pilot strength, the
(c) Each commuter category airplane control forces necessary must be deter-
must be able to maintain a steady gra- mined by quantitative tests. In no case
dient of climb of at least 3.2 percent may the control forces under the condi-
with— tions specified in paragraphs (a) and (b)
(1) Not more than the power that is of this section exceed those prescribed
available on each engine eight seconds in the following table:
188
Values in pounds force applied Pitch Roll Yaw

it must be possible to maintain ap-
to the relevant control
proximately level flight while retract-
(a) For temporary application: ing the flaps as rapidly as possible with
Stick ....................................... 60 30 ............ simultaneous application of not more
Wheel (Two hands on rim) .... 75 50 ............
Wheel (One hand on rim) ...... 50 25 ............
than maximum continuous power. If
Rudder Pedal ......................... ............ ............ 150 gated flat positions are provided, the
(b) For prolonged application .... 10 5 20 flap retraction may be demonstrated in
stages with power and trim reset for
[Doc. No, 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as level flight at 1.1 VS1, in the initial con-
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, figuration for each stage—
1973; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, 1976; (i) From the fully extended position
Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt.
23–50, 61 FR 5188, Feb. 9, 1996]
to the most extended gated position;
(ii) Between intermediate gated posi-
§ 23.145 Longitudinal control. tions, if applicable; and
(a) With the airplane as nearly as (iii) From the least extended gated
possible in trim at 1.3 VS1, it must be position to the fully retracted position.
possible, at speeds below the trim (4) With power off, flaps and landing
speed, to pitch the nose downward so gear retracted and the airplane as
that the rate of increase in airspeed al- nearly as possible in trim at 1.4 VS1,
lows prompt acceleration to the trim apply takeoff power rapidly while
speed with— maintaining the same airspeed.
(1) Maximum continuous power on (5) With power off, landing gear and
each engine; flaps extended, and the airplane as
(2) Power off; and nearly as possible in trim at VREF, ob-
(3) Wing flap and landing gear— tain and maintain airspeeds between
(i) retracted, and 1.1 VSO, and either 1.7 VSO or VFE,
(ii) extended. whichever is lower without requiring
(b) Unless otherwise required, it must the application of two-handed control
be possible to carry out the following forces exceeding those specified in
maneuvers without requiring the appli- § 23.143(c).
cation of single-handed control forces (6) With maximum takeoff power,
exceeding those specified in § 23.143(c). landing gear retracted, flaps in the
The trimming controls must not be ad- takeoff position, and the airplane as
justed during the maneuvers: nearly as possible in trim at VFE appro-
(1) With the landing gear extended, priate to the takeoff flap position, re-
the flaps retracted, and the airplanes tract the flaps as rapidly as possible
as nearly as possible in trim at 1.4 VS1, while maintaining constant speed.
extend the flaps as rapidly as possible
(c) At speeds above VMO/MMO, and up
and allow the airspeed to transition
to the maximum speed shown under
from 1.4VS1 to 1.4 VSO™
§ 23.251, a maneuvering capability of 1.5
(i) With power off; and
g must be demonstrated to provide a
(ii) With the power necessary to
maintain level flight in the initial con- margin to recover from upset or inad-
dition. vertent speed increase.
(2) With landing gear and flaps ex- (d) It must be possible, with a pilot
tended, power off, and the airplane as control force of not more than 10
nearly as possible in trim at 1.3 VSO, pounds, to maintain a speed of not
quickly apply takeoff power and re- more than VREF during a power-off glide
tract the flaps as rapidly as possible to with landing gear and wing flaps ex-
the recommended go around setting tended, for any weight of the airplane,
and allow the airspeed to transition up to and including the maximum
from 1.3 VSO to 1.3 VS1. Retract the gear weight.
when a positive rate of climb is estab- (e) By using normal flight and power
lished. controls, except as otherwise noted in
(3) With landing gear and flaps ex- paragraphs (e)(1) and (e)(2) of this sec-
tended, in level flight, power necessary tion, it must be possible to establish a
to attain level flight at 1.1 VSO, and the zero rate of descent at an attitude suit-
airplane as nearly as possible in trim, able for a controlled landing without
189
§ 23.147 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
exceeding the operational and struc- (4) A speed equal to that at which
tural limitations of the airplane, as compliance with § 23.69(a) has been
follows: shown; and
(1) For single-engine and multiengine (5) All propeller controls in the posi-
airplanes, without the use of the pri- tion at which compliance with § 23.69(a)
mary longitudinal control system. has been shown.
(2) For multiengine airplanes— (c) For all airplanes, it must be
(i) Without the use of the primary di- shown that the airplane is safely con-
rectional control; and trollable without the use of the pri-
mary lateral control system in any all-
(ii) If a single failure of any one con-
engine configuration(s) and at any
necting or transmitting link would af- speed or altitude within the approved
fect both the longitudinal and direc- operating envelope. It must also be
tional primary control system, without shown that the airplane’s flight char-
the primary longitudinal and direc- acteristics are not impaired below a
tional control system. level needed to permit continued safe
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42157, Aug. 6, 1993; flight and the ability to maintain atti-
Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993, as tudes suitable for a controlled landing
amended by Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5188, Feb. 9, without exceeding the operational and
1996] structural limitations of the airplane.
If a single failure of any one con-
§ 23.147 Directional and lateral connecting or transmitting link in the lat-
trol. eral control system would also cause
(a) For each multiengine airplane, it the loss of additional control sys-
must be possible, while holding the tem(s), compliance with the above re-
wings level within five degrees, to quirement must be shown with those
make sudden changes in heading safely additional systems also assumed to be
in both directions. This ability must be inoperative.
shown at 1.4 VS1 with heading changes [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5188, Feb. 9, 1996]
up to 15 degrees, except that the head-
ing change at which the rudder force § 23.149 Minimum control speed.
corresponds to the limits specified in (a) VMC is the calibrated airspeed at
§ 23.143 need not be exceeded, with the— which, when the critical engine is sud-
(1) Critical engine inoperative and its denly made inoperative, it is possible
propeller in the minimum drag posi- to maintain control of the airplane
tion; with that engine still inoperative, and
(2) Remaining engines at maximum thereafter maintain straight flight at
continuous power; the same speed with an angle of bank
(3) Landing gear— of not more than 5 degrees. The method
(i) Retracted; and used to simulate critical engine failure
(ii) Extended; and must represent the most critical mode
(4) Flaps retracted. of powerplant failure expected in serv-
ice with respect to controllability.
(b) For each multiengine airplane, it
(b) VMC for takeoff must not exceed
must be possible to regain full control
1.2 VS1, where VS1 is determined at the
of the airplane without exceeding a maximum takeoff weight. VMC must be
bank angle of 45 degrees, reaching a determined with the most unfavorable
dangerous attitude or encountering weight and center of gravity position
dangerous characteristics, in the event and with the airplane airborne and the
of a sudden and complete failure of the ground effect negligible, for the takeoff
critical engine, making allowance for a configuration(s) with—
delay of two seconds in the initiation (1) Maximum available takeoff power
of recovery action appropriate to the initially on each engine;
situation, with the airplane initially in (2) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
trim, in the following condition: (3) Flaps in the takeoff position(s);
(1) Maximum continuous power on (4) Landing gear retracted; and
each engine; (5) All propeller controls in the rec-
(2) The wing flaps retracted; ommended takeoff position through-
(3) The landing gear retracted; out.
190
(c) For all airplanes except recipro- (1) The airplane in each takeoff con-
cating engine-powered airplanes of figuration or, at the option of the ap-
6,000 pounds or less maximum weight, plicant, in the most critical takeoff
the conditions of paragraph (a) of this configuration;
section must also be met for the land- (2) Maximum available takeoff power
ing configuration with— on the operating engines;
(1) Maximum available takeoff power (3) The most unfavorable center of
initially on each engine; gravity;
(2) The airplane trimmed for an ap- (4) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
proach, with all engines operating, at and
VREF, at an approach gradient equal to (5) The most unfavorable weight in
the steepest used in the landing dis- the range of takeoff weights.
tance demonstration of § 23.75; [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9, 1996]
(3) Flaps in the landing position;
(4) Landing gear extended; and § 23.151 Acrobatic maneuvers.
(5) All propeller controls in the posi- Each acrobatic and utility category
tion recommended for approach with airplane must be able to perform safely
all engines operating. the acrobatic maneuvers for which cer-
(d) A minimum speed to inten- tification is requested. Safe entry
tionally render the critical engine in- speeds for these maneuvers must be de-
operative must be established and des- termined.
ignated as the safe, intentional, one-
engine-inoperative speed, VSSE. § 23.153 Control during landings.
(e) At VMC, the rudder pedal force re- It must be possible, while in the land-
quired to maintain control must not ing configuration, to safely complete a
exceed 150 pounds and it must not be landing without exceeding the one-
necessary to reduce power of the opera- hand control force limits specified in
tive engine(s). During the maneuver, § 23.143(c) following an approach to
the airplane must not assume any dan- land—
gerous attitude and it must be possible (a) At a speed of VREF minus 5 knots;
to prevent a heading change of more (b) With the airplane in trim, or as
than 20 degrees. nearly as possible in trim and without
(f) At the option of the applicant, to the trimming control being moved
comply with the requirements of throughout the maneuver;
§ 23.51(c)(1), VMCG may be determined. (c) At an approach gradient equal to
VMCG is the minimum control speed on the steepest used in the landing dis-
the ground, and is the calibrated air- tance demonstration of § 23.75; and
speed during the takeoff run at which, (d) With only those power changes, if
when the critical engine is suddenly any, that would be made when landing
made inoperative, it is possible to normally from an approach at VREF.
maintain control of the airplane using
the rudder control alone (without the [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9, 1996]
use of nosewheel steering), as limited
by 150 pounds of force, and using the § 23.155 Elevator control force in ma-
neuvers.
lateral control to the extent of keeping
the wings level to enable the takeoff to (a) The elevator control force needed
be safely continued. In the determina- to achieve the positive limit maneu-
tion of VMCG, assuming that the path of vering load factor may not be less
the airplane accelerating with all en- than:
gines operating is along the centerline (1) For wheel controls, W/100 (where
of the runway, its path from the point W is the maximum weight) or 20
at which the critical engine is made in- pounds, whichever is greater, except
operative to the point at which recov- that it need not be greater than 50
ery to a direction parallel to the cen- pounds; or
terline is completed may not deviate (2) For stick controls, W/140 (where W
more than 30 feet laterally from the is the maximum weight) or 15 pounds,
centerline at any point. VMCG must be whichever is greater, except that it
established with— need not be greater than 35 pounds.
191
§ 23.157 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(b) The requirement of paragraph (a) 30-degree banked turn through an angle
of this section must be met at 75 per- of 60 degrees, so as to reverse the direc-
cent of maximum continuous power for tion of the turn within:
reciprocating engines, or the maximum (1) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
continuous power for turbine engines, less maximum weight, 4 seconds from
and with the wing flaps and landing initiation of roll; and
gear retracted— (2) For an airplane of over 6,000
(1) In a turn, with the trim setting pounds maximum weight,
used for wings level flight at VO; and
(2) In a turn with the trim setting (W+2,800)/2,200
used for the maximum wings level
flight speed, except that the speed may seconds, but not more than 7 seconds,
not exceed VNE or VMO/MMO, whichever where W is the weight in pounds.
is appropriate. (d) The requirement of paragraph (c)
(c) There must be no excessive de- of this section must be met when roll-
crease in the gradient of the curve of ing the airplane in each direction in
stick force versus maneuvering load the following conditions—
factor with increasing load factor. (1) Flaps in the landing position(s);
(2) Landing gear extended;
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973; 38 FR (3) All engines operating at the power
32784, Nov. 28, 1973, as amended by Amdt. 23–
45, 58 FR 42158, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61
for a 3 degree approach; and
FR 5189 Feb. 9, 1996] (4) The airplane trimmed at VREF.
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973, as
§ 23.157 Rate of roll. amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42158, Aug. 6,
(a) Takeoff. It must be possible, using 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9, 1996]
a favorable combination of controls, to
roll the airplane from a steady 30-de- TRIM
gree banked turn through an angle of
§ 23.161 Trim.
60 degrees, so as to reverse the direc-
tion of the turn within: (a) General. Each airplane must meet
(1) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or the trim requirements of this section
less maximum weight, 5 seconds from after being trimmed and without fur-
initiation of roll; and ther pressure upon, or movement of,
(2) For an airplane of over 6,000 the primary controls or their cor-
pounds maximum weight, responding trim controls by the pilot
or the automatic pilot. In addition, it
(W+500)/1,300 must be possible, in other conditions of
seconds, but not more than 10 seconds, loading, configuration, speed and power
where W is the weight in pounds. to ensure that the pilot will not be un-
(b) The requirement of paragraph (a) duly fatigued or distracted by the need
of this section must be met when roll- to apply residual control forces exceed-
ing the airplane in each direction ing those for prolonged application of
with— § 23.143(c). This applies in normal oper-
(1) Flaps in the takeoff position; ation of the airplane and, if applicable,
(2) Landing gear retracted; to those conditions associated with the
(3) For a single-engine airplane, at failure of one engine for which per-
maximum takeoff power; and for a formance characteristics are estab-
multiengine airplane with the critical lished.
engine inoperative and the propeller in (b) Lateral and directional trim. The
the minimum drag position, and the airplane must maintain lateral and di-
other engines at maximum takeoff rectional trim in level flight with the
power; and landing gear and wing flaps retracted
(4) The airplane trimmed at a speed as follows:
equal to the greater of 1.2 VS1 or 1.1 (1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
VMC, or as nearly as possible in trim for category airplanes, at a speed of 0.9 VH,
straight flight. VC, or VMO/MO, whichever is lowest; and
(c) Approach. It must be possible, (2) For commuter category airplanes,
using a favorable combination of con- at all speeds from 1.4 VS1 to the lesser
trols, to roll the airplane from a steady of VH or VMO/MMO.
192
(c) Longitudinal trim. The airplane (1) The critical engine inoperative
must maintain longitudinal trim under and its propeller in the minimum drag
each of the following conditions: position;
(1) A climb with— (2) The remaining engine(s) at take-
(i) Takeoff power, landing gear re- off power;
tracted, wing flaps in the takeoff posi- (3) Landing gear retracted;
tion(s), at the speeds used in deter- (4) Wing flaps in the takeoff posi-
mining the climb performance required tion(s); and
by § 23.65; and (5) An angle of bank not exceeding 5
(ii) Maximum continuous power at degrees.
the speeds and in the configuration
used in determining the climb perform- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 16,
ance required by § 23.69(a).
1978; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, 1987;
(2) Level flight at all speeds from the Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 351, Jan. 3, 1991; 56 FR
lesser of VH and either VNO or VMO/MMO 5455, Feb. 11, 1991; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5189,
(as appropriate), to 1.4 VS1, with the Feb. 9, 1996]
landing gear and flaps retracted.
(3) A descent at VNO or VMO/MMO, STABILITY
whichever is applicable, with power off
and with the landing gear and flaps re- § 23.171 General.
tracted. The airplane must be longitudinally,
(4) Approach with landing gear ex- directionally, and laterally stable
tended and with— under §§ 23.173 through 23.181. In addi-
(i) A 3 degree angle of descent, with tion, the airplane must show suitable
flaps retracted and at a speed of 1.4 VS1; stability and control ‘‘feel’’ (static sta-
(ii) A 3 degree angle of descent, flaps bility) in any condition normally en-
in the landing position(s) at VREF; and countered in service, if flight tests
(iii) An approach gradient equal to show it is necessary for safe operation.
the steepest used in the landing dis-
tance demonstrations of § 23.75, flaps in § 23.173 Static longitudinal stability.
the landing position(s) at VREF. Under the conditions specified in
(d) In addition, each multiple air- § 23.175 and with the airplane trimmed
plane must maintain longitudinal and as indicated, the characteristics of the
directional trim, and the lateral con- elevator control forces and the friction
trol force must not exceed 5 pounds at within the control system must be as
the speed used in complying with follows:
§ 23.67(a), (b)(2), or (c)(3), as appro- (a) A pull must be required to obtain
priate, with— and maintain speeds below the speci-
(1) The critical engine inoperative, fied trim speed and a push required to
and if applicable, its propeller in the obtain and maintain speeds above the
minimum drag position; specified trim speed. This must be
(2) The remaining engines at max- shown at any speed that can be ob-
imum continuous power; tained, except that speeds requiring a
(3) The landing gear retracted; control force in excess of 40 pounds or
(4) Wing flaps retracted; and speeds above the maximum allowable
(5) An angle of bank of not more than speed or below the minimum speed for
five degrees. steady unstalled flight, need not be
(e) In addition, each commuter cat- considered.
egory airplane for which, in the deter- (b) The airspeed must return to with-
mination of the takeoff path in accord- in the tolerances specified for applica-
ance with § 23.57, the climb in the take- ble categories of airplanes when the
off configuration at V2 extends beyond control force is slowly released at any
400 feet above the takeoff surface, it speed within the speed range specified
must be possible to reduce the longitu- in paragraph (a) of this section. The ap-
dinal and lateral control forces to 10 plicable tolerances are—
pounds and 5 pounds, respectively, and (1) The airspeed must return to with-
the directional control force must not in plus or minus 10 percent of the origi-
exceed 50 pounds at V2 with— nal trim airspeed; and
193
§ 23.175 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) For commuter category airplanes, (ii) At speeds greater than VFC/MFC;
the airspeed must return to within plus or
or minus 7.5 percent of the original (iii) At speeds that require a stick
trim airspeed for the cruising condition force greater than 50 pounds.
specified in § 23.175(b). (c) Landing. The stick force curve
(c) The stick force must vary with must have a stable slope at speeds be-
speed so that any substantial speed tween 1.1 VS1 and 1.8 VS1 with—
change results in a stick force clearly (1) Flaps in the landing position;
perceptible to the pilot. (2) Landing gear extended; and
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (3) The airplane trimmed at—
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31820 Nov. 19, (i) VREF, or the minimum trim speed
1973; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, 1987] if higher, with power off; and
(ii) VREF with enough power to main-
§ 23.175 Demonstration of static longi- tain a 3 degree angle of descent.
tudinal stability.
Static longitudinal stability must be [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5190, Feb. 9, 1996]
shown as follows:
(a) Climb. The stick force curve must § 23.177 Static directional and lateral
stability.
have a stable slope at speeds between
85 and 115 percent of the trim speed, (a) The static directional stability, as
with— shown by the tendency to recover from
(1) Flaps retracted; a wings level sideslip with the rudder
(2) Landing gear retracted; free, must be positive for any landing
(3) Maximum continuous power; and gear and flap position appropriate to
(4) The airplane trimmed at the speed the takeoff, climb, cruise, approach,
used in determining the climb perform- and landing configurations. This must
ance required by § 23.69(a). be shown with symmetrical power up
(b) Cruise. With flaps and landing to maximum continuous power, and at
gear retracted and the airplane in trim speeds from 1.2 VS1 up to the maximum
with power for level flight at represent- allowable speed for the condition being
ative cruising speeds at high and low investigated. The angel of sideslip for
altitudes, including speeds up to VNO or these tests must be appropriate to the
VMO/MMO, as appropriate, except that type of airplane. At larger angles of
the speed need not exceed VH— sideslip, up to that at which full rudder
(1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic is used or a control force limit in
category airplanes, the stick force § 23.143 is reached, whichever occurs
curve must have a stable slope at all first, and at speeds from 1.2 VS1 to VO,
speeds within a range that is the great- the rudder pedal force must not re-
er of 15 percent of the trim speed plus verse.
the resulting free return speed range, (b) The static lateral stability, as
or 40 knots plus the resulting free re- shown by the tendency to raise the low
turn speed range, above and below the wing in a sideslip, must be positive for
trim speed, except that the slope need all landing gear and flap positions.
not be stable— This must be shown with symmetrical
(i) At speeds less than 1.3 VS1; or power up to 75 percent of maximum
(ii) For airplanes with VNE estab- continuous power at speeds above 1.2
lished under § 23.1505(a), at speeds VS1 in the take off configuration(s) and
greater than VNE; or at speeds above 1.3 VS1 in other con-
(iii) For airplanes with VMO/MMO es- figurations, up to the maximum allow-
tablished under § 23.1505(c), at speeds able speed for the configuration being
greater than VFC/MFC. investigated, in the takeoff, climb,
(2) For commuter category airplanes, cruise, and approach configurations.
the stick force curve must have a sta- For the landing configuration, the
ble slope at all speeds within a range of power must be that necessary to main-
50 knots plus the resulting free return tain a 3 degree angle of descent in co-
speed range, above and below the trim ordinated flight. The static lateral sta-
speed, except that the slope need not be bility must not be negative at 1.2 VS1 in
stable— the takeoff configuration, or at 1.3 VS1
(i) At speeds less than 1.4 VS1; or in other configurations. The angle of
194
sideslip for these tests must be appro- (b)(2) of this section are not applicable
priate to the type of airplane, but in no to the tests needed to verify the ac-
case may the constant heading sideslip ceptability of that system.
angle be less than that obtainable with (d) During the conditions as specified
a 10 degree bank, or if less, the max- in § 23.175, when the longitudinal con-
imum bank angle obtainable with full trol force required to maintain speeds
rudder deflection or 150 pound rudder differing from the trim speed by at
force. least plus and minus 15 percent is sud-
(c) Paragraph (b) of this section does denly released, the response of the air-
not apply to acrobatic category airplane must not exhibit any dangerous
planes certificated for inverted flight. characteristics nor be excessive in rela-
(d) In straight, steady slips at 1.2 VS1 tion to the magnitude of the control
for any landing gear and flap positions, force released. Any long-period oscilla-
and for any symmetrical power condition of flight path, phugoid oscillation,
tions up to 50 percent of maximum con- that results must not be so unstable as
tinuous power, the aileron and rudder to increase the pilot’s workload or oth-
control movements and forces must in- erwise endanger the airplane.
crease steadily, but not necessarily in
constant proportion, as the angle of [Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 16, 1978, as
sideslip is increased up to the max- 1993]
imum appropriate to the type of air-
plane. At larger slip angles, up to the STALLS
angle at which full rudder or aileron
control is used or a control force limit § 23.201 Wings level stall.
contained in § 23.143 is reached, the ai- (a) It must be possible to produce and
leron and rudder control movements to correct roll by unreversed use of the
and forces must not reverse as the rolling control and to produce and to
angle of sideslip is increased. Rapid correct yaw by unreversed use of the
entry into, and recovery from, a max- directional control, up to the time the
imum sideslip considered appropriate airplane stalls.
for the airplane must not result in un- (b) The wings level stall characteris-
controllable flight characteristics. tics must be demonstrated in flight as
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5190, Feb. 9, 1996] follows. Starting from a speed at least
10 knots above the stall speed, the ele-
§ 23.181 Dynamic stability. vator control must be pulled back so
(a) Any short period oscillation not that the rate of speed reduction will
including combined lateral-directional not exceed one knot per second until a
oscillations occurring between the stall is produced, as shown by either:
stalling speed and the maximum allow- (1) An uncontrollable downward
able speed appropriate to the configu- pitching motion of the airplane;
ration of the airplane must be heavily (2) A downward pitching motion of
damped with the primary controls— the airplane that results from the acti-
(1) Free; and vation of a stall avoidance device (for
(2) In a fixed position. example, stick pusher); or
(b) Any combined lateral-directional (3) The control reaching the stop.
oscillations (‘‘Dutch roll’’) occurring (c) Normal use of elevator control for
between the stalling speed and the recovery is allowed after the downward
maximum allowable speed appropriate pitching motion of paragraphs (b)(1) or
to the configuration of the airplane (b)(2) of this section has unmistakably
must be damped to 1/10 amplitude in 7 been produced, or after the control has
cycles with the primary controls— been held against the stop for not less
(1) Free; and than the longer of two seconds or the
(2) In a fixed position. time employed in the minimum steady
(c) If it is determined that the func- slight speed determination of § 23.49.
tion of a stability augmentation sys- (d) During the entry into and the re-
tem, reference § 23.672, is needed to covery from the maneuver, it must be
meet the flight characteristic require- possible to prevent more than 15 de-
ments of this part, the primary control grees of roll or yaw by the normal use
requirements of paragraphs (a)(2) and of controls.
195
§ 23.203 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(e) Compliance with the require- (5) Exceeding a bank angle of 90 de-
ments of this section must be shown grees in the original direction of the
under the following conditions: turn or 60 degrees in the opposite direc-
(1) Wing flaps. Retracted, fully ex- tion in the case of accelerated turning
tended, and each intermediate normal stalls; and
operating position. (6) Exceeding the maximum permis-
(2) Landing gear. Retracted and ex- sible speed or allowable limit load fac-
tended. tor.
(3) Cowl flaps. Appropriate to configu- (c) Compliance with the require-
ration. ments of this section must be shown
(4) Power: under the following conditions:
(i) Power off; and (1) Wing flaps: Retracted, fully ex-
(ii) 75 percent of maximum contin- tended, and each intermediate normal
uous power. However, if the power-to- operating position;
weight ratio at 75 percent of maximum (2) Landing gear: Retracted and ex-
continuous power result in extreme tended;
nose-up attitudes, the test may be car- (3) Cowl flaps: Appropriate to configu-
ried out with the power required for ration;
level flight in the landing configura- (4) Power:
tion at maximum landing weight and a (i) Power off; and
speed of 1.4 VSO, except that the power (ii) 75 percent of maximum contin-
may not be less than 50 percent of max- uous power. However, if the power-to-
imum continuous power. weight ratio at 75 percent of maximum
(5) Trim. The airplane trimmed at a continuous power results in extreme
speed as near 1.5 VS1 as practicable. nose-up attitudes, the test may be car-
ried out with the power required for
(6) Propeller. Full increase r.p.m. posi-
level flight in the landing configura-
tion for the power off condition.
tion at maximum landing weight and a
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5191, Feb. 9, 1996] speed of 1.4 VSO, except that the power
may not be less than 50 percent of max-
§ 23.203 Turning flight and accelerated imum continuous power.
turning stalls. (5) Trim: The airplane trimmed at a
Turning flight and accelerated turn- speed as near 1.5 VS1 as practicable.
ing stalls must be demonstrated in (6) Propeller. Full increase rpm posi-
tests as follows: tion for the power off condition.
(a) Establish and maintain a coordi- [Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973, as
nated turn in a 30 degree bank. Reduce amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42159, Aug. 6,
speed by steadily and progressively 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5191, Feb. 9, 1996]
tightening the turn with the elevator
until the airplane is stalled, as defined § 23.207 Stall warning.
in § 23.201(b). The rate of speed reduc- (a) There must be a clear and distinc-
tion must be constant, and— tive stall warning, with the flaps and
(1) For a turning flight stall, may not landing gear in any normal position, in
exceed one knot per second; and straight and turning flight.
(2) For an accelerated turning stall, (b) The stall warning may be fur-
be 3 to 5 knots per second with steadily nished either through the inherent aer-
increasing normal acceleration. odynamic qualities of the airplane or
(b) After the airplane has stalled, as by a device that will give clearly dis-
defined in § 23.201(b), it must be possible tinguishable indications under ex-
to regain wings level flight by normal pected conditions of flight. However, a
use of the flight controls, but without visual stall warning device that re-
increasing power and without— quires the attention of the crew within
(1) Excessive loss of altitude; the cockpit is not acceptable by itself.
(2) Undue pitchup; (c) During the stall tests required by
(3) Uncontrollable tendency to spin; § 23.201(b) and § 23.203(a)(1), the stall
(4) Exceeding a bank angle of 60 de- warning must begin at a speed exceed-
grees in the original direction of the ing the stalling speed by a margin of
turn or 30 degrees in the opposite direc- not less than 5 knots and must con-
tion in the case of turning flight stalls; tinue until the stall occurs.
196
(d) When following procedures fur- (i) During the stall maneuver con-
nished in accordance with § 23.1585, the tained in § 23.201, the pitch control
stall warning must not occur during a must be pulled back and held against
takeoff with all engines operating, a the stop. Then, using ailerons and rud-
takeoff continued with one engine in- ders in the proper direction, it must be
operative, or during an approach to possible to maintain wings-level flight
landing. within 15 degrees of bank and to roll
(e) During the stall tests required by the airplane from a 30 degree bank in
§ 23.203(a)(2), the stall warning must one direction to a 30 degree bank in the
begin sufficiently in advance of the other direction;
stall for the stall to be averted by pilot (ii) Reduce the airplane speed using
action taken after the stall warning pitch control at a rate of approxi-
first occurs. mately one knot per second until the
(f) For acrobatic category airplanes, pitch control reaches the stop; then,
an artificial stall warning may be mu- with the pitch control pulled back and
table, provided that it is armed auto- held against the stop, apply full rudder
matically during takeoff and rearmed control in a manner to promote spin
automatically in the approach configu- entry for a period of seven seconds or
ration. through a 360 degree heading change,
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13087, Aug. 13, 1969, as
whichever occurs first. If the 360 degree
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42159, Aug. 6, heading change is reached first, it must
1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5191, Feb. 9, 1996] have taken no fewer than four seconds.
This maneuver must be performed first
SPINNING with the ailerons in the neutral posi-
tion, and then with the ailerons de-
§ 23.221 Spinning. flected opposite the direction of turn in
(a) Normal category airplanes. A sin- the most adverse manner. Power and
gle-engine, normal category airplane airplane configuration must be set in
must be able to recover from a one- accordance with § 23.201(e) without
turn spin or a three-second spin, which- change during the maneuver. At the
ever takes longer, in not more than one end of seven seconds or a 360 degree
additional turn after initiation of the heading change, the airplane must re-
first control action for recovery, or spond immediately and normally to
demonstrate compliance with the op- primary flight controls applied to re-
tional spin resistant requirements of gain coordinated, unstalled flight with-
this section. out reversal of control effect and with-
(1) The following apply to one turn or out exceeding the temporary control
three second spins: forces specified by § 23.143(c); and
(i) For both the flaps-retracted and (iii) Compliance with §§ 23.201 and
flaps-extended conditions, the applica- 23.203 must be demonstrated with the
ble airspeed limit and positive limit airplane in uncoordinated flight, cor-
maneuvering load factor must not be responding to one ball width displace-
exceeded; ment on a slip-skid indicator, unless
(ii) No control forces or char- one ball width displacement cannot be
acteristic encountered during the spin obtained with full rudder, in which
or recovery may adversely affect case the demonstration must be with
prompt recovery; full rudder applied.
(iii) It must be impossible to obtain (b) Utility category airplanes. A utility
unrecoverable spins with any use of the category airplane must meet the re-
flight or engine power controls either quirements of paragraph (a) of this sec-
at the entry into or during the spin; tion. In addition, the requirements of
and paragraph (c) of this section and
(iv) For the flaps-extended condition, § 23.807(b)(7) must be met if approval for
the flaps may be retracted during the spinning is requested.
recovery but not before rotation has (c) Acrobatic category airplanes. An ac-
ceased. robatic category airplane must meet
(2) At the applicant’s option, the air- the spin requirements of paragraph (a)
plane may be demonstrated to be spin of this section and § 23.807(b)(6). In addi-
resistant by the following: tion, the following requirements must
197
§ 23.231 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
be met in each configuration for which decreased to at least 50 percent of the

approval for spinning is requested: speed at touchdown.
(1) The airplane must recover from (c) The airplane must have adequate
any point in a spin up to and including directional control during taxiing.
six turns, or any greater number of (d) Seaplanes must demonstrate sat-
turns for which certification is re- isfactory directional stability and con-
quested, in not more than one and one- trol for water operations up to the
half additional turns after initiation of maximum wind velocity specified in
the first control action for recovery. paragraph (a) of this section.
However, beyond three turns, the spin
may be discontinued if spiral charac- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
teristics appear. 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
(2) The applicable airspeed limits and
limit maneuvering load factors must § 23.235 Operation on unpaved sur-
not be exceeded. For flaps-extended faces.
configurations for which approval is re-
The airplane must be demonstrated
quested, the flaps must not be re-
to have satisfactory characteristics
tracted during the recovery.
(3) It must be impossible to obtain and the shock-absorbing mechanism
unrecoverable spins with any use of the must not damage the structure of the
flight or engine power controls either airplane when the airplane is taxied on
at the entry into or during the spin. the roughest ground that may reason-
(4) There must be no characteristics ably be expected in normal operation
during the spin (such as excessive rates and when takeoffs and landings are
of rotation or extreme oscillatory mo- performed on unpaved runways having
tion) that might prevent a successful the roughest surface that may reason-
recovery due to disorientation or inca- ably be expected in normal operation.
pacitation of the pilot. [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5191, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.237 Operation on water.
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING A wave height, demonstrated to be
CHARACTERISTICS safe for operation, and any necessary
water handling procedures for sea-
§ 23.231 Longitudinal stability and planes and amphibians must be estab-
control.
lished.
(a) A landplane may have no uncon-
trollable tendency to nose over in any [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
reasonably expected operating condi-
§ 23.239 Spray characteristics.
tion, including rebound during landing
or takeoff. Wheel brakes must operate Spray may not dangerously obscure
smoothly and may not induce any the vision of the pilots or damage the
undue tendency to nose over. propellers or other parts of a seaplane
(b) A seaplane or amphibian may not or amphibian at any time during tax-
have dangerous or uncontrollable iing, takeoff, and landing.
porpoising characteristics at any nor-
mal operating speed on the water. MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 23.233 Directional stability and con- § 23.251 Vibration and buffeting.

trol. There must be no vibration or buf-
(a) A 90 degree cross-component of feting severe enough to result in struc-
wind velocity, demonstrated to be safe tural damage, and each part of the air-
for taxiing, takeoff, and landing must plane must be free from excessive vi-
be established and must be not less bration, under any appropriate speed
than 0.2 VSO. and power conditions up to VD/MD. In
(b) The airplane must be satisfac- addition, there must be no buffeting in
torily controllable in power-off land- any normal flight condition severe
ings at normal landing speed, without enough to interfere with the satisfac-
using brakes or engine power to main- tory control of the airplane or cause
tain a straight path until the speed has excessive fatigue to the flight crew.
198
Stall warning buffeting within these Unless otherwise provided, prescribed

limits is allowable. loads are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42159, Aug. 6, 1993]
air, ground, and water loads must be
§ 23.253 High speed characteristics. placed in equilibrium with inertia
forces, considering each item of mass
If a maximum operating speed VMO/ in the airplane. These loads must be
MMO is established under § 23.1505(c), distributed to conservatively approxi-
the following speed increase and recov- mate or closely represent actual condi-
ery characteristics must be met: tions. Methods used to determine load
(a) Operating conditions and charac- intensities and distribution on canard
teristics likely to cause inadvertent and tandem wing configurations must
speed increases (including upsets in be validated by flight test measure-
pitch and roll) must be simulated with ment unless the methods used for de-
the airplane trimmed at any likely termining those loading conditions are
speed up to VMO/MMO. These conditions shown to be reliable or conservative on
and characteristics include gust upsets, the configuration under consideration.
inadvertent control movements, low (c) If deflections under load would
stick force gradients in relation to con- significantly change the distribution of
trol friction, passenger movement, lev- external or internal loads, this redis-
eling off from climb, and descent from tribution must be taken into account.
Mach to airspeed limit altitude. (d) Simplified structural design cri-
(b) Allowing for pilot reaction time teria may be used if they result in de-
after occurrence of the effective inher- sign loads not less than those pre-
ent or artificial speed warning speci- scribed in §§ 23.331 through 23.521. For
fied in § 23.1303, it must be shown that airplane configurations described in
the airplane can be recovered to a nor- appendix A, § 23.1, the design criteria of
mal attitude and its speed reduced to appendix A of this part are an approved
VMO/MMO, without— equivalent of §§ 23.321 through 23.459. If
(1) Exceeding VD/MD, the maximum appendix A of this part is used, the en-
speed shown under § 23.251, or the struc- tire appendix must be substituted for
tural limitations; or the corresponding sections of this part.
(2) Buffeting that would impair the [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
pilot’s ability to read the instruments FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
or to control the airplane for recovery. 28, 47 FR 13315, Mar. 29, 1982; Amdt. 23–42, 56
(c) There may be no control reversal FR 352, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5143,
about any axis at any speed up to the Feb. 9, 1996]
maximum speed shown under § 23.251.
Any reversal of elevator control force § 23.302 Canard or tandem wing con-
figurations.
or tendency of the airplane to pitch,
roll, or yaw must be mild and readily The forward structure of a canard or
controllable, using normal piloting tandem wing configuration must:
techniques. (a) Meet all requirements of subpart
C and subpart D of this part applicable
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13087, Aug. 13, 1969; as to a wing; and
amended by Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60170, Sept.
11, 1980; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993;
(b) Meet all requirements applicable
Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996] to the function performed by these sur-
faces.
Subpart C—Structure [Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 352, Jan. 3, 1991]
GENERAL § 23.303 Factor of safety.

Unless otherwise provided, a factor of
§ 23.301 Loads. safety of 1.5 must be used.
(a) Strength requirements are speci-
fied in terms of limit loads (the max- § 23.305 Strength and deformation.
imum loads to be expected in service) (a) The structure must be able to
and ultimate loads (limit loads multi- support limit loads without detri-
plied by prescribed factors of safety). mental, permanent deformation. At
199
§ 23.307 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
any load up to limit loads, the defor- limitations specified in §§ 23.1583

mation may not interfere with safe op- through 23.1589.
eration. (c) When significant, the effects of
(b) The structure must be able to compressibility must be taken into ac-
support ultimate loads without failure count.
for at least three seconds, except local
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
failures or structural instabilities be- amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6,
tween limit and ultimate load are ac- 1993]
ceptable only if the structure can sus-
tain the required ultimate load for at § 23.331 Symmetrical flight conditions.
least three seconds. However when
(a) The appropriate balancing hori-
proof of strength is shown by dynamic
zontal tail load must be accounted for
tests simulating actual load condi-
in a rational or conservative manner
tions, the three second limit does not
when determining the wing loads and
apply.
linear inertia loads corresponding to
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as any of the symmetrical flight condi-
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, tions specified in §§ 23.333 through
1993] 23.341.
(b) The incremental horizontal tail
§ 23.307 Proof of structure.
loads due to maneuvering and gusts
(a) Compliance with the strength and must be reacted by the angular inertia
deformation requirements of § 23.305 of the airplane in a rational or conserv-
must be shown for each critical load ative manner.
condition. Structural analysis may be (c) Mutual influence of the aero-
used only if the structure conforms to dynamic surfaces must be taken into
those for which experience has shown account when determining flight loads.
this method to be reliable. In other
cases, substantiating load tests must [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
be made. Dynamic tests, including FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
42, 56 FR 352, Jan. 3, 1991]
structural flight tests, are acceptable if
the design load conditions have been § 23.333 Flight envelope.
simulated.
(b) Certain parts of the structure (a) General. Compliance with the
must be tested as specified in Subpart strength requirements of this subpart
D of this part. must be shown at any combination of
airspeed and load factor on and within
FLIGHT LOADS the boundaries of a flight envelope
(similar to the one in paragraph (d) of
§ 23.321 General. this section) that represents the enve-
(a) Flight load factors represent the lope of the flight loading conditions
ratio of the aerodynamic force compo- specified by the maneuvering and gust
nent (acting normal to the assumed criteria of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the section respectively.
weight of the airplane. A positive flight (b) Maneuvering envelope. Except
load factor is one in which the aero- where limited by maximum (static) lift
dynamic force acts upward, with re- coefficients, the airplane is assumed to
spect to the airplane. be subjected to symmetrical maneu-
(b) Compliance with the flight load vers resulting in the following limit
requirements of this subpart must be load factors:
shown— (1) The positive maneuvering load
(1) At each critical altitude within factor specified in § 23.337 at speeds up
the range in which the airplane may be to VD;
expected to operate; (2) The negative maneuvering load
(2) At each weight from the design factor specified in § 23.337 at VC; and
minimum weight to the design max- (3) Factors varying linearly with
imum weight; and speed from the specified value at VC to
(3) For each required altitude and 0.0 at VD for the normal and commuter
weight, for any practicable distribution category, and —1.0 at VD for the acro-
of disposable load within the operating batic and utility categories.
200
(c) Gust envelope. (1) The airplane is between sea level and 20,000 feet. The
assumed to be subjected to symmet- gust velocity may be reduced linearly
rical vertical gusts in level flight. The from 66 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to 38 f.p.s. at
resulting limit load factors must cor- 50,000 feet.
respond to the conditions determined (2) The following assumptions must
as follows: be made:
(i) Positive (up) and negative (down) (i) The shape of the gust is—
gusts of 50 f.p.s. at VC must be consid-
ered at altitudes between sea level and
U de  2πs 
20,000 feet. The gust velocity may be U=  1 − COS 
reduced linearly from 50 f.p.s. at 20,000 2  25C 
feet to 25 f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
(ii) Positive and negative gusts of 25 Where—
f.p.s. at VD must be considered at alti- s =Distance penetrated into gust (ft.);
tudes between sea level and 20,000 feet. C =Mean geometric chord of wing (ft.);
The gust velocity may be reduced lin- and
early from 25 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to 12.5 Ude =Derived gust velocity referred to
f.p.s. at 50,000 feet. in subparagraph (1) of this section.
(iii) In addition, for commuter cat-
egory airplanes, positive (up) and nega- (ii) Gust load factors vary linearly
tive (down) rough air gusts of 66 f.p.s. with speed between VC and VD .
at VΒ must be considered at altitudes (d) Flight envelope.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13087, Aug. 13, 1969;
Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1829, Jan. 15, 1987]
§ 23.335 Design airspeeds. (1) Where W/S′=wing loading at the

design maximum takeoff weight, Vc (in
Except as provided in paragraph
knots) may not be less than—
(a)(4) of this section, the selected de-
(i) 33 √(W/S) (for normal, utility, and
sign airspeeds are equivalent airspeeds
commuter category airplanes);
(EAS).
(ii) 36 √(W/S) (for acrobatic category
(a) Design cruising speed, VC. For VC
airplanes).
the following apply:
201
§ 23.337 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) For values of W/S more than 20, enough to provide for atmospheric
the multiplying factors may be de- variations (such as horizontal gusts),
creased linearly with W/S to a value of and the penetration of jet streams or
28.6 where W/S =100. cold fronts), instrument errors, air-
(3) VC need not be more than 0.9 VH at frame production variations, and must
sea level. not be less than Mach 0.05.
(4) At altitudes where an MD is estab- (c) Design maneuvering speed VA. For
lished, a cruising speed MC limited by VA, the following applies:
compressibility may be selected. (1) VA may not be less than VS√n
(b) Design dive speed VD. For VD, the where—
following apply: (i) VS is a computed stalling speed
(1) VD/MD may not be less than 1.25 with flaps retracted at the design
VC/MC; and weight, normally based on the max-
(2) With VC min, the required minimum airplane normal force coeffi-
imum design cruising speed, VD (in cients, CNA; and
knots) may not be less than— (ii) n is the limit maneuvering load
(i) 1.40 Vc min (for normal and com- factor used in design
muter category airplanes); (2) The value of VA need not exceed
(ii) 1.50 VC min (for utility category the value of VC used in design.
airplanes); and (d) Design speed for maximum gust in-
(iii) 1.55 VC min (for acrobatic cat- tensity, VB. For VB, the following apply:
egory airplanes).
(1) VB may not be less than the speed
(3) For values of W/S more than 20,
determined by the intersection of the
the multiplying factors in paragraph
line representing the maximum posi-
(b)(2) of this section may be decreased
tive lift, CNMAX, and the line rep-
linearly with W/S to a value of 1.35
resenting the rough air gust velocity
where W/S=100.
on the gust V-n diagram, or VS1√ng,
(4) Compliance with paragraphs (b)(1)
whichever is less, where:
and (2) of this section need not be
(i) ng the positive airplane gust load
shown if VD/MD is selected so that the
factor due to gust, at speed VC (in ac-
minimum speed margin between VC/MC
cordance with § 23.341), and at the par-
and VD/MD is the greater of the fol-
ticular weight under consideration; and
lowing:
(i) The speed increase resulting when, (ii) VS1 is the stalling speed with the
from the initial condition of stabilized flaps retracted at the particular weight
flight at VC/MC, the airplane is as- under consideration.
sumed to be upset, flown for 20 seconds (2) VB need not be greater than VC.
along a flight path 7.5° below the ini- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
tial path, and then pulled up with a amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13088, Aug. 13,
load factor of 1.5 (0.5 g. acceleration in- 1969; Amdt. 23–16, 40 FR 2577, Jan. 14, 1975;
crement). At least 75 percent maximum Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1829, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt.
continuous power for reciprocating en- 23–24, 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–48,
gines, and maximum cruising power for 61 FR 5143, Feb. 9, 1996]
turbines, or, if less, the power required
§ 23.337 Limit maneuvering load fac-
for VC/MC for both kinds of engines, tors.
must be assumed until the pullup is
initiated, at which point power reduc- (a) The positive limit maneuvering
tion and pilot-controlled drag devices load factor n may not be less than—
may be used; and either— (1) 2.1+(24,000÷(W+10,000)) for normal
(ii) Mach 0.05 for normal, utility, and and commuter category airplanes,
acrobatic category airplanes (at alti- where W=design maximum takeoff
tudes where MD is established); or weight, except that n need not be more
(iii) Mach 0.07 for commuter category than 3.8;
airplanes (at altitudes where MD is es- (2) 4.4 for utility category airplanes;
tablished) unless a rational analysis, or
including the effects of automatic sys- (3) 6.0 for acrobatic category air-
tems, is used to determine a lower mar- planes.
gin. If a rational analysis is used, the (b) The negative limit maneuvering
minimum speed margin must be load factor may not be less than—
202
(1) 0.4 times the positive load factor § 23.343 Design fuel loads.
for the normal utility and commuter
(a) The disposable load combinations
categories; or
must include each fuel load in the
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor
range from zero fuel to the selected
for the acrobatic category.
maximum fuel load.
(c) Maneuvering load factors lower
(b) If fuel is carried in the wings, the
than those specified in this section
maximum allowable weight of the air-
may be used if the airplane has design
plane without any fuel in the wing
features that make it impossible to ex-
tank(s) must be established as ‘‘max-
ceed these values in flight.
imum zero wing fuel weight,’’ if it is
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as less than the maximum weight.
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13088, Aug. 13, (c) For commuter category airplanes,
1969; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1829, Jan. 15, 1987; a structural reserve fuel condition, not
Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5144, Feb. 9, 1996]
exceeding fuel necessary for 45 minutes
§ 23.341 Gust loads factors. of operation at maximum continuous
power, may be selected. If a structural
(a) Each airplane must be designed to reserve fuel condition is selected, it
withstand loads on each lifting surface must be used as the minimum fuel
resulting from gusts specified in weight condition for showing compli-
§ 23.333(c). ance with the flight load requirements
(b) The gust load for a canard or tan- prescribed in this part and—
dem wing configuration must be com- (1) The structure must be designed to
puted using a rational analysis, or may withstand a condition of zero fuel in
be computed in accordance with para- the wing at limit loads corresponding
graph (c) of this section, provided that to:
the resulting net loads are shown to be
(i) Ninety percent of the maneu-
conservative with respect to the gust
vering load factors defined in § 23.337,
criteria of § 23.333(c).
and
(c) In the absence of a more rational
(ii) Gust velocities equal to 85 per-
analysis, the gust load factors must be
cent of the values prescribed in
computed as follows—
§ 23.333(c).
K g U de V a (2) The fatigue evaluation of the
n = 1+ structure must account for any in-
498 ( W/S) crease in operating stresses resulting
from the design condition of paragraph
Where— (c)(1) of this section.
Kg=0.88µg/5.3+µg=gust alleviation factor; (3) The flutter, deformation, and vi-
µg=2(W/S)/ρ Cag=airplane mass ratio; bration requirements must also be met
Ude=Derived gust velocities referred to in with zero fuel in the wings.
§ 23.333(c) (f.p.s.);
ρ=Density of air (slugs/cu.ft.); [Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5144, Feb. 9, 1996]
W/S =Wing loading (p.s.f.) due to the applica-
ble weight of the airplane in the par- § 23.345 High lift devices.
ticular load case.
W/S =Wing loading (p.s.f.); (a) If flaps or similar high lift devices
C =Mean geometric chord (ft.); are to be used for takeoff, approach or
g =Acceleration due to gravity (ft./sec. 2) landing, the airplane, with the flaps
V =Airplane equivalent speed (knots); and fully extended at VF, is assumed to be
a =Slope of the airplane normal force coeffi- subjected to symmetrical maneuvers
cient curve CNA per radian if the gust and gusts within the range determined
loads are applied to the wings and hori- by—
zontal tail surfaces simultaneously by a
(1) Maneuvering, to a positive limit
rational method. The wing lift curve
slope CL per radian may be used when the load factor of 2.0; and
gust load is applied to the wings only and (2) Positive and negative gust of 25
the horizontal tail gust loads are treated feet per second acting normal to the
as a separate condition. flight path in level flight.
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13088, Aug. 13, 1969, as (b) VF must be assumed to be not less
amended by Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 352, Jan. 3, than 1.4 VS or 1.8 VSF, whichever is
1991; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5144, Feb. 9, 1996] greater, where—
203
§ 23.347 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) VS is the computed stalling speed loads, the rolling accelerations may be
with flaps retracted at the design obtained by modifying the symmet-
weight; and rical flight conditions in § 23.333(d) as
(2) VSF is the computed stalling speed follows:
with flaps fully extended at the design (1) For the acrobatic category, in
weight. conditions A and F, assume that 100
(3) If an automatic flap load limiting percent of the semispan wing airload
device is used, the airplane may be de- acts on one side of the plane of sym-
signed for the critical combinations of metry and 60 percent of this load acts
airspeed and flap position allowed by on the other side.
that device. (2) For normal, utility, and com-
(c) In determining external loads on muter categories, in Condition A, as-
the airplane as a whole, thrust, slip- sume that 100 percent of the semispan
stream, and pitching acceleration may wing airload acts on one side of the air-
be assumed to be zero. plane and 75 percent of this load acts
(d) The flaps, their operating mecha- on the other side.
nism, and their supporting structures, (b) The loads resulting from the aile-
must be designed to withstand the con- ron deflections and speeds specified in
ditions prescribed in paragraph (a) of § 23.455, in combination with an air-
this section. In addition, with the flaps
plane load factor of at least two thirds
fully extended at VF, the following con-
of the positive maneuvering load factor
ditions, taken separately, must be ac-
used for design. Unless the following
counted for:
values result in unrealistic loads, the
(1) A head-on gust having a velocity
effect of aileron displacement on wing
of 25 feet per second (EAS), combined
torsion may be accounted for by adding
with propeller slipstream cor-
the following increment to the basic
responding to 75 percent of maximum
airfoil moment coefficient over the ai-
continuous power; and
(2) The effects of propeller slipstream leron portion of the span in the critical
corresponding to maximum takeoff condition determined in § 23.333(d):
power. ∆cm=—0.01δ
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5144, Feb. 9, 1996] where—
∆cm is the moment coefficient increment; and
§ 23.347 Unsymmetrical flight condi-
δ is the down aileron deflection in degrees in
tions.
the critical condition.
(a) The airplane is assumed to be sub-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
jected to the unsymmetrical flight con-
ditions of §§ 23.349 and 23.351. Unbal- 1969; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1829, Jan. 15, 1987;
anced aerodynamic moments about the Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5144, Feb. 9, 1996]
center of gravity must be reacted in a
rational or conservative manner, con- § 23.351 Yawing conditions.
sidering the principal masses fur-
nishing the reacting inertia forces. The airplane must be designed for
(b) Acrobatic category airplanes cer- yawing loads on the vertical surfaces
tified for flick maneuvers (snap roll) resulting from the loads specified in
must be designed for additional asym- §§ 23.441 through 23.445.
metric loads acting on the wing and [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
the horizontal tail. FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
42, 56 FR 352, Jan. 3, 1991]
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
§ 23.361 Engine torque.
1996]
(a) Each engine mount and its sup-
§ 23.349 Rolling conditions. porting structure must be designed for
The wing and wing bracing must be the effects of—
designed for the following loading con- (1) A limit engine torque cor-
ditions: responding to takeoff power and pro-
(a) Unsymmetrical wing loads appro- peller speed acting simultaneously
priate to the category. Unless the fol- with 75 percent of the limit loads from
lowing values result in unrealistic flight condition A of § 23.333(d);
204
(2) A limit engine torque cor- § 23.365 Pressurized cabin loads.

responding to maximum continuous For each pressurized compartment,
power and propeller speed acting si- the following apply:
multaneously with the limit loads from (a) The airplane structure must be
flight condition A of § 23.333(d); and strong enough to withstand the flight
(3) For turbopropeller installations, loads combined with pressure differen-
in addition to the conditions specified tial loads from zero up to the max-
in paragraphs (a)(1) and (a)(2) of this imum relief valve setting.
section, a limit engine torque cor- (b) The external pressure distribution
responding to takeoff power and pro- in flight, and any stress concentra-
peller speed, multiplied by a factor actions, must be accounted for.
counting for propeller control system (c) If landings may be made with the
malfunction, including quick feath- cabin pressurized, landing loads must
ering, acting simultaneously with lg be combined with pressure differential
level flight loads. In the absence of a loads from zero up to the maximum al-
rational analysis, a factor of 1.6 must lowed during landing.
(d) The airplane structure must be
be used.
strong enough to withstand the pres-
(b) For turbine engine installations, sure differential loads corresponding to
the engine mounts and supporting the maximum relief valve setting mul-
structure must be designed to with- tiplied by a factor of 1.33, omitting
stand each of the following: other loads.
(1) A limit engine torque load im- (e) If a pressurized cabin has two or
posed by sudden engine stoppage due to more compartments separated by bulk-
malfunction or structural failure (such heads or a floor, the primary structure
as compressor jamming). must be designed for the effects of sud-
(2) A limit engine torque load im- den release of pressure in any compart-
posed by the maximum acceleration of ment with external doors or windows.
the engine. This condition must be investigated for
(c) The limit engine torque to be con- the effects of failure of the largest
sidered under paragraph (a) of this sec- opening in the compartment. The ef-
tion must be obtained by multiplying fects of intercompartmental venting
the mean torque by a factor of— may be considered.
(1) 1.25 for turbopropeller installa- § 23.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to
tions; engine failure.
(2) 1.33 for engines with five or more
(a) Turbopropeller airplanes must be
cylinders; and designed for the unsymmetrical loads
(3) Two, three, or four, for engines resulting from the failure of the crit-
with four, three, or two cylinders, re- ical engine including the following con-
spectively. ditions in combination with a single
[Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980, as malfunction of the propeller drag lim-
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, iting system, considering the probable
1993] pilot corrective action on the flight
controls:
§ 23.363 Side load on engine mount. (1) At speeds between VMC and VD,
(a) Each engine mount and its sup- the loads resulting from power failure
because of fuel flow interruption are
porting structure must be designed for
considered to be limit loads.
a limit load factor in a lateral direc-
(2) At speeds between VMC and VC,
tion, for the side load on the engine
the loads resulting from the disconnec-
mount, of not less than— tion of the engine compressor from the
(1) 1.33, or turbine or from loss of the turbine
(2) One-third of the limit load factor blades are considered to be ultimate
for flight condition A. loads.
(b) The side load prescribed in para- (3) The time history of the thrust
graph (a) of this section may be as- decay and drag buildup occurring as a
sumed to be independent of other flight result of the prescribed engine failures
conditions. must be substantiated by test or other
205
§ 23.369 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
data applicable to the particular en- (iv) Maximum continuous thrust.

gine-propeller combination. (b) For airplanes approved for aero-
(4) The timing and magnitude of the batic maneuvers, each engine mount
probable pilot corrective action must and its supporting structure must meet
be conservatively estimated, consid- the requirements of paragraph (a) of
ering the characteristics of the par- this section and be designed to with-
ticular engine-propeller-airplane com- stand the load factors expected during
bination. combined maximum yaw and pitch ve-
(b) Pilot corrective action may be as- locities.
sumed to be initiated at the time max- (c) For airplanes certificated in the
imum yawing velocity is reached, but commuter category, each engine
not earlier than 2 seconds after the en- mount and its supporting structure
gine failure. The magnitude of the cor- must meet the requirements of para-
rective action may be based on the graph (a) of this section and the gust
limit pilot forces specified in § 23.397 conditions specified in § 23.341 of this
except that lower forces may be as- part.
sumed where it is shown by analysis or
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5145, Feb. 9, 1996]
test that these forces can control the
yaw and roll resulting from the pre- § 23.373 Speed control devices.
scribed engine failure conditions.
If speed control devices (such as
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13, 1969] spoilers and drag flaps) are incor-
porated for use in enroute conditions—
§ 23.369 Rear lift truss.
(a) The airplane must be designed for
(a) If a rear lift truss is used, it must the symmetrical maneuvers and gusts
be designed to withstand conditions of prescribed in §§ 23.333, 23.337, and 23.341,
reversed airflow at a design speed of— and the yawing maneuvers and lateral
V = 8.7 √(W/S) + 8.7 (knots), where W/ gusts in §§ 23.441 and 23.443, with the de-
S = wing loading at design maximum vice extended at speeds up to the
takeoff weight. placard device extended speed; and
(b) Either aerodynamic data for the (b) If the device has automatic oper-
particular wing section used, or a value ating or load limiting features, the air-
of CL equalling ¥0.8 with a chordwise plane must be designed for the maneu-
distribution that is triangular between ver and gust conditions prescribed in
a peak at the trailing edge and zero at paragraph (a) of this section at the
the leading edge, must be used. speeds and corresponding device posi-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as tions that the mechanism allows.
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13, [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13, 1969]
1969; 34 FR 17509, Oct. 30, 1969; Amdt. 23–45, 58
FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
5145, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.391 Control surface loads.
§ 23.371 Gyroscopic and aerodynamic
loads. The control surface loads specified in
(a) Each engine mount and its sup- §§ 23.397 through 23.459 are assumed to
porting structure must be designed for occur in the conditions described in
the gyroscopic, inertial, and aero- §§ 23.331 through 23.351.
dynamic loads that result, with the en- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
gine(s) and propeller(s), if applicable, amended by Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5145, Feb. 9,
at maximum continuous r.p.m., under 1996]
either:
(1) The conditions prescribed in § 23.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
§ 23.351 and § 23.423; or (a) Control surfaces and supporting
(2) All possible combinations of the hinge brackets must be designed to
following— withstand inertial loads acting parallel
(i) A yaw velocity of 2.5 radians per to the hinge line.
second; (b) In the absence of more rational
(ii) A pitch velocity of 1.0 radian per data, the inertial loads may be as-
second; sumed to be equal to KW, where—
(iii) A normal load factor of 2.5; and (1) K = 24 for vertical surfaces;
206
(2) K = 12 for horizontal surfaces; and § 23.397 Limit control forces and
(3) W = weight of the movable sur- torques.
faces. (a) In the control surface flight load-
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5145, Feb. 9, 1996] ing condition, the airloads on movable
surfaces and the corresponding deflec-
§ 23.395 Control system loads. tions need not exceed those that would
result in flight from the application of
(a) Each flight control system and its any pilot force within the ranges speci-
supporting structure must be designed fied in paragraph (b) of this section. In
for loads corresponding to at least 125 applying this criterion, the effects of
percent of the computed hinge mo- control system boost and servo-mecha-
ments of the movable control surface nisms, and the effects of tabs must be
in the conditions prescribed in §§ 23.391 considered. The automatic pilot effort
through 23.459. In addition, the fol- must be used for design if it alone can
lowing apply: produce higher control surface loads
(1) The system limit loads need not than the human pilot.
exceed the higher of the loads that can (b) The limit pilot forces and torques
be produced by the pilot and automatic are as follows:
devices operating the controls. How-
Maximum forces
ever, autopilot forces need not be added or torques for Minimum
to pilot forces. The system must be de- Control design weight, forces or
weight equal to
signed for the maximum effort of the torques 2
or less than
pilot or autopilot, whichever is higher. 5,000 pounds 1
In addition, if the pilot and the auto- Aileron:
pilot act in opposition, the part of the Stick ................................ 67 lbs ................ 40 lbs.
system between them may be designed Wheel 3 ............................ 50 D in.-lbs 4 ..... 40 D in.-
lbs.4
for the maximum effort of the one that Elevator:
imposes the lesser load. Pilot forces Stick ................................ 167 lbs .............. 100 lbs.
used for design need not exceed the Wheel (symmetrical) ....... 200 lbs .............. 100 lbs.
Wheel (unsymmetrical) 5 ........................... 100 lbs.
maximum forces prescribed in Rudder ................................ 200 lbs .............. 150 lbs.
§ 23.397(b).
1 For design weight (W) more than 5,000 pounds, the speci-
(2) The design must, in any case, pro- fied maximum values must be increased linearly with weight
vide a rugged system for service use, to 1.18 times the specified values at a design weight of
12,500 pounds and for commuter category airplanes, the
considering jamming, ground gusts, specified values must be increased linearly with weight to
taxiing downwind, control inertia, and 1.35 times the specified values at a design weight of 19,000
pounds.
friction. Compliance with this subpara- 2 If the design of any individual set of control systems or
graph may be shown by designing for surfaces makes these specified minimum forces or torques in-
applicable, values corresponding to the present hinge mo-
loads resulting from application of the ments obtained under § 23.415, but not less than 0.6 of the
minimum forces prescribed in specified minimum forces or torques, may be used.
3 The critical parts of the aileron control system must also
§ 23.397(b). be designed for a single tangential force with a limit value of
1.25 times the couple force determined from the above cri-
(b) A 125 percent factor on computed teria.
hinge moments must be used to design 4 D=wheel diameter (inches).
5 The unsymmetrical force must be applied at one of the
elevator, aileron, and rudder systems. normal handgrip points on the control wheel.
However, a factor as low as 1.0 may be
used if hinge moments are based on ac- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
curate flight test data, the exact reduc- amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13,
tion depending upon the accuracy and 1969; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, 1976;
Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1829, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt.
reliability of the data. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993]
(c) Pilot forces used for design are as-
sumed to act at the appropriate control § 23.399 Dual control system.
grips or pads as they would in flight, (a) Each dual control system must be
and to react at the attachments of the designed to withstand the force of the
control system to the control surface pilots operating in opposition, using in-
horns. dividual pilot forces not less than the
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as greater of—
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13, (1) 0.75 times those obtained under
1969] § 23.395; or
207
§ 23.405 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) The minimum forces specified in H=KcSq

§ 23.397(b). where—
(b) Each dual control system must be H = limit hinge moment (ft.-lbs.);
designed to withstand the force of the c = mean chord of the control surface
pilots applied together, in the same di- aft of the hinge line (ft.);
rection, using individual pilot forces S = area of control surface aft of the
not less than 0.75 times those obtained hinge line (sq. ft.);
under § 23.395. q = dynamic pressure (p.s.f.) based on a
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5145, Feb. 9, 1996] design speed not less than 14.6 √(W/
S) + 14.6 (f.p.s.) where W/S = wing
§ 23.405 Secondary control system. loading at design maximum weight,
except that the design speed need
Secondary controls, such as wheel
not exceed 88 (f.p.s.);
brakes, spoilers, and tab controls, must
K = limit hinge moment factor for
be designed for the maximum forces
ground gusts derived in paragraph
that a pilot is likely to apply to those
(b) of this section. (For ailerons
controls.
and elevators, a positive value of K
§ 23.407 Trim tab effects. indicates a moment tending to de-
press the surface and a negative
The effects of trim tabs on the con- value of K indicates a moment
trol surface design conditions must be tending to raise the surface).
accounted for only where the surface (b) The limit hinge moment factor K
loads are limited by maximum pilot ef- for ground gusts must be derived as fol-
fort. In these cases, the tabs are con- lows:
sidered to be deflected in the direction
that would assist the pilot. These de- Surface K Position of controls
flections must correspond to the max- (a) Aileron ......... 0.75 Control column locked lashed in
imum degree of ‘‘out of trim’’ expected mid-position.
at the speed for the condition under (b) Aileron ......... ±0.50 Ailerons at full throw; + moment
on one aileron, ¥ moment on
consideration. the other.
(c) Elevator ....... ±0.75 (c) Elevator full up (¥).
§ 23.409 Tabs. (d) Elevator ....... ............ (d) Elevator full down (+).
(e) Rudder ......... ±0.75 (e) Rudder in neutral.
Control surface tabs must be de- (f) Rudder .......... ............ (f) Rudder at full throw.
signed for the most severe combination
of airspeed and tab deflection likely to (c) At all weights between the empty
be obtained within the flight envelope weight and the maximum weight de-
for any usable loading condition. clared for tie-down stated in the appro-
priate manual, any declared tie-down
§ 23.415 Ground gust conditions. points and surrounding structure, con-
(a) The control system must be inves- trol system, surfaces and associated
tigated as follows for control surface gust locks, must be designed to with-
loads due to ground gusts and taxiing stand the limit load conditions that
downwind: exist when the airplane is tied down
(1) If an investigation of the control and that result from wind speeds of up
system for ground gust loads is not re- to 65 knots horizontally from any di-
quired by paragraph (a)(2) of this sec- rection.
tion, but the applicant elects to design
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
a part of the control system of these amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13,
loads, these loads need only be carried 1969; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993;
from control surface horns through the Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5145, Feb. 9, 1996]
nearest stops or gust locks and their
supporting structures. HORIZONTAL STABILIZING AND
(2) If pilot forces less than the mini- BALANCING SURFACES
mums specified in § 23.397(b) are used
for design, the effects of surface loads § 23.421 Balancing loads.
due to ground gusts and taxiing down- (a) A horizontal surface balancing
wind must be investigated for the en- load is a load necessary to maintain
tire control system according to the equilibrium in any specified flight con-
formula: dition with no pitching acceleration.
208
(b) Horizontal balancing surfaces due to the specified value of the angu-
must be designed for the balancing lar acceleration.
loads occurring at any point on the [Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991; 56 FR
limit maneuvering envelope and in the 5455, Feb. 11, 1991]
flap conditions specified in § 23.345.
§ 23.425 Gust loads.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089, Aug. 13, (a) Each horizontal surface, other
1969; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 352, Jan. 3, 1991] than a main wing, must be designed for
loads resulting from—
§ 23.423 Maneuvering loads. (1) Gust velocities specified in
§ 23.333(c) with flaps retracted; and
Each horizontal surface and its sup- (2) Positive and negative gusts of 25
porting structure, and the main wing f.p.s. nominal intensity at VF cor-
of a canard or tandem wing configura- responding to the flight conditions
tion, if that surface has pitch control, specified in § 23.345(a)(2).
must be designed for the maneuvering (b) [Reserved]
loads imposed by the following condi- (c) When determining the total load
tions: on the horizontal surfaces for the con-
(a) A sudden movement of the pitch- ditions specified in paragraph (a) of
ing control, at the speed VA, to the this section, the initial balancing loads
maximum aft movement, and the max- for steady unaccelerated flight at the
imum forward movement, as limited by pertinent design speeds VF, VC, and VD
the control stops, or pilot effort, must first be determined. The incre-
whichever is critical. mental load resulting from the gusts
(b) A sudden aft movement of the must be added to the initial balancing
pitching control at speeds above VA, load to obtain the total load.
followed by a forward movement of the (d) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the incremental load due to
pitching control resulting in the fol-
the gust must be computed as follows
lowing combinations of normal and an-
only on airplane configurations with
gular acceleration:
aft-mounted, horizontal surfaces, un-
Normal less its use elsewhere is shown to be
Angular acceleration
Condition accelera- (radian/sec2) conservative:
tion (n)
Nose-up pitching ........ 1.0 +39nm÷V×(nm¥1.5) K g U de Va ht S ht  dε 

Nose-down ptiching .... nm ¥39nm÷V×(nm¥1.5) ∆ L ht = 1 − 
498  dα 
where— where—
(1) nm=positive limit maneuvering ∆Lht=Incremental horizontal tailload (lbs.);
load factor used in the design of the Kg=Gust alleviation factor defined in § 23.341;
airplane; and Ude=Derived gust velocity (f.p.s.);
V=Airplane equivalent speed (knots);
(2) V=initial speed in knots. aht=Slope of aft horizontal lift curve (per ra-
The conditions in this paragraph in- dian)
volve loads corresponding to the loads Sht=Area of aft horizontal lift surface (ft2);
that may occur in a ‘‘checked maneu- and
ver’’ (a maneuver in which the pitching
control is suddenly displaced in one di-  dε 
1 −  = Downwash factor
rection and then suddenly moved in the  dα 
opposite direction). The deflections and
timing of the ‘‘checked maneuver’’ [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
must avoid exceeding the limit maneu- amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13089 Aug. 13,
vering load factor. The total horizontal 1969; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991]
surface load for both nose-up and nose-
§ 23.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
down pitching conditions is the sum of
the balancing loads at V and the speci- (a) Horizontal surfaces other than
fied value of the normal load factor n, main wing and their supporting struc-
plus the maneuvering load increment ture must be designed for unsymmet-
rical loads arising from yawing and
209
§ 23.441 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
slipstream effects, in combination with the following conditions. In computing

the loads prescribed for the flight con- the loads, the yawing velocity may be
ditions set forth in §§ 23.421 through assumed to be zero:
23.425. (1) With the airplane in unacceler-
(b) In the absence of more rational ated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed
data for airplanes that are conven- that the rudder control is suddenly dis-
tional in regard to location of engines, placed to the maximum deflection, as
wings, horizontal surfaces other than limited by the control stops or by limit
main wing, and fuselage shape:
pilot forces.
(1) 100 percent of the maximum load-
ing from the symmetrical flight condi- (2) With the rudder deflected as speci-
tions may be assumed on the surface fied in paragraph (a)(1) of this section,
on one side of the plane of symmetry; it is assumed that the airplane yaws to
and the overswing sideslip angle. In lieu of
(2) The following percentage of that a rational analysis, an overswing angle
loading must be applied to the opposite equal to 1.5 times the static sideslip
side: angle of paragraph (a)(3) of this section
Percent=100¥10 (n¥1), where n is the spec-
may be assumed.
ified positive maneuvering load factor, but (3) A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the
this value may not be more than 80 percent. rudder control maintained in the neu-
(c) For airplanes that are not conven- tral position (except as limited by pilot
tional (such as airplanes with hori- strength).
zontal surfaces other than main wing (b) For commuter category airplanes,
having appreciable dihedral or sup- the loads imposed by the following ad-
ported by the vertical tail surfaces) the ditional maneuver must be substan-
surfaces and supporting structures tiated at speeds from VA to VD/MD.
must be designed for combined vertical When computing the tail loads—
and horizontal surface loads resulting (1) The airplane must be yawed to the
from each prescribed flight condition largest attainable steady state sideslip
taken separately. angle, with the rudder at maximum de-
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973, as flection caused by any one of the fol-
amended by Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, lowing:
1991] (i) Control surface stops;
(ii) Maximum available booster ef-
VERTICAL SURFACES
fort;
§ 23.441 Maneuvering loads. (iii) Maximum pilot rudder force as
(a) At speeds up to VA, the vertical shown below:
surfaces must be designed to withstand
210
(2) The rudder must be suddenly dis- (c) The yaw angles specified in para-
placed from the maximum deflection to graph (a)(3) of this section may be re-
the neutral position. duced if the yaw angle chosen for a par-
ticular speed cannot be exceeded in—
211
§ 23.443 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) Steady slip conditions; g=Acceleration due to gravity (ft./

(2) Uncoordinated rolls from steep sec.2); and
banks; or V=Equivalent airspeed (knots).
(3) Sudden failure of the critical en-
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, 1969, as
gine with delayed corrective action.
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1830, Jan. 15,
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as 1987; 52 FR 7262, Mar. 9, 1987; Amdt. 23–24, 52
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR
1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19, 1973; 353, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb.
Amdt. 23–28, 47 FR 13315, Mar. 29, 1982; Amdt. 9, 1996]
23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23–48, 61
FR 5145, Feb. 9, 1996] § 23.445 Outboard fins or winglets.
(a) If outboard fins or winglets are in-
§ 23.443 Gust loads.
cluded on the horizontal surfaces or
(a) Vertical surfaces must be de- wings, the horizontal surfaces or wings
signed to withstand, in unaccelerated must be designed for their maximum
flight at speed VC, lateral gusts of the load in combination with loads induced
values prescribed for VC in § 23.333(c). by the fins or winglets and moments or
(b) In addition, for commuter cat- forces exerted on the horizontal sur-
egory airplanes, the airplane is as- faces or wings by the fins or winglets.
sumed to encounter derived gusts nor- (b) If outboard fins or winglets ex-
mal to the plane of symmetry while in tend above and below the horizontal
unaccelerated flight at VB, VC, VD, and surface, the critical vertical surface
VF. The derived gusts and airplane loading (the load per unit area as de-
speeds corresponding to these condi- termined under §§ 23.441 and 23.443)
tions, as determined by §§ 23.341 and must be applied to—
23.345, must be investigated. The shape (1) The part of the vertical surfaces
of the gust must be as specified in above the horizontal surface with 80
§ 23.333(c)(2)(i). percent of that loading applied to the
(c) In the absence of a more rational part below the horizontal surface; and
analysis, the gust load must be com- (2) The part of the vertical surfaces
puted as follows: below the horizontal surface with 80
percent of that loading applied to the
K gt U de V a vt S vt part above the horizontal surface.
L vt =
(c) The end plate effects of outboard
498 fins or winglets must be taken into ac-
Where— count in applying the yawing condi-
Lvt=Vertical surface loads (lbs.); tions of §§ 23.441 and 23.443 to the
vertical surfaces in paragraph (b) of
0.88 µ gt this section.
k gt = = gust alleviation factor;
5.3 + µ gt (d) When rational methods are used
for computing loads, the maneuvering
loads of § 23.441 on the vertical surfaces
2
2W K and the one-g horizontal surface load,
µ gt = = lateral massratio; including induced loads on the hori-
ρ c t g a vt S vt l vt zontal surface and moments or forces
Ude=Derived gust velocity (f.p.s.); exerted on the horizontal surfaces by
ρ=Air density (slugs/cu.ft.); the vertical surfaces, must be applied
W=the applicable weight of the air- simultaneously for the structural load-
plane in the particular load case ing condition.
(lbs.); [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
Svt=Area of vertical surface (ft.2); amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19,
c̆≤t=Mean geometric chord of vertical 1973; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991]
surface (ft.);
avt=Lift curve slope of vertical surface AILERONS AND SPECIAL DEVICES
(per radian);
K=Radius of gyration in yaw (ft.); § 23.455 Ailerons.
lvt=Distance from airplane c.g. to lift (a) The ailerons must be designed for
center of vertical surface (ft.); the loads to which they are subjected—
212
(1) In the neutral position during is the difference between the design
symmetrical flight conditions; and maximum weight and the design land-
(2) By the following deflections (ex- ing weight; or
cept as limited by pilot effort), during (2) The design maximum weight less
unsymmetrical flight conditions: the weight of 25 percent of the total
(i) Sudden maximum displacement of fuel capacity.
the aileron control at VA. Suitable al- (c) The design landing weight of a
lowance may be made for control sys- multiengine airplane may be less than
tem deflections. that allowed under paragraph (b) of
(ii) Sufficient deflection at VC, where this section if—
VC is more than VA, to produce a rate (1) The airplane meets the one-en-
of roll not less than obtained in para- gine-inoperative climb requirements of
graph (a)(2)(i) of this section. § 23.67(b)(1) or (c); and
(iii) Sufficient deflection at VD to (2) Compliance is shown with the fuel
produce a rate of roll not less than one- jettisoning system requirements of
third of that obtained in paragraph § 23.1001.
(a)(2)(i) of this section. (d) The selected limit vertical inertia
(b) [Reserved] load factor at the center of gravity of
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as the airplane for the ground load condi-
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, tions prescribed in this subpart may
1969; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991] not be less than that which would be
obtained when landing with a descent
§ 23.459 Special devices. velocity (V), in feet per second, equal
The loading for special devices using to 4.4 (W/S)1⁄4, except that this velocity
aerodynamic surfaces (such as slots need not be more than 10 feet per sec-
and spoilers) must be determined from ond and may not be less than seven
test data. feet per second.
(e) Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds
GROUND LOADS of the weight of the airplane may be
assumed to exist throughout the land-
§ 23.471 General. ing impact and to act through the cen-
The limit ground loads specified in ter of gravity. The ground reaction
this subpart are considered to be exter- load factor may be equal to the inertia
nal loads and inertia forces that act load factor minus the ratio of the
upon an airplane structure. In each above assumed wing lift to the airplane
specified ground load condition, the ex- weight.
ternal reactions must be placed in (f) If energy absorption tests are
equilibrium with the linear and angu- made to determine the limit load fac-
lar inertia forces in a rational or con- tor corresponding to the required limit
servative manner. descent velocities, these tests must be
made under § 23.723(a).
§ 23.473 Ground load conditions and (g) No inertia load factor used for de-
assumptions. sign purposes may be less than 2.67, nor
(a) The ground load requirements of may the limit ground reaction load fac-
this subpart must be complied with at tor be less than 2.0 at design maximum
the design maximum weight except weight, unless these lower values will
that §§ 23.479, 23.481, and 23.483 may be not be exceeded in taxiing at speeds up
complied with at a design landing to takeoff speed over terrain as rough
weight (the highest weight for landing as that expected in service.
conditions at the maximum descent ve- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
locity) allowed under paragraphs (b) amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13,
and (c) of this section. 1969; Amdt. 23–28, 47 FR 13315, Mar. 29, 1982;
(b) The design landing weight may be Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt.
as low as— 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) 95 percent of the maximum weight
if the minimum fuel capacity is enough § 23.477 Landing gear arrangement.
for at least one-half hour of operation Sections 23.479 through 23.483, or the
at maximum continuous power plus a conditions in appendix C, apply to air-
capacity equal to a fuel weight which planes with conventional arrangements
213
§ 23.479 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
of main and nose gear, or main and tail sponse, an airplane lift equal to the
gear. weight of the airplane may be assumed.
§ 23.479 Level landing conditions. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20,
(a) For a level landing, the airplane 1976; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993]
is assumed to be in the following atti-
tudes: § 23.481 Tail down landing conditions.
(1) For airplanes with tail wheels, a (a) For a tail down landing, the air-
normal level flight attitude. plane is assumed to be in the following
(2) For airplanes with nose wheels, attitudes:
attitudes in which— (1) For airplanes with tail wheels, an
(i) The nose and main wheels contact attitude in which the main and tail
the ground simultaneously; and wheels contact the ground simulta-
(ii) The main wheels contact the neously.
ground and the nose wheel is just clear (2) For airplanes with nose wheels, a
of the ground. stalling attitude, or the maximum
The attitude used in paragraph (a)(2)(i) angle allowing ground clearance by
of this section may be used in the anal- each part of the airplane, whichever is
ysis required under paragraph (a)(2)(ii) less.
of this section. (b) For airplanes with either tail or
(b) When investigating landing condi- nose wheels, ground reactions are as-
tions, the drag components simulating sumed to be vertical, with the wheels
the forces required to accelerate the up to speed before the maximum
tires and wheels up to the landing vertical load is attained.
speed (spin-up) must be properly com-
bined with the corresponding instanta- § 23.483 One-wheel landing conditions.
neous vertical ground reactions, and For the one-wheel landing condition,
the forward-acting horizontal loads re- the airplane is assumed to be in the
sulting from rapid reduction of the level attitude and to contact the
spin-up drag loads (spring-back) must ground on one side of the main landing
be combined with vertical ground reac- gear. In this attitude, the ground reac-
tions at the instant of the peak for- tions must be the same as those ob-
ward load, assuming wing lift and a tained on that side under § 23.479.
tire-sliding coefficient of friction of 0.8.
However, the drag loads may not be § 23.485 Side load conditions.
less than 25 percent of the maximum
vertical ground reactions (neglecting (a) For the side load condition, the
wing lift). airplane is assumed to be in a level at-
titude with only the main wheels con-
(c) In the absence of specific tests or
tacting the ground and with the shock
a more rational analysis for deter-
mining the wheel spin-up and spring- absorbers and tires in their static posi-
back loads for landing conditions, the tions.
method set forth in appendix D of this (b) The limit vertical load factor
part must be used. If appendix D of this must be 1.33, with the vertical ground
part is used, the drag components used reaction divided equally between the
for design must not be less than those main wheels.
given by appendix C of this part. (c) The limit side inertia factor must
(d) For airplanes with tip tanks or be 0.83, with the side ground reaction
large overhung masses (such as turbo- divided between the main wheels so
propeller or jet engines) supported by that—
the wing, the tip tanks and the struc- (1) 0.5 (W) is acting inboard on one
ture supporting the tanks or overhung side; and
masses must be designed for the effects (2) 0.33 (W) is acting outboard on the
of dynamic responses under the level other side.
landing conditions of either paragraph (d) The side loads prescribed in para-
(a)(1) or (a)(2)(ii) of this section. In graph (c) of this section are assumed to
evaluating the effects of dynamic re- be applied at the ground contact point
214
and the drag loads may be assumed to (1) Suitable design loads must be es-
be zero. tablished for the tail wheel, bumper, or
energy absorption device; and
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, (2) The supporting structure of the
1993] tail wheel, bumper, or energy absorp-
tion device must be designed to with-
§ 23.493 Braked roll conditions. stand the loads established in para-
graph (c)(1) of this section.
Under braked roll conditions, with
the shock absorbers and tires in their [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
static positions, the following apply: amended by Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb. 9,
(a) The limit vertical load factor 1996]
must be 1.33.
§ 23.499 Supplementary conditions for
(b) The attitudes and ground con- nose wheels.
tacts must be those described in § 23.479
for level landings. In determining the ground loads on
(c) A drag reaction equal to the nose wheels and affected supporting
vertical reaction at the wheel multi- structures, and assuming that the
plied by a coefficient of friction of 0.8 shock absorbers and tires are in their
must be applied at the ground contact static positions, the following condi-
point of each wheel with brakes, except tions must be met:
that the drag reaction need not exceed (a) For aft loads, the limit force com-
the maximum value based on limiting ponents at the axle must be—
brake torque. (1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
the static load on the wheel; and
§ 23.497 Supplementary conditions for (2) A drag component of 0.8 times the
tail wheels. vertical load.
In determining the ground loads on (b) For forward loads, the limit force
the tail wheel and affected supporting components at the axle must be—
structures, the following apply: (1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
(a) For the obstruction load, the the static load on the wheel; and
limit ground reaction obtained in the (2) A forward component of 0.4 times
tail down landing condition is assumed the vertical load.
to act up and aft through the axle at 45 (c) For side loads, the limit force
degrees. The shock absorber and tire components at ground contact must
may be assumed to be in their static be—
positions. (1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
(b) For the side load, a limit vertical the static load on the wheel; and
ground reaction equal to the static (2) A side component of 0.7 times the
load on the tail wheel, in combination vertical load.
with a side component of equal mag- (d) For airplanes with a steerable
nitude, is assumed. In addition— nose wheel that is controlled by hy-
(1) If a swivel is used, the tail wheel draulic or other power, at design take-
is assumed to be swiveled 90 degrees to off weight with the nose wheel in any
the airplane longitudinal axis with the steerable position, the application of
resultant ground load passing through 1.33 times the full steering torque com-
the axle; bined with a vertical reaction equal to
(2) If a lock, steering device, or shim- 1.33 times the maximum static reaction
my damper is used, the tail wheel is on the nose gear must be assumed.
also assumed to be in the trailing posi- However, if a torque limiting device is
tion with the side load acting at the installed, the steering torque can be re-
ground contact point; and duced to the maximum value allowed
(3) The shock absorber and tire are by that device.
assumed to be in their static positions. (e) For airplanes with a steerable
(c) If a tail wheel, bumper, or an en- nose wheel that has a direct mechan-
ergy absorption device is provided to ical connection to the rudder pedals,
show compliance with § 23.925(b), the the mechanism must be designed to
following apply: withstand the steering torque for the
215
§ 23.505 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
maximum pilot forces specified in and their immediate attaching struc-

§ 23.397(b). ture.
(a) The towing loads specified in
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
paragraph (d) of this section must be
1996] considered separately. These loads
must be applied at the towing fittings
§ 23.505 Supplementary conditions for and must act parallel to the ground. In
skiplanes. addition:
In determining ground loads for ski- (1) A vertical load factor equal to 1.0
planes, and assuming that the airplane must be considered acting at the center
is resting on the ground with one main of gravity; and
ski frozen at rest and the other skis (2) The shock struts and tires must
free to slide, a limit side force equal to be in there static positions.
0.036 times the design maximum weight (b) For towing points not on the
must be applied near the tail assembly, landing gear but near the plane of sym-
with a factor of safety of 1. metry of the airplane, the drag and
side tow load components specified for
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, 1969] the auxiliary gear apply. For towing
points located outboard of the main
§ 23.507 Jacking loads. gear, the drag and side tow load compo-
(a) The airplane must be designed for nents specified for the main gear apply.
the loads developed when the aircraft Where the specified angle of swivel
is supported on jacks at the design cannot be reached, the maximum ob-
maximum weight assuming the fol- tainable angle must be used.
lowing load factors for landing gear (c) The towing loads specified in
jacking points at a three-point attitude paragraph (d) of this section must be
and for primary flight structure jack- reacted as follows:
ing points in the level attitude: (1) The side component of the towing
(1) Vertical-load factor of 1.35 times load at the main gear must be reacted
the static reactions. by a side force at the static ground line
(2) Fore, aft, and lateral load factors of the wheel to which the load is ap-
of 0.4 times the vertical static reac- plied.
tions. (2) The towing loads at the auxiliary
(b) The horizontal loads at the jack gear and the drag components of the
points must be reacted by inertia towing loads at the main gear must be
forces so as to result in no change in reacted as follows:
the direction of the resultant loads at (i) A reaction with a maximum value
the jack points. equal to the vertical reaction must be
(c) The horizontal loads must be con- applied at the axle of the wheel to
sidered in all combinations with the which the load is applied. Enough air-
vertical load. plane inertia to achieve equilibrium
must be applied.
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19, 1973] (ii) The loads must be reacted by air-
plane inertia.
§ 23.509 Towing loads. (d) The prescribed towing loads are as
The towing loads of this section must follows, where W is the design max-
be applied to the design of tow fittings imum weight:
Load
Tow point Position
Magnitude No. Direction
Main gear ............................... .......................................................... 0.225W 1 Forward, parallel to drag axis.

2 Forward, at 30° to drag axis.
3 Aft, parallel to drag axis.
4 Aft, at 30° to drag axis.
Auxiliary gear ......................... Swiveled forward ............................. 0.3W 5 Forward.

6 Aft.
Swiveled aft ..................................... 0.3W 7 Forward.
8 Aft.
216
Load
Tow point Position
Magnitude No. Direction
Swiveled 45° from forward .............. 0.15W 9 Forward, in plane of wheel.

10 Aft, in plane of wheel.
Swiveled 45° from aft ...................... 0.15W 11 Forward, in plane of wheel.
12 Aft, in plane of wheel.
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19, 1973] (b) Unless the applicant makes a ra-
tional analysis of the water loads,
§ 23.511 Ground load; unsymmetrical §§ 23.523 through 23.537 apply.
loads on multiple-wheel units.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(a) Pivoting loads. The airplane is as-
sumed to pivot about on side of the 1993; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996]
main gear with—
(1) The brakes on the pivoting unit § 23.523 Design weights and center of
locked; and gravity positions.
(2) Loads corresponding to a limit (a) Design weights. The water load re-
vertical load factor of 1, and coefficient quirements must be met at each oper-
of friction of 0.8 applied to the main ating weight up to the design landing
gear and its supporting structure. weight except that, for the takeoff con-
(b) Unequal tire loads. The loads es- dition prescribed in § 23.531, the design
tablished under §§ 23.471 through 23.483 water takeoff weight (the maximum
must be applied in turn, in a 60/40 per- weight for water taxi and takeoff run)
cent distribution, to the dual wheels must be used.
and tires in each dual wheel landing (b) Center of gravity positions. The
gear unit. critical centers of gravity within the
(c) Deflated tire loads. For the deflated limits for which certification is re-
tire condition— quested must be considered to reach
(1) 60 percent of the loads established maximum design loads for each part of
under §§ 23.471 through 23.483 must be the seaplane structure.
applied in turn to each wheel in a land-
ing gear unit; and [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42160, Aug. 6, 1993]
(2) 60 percent of the limit drag and § 23.525 Application of loads.
side loads, and 100 percent of the limit
vertical load established under §§ 23.485 (a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
and 23.493 or lesser vertical load ob- seaplane as a whole is assumed to be
tained under paragraph (c)(1) of this subjected to the loads corresponding to
section, must be applied in turn to the load factors specified in § 23.527.
each wheel in the dual wheel landing (b) In applying the loads resulting
gear unit. from the load factors prescribed in
§ 23.527, the loads may be distributed
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, 1969] over the hull or main float bottom (in
order to avoid excessive local shear
WATER LOADS
loads and bending moments at the lo-
§ 23.521 Water load conditions. cation of water load application) using
pressures not less than those pre-
(a) The structure of seaplanes and scribed in § 23.533(c).
amphibians must be designed for water
(c) For twin float seaplanes, each
loads developed during takeoff and
float must be treated as an equivalent
landing with the seaplane in any atti-
hull on a fictitious seaplane with a
tude likely to occur in normal oper-
weight equal to one-half the weight of
ation at appropriate forward and sink-
the twin float seaplane.
ing velocities under the most severe
(d) Except in the takeoff condition of
sea conditions likely to be encoun-
§ 23.531, the aerodynamic lift on the
tered.
217
§ 23.527 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
seaplane during the impact is assumed factor K1 may be reduced at the bow
to be 2⁄3 of the weight of the seaplane. and stern to 0.8 of the value shown in
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42161, Aug. 6, 1993; 58
figure 2 of appendix I of this part. This
FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993] reduction applies only to the design of
the carrythrough and seaplane struc-
§ 23.527 Hull and main float load fac- ture.
tors. [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42161, Aug. 6, 1993; 58
(a) Water reaction load factors nw FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993]
must be computed in the following
manner: § 23.529 Hull and main float landing
(1) For the step landing case conditions.
(a) Symmetrical step, bow, and stern
C1VSO 2 landing. For symmetrical step, bow,
nw = and stern landings, the limit water re-
 Tan 23 β  W 13 action load factors are those computed
  under § 23.527. In addition—
(2) For the bow and stern landing (1) For symmetrical step landings,
cases the resultant water load must be ap-
plied at the keel, through the center of
gravity, and must be directed per-
C1VSO 2 K1
nw = × pendicularly to the keel line;
 3 
(1 + rx 2 )
2 1 2
(2) For symmetrical bow landings,
 Tan β  W
3 3
the resultant water load must be ap-
  plied at the keel, one-fifth of the longi-
(b) The following values are used: tudinal distance from the bow to the
(1) nw=water reaction load factor step, and must be directed perpendicu-
(that is, the water reaction divided by larly to the keel line; and
seaplane weight). (3) For symmetrical stern landings,
(2) C1=empirical seaplane operations the resultant water load must be ap-
factor equal to 0.012 (except that this plied at the keel, at a point 85 percent
factor may not be less than that nec- of the longitudinal distance from the
essary to obtain the minimum value of step to the stern post, and must be di-
step load factor of 2.33). rected perpendicularly to the keel line.
(3) VSO=seaplane stalling speed in (b) Unsymmetrical landing for hull and
knots with flaps extended in the appro- single float seaplanes. Unsymmetrical
priate landing position and with no step, bow, and stern landing conditions
slipstream effect. must be investigated. In addition—
(4) β=Angle of dead rise at the longi- (1) The loading for each condition
tudinal station at which the load fac- consists of an upward component and a
tor is being determined in accordance side component equal, respectively, to
with figure 1 of appendix I of this part. 0.75 and 0.25 tan β times the resultant
(5) W=seaplane landing weight in load in the corresponding symmetrical
pounds. landing condition; and
(6) K1=empirical hull station weigh- (2) The point of application and di-
ing factor, in accordance with figure 2 rection of the upward component of the
of appendix I of this part. load is the same as that in the sym-
(7) rx=ratio of distance, measured metrical condition, and the point of ap-
parallel to hull reference axis, from the plication of the side component is at
center of gravity of the seaplane to the the same longitudinal station as the
hull longitudinal station at which the upward component but is directed in-
load factor is being computed to the ra- ward perpendicularly to the plane of
dius of gyration in pitch of the sea- symmetry at a point midway between
plane, the hull reference axis being a the keel and chine lines.
straight line, in the plane of sym- (c) Unsymmetrical landing; twin float
metry, tangential to the keel at the seaplanes. The unsymmetrical loading
main step. consists of an upward load at the step
(c) For a twin float seaplane, because of each float of 0.75 and a side load of
of the effect of flexibility of the attach- 0.25 tan β at one float times the step
ment of the floats to the seaplane, the landing load reached under § 23.527. The
218
side load is directed inboard, per-

pendicularly to the plane of symmetry C 2 K 2 VS12
midway between the keel and chine PK =
lines of the float, at the same longitu-
dinal station as the upward load.
Tan β k
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42161, Aug. 6, 1993] where—
Pk=pressure (p.s.i.) at the keel;
§ 23.531 Hull and main float takeoff C2=0.00213;
condition. K2=hull station weighing factor, in ac-
For the wing and its attachment to cordance with figure 2 of appendix I
the hull or main float— of this part;
(a) The aerodynamic wing lift is as- VS1=seaplane stalling speed (knots) at
the design water takeoff weight with
sumed to be zero; and
flaps extended in the appropriate
(b) A downward inertia load, cor-
takeoff position; and
responding to a load factor computed
βK=angle of dead rise at keel, in ac-
from the following formula, must be cordance with figure 1 of appendix I
applied: of this part.
(2) For a flared bottom, the pressure
C TO VS12
n= at the beginning of the flare is the
 Tan 23 β  W 13 same as that for an unflared bottom,
  and the pressure between the chine and
the beginning of the flare varies lin-
Where— early, in accordance with figure 3 of ap-
n=inertia load factor; pendix I of this part. The pressure dis-
CTO=empirical seaplane operations fac- tribution is the same as that prescribed
tor equal to 0.004; in paragraph (b)(1) of this section for
VS1=seaplane stalling speed (knots) at an unflared bottom except that the
the design takeoff weight with the pressure at the chine is computed as
flaps extended in the appropriate follows:
takeoff position;
β=angle of dead rise at the main step C 3 K 2 VS12
Pch =
(degrees); and
Tan β
W=design water takeoff weight in
pounds. where—
Pch=pressure (p.s.i.) at the chine;
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42161, Aug. 6, 1993] C3=0.0016;
§ 23.533 Hull and main float bottom K2=hull station weighing factor, in ac-
pressures. cordance with figure 2 of appendix I
of this part;
(a) General. The hull and main float VS1=seaplane stalling speed (knots) at
structure, including frames and bulk- the design water takeoff weight with
heads, stringers, and bottom plating, flaps extended in the appropriate
must be designed under this section. takeoff position; and
(b) Local pressures. For the design of β=angle of dead rise at appropriate sta-
the bottom plating and stringers and tion.
their attachments to the supporting The area over which these pressures
structure, the following pressure dis- are applied must simulate pressures oc-
tributions must be applied: curring during high localized impacts
(1) For an unflared bottom, the pres- on the hull or float, but need not ex-
sure at the chine is 0.75 times the pres- tend over an area that would induce
sure at the keel, and the pressures be- critical stresses in the frames or in the
tween the keel and chine vary linearly, overall structure.
in accordance with figure 3 of appendix (c) Distributed pressures. For the de-
I of this part. The pressure at the keel sign of the frames, keel, and chine
(p.s.i.) is computed as follows: structure, the following pressure dis-
tributions apply:
219
§ 23.535 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) Symmetrical pressures are com- the weight of the displaced water when
puted as follows: the float is completely submerged:
2
C 4 K 2 VSO 2 C 5 VSO 2 W 3
P= L=
Tan β 2
( )
2
Tan β S 1 + ry
3 2 3
where—
P=pressure (p.s.i.);
C4=0.078 C1 (with C1 computed under where—
§ 23.527); L=limit load (lbs.);
K2=hull station weighing factor, deter- C5=0.0053;
mined in accordance with figure 2 of VS0=seaplane stalling speed (knots)
appendix I of this part; with landing flaps extended in the ap-
VS0=seaplane stalling speed (knots) propriate position and with no slip-
with landing flaps extended in the ap- stream effect;
propriate position and with no slip- W=seaplane design landing weight in
stream effect; and pounds;
β=angle of dead rise at appropriate sta- βs=angle of dead rise at a station 3⁄4 of
tion. the distance from the bow to the
(2) The unsymmetrical pressure dis- step, but need not be less than 15 de-
tribution consists of the pressures pre- grees; and
scribed in paragraph (c)(1) of this sec- ry=ratio of the lateral distance between
tion on one side of the hull or main the center of gravity and the plane of
float centerline and one-half of that symmetry of the float to the radius
pressure on the other side of the hull or of gyration in roll.
main float centerline, in accordance (c) Bow loading. The resultant limit
with figure 3 of appendix I of this part. load must be applied in the plane of
(3) These pressures are uniform and symmetry of the float at a point one-
must be applied simultaneously over fourth of the distance from the bow to
the entire hull or main float bottom. the step and must be perpendicular to
The loads obtained must be carried the tangent to the keel line at that
into the sidewall structure of the hull point. The magnitude of the resultant
proper, but need not be transmitted in load is that specified in paragraph (b)
a fore and aft direction as shear and of this section.
bending loads. (d) Unsymmetrical step loading. The re-
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42161, Aug. 6, 1993; 58 sultant water load consists of a compo-
FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993] nent equal to 0.75 times the load speci-
fied in paragraph (a) of this section and
§ 23.535 Auxiliary float loads. a side component equal to 0.025 tan β
(a) General. Auxiliary floats and their times the load specified in paragraph
attachments and supporting structures (b) of this section. The side load must
must be designed for the conditions be applied perpendicularly to the plane
prescribed in this section. In the cases of symmetry of the float at a point
specified in paragraphs (b) through (e) midway between the keel and the
of this section, the prescribed water chine.
loads may be distributed over the float (e) Unsymmetrical bow loading. The re-
bottom to avoid excessive local loads, sultant water load consists of a compo-
using bottom pressures not less than nent equal to 0.75 times the load speci-
those prescribed in paragraph (g) of fied in paragraph (b) of this section and
this section. a side component equal to 0.25 tan β
(b) Step loading. The resultant water times the load specified in paragraph
load must be applied in the plane of (c) of this section. The side load must
symmetry of the float at a point three- be applied perpendicularly to the plane
fourths of the distance from the bow to of symmetry at a point midway be-
the step and must be perpendicular to tween the keel and the chine.
the keel. The resultant limit load is (f) Immersed float condition. The re-
computed as follows, except that the sultant load must be applied at the
value of L need not exceed three times centroid of the cross section of the
220
float at a point one-third of the dis- (1) Proper use is made of the seats,
tance from the bow to the step. The safety belts, and shoulder harnesses
limit load components are as follows: provided for in the design;
(2) The occupant experiences the
vertical = PgV static inertia loads corresponding to
the following ultimate load factors—
2
2 (i) Upward, 3.0g for normal, utility,
C X PV 3 (KVSO ) and commuter category airplanes, or
aft = 4.5g for acrobatic category airplanes;
2 (ii) Forward, 9.0g;
2 (iii) Sideward, 1.5g; and
3 2
C Y PV (KVSO ) (iv) Downward, 6.0g when certifi-
side = cation to the emergency exit provi-
2 sions of § 23.807(d)(4) is requested; and
where— (3) The items of mass within the
P=mass density of water (slugs/ft.3) cabin, that could injure an occupant,
V=volume of float (ft.3); experience the static inertia loads cor-
CX=coefficient of drag force, equal to responding to the following ultimate
0.133; load factors—
Cy=coefficient of side force, equal to (i) Upward, 3.0g;
0.106; (ii) Forward, 18.0g; and
K=0.8, except that lower values may be (iii) Sideward, 4.5g.
used if it is shown that the floats are (c) Each airplane with retractable
incapable of submerging at a speed of landing gear must be designed to pro-
0.8 Vso in normal operations; tect each occupant in a landing—
Vso=seaplane stalling speed (knots) (1) With the wheels retracted;
with landing flaps extended in the ap- (2) With moderate descent velocity;
propriate position and with no slip- and
stream effect; and (3) Assuming, in the absence of a
g=acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2). more rational analysis—
(g) Float bottom pressures. The float (i) A downward ultimate inertia force
bottom pressures must be established of 3 g; and
under § 23.533, except that the value of (ii) A coefficient of friction of 0.5 at
K2 in the formulae may be taken as 1.0. the ground.
The angle of dead rise to be used in de- (d) If it is not established that a
termining the float bottom pressures is turnover is unlikely during an emer-
set forth in paragraph (b) of this sec- gency landing, the structure must be
tion. designed to protect the occupants in a
complete turnover as follows:
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42162, Aug. 6, 1993; 58 (1) The likelihood of a turnover may
FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993]
be shown by an analysis assuming the
§ 23.537 Seawing loads. following conditions—
(i) The most adverse combination of
Seawing design loads must be based weight and center of gravity position;
on applicable test data. (ii) Longitudinal load factor of 9.0g;
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42163, Aug. 6, 1993] (iii) Vertical load factor of 1.0g; and
(iv) For airplanes with tricycle land-
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS ing gear, the nose wheel strut failed
with the nose contacting the ground.
§ 23.561 General. (i) Maximum weight;
(a) The airplane, although it may be (ii) Most forward center of gravity
damaged in emergency landing condi- position;
tions, must be designed as prescribed in (iii) Longitudinal load factor of 9.0g;
this section to protect each occupant (iv) Vertical load factor of 1.0g; and
under those conditions. (v) For airplanes with tricycle land-
(b) The structure must be designed to ing gear, the nose wheel strut failed
give each occupant every reasonable with the nose contacting the ground.
chance of escaping serious injury (2) For determining the loads to be
when— applied to the inverted airplane after a
221
§ 23.562 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
turnover, an upward ultimate inertia than 0.05 seconds after impact and
load factor of 3.0g and a coefficient of must reach a minimum of 19g. For all
friction with the ground of 0.5 must be other seat/restraint systems, peak de-
used. celeration must occur in not more than
(e) Except as provided in § 23.787(c), 0.06 seconds after impact and must
the supporting structure must be de- reach a minimum of 15g.
signed to restrain, under loads up to (2) For the second test, the change in
those specified in paragraph (b)(3) of velocity may not be less than 42 feet
this section, each item of mass that per second. The seat/restraint system
could injure an occupant if it came must be oriented in its nominal posi-
loose in a minor crash landing. tion with respect to the airplane and
with the vertical plane of the airplane
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, yawed 10 degrees, with no pitch, rel-
1969; Amdt. 23–24, 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; ative to the impact vector in a direc-
Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30812, Aug. 15, 1988; Amdt. tion that results in the greatest load
23–46, 59 FR 25772, May 17, 1994; Amdt. 23–48, on the shoulder harness. For seat/re-
61 FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996] straint systems to be installed in the
first row of the airplane, peak decelera-
§ 23.562 Emergency landing dynamic tion must occur in not more than 0.05
conditions. seconds after impact and must reach a
(a) Each seat/restraint system for use minimum of 26g. For all other seat/re-
in a normal, utility, or acrobatic cat- straint systems, peak deceleration
egory airplane must be designed to pro- must occur in not more than 0.06 sec-
tect each occupant during an emer- onds after impact and must reach a
gency landing when— minimum of 21g.
(1) Proper use is made of seats, safety (3) To account for floor warpage, the
belts, and shoulder harnesses provided floor rails or attachment devices used
for in the design; and to attach the seat/restraint system to
(2) The occupant is exposed to the the airframe structure must be pre-
loads resulting from the conditions loaded to misalign with respect to each
prescribed in this section. other by at least 10 degrees vertically
(b) Except for those seat/restraint (i.e., pitch out of parallel) and one of
systems that are required to meet the rails or attachment devices must
paragraph (d) of this section, each seat/ be preloaded to misalign by 10 degrees
restraint system for crew or passenger in roll prior to conducting the test de-
occupancy in a normal, utility, or acro- fined by paragraph (b)(2) of this sec-
batic category airplane, must success- tion.
fully complete dynamic tests or be (c) Compliance with the following re-
demonstrated by rational analysis sup- quirements must be shown during the
ported by dynamic tests, in accordance dynamic tests conducted in accordance
with each of the following conditions. with paragraph (b) of this section:
These tests must be conducted with an (1) The seat/restraint system must
occupant simulated by an restrain the ATD although seat/re-
anthropomorphic test dummy (ATD) straint system components may experi-
defined by 49 CFR Part 572, Subpart B, ence deformation, elongation, displace-
or an FAA-approved equivalent, with a ment, or crushing intended as part of
nominal weight of 170 pounds and seat- the design.
ed in the normal upright position. (2) The attachment between the seat/
(1) For the first test, the change in restraint system and the test fixture
velocity may not be less than 31 feet must remain intact, although the seat
per second. The seat/restraint system structure may have deformed.
must be oriented in its nominal posi- (3) Each shoulder harness strap must
tion with respect to the airplane and remain on the ATD’s shoulder during
with the horizontal plane of the air- the impact.
plane pitched up 60 degrees, with no (4) The safety belt must remain on
yaw, relative to the impact vector. For the ATD’s pelvis during the impact.
seat/restraint systems to be installed (5) The results of the dynamic tests
in the first row of the airplane, peak must show that the occupant is pro-
deceleration must occur in not more tected from serious head injury.
222
(i) When contact with adjacent seats, (i) The change in velocity may not be
structure, or other items in the cabin less than 31 feet per second.
can occur, protection must be provided (ii)(A) The peak deceleration (gp) of
so that the head impact does not ex- 19g and 15g must be increased and mul-
ceed a head injury criteria (HIC) of tiplied by the square of the ratio of the
1,000. increased stall speed to 61 knots:
(ii) The value of HIC is defined as— gp=19.0 (VS0/61)2 or gp=15.0 (VS0/61)2
  t2 
2.5  (B) The peak deceleration need not
 
HIC = ( t 2 − t 1 ) 
1 exceed the value reached at a VS0 of 79
∫ a(t)dt  
  (t − t )  
knots.
 2 1 t1  (iii) The peak deceleration must
  Max occur in not more than time (tr), which
Where: t1 is the initial integration time, ex- must be computed as follows:
pressed in seconds, t2 is the final integra-
tion time, expressed in seconds, (t2¥ t1) is 31 .96
tr = =
( )
the time duration of the major head im-
pact, expressed in seconds, and a(t) is the 32.2 g p gp
resultant deceleration at the center of
gravity of the head form expressed as a where—
multiple of g (units of gravity). gp=The peak deceleration calculated in ac-
cordance with paragraph (d)(2)(ii) of this
(iii) Compliance with the HIC limit section
must be demonstrated by measuring tr=The rise time (in seconds) to the peak de-
the head impact during dynamic test- celeration.
ing as prescribed in paragraphs (b)(1) (e) An alternate approach that
and (b)(2) of this section or by a sepa- achieves an equivalent, or greater,
rate showing of compliance with the level of occupant protection to that re-
head injury criteria using test or anal- quired by this section may be used if
ysis procedures. substantiated on a rational basis.
(6) Loads in individual shoulder har-
[Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30812, Aug. 15, 1988, as
ness straps may not exceed 1,750
amended by Amdt. 23–44, 58 FR 38639, July 19,
pounds. If dual straps are used for re- 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
taining the upper torso, the total strap
loads may not exceed 2,000 pounds. FATIGUE EVALUATION
(7) The compression load measured
between the pelvis and the lumbar § 23.571 Metallic pressurized cabin
spine of the ATD may not exceed 1,500 structures.
pounds. For normal, utility, and acrobatic
(d) For all single-engine airplanes category airplanes, the strength, detail
with a VSO of more than 61 knots at design, and fabrication of the metallic
maximum weight, and those multien- structure of the pressure cabin must be
gine airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less evaluated under one of the following:
maximum weight with a VSO of more (a) A fatigue strength investigation
than 61 knots at maximum weight that in which the structure is shown by
do not comply with § 23.67(a)(1); tests, or by analysis supported by test
(1) The ultimate load factors of evidence, to be able to withstand the
§ 23.561(b) must be increased by multi- repeated loads of variable magnitude
plying the load factors by the square of expected in service; or
the ratio of the increased stall speed to (b) A fail safe strength investigation,
61 knots. The increased ultimate load in which it is shown by analysis, tests,
factors need not exceed the values or both that catastrophic failure of the
reached at a VS0 of 79 knots. The up- structure is not probable after fatigue
ward ultimate load factor for acrobatic failure, or obvious partial failure, of a
category airplanes need not exceed principal structural element, and that
5.0g. the remaining structures are able to
(2) The seat/restraint system test re- withstand a static ultimate load factor
quired by paragraph (b)(1) of this sec- of 75 percent of the limit load factor at
tion must be conducted in accordance VC, considering the combined effects of
with the following criteria: normal operating pressures, expected
223
§ 23.572 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
external aerodynamic pressures, and (3) Consider any significant effects

flight loads. These loads must be mul- from propeller slipstream loading, and
tiplied by a factor of 1.15 unless the dy- buffet from vortex impingements.
namic effects of failure under static [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, 1969, as
load are otherwise considered. amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19,
(c) The damage tolerance evaluation 1973; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1830, Jan. 15, 1987;
of § 23.573(b). Amdt. 23–38, 54 FR 39511, Sept. 26, 1989; Amdt.
23–45, 58 FR 42163, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–48, 61
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996]
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19,
1973; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42163, Aug. 6, 1993; § 23.573 Damage tolerance and fatigue
Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996] evaluation of structure.
(a) Composite airframe structure. Com-
§ 23.572 Metallic wing, empennage, posite airframe structure must be eval-
and associated structures.
uated under this paragraph instead of
(a) For normal, utility, and acrobatic §§ 23.571 and 23.572. The applicant must
category airplanes, the strength, detail evaluate the composite airframe struc-
design, and fabrication of those parts ture, the failure of which would result
of the airframe structure whose failure in catastrophic loss of the airplane, in
would be catastrophic must be evalu- each wing (including canards, tandem
ated under one of the following unless wings, and winglets), empennage, their
it is shown that the structure, oper- carrythrough and attaching structure,
ating stress level, materials and ex- moveable control surfaces and their at-
pected uses are comparable, from a fa- taching structure fuselage, and pres-
tigue standpoint, to a similar design sure cabin using the damage-tolerance
that has had extensive satisfactory criteria prescribed in paragraphs (a)(1)
service experience: through (a)(4) of this section unless
shown to be impractical. If the appli-
(1) A fatigue strength investigation
cant establishes that damage-tolerance
in which the structure is shown by
criteria is impractical for a particular
tests, or by analysis supported by test structure, the structure must be evalu-
evidence, to be able to withstand the ated in accordance with paragraphs
repeated loads of variable magnitude (a)(1) and (a)(6) of this section. Where
expected in service; or bonded joints are used, the structure
(2) A fail-safe strength investigation must also be evaluated in accordance
in which it is shown by analysis, tests, with paragraph (a)(5) of this section.
or both, that catastrophic failure of The effects of material variability and
the structure is not probable after fa- environmental conditions on the
tigue failure, or obvious partial failure, strength and durability properties of
of a principal structural element, and the composite materials must be ac-
that the remaining structure is able to counted for in the evaluations required
withstand a static ultimate load factor by this section.
of 75 percent of the critical limit load (1) It must be demonstrated by tests,
factor at Vc. These loads must be mul- or by analysis supported by tests, that
tiplied by a factor of 1.15 unless the dy- the structure is capable of carrying ul-
namic effects of failure under static timate load with damage up to the
load are otherwise considered. threshold of detectability considering
(3) The damage tolerance evaluation the inspection procedures employed.
of § 23.573(b). (2) The growth rate or no-growth of
damage that may occur from fatigue,
(b) Each evaluation required by this
corrosion, manufacturing flaws or im-
section must— pact damage, under repeated loads ex-
(1) Include typical loading spectra pected in service, must be established
(e.g. taxi, ground-air-ground cycles, by tests or analysis supported by tests.
maneuver, gust); (3) The structure must be shown by
(2) Account for any significant effects residual strength tests, or analysis sup-
due to the mutual influence of aero- ported by residual strength tests, to be
dynamic surfaces; and able to withstand critical limit flight
loads, considered as ultimate loads,
224
with the extent of detectable damage (b) Metallic airframe structure. If the
consistent with the results of the dam- applicant elects to use § 23.571(a)(3) or
age tolerance evaluations. For pressur- § 23.572(a)(3), then the damage tolerance
ized cabins, the following loads must be evaluation must include a determina-
withstood: tion of the probable locations and
(i) Critical limit flight loads with the modes of damage due to fatigue, corro-
combined effects of normal operating sion, or accidental damage. The deter-
pressure and expected external aero- mination must be by analysis sup-
dynamic pressures. ported by test evidence and, if avail-
(ii) The expected external aero- able, service experience. Damage at
dynamic pressures in 1g flight com- multiple sites due to fatigue must be
bined with a cabin differential pressure included where the design is such that
equal to 1.1 times the normal operating this type of damage can be expected to
differential pressure without any other occur. The evaluation must incor-
load. porate repeated load and static anal-
(4) The damage growth, between ini- yses supported by test evidence. The
tial detectability and the value se- extent of damage for residual strength
lected for residual strength demonstra- evaluation at any time within the
tions, factored to obtain inspection in- operational life of the airplane must be
tervals, must allow development of an consistent with the initial detect-
inspection program suitable for appli- ability and subsequent growth under
cation by operation and maintenance repeated loads. The residual strength
personnel. evaluation must show that the remain-
(5) For any bonded joint, the failure ing structure is able to withstand crit-
of which would result in catastrophic ical limit flight loads, considered as ul-
loss of the airplane, the limit load ca- timate, with the extent of detectable
pacity must be substantiated by one of damage consistent with the results of
the following methods— the damage tolerance evaluations. For
(i) The maximum disbonds of each pressurized cabins, the following load
bonded joint consistent with the capa- must be withstood:
bility to withstand the loads in para- (1) The normal operating differential
graph (a)(3) of this section must be de- pressure combined with the expected
termined by analysis, tests, or both. external aerodynamic pressures applied
Disbonds of each bonded joint greater simultaneously with the flight loading
than this must be prevented by design conditions specified in this part, and
features; or (2) The expected external aero-
(ii) Proof testing must be conducted dynamic pressures in 1g flight com-
on each production article that will bined with a cabin differential pressure
apply the critical limit design load to equal to 1.1 times the normal operating
each critical bonded joint; or differential pressure without any other
(iii) Repeatable and reliable non-de- load.
structive inspection techniques must [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42163, Aug. 6, 1993; 58
be established that ensure the strength FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993, as amended by Amdt.
of each joint. 23–48, 61 FR 5147, Feb. 9, 1996]
(6) Structural components for which
the damage tolerance method is shown § 23.574 Metallic damage tolerance and
to be impractical must be shown by fatigue evaluation of commuter cat-
component fatigue tests, or analysis egory airplanes.
supported by tests, to be able to with- For commuter category airplanes—
stand the repeated loads of variable (a) Metallic damage tolerance. An eval-
magnitude expected in service. Suffi- uation of the strength, detail design,
cient component, subcomponent, ele- and fabrication must show that cata-
ment, or coupon tests must be done to strophic failure due to fatigue, corro-
establish the fatigue scatter factor and sion, defects, or damage will be avoided
the environmental effects. Damage up throughout the operational life of the
to the threshold of detectability and airplane. This evaluation must be con-
ultimate load residual strength capa- ducted in accordance with the provi-
bility must be considered in the dem- sions of § 23.573, except as specified in
onstration. paragraph (b) of this section, for each
225
§ 23.575 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
part of the structure that could con- § 23.605 Fabrication methods.

tribute to a catastrophic failure.
(a) The methods of fabrication used
(b) Fatigue (safe-life) evaluation. Com-
must produce consistently sound struc-
pliance with the damage tolerance re-
tures. If a fabrication process (such as
quirements of paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion is not required if the applicant es- gluing, spot welding, or heat-treating)
tablishes that the application of those requires close control to reach this ob-
requirements is impractical for a par- jective, the process must be performed
ticular structure. This structure must under an approved process specifica-
be shown, by analysis supported by test tion.
evidence, to be able to withstand the (b) Each new aircraft fabrication
repeated loads of variable magnitude method must be substantiated by a
expected during its service life without test program.
detectable cracks. Appropriate safe-life [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
scatter factors must be applied. FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
23, 43 FR 50592, Oct. 10, 1978]
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.575 Inspections and other proce- § 23.607 Fasteners.

dures. (a) Each removable fastener must in-
Each inspection or other procedure, corporate two retaining devices if the
based on an evaluation required by loss of such fastener would preclude
§§ 23.571, 23.572, 23.573 or 23.574, must be continued safe flight and landing.
established to prevent catastrophic (b) Fasteners and their locking de-
failure and must be included in the vices must not be adversely affected by
Limitations Section of the Instructions the environmental conditions associ-
for Continued Airworthiness required ated with the particular installation.
by § 23.1529. (c) No self-locking nut may be used
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996] on any bolt subject to rotation in oper-
ation unless a non-friction locking de-
vice is used in addition to the self-lock-
Subpart D—Design and ing device.
Construction
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.601 General.
The suitability of each questionable § 23.609 Protection of structure.
design detail and part having an impor- Each part of the structure must—
tant bearing on safety in operations, (a) Be suitably protected against de-
must be established by tests. terioration or loss of strength in serv-
ice due to any cause, including—
§ 23.603 Materials and workmanship. (1) Weathering;
(a) The suitability and durability of (2) Corrosion; and
materials used for parts, the failure of (3) Abrasion; and
which could adversely affect safety, (b) Have adequate provisions for ven-
must— tilation and drainage.
(1) Be established by experience or
tests; § 23.611 Accessibility provisions.
(2) Meet approved specifications that
For each part that requires mainte-
ensure their having the strength and
nance, inspection, or other servicing,
other properties assumed in the design
appropriate means must be incor-
data; and
(3) Take into account the effects of porated into the aircraft design to
environmental conditions, such as tem- allow such servicing to be accom-
perature and humidity, expected in plished.
service. [Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
(b) Workmanship must be of a high
standard. § 23.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, (a) Material strength properties must
1976; Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50592, Oct. 10, 1978] be based on enough tests of material
226
meeting specifications to establish de- (c) Subject to appreciable variability

sign values on a statistical basis. because of uncertainties in manufac-
(b) Design values must be chosen to turing processes or inspection methods.
minimize the probability of structural [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, 1969]
failure due to material variability. Ex-
cept as provided in paragraph (e) of § 23.621 Casting factors.
this section, compliance with this
(a) General. The factors, tests, and in-
paragraph must be shown by selecting
spections specified in paragraphs (b)
design values that ensure material
through (d) of this section must be ap-
strength with the following prob-
plied in addition to those necessary to
ability: establish foundry quality control. The
(1) Where applied loads are eventu-
inspections must meet approved speci-
ally distributed through a single mem- fications. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this
ber within an assembly, the failure of section apply to any structural cast-
which would result in loss of structural ings except castings that are pressure
integrity of the component; 99 percent tested as parts of hydraulic or other
probability with 95 percent confidence. fluid systems and do not support struc-
(2) For redundant structure, in which tural loads.
the failure of individual elements (b) Bearing stresses and surfaces. The
would result in applied loads being casting factors specified in paragraphs
safely distributed to other load car- (c) and (d) of this section—
rying members; 90 percent probability (1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
with 95 percent confidence. to bearing stresses regardless of the
(c) The effects of temperature on al- method of inspection used; and
lowable stresses used for design in an (2) Need not be used with respect to
essential component or structure must the bearing surfaces of a part whose
be considered where thermal effects are bearing factor is larger than the appli-
significant under normal operating cable casting factor.
conditions. (c) Critical castings. For each casting
(d) The design of the structure must whose failure would preclude continued
minimize the probability of cata- safe flight and landing of the airplane
strophic fatigue failure, particularly at or result in serious injury to occu-
points of stress concentration. pants, the following apply:
(e) Design values greater than the (1) Each critical casting must ei-
guaranteed minimums required by this ther—
section may be used where only guar- (i) Have a casting factor of not less
anteed minimum values are normally than 1.25 and receive 100 percent in-
allowed if a ‘‘premium selection’’ of spection by visual, radiographic, and
the material is made in which a speci- either magnetic particle, penetrant or
men of each individual item is tested other approved equivalent non-destruc-
before use to determine that the actual tive inspection method; or
strength properties of that particular (ii) Have a casting factor of not less
item will equal or exceed those used in than 2.0 and receive 100 percent visual
design. inspection and 100 percent approved
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 non-destructive inspection. When an
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– approved quality control procedure is
23, 43 FR 50592, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 23–45, 58 established and an acceptable statis-
FR 42163, Aug. 6, 1993] tical analysis supports reduction, non-
destructive inspection may be reduced
§ 23.619 Special factors. from 100 percent, and applied on a sam-
The factor of safety prescribed in pling basis.
§ 23.303 must be multiplied by the high- (2) For each critical casting with a
est pertinent special factors of safety casting factor less than 1.50, three sam-
prescribed in §§ 23.621 through 23.625 for ple castings must be static tested and
each part of the structure whose shown to meet—
strength is— (i) The strength requirements of
(a) Uncertain; § 23.305 at an ultimate load cor-
(b) Likely to deteriorate in service responding to a casting factor of 1.25;
before normal replacement; or and
227
§ 23.623 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(ii) The deformation requirements of § 23.623 Bearing factors.

§ 23.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit (a) Each part that has clearance (free
load. fit), and that is subject to pounding or
(3) Examples of these castings are vibration, must have a bearing factor
structural attachment fittings, parts of large enough to provide for the effects
flight control systems, control surface of normal relative motion.
hinges and balance weight attach- (b) For control surface hinges and
ments, seat, berth, safety belt, and fuel control system joints, compliance with
and oil tank supports and attachments, the factors prescribed in §§ 23.657 and
and cabin pressure valves. 23.693, respectively, meets paragraph
(d) Non-critical castings. For each (a) of this section.
casting other than those specified in [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, 1969]
paragraph (c) or (e) of this section, the
following apply: § 23.625 Fitting factors.
(1) Except as provided in paragraphs For each fitting (a part or terminal
(d)(2) and (3) of this section, the casting used to join one structural member to
factors and corresponding inspections another), the following apply:
must meet the following table: (a) For each fitting whose strength is
Casting factor Inspection
not proven by limit and ultimate load
tests in which actual stress conditions
2.0 or more .................... 100 percent visual. are simulated in the fitting and sur-
Less than 2.0 but more 100 percent visual, and magnetic rounding structures, a fitting factor of
than 1.5. particle or penetrant or equiva-
lent nondestructive inspection
at least 1.15 must be applied to each
methods. part of—
1.25 through 1.50 .......... 100 percent visual, magnetic par- (1) The fitting;
ticle or penetrant, and radio- (2) The means of attachment; and
graphic, or approved equivalent
nondestructive inspection meth- (3) The bearing on the joined mem-
ods. bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used for
(2) The percentage of castings in- joint designs based on comprehensive
spected by nonvisual methods may be test data (such as continuous joints in
reduced below that specified in sub- metal plating, welded joints, and scarf
paragraph (d)(1) of this section when an joints in wood).
approved quality control procedure is (c) For each integral fitting, the part
established. must be treated as a fitting up to the
(3) For castings procured to a speci- point at which the section properties
fication that guarantees the mechan- become typical of the member.
ical properties of the material in the (d) For each seat, berth, safety belt,
casting and provides for demonstration and harness, its attachment to the
of these properties by test of coupons structure must be shown, by analysis,
cut from the castings on a sampling tests, or both, to be able to withstand
the inertia forces prescribed in § 23.561
basis—
multiplied by a fitting factor of 1.33.
(i) A casting factor of 1.0 may be
used; and [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(ii) The castings must be inspected as amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13,
1969]
provided in paragraph (d)(1) of this sec-
tion for casting factors of ‘‘1.25 through § 23.627 Fatigue strength.
1.50’’ and tested under paragraph (c)(2)
The structure must be designed, as
of this section.
far as practicable, to avoid points of
(e) Non-structural castings. Castings
stress concentration where variable
used for non-structural purposes do not stresses above the fatigue limit are
require evaluation, testing or close in- likely to occur in normal service.
spection.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as § 23.629 Flutter.
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42164, Aug. 6, (a) It must be shown by the methods
1993] of paragraph (b) and either paragraph
228
(c) or (d) of this section, that the air- (ii) Does not have unusual mass dis-
plane is free from flutter, control re- tributions or other unconventional de-
versal, and divergence for any condi- sign features that affect the applica-
tion of operation within the limit V-n bility of the criteria, and
envelope and at all speeds up to the (iii) Has fixed-fin and fixed-stabilizer
speed specified for the selected method. surfaces.
In addition— (e) For turbopropeller-powered air-
(1) Adequate tolerances must be es- planes, the dynamic evaluation must
tablished for quantities which affect include—
flutter, including speed, damping, mass
(1) Whirl mode degree of freedom
balance, and control system stiffness;
which takes into account the stability
and
of the plane of rotation of the propeller
(2) The natural frequencies of main
and significant elastic, inertial, and
structural components must be deter-
aerodynamic forces, and
mined by vibration tests or other ap-
proved methods. (2) Propeller, engine, engine mount,
(b) Flight flutter tests must be made and airplane structure stiffness and
to show that the airplane is free from damping variations appropriate to the
flutter, control reversal and divergence particular configuration.
and to show that— (f) Freedom from flutter, control re-
(1) Proper and adequate attempts to versal, and divergence up to VD/MD
induce flutter have been made within must be shown as follows:
the speed range up to VD; (1) For airplanes that meet the cri-
(2) The vibratory response of the teria of paragraphs (d)(1) through (d)(3)
structure during the test indicates of this section, after the failure, mal-
freedom from flutter; function, or disconnection of any single
(3) A proper margin of damping exists element in any tab control system.
at VD; and (2) For airplanes other than those de-
(4) There is no large and rapid reduc- scribed in paragraph (f)(1) of this sec-
tion in damping as VD is approached. tion, after the failure, malfunction, or
(c) Any rational analysis used to pre- disconnection of any single element in
dict freedom from flutter, control re- the primary flight control system, any
versal and divergence must cover all tab control system, or any flutter
speeds up to 1.2 VD. damper.
(d) Compliance with the rigidity and (g) For airplanes showing compliance
mass balance criteria (pages 4–12), in with the fail-safe criteria of §§ 23.571
Airframe and Equipment Engineering and 23.572, the airplane must be shown
Report No. 45 (as corrected) ‘‘Sim- by analysis to be free from flutter up
plified Flutter Prevention Criteria’’ to VD/MD after fatigue failure, or obvi-
(published by the Federal Aviation Ad- ous partial failure, of a principal struc-
ministration) may be accomplished to
tural element.
show that the airplane is free from
flutter, control reversal, or divergence (h) For airplanes showing compliance
if— with the damage tolerance criteria of
(1) VD/MD for the airplane is less than § 23.573, the airplane must be shown by
260 knots (EAS) and less than Mach 0.5, analysis to be free from flutter up to
(2) The wing and aileron flutter pre- VD/MD with the extent of damage for
vention criteria, as represented by the which residual strength is dem-
wing torsional stiffness and aileron onstrated.
balance criteria, are limited in use to (i) For modifications to the type de-
airplanes without large mass con- sign that could affect the flutter char-
centrations (such as engines, floats, or acteristics, compliance with paragraph
fuel tanks in outer wing panels) along (a) of this section must be shown, ex-
the wing span, and cept that analysis based on previously
(3) The airplane— approved data may be used alone to
(i) Does not have a T-tail or other un- show freedom from flutter, control re-
conventional tail configurations; versal and divergence, for all speeds up
229
§ 23.641 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
to the speed specified for the selected § 23.659 Mass balance.

method.
The supporting structure and the at-
[Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50592, Oct. 30, 1978, as tachment of concentrated mass bal-
amended by Amdt. 23–31, 49 FR 46867, Nov. 28, ance weights used on control surfaces
1984; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42164, Aug. 6, 1993; 58 must be designed for—
FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, (a) 24 g normal to the plane of the
Feb. 9, 1996]
control surface;
WINGS (b) 12 g fore and aft; and
(c) 12 g parallel to the hinge line.
§ 23.641 Proof of strength.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
The strength of stressed-skin wings
must be proven by load tests or by § 23.671 General.
combined structural analysis and load
(a) Each control must operate easily,
tests. smoothly, and positively enough to
CONTROL SURFACES allow proper performance of its func-
tions.
§ 23.651 Proof of strength. (b) Controls must be arranged and
identified to provide for convenience in
(a) Limit load tests of control sur- operation and to prevent the possi-
faces are required. These tests must in- bility of confusion and subsequent in-
clude the horn or fitting to which the advertent operation.
control system is attached.
(b) In structural analyses, rigging § 23.672 Stability augmentation and
loads due to wire bracing must be ac- automatic and power-operated sys-
counted for in a rational or conserv- tems.
ative manner. If the functioning of stability aug-
mentation or other automatic or
§ 23.655 Installation. power-operated systems is necessary to
(a) Movable surfaces must be in- show compliance with the flight char-
stalled so that there is no interference acteristics requirements of this part,
between any surfaces, their bracing, or such systems must comply with § 23.671
adjacent fixed structure, when one sur- and the following:
face is held in its most critical clear- (a) A warning, which is clearly dis-
ance positions and the others are oper- tinguishable to the pilot under ex-
ated through their full movement. pected flight conditions without re-
(b) If an adjustable stabilizer is used, quiring the pilot’s attention, must be
it must have stops that will limit its provided for any failure in the stability
range of travel to that allowing safe augmentation system or in any other
flight and landing. automatic or power-operated system
that could result in an unsafe condi-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as tion if the pilot was not aware of the
1993]
failure. Warning systems must not ac-
tivate the control system.
§ 23.657 Hinges. (b) The design of the stability aug-
mentation system or of any other auto-
(a) Control surface hinges, except matic or power-operated system must
ball and roller bearing hinges, must permit initial counteraction of failures
have a factor of safety of not less than without requiring exceptional pilot
6.67 with respect to the ultimate bear- skill or strength, by either the deacti-
ing strength of the softest material vation of the system or a failed portion
used as a bearing. thereof, or by overriding the failure by
(b) For ball or roller bearing hinges, movement of the flight controls in the
the approved rating of the bearing may normal sense.
not be exceeded. (c) It must be shown that, after any
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as single failure of the stability aug-
amended by Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, mentation system or any other auto-
1996] matic or power-operated system—
230
(1) The airplane is safely controllable must be visible to the pilot and must
when the failure or malfunction occurs be located and designed to prevent con-
at any speed or altitude within the ap- fusion. The pitch trim indicator must
proved operating limitations that is be clearly marked with a position or
critical for the type of failure being range within which it has been dem-
considered; onstrated that take-off is safe for all
(2) The controllability and maneuver- center of gravity positions and each
ability requirements of this part are flap position approved for takeoff.
met within a practical operational (b) Trimming devices must be de-
flight envelope (for example, speed, al- signed so that, when any one con-
titude, normal acceleration, and air- necting or transmitting element in the
plane configuration) that is described primary flight control system fails,
in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM); adequate control for safe flight and
and landing is available with—
(3) The trim, stability, and stall char- (1) For single-engine airplanes, the
acteristics are not impaired below a longitudinal trimming devices; or
level needed to permit continued safe (2) For multiengine airplanes, the
flight and landing. longitudinal and directional trimming
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42164, Aug. 6, 1993] devices.
(c) Tab controls must be irreversible
§ 23.673 Primary flight controls. unless the tab is properly balanced and
Primary flight controls are those has no unsafe flutter characteristics.
used by the pilot for the immediate Irreversible tab systems must have
control of pitch, roll, and yaw. adequate rigidity and reliability in the
portion of the system from the tab to
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as the attachment of the irreversible unit
amended by Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, to the airplane structure.
1996]
(d) It must be demonstrated that the
§ 23.675 Stops. airplane is safely controllable and that
the pilot can perform all maneuvers
(a) Each control system must have and operations necessary to effect a
stops that positively limit the range of safe landing following any probable
motion of each movable aerodynamic powered trim system runaway that
surface controlled by the system. reasonably might be expected in serv-
(b) Each stop must be located so that ice, allowing for appropriate time
wear, slackness, or takeup adjustments delay after pilot recognition of the
will not adversely affect the control trim system runaway. The demonstra-
characteristics of the airplane because tion must be conducted at critical air-
of a change in the range of surface plane weights and center of gravity po-
travel. sitions.
(c) Each stop must be able to with-
stand any loads corresponding to the [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
design conditions for the control sys- amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13,
tem. 1969; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1830, Jan. 15, 1987;
Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23–
[Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, 1976] 49, 61 FR 5165, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.677 Trim systems. § 23.679 Control system locks.

(a) Proper precautions must be taken If there is a device to lock the con-
to prevent inadvertent, improper, or trol system on the ground or water:
abrupt trim tab operation. There must (a) There must be a means to—
be means near the trim control to indi- (1) Give unmistakable warning to the
cate to the pilot the direction of trim pilot when lock is engaged; or
control movement relative to airplane (2) Automatically disengage the de-
motion. In addition, there must be vice when the pilot operates the pri-
means to indicate to the pilot the posi- mary flight controls in a normal man-
tion of the trim device with respect to ner.
both the range of adjustment and, in (b) The device must be installed to
the case of lateral and directional limit the operation of the airplane so
trim, the neutral position. This means that, when the device is engaged, the
231
§ 23.681 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
pilot receives unmistakable warning at (c) There must be means to prevent

the start of the takeoff. the slapping of cables or tubes against
(c) The device must have a means to other parts.
preclude the possibility of it becoming (d) Each element of the flight control
inadvertently engaged in flight. system must have design features, or
must be distinctively and permanently
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42164, Aug. 6, 1993]
marked, to minimize the possibility of
§ 23.681 Limit load static tests. incorrect assembly that could result in
malfunctioning of the control system.
(a) Compliance with the limit load
requirements of this part must be [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
shown by tests in which— amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20,
1976]
(1) The direction of the test loads
produces the most severe loading in the § 23.687 Spring devices.
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket The reliability of any spring device
used in attaching the system to the used in the control system must be es-
main structure is included. tablished by tests simulating service
(b) Compliance must be shown (by conditions unless failure of the spring
analyses or individual load tests) with will not cause flutter or unsafe flight
the special factor requirements for characteristics.
control system joints subject to angu- § 23.689 Cable systems.
lar motion.
(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turn-
§ 23.683 Operation tests. buckle, splice, and pulley used must
meet approved specifications. In addi-
(a) It must be shown by operation
tion—
tests that, when the controls are oper-
ated from the pilot compartment with (1) No cable smaller than 1⁄8 inch di-
the system loaded as prescribed in ameter may be used in primary control
paragraph (b) of this section, the sys- systems;
tem is free from— (2) Each cable system must be de-
(1) Jamming; signed so that there will be no haz-
ardous change in cable tension
(2) Excessive friction; and
throughout the range of travel under
(3) Excessive deflection.
operating conditions and temperature
(b) The prescribed test loads are— variations; and
(1) For the entire system, loads cor- (3) There must be means for visual
responding to the limit airloads on the inspection at each fairlead, pulley, ter-
appropriate surface, or the limit pilot minal, and turnbuckle.
forces in § 23.397(b), whichever are less; (b) Each kind and size of pulley must
and correspond to the cable with which it is
(2) For secondary controls, loads not used. Each pulley must have closely
less than those corresponding to the fitted guards to prevent the cables
maximum pilot effort established from being misplaced or fouled, even
under § 23.405. when slack. Each pulley must lie in the
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as plane passing through the cable so that
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, the cable does not rub against the pul-
1969] ley flange.
(c) Fairleads must be installed so
§ 23.685 Control system details. that they do not cause a change in
(a) Each detail of each control sys- cable direction of more than three de-
tem must be designed and installed to grees.
prevent jamming, chafing, and inter- (d) Clevis pins subject to load or mo-
ference from cargo, passengers, loose tion and retained only by cotter pins
objects, or the freezing of moisture. may not be used in the control system.
(b) There must be means in the cock- (e) Turnbuckles must be attached to
pit to prevent the entry of foreign ob- parts having angular motion in a man-
jects into places where they would jam ner that will positively prevent binding
the system. throughout the range of travel.
232
(f) Tab control cables are not part of (2) The pitch servo for that system
the primary control system and may be may be used to provide the stall down-
less than 1⁄8 inch diameter in airplanes ward pitching motion.
that are safely controllable with the (g) In showing compliance with
tabs in the most adverse positions. § 23.1309, the system must be evaluated
to determine the effect that any an-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
nounced or unannounced failure may
1969]
have on the continued safe flight and
landing of the airplane or the ability of
§ 23.691 Artificial stall barrier system. the crew to cope with any adverse con-
ditions that may result from such fail-
If the function of an artificial stall ures. This evaluation must consider
barrier, for example, stick pusher, is the hazards that would result from the
used to show compliance with airplane’s flight characteristics if the
§ 23.201(c), the system must comply system was not provided, and the haz-
with the following: ard that may result from unwanted
(a) With the system adjusted for op- downward pitching motion, which
eration, the plus and minus airspeeds could result from a failure at airspeeds
at which downward pitching control above the selected stall speed.
will be provided must be established.
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5165, Feb. 9, 1996]
(b) Considering the plus and minus
airspeed tolerances established by § 23.693 Joints.
paragraph (a) of this section, an air-
speed must be selected for the activa- Control system joints (in push-pull
tion of the downward pitching control systems) that are subject to angular
that provides a safe margin above any motion, except those in ball and roller
bearing systems, must have a special
airspeed at which any unsatisfactory
factor of safety of not less than 3.33
stall characteristics occur.
with respect to the ultimate bearing
(c) In addition to the stall warning strength of the softest material used as
required § 23.07, a warning that is clear- a bearing. This factor may be reduced
ly distinguishable to the pilot under all to 2.0 for joints in cable control sys-
expected flight conditions without re- tems. For ball or roller bearings, the
quiring the pilot’s attention, must be approved ratings may not be exceeded.
provided for faults that would prevent
the system from providing the required § 23.697 Wing flap controls.
pitching motion.
(a) Each wing flap control must be
(d) Each system must be designed so designed so that, when the flap has
that the artificial stall barrier can be been placed in any position upon which
quickly and positively disengaged by compliance with the performance re-
the pilots to prevent unwanted down- quirements of this part is based, the
ward pitching of the airplane by a flap will not move from that position
quick release (emergency) control that unless the control is adjusted or is
meets the requirements of § 23.1329(b). moved by the automatic operation of a
(e) A preflight check of the complete flap load limiting device.
system must be established and the (b) The rate of movement of the flaps
procedure for this check made avail- in response to the operation of the pi-
able in the Airplane Flight Manual lot’s control or automatic device must
(AFM). Preflight checks that are crit- give satisfactory flight and perform-
ical to the safety of the airplane must ance characteristics under steady or
be included in the limitations section changing conditions of airspeed, engine
of the AFM. power, and attitude.
(f) For those airplanes whose design (c) If compliance with § 23.145(b)(3)
includes an autopilot system: necessitates wing flap retraction to po-
(1) A quick release (emergency) con- sitions that are not fully retracted, the
trol installed in accordance with wing flap control lever settings cor-
§ 23.1329(b) may be used to meet the re- responding to those positions must be
quirements of paragraph (d), of this positively located such that a definite
section, and change of direction of movement of the
233
§ 23.699 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
lever is necessary to select settings be- assumed that 100 percent of the critical
yond those settings. air load acts on one side and 70 percent
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
on the other.
amended by Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5165, Feb. 9, [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
1996] amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19,
1973; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 353, Jan. 3, 1991; 56
§ 23.699 Wing flap position indicator. FR 5455, Feb. 11, 1991; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5165,
There must be a wing flap position Feb. 9, 1996]
indicator for— § 23.703 Takeoff warning system.
(a) Flap installations with only the
retracted and fully extended position, For commuter category airplanes,
unless— unless it can be shown that a lift or
(1) A direct operating mechanism longitudinal trim device that affects
provides a sense of ‘‘feel’’ and position the takeoff performance of the aircraft
(such as when a mechanical linkage is would not give an unsafe takeoff con-
employed); or figuration when selection out of an ap-
(2) The flap position is readily deter- proved takeoff position, a takeoff
mined without seriously detracting warning system must be installed and
from other piloting duties under any meet the following requirements:
flight condition, day or night; and (a) The system must provide to the
(b) Flap installation with inter- pilots an aural warning that is auto-
mediate flap positions if— matically activated during the initial
(1) Any flap position other than re- portion of the takeoff role if the air-
tracted or fully extended is used to plane is in a configuration that would
show compliance with the performance not allow a safe takeoff. The warning
requirements of this part; and must continue until—
(2) The flap installation does not (1) The configuration is changed to
meet the requirements of paragraph allow safe takeoff, or
(a)(1) of this section. (2) Action is taken by the pilot to
abandon the takeoff roll.
§ 23.701 Flap interconnection. (b) The means used to activate the
(a) The main wing flaps and related system must function properly for all
movable surfaces as a system must— authorized takeoff power settings and
(1) Be synchronized by a mechanical procedures and throughout the ranges
interconnection between the movable of takeoff weights, altitudes, and tem-
flap surfaces that is independent of the peratures for which certification is re-
flap drive system; or by an approved quested.
equivalent means; or [Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5166, Feb. 9, 1996]
(2) Be designed so that the occur-
rence of any failure of the flap system LANDING GEAR
that would result in an unsafe flight
characteristic of the airplane is ex- § 23.721 General.
tremely improbable; or For commuter category airplanes
(b) The airplane must be shown to that have a passenger seating configu-
have safe flight characteristics with ration, excluding pilot seats, of 10 or
any combination of extreme positions more, the following general require-
of individual movable surfaces (me- ments for the landing gear apply:
chanically interconnected surfaces are (a) The main landing-gear system
to be considered as a single surface). must be designed so that if it fails due
(c) If an interconnection is used in to overloads during takeoff and landing
multiengine airplanes, it must be de- (assuming the overloads to act in the
signed to account for the upward and aft directions), the failure
unsummetrical loads resulting from mode is not likely to cause the spillage
flight with the engines on one side of of enough fuel from any part of the fuel
the plane of symmetry inoperative and system to consitute a fire hazard.
the remaining engines at takeoff (b) Each airplane must be designed so
power. For single-engine airplanes, and that, with the airplane under control,
multiengine airplanes with no slip- it can be landed on a paved runway
stream effects on the flaps, it may be with any one or more landing-gear legs
234
not extended without sustaining a d = deflection under impact of the tire (at
structural component failure that is the approved inflation pressure) plus the
likely to cause the spillage of enough vertical component of the axle travel rel-
ative to the drop mass (inches);
fuel to consitute a fire hazard. W=WM for main gear units (lbs), equal to the
(c) Compliance with the provisions of static weight on that unit with the air-
this section may be shown by analysis plane in the level attitude (with the nose
or tests, or both. wheel clear in the case of nose wheel
type airplanes);
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1830, Jan. 15, 1987]
W=WT for tail gear units (lbs.), equal to the
static weight on the tail unit with the
§ 23.723 Shock absorption tests. airplane in the tail-down attitude;
(a) It must be shown that the limit W=WN for nose wheel units lbs.), equal to the
load factors selected for design in ac- vertical component of the static reaction
cordance with § 23.473 for takeoff and that would exist at the nose wheel, as-
landing weights, respectively, will not suming that the mass of the airplane
acts at the center of gravity and exerts a
be exceeded. This must be shown by en- force of 1.0 g downward and 0.33 g for-
ergy absorption tests except that anal- ward; and
ysis based on tests conducted on a L= the ratio of the assumed wing lift to the
landing gear system with identical en- airplane weight, but not more than 0.667.
ergy absorption characteristics may be
(c) The limit inertia load factor must
used for increases in previously ap-
be determined in a rational or conserv-
proved takeoff and landing weights.
ative manner, during the drop test,
(b) The landing gear may not fail, but
using a landing gear unit attitude, and
may yield, in a test showing its reserve
applied drag loads, that represent the
energy absorption capacity, simulating
landing conditions.
a descent velocity of 1.2 times the limit (d) The value of d used in the com-
descent velocity, assuming wing lift putation of We in paragraph (b) of this
equal to the weight of the airplane. section may not exceed the value actu-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 ally obtained in the drop test.
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– (e) The limit inertia load factor must
23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 23–49, 61 be determined from the drop test in
FR 5166, Feb. 9, 1996] paragraph (b) of this section according
§ 23.725 Limit drop tests. to the following formula:
(a) If compliance with § 23.723(a) is We
shown by free drop tests, these tests n = nj +L
must be made on the complete air- W
plane, or on units consisting of wheel, where—
tire, and shock absorber, in their prop- nj=the load factor developed in the drop test
er relation, from free drop heights not (that is, the acceleration (dv/dt) in g’ s re-
less than those determined by the fol- corded in the drop test) plus 1.0; and
lowing formula: We, W, and L are the same as in the drop test
computation.
h (inches) = 3.6 (W/S) 1⁄2
(f) The value of n determined in ac-
However, the free drop height may not cordance with paragraph (e) may not
be less than 9.2 inches and need not be be more than the limit inertia load fac-
more than 18.7 inches. tor used in the landing conditions in
(b) If the effect of wing lift is pro- § 23.473.
vided for in free drop tests, the landing
gear must be dropped with an effective [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
weight equal to 1969; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
We = W
[h + (1 − L) d ] § 23.726 Ground load dynamic tests.
(h + d ) (a) If compliance with the ground

load requirements of §§ 23.479 through
where— 23.483 is shown dynamically by drop
We =the effective weight to be used in the test, one drop test must be conducted
drop test (lbs.); that meets § 23.725 except that the drop
h = specified free drop height (inches); height must be—
235
§ 23.727 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) 2.25 times the drop height pre- (1) Any reasonably probable failure in
scribed in § 23.725(a); or the normal landing gear operation sys-
(2) Sufficient to develop 1.5 times the tem; or
limit load factor. (2) Any reasonably probable failure in
(b) The critical landing condition for a power source that would prevent the
each of the design conditions specified operation of the normal landing gear
in §§ 23.479 through 23.483 must be used operation system.
for proof of strength. (d) Operation test. The proper func-
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, 1969] tioning of the retracting mechanism
must be shown by operation tests.
§ 23.727 Reserve energy absorption (e) Position indicator. If a retractable
drop test. landing gear is used, there must be a
(a) If compliance with the reserve en- landing gear position indicator (as well
ergy absorption requirement in as necessary switches to actuate the
§ 23.723(b) is shown by free drop tests, indicator) or other means to inform the
the drop height may not be less than pilot that each gear is secured in the
1.44 times that specified in § 23.725. extended (or retracted) position. If
(b) If the effect of wing lift is pro- switches are used, they must be located
vided for, the units must be dropped and coupled to the landing gear me-
with an effective mass equal to We=Wh/ chanical system in a manner that pre-
(h+d), when the symbols and other de- vents an erroneous indication of either
tails are the same as in § 23.725. ‘‘down and locked’’ if each gear is not
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as in the fully extended position, or ‘‘up
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, and locked’’ if each landing gear is not
1969] in the fully retracted position.
(f) Landing gear warning. For land-
§ 23.729 Landing gear extension and
retraction system. planes, the following aural or equally
effective landing gear warning devices
(a) General. For airplanes with re- must be provided:
tractable landing gear, the following (1) A device that functions continu-
apply:
ously when one or more throttles are
(1) Each landing gear retracting
closed beyond the power settings nor-
mechanism and its supporting struc-
mally used for landing approach if the
ture must be designed for maximum
landing gear is not fully extended and
flight load factors with the gear re-
tracted and must be designed for the locked. A throttle stop may not be
combination of friction, inertia, brake used in place of an aural device. If
torque, and air loads, occurring during there is a manual shutoff for the warn-
retraction at any airspeed up to 1.6 VS1 ing device prescribed in this paragraph,
with flaps retracted, and for any load the warning system must be designed
factor up to those specified in § 23.345 so that when the warning has been sus-
for the flaps-extended condition. pended after one or more throttles are
(2) The landing gear and retracting closed, subsequent retardation of any
mechanism, including the wheel well throttle to, or beyond, the position for
doors, must withstand flight loads, in- normal landing approach will activate
cluding loads resulting from all yawing the warning device.
conditions specified in § 23.351, with the (2) A device that functions continu-
landing gear extended at any speed up ously when the wing flaps are extended
to at least 1.6 VS1 with the flaps re- beyond the maximum approach flap po-
tracted. sition, using a normal landing proce-
(b) Landing gear lock. There must be dure, if the landing gear is not fully ex-
positive means (other than the use of tended and locked. There may not be a
hydraulic pressure) to keep the landing manual shutoff for this warning device.
gear extended. The flap position sensing unit may be
(c) Emergency operation. For a land- installed at any suitable location. The
plane having retractable landing gear system for this device may use any
that cannot be extended manually, part of the system (including the aural
there must be means to extend the warning device) for the device required
landing gear in the event of either— in paragraph (f)(1) of this section.
236
(g) Equipment located in the landing The markings must include the make,
gear bay. If the landing gear bay is used size, number of plies, and identification
as the location for equipment other marking of the proper tire.
than the landing gear, that equipment (c) Each tire installed on a retract-
must be designed and installed to mini- able landing gear system must, at the
mize damage from items such as a tire maximum size of the tire type expected
burst, or rocks, water, and slush that in service, have a clearance to sur-
may enter the landing gear bay. rounding structure and systems that is
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as adequate to prevent contact between
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13091, Aug. 13, the tire and any part of the structure
1969; Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 1978; Amdt. of systems.
23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 23–45,
58 FR 42164, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
5166, Feb. 9, 1996] amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13,
1969; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, 1976;
§ 23.731 Wheels. Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993]
(a) The maximum static load rating § 23.735 Brakes.
of each wheel may not be less than the
corresponding static ground reaction (a) Brakes must be provided. The
with— landing brake kinetic energy capacity
(1) Design maximum weight; and rating of each main wheel brake assem-
(2) Critical center of gravity. bly must not be less than the kinetic
(b) The maximum limit load rating of energy absorption requirements deter-
each wheel must equal or exceed the mined under either of the following
maximum radial limit load determined methods:
under the applicable ground load re- (1) The brake kinetic energy absorp-
quirements of this part. tion requirements must be based on a
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
conservative rational analysis of the
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, sequence of events expected during
1993] landing at the design landing weight.
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
§ 23.733 Tires. kinetic energy absorption require-
(a) Each landing gear wheel must ments for each main wheel brake as-
have a tire whose approved tire ratings sembly may be derived from the fol-
(static and dynamic) are not exceed- lowing formula:
ed— KE=0.0443 WV2/N
(1) By a load on each main wheel tire)
where—
to be compared to the static rating ap-
proved for such tires) equal to the cor- KE=Kinetic energy per wheel (ft.-lb.);
responding static ground reaction W=Design landing weight (lb.);
under the design maximum weight and V=Airplane speed in knots. V must be not
less than VS√, the poweroff stalling speed
critical center of gravity; and
of the airplane at sea level, at the design
(2) By a load on nose wheel tires (to landing weight, and in the landing con-
be compared with the dynamic rating figuration; and
approved for such tires) equal to the re- N=Number of main wheels with brakes.
action obtained at the nose wheel, as-
suming the mass of the airplane to be (b) Brakes must be able to prevent
concentrated at the most critical cen- the wheels from rolling on a paved run-
ter of gravity and exerting a force of way with takeoff power on the critical
1.0 W downward and 0.31 W forward engine, but need not prevent movement
(where W is the design maximum of the airplane with wheels locked.
weight), with the reactions distributed (c) During the landing distance deter-
to the nose and main wheels by the mination required by § 23.75, the pres-
principles of statics and with the drag sure on the wheel braking system must
reaction at the ground applied only at not exceed the pressure specified by the
wheels with brakes. brake manufacturer.
(b) If specially constructed tires are (d) If antiskid devices are installed,
used, the wheels must be plainly and the devices and associated systems
conspicuously marked to that effect. must be designed so that no single
237
§ 23.737 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
probable malfunction or failure will re- FLOATS AND HULLS

sult in a hazardous loss of braking abil-
ity or directional control of the air- § 23.751 Main float buoyancy.
plane. (a) Each main float must have—
(e) In addition, for commuter cat- (1) A buoyancy of 80 percent in excess
egory airplanes, the rejected takeoff of the buoyancy required by that float
brake kinetic energy capacity rating of to support its portion of the maximum
each main wheel brake assembly must weight of the seaplane or amphibian in
not be less than the kinetic energy ab- fresh water; and
sorption requirements determined (2) Enough watertight compartments
under either of the following methods— to provide reasonable assurance that
(1) The brake kinetic energy absorp- the seaplane or amphibian will stay
tion requirements must be based on a afloat without capsizing if any two
conservative rational analysis of the compartments of any main float are
sequence of events expected during a flooded.
rejected takeoff at the design takeoff (b) Each main float must contain at
weight. least four watertight compartments
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the approximately equal in volume.
kinetic energy absorption require-
ments for each main wheel brake as- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
sembly may be derived from the fol- amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6,
1993]
lowing formula—
KE=0.0443 WV2N § 23.753 Main float design.
where, Each seaplane main float must meet
KE=Kinetic energy per wheel (ft.-lbs.); the requirements of § 23.521.
W=Design takeoff weight (lbs.);
V=Ground speed, in knots, associated [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993]
with the maximum value of V1 se-
§ 23.755 Hulls.
lected in accordance with
§ 23.51(c)(1); (a) The hull of a hull seaplane or am-
N=Number of main wheels with brakes. phibian of 1,500 pounds or more max-
imum weight must have watertight
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, 1969, as compartments designed and arranged
amended by Amdt. 23–24, 44 FR 68742, Nov. 29,
1979; Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991;
so that the hull auxiliary floats, and
Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5166, Feb. 9, 1996] tires (if used), will keep the airplane
afloat without capsizing in fresh water
§ 23.737 Skis. when—
The maximum limit load rating for (1) For airplanes of 5,000 pounds or
each ski must equal or exceed the max- more maximum weight, any two adja-
imum limit load determined under the cent compartments are flooded; and
applicable ground load requirements of (2) For airplanes of 1,500 pounds up
this part. to, but not including, 5,000 pounds max-
imum weight, any single compartment
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993] is flooded.
(b) Watertight doors in bulkheads
§ 23.745 Nose/tail wheel steering. may be used for communication be-
(a) If nose/tail wheel steering is in- tween compartments.
stalled, it must be demonstrated that
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
its use does not require exceptional amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6,
pilot skill during takeoff and landing, 1993; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
in crosswinds, or in the event of an en-
gine failure; or its use must be limited § 23.757 Auxiliary floats.
to low speed maneuvering.
Auxiliary floats must be arranged so
(b) Movement of the pilot’s steering
that, when completely submerged in
control must not interfere with the re-
fresh water, they provide a righting
traction or extension of the landing
moment of at least 1.5 times the upset-
gear.
ting moment caused by the seaplane or
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5166, Feb. 9, 1996] amphibian being tilted.
238
PERSONNEL AND CARGO shown that the windshield and side

ACCOMMODATIONS windows can be easily cleared by the
pilot without interruption of moral
§ 23.771 Pilot compartment. pilot duties.
For each pilot compartment—
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993]
(a) The compartment and its equip-
ment must allow each pilot to perform § 23.775 Windshields and windows.
his duties without unreasonable con-
centration or fatigue; (a) The internal panels of windshields
(b) Where the flight crew are sepa- and windows must be constructed of a
rated from the passengers by a parti- nonsplintering material, such as non-
tion, an opening or openable window or splintering safety glass.
door must be provided to facilitate (b) The design of windshields, win-
communication between flight crew dows, and canopies in pressurized air-
and the passengers; and planes must be based on factors pecu-
(c) The aerodynamic controls listed liar to high altitude operation, includ-
in § 23.779, excluding cables and control ing—
rods, must be located with respect to (1) The effects of continuous and cy-
the propellers so that no part of the clic pressurization loadings;
pilot or the controls lies in the region (2) The inherent characteristics of
between the plane of rotation of any the material used; and
inboard propeller and the surface gen-
(3) The effects of temperatures and
erated by a line passing through the
temperature gradients.
center of the propeller hub making an
angle of 5 degrees forward or aft of the (c) On pressurized airplanes, if cer-
plane of rotation of the propeller. tification for operation up to and in-
cluding 25,000 feet is requested, an en-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as closure canopy including a representa-
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19, tive part of the installation must be
1973]
subjected to special tests to account
§ 23.773 Pilot compartment view. for the combined effects of continuous
and cyclic pressurization loadings and
(a) Each pilot compartment must flight loads, or compliance with the
be— fail-safe requirements of paragraph (d)
(1) Arranged with sufficiently exten-
of this section must be shown.
sive, clear and undistorted view to en-
(d) If certification for operation
able the pilot to safely taxi, takeoff,
approach, land, and perform any ma- above 25,000 feet is requested the wind-
neuvers within the operating limita- shields, window panels, and canopies
tions of the airplane. must be strong enough to withstand
(2) Free from glare and reflections the maximum cabin pressure differen-
that could interfere with the pilot’s vi- tial loads combined with critical aero-
sion. Compliance must be shown in all dynamic pressure and temperature ef-
operations for which certification is re- fects, after failure of any load-carrying
quested; and element of the windshield, window
(3) Designed so that each pilot is pro- panel, or canopy.
tected from the elements so that mod- (e) The windshield and side windows
erate rain conditions do not unduly im- forward of the pilot’s back when the
pair the pilot’s view of the flight path pilot is seated in the normal flight po-
in normal flight and while landing. sition must have a luminous transmit-
(b) Each pilot compartment must tance value of not less than 70 percent.
have a means to either remove or pre- (f) Unless operation in known or fore-
vent the formation of fog or frost on an cast icing conditions is prohibited by
area of the internal portion of the operating limitations, a means must be
windshield and side windows suffi- provided to prevent or to clear accumu-
ciently large to provide the view speci- lations of ice from the windshield so
fied in paragraph (a)(1) of this section. that the pilot has adequate view for
Compliance must be shown under all taxi, takeoff, approach, landing, and to
expected external and internal ambient perform any maneuvers within the op-
operating conditions, unless it can be erating limitations of the airplane.
239
§ 23.777 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(g) In the event of any probable sin- plant controls, on left and right con-
gle failure, a transparency heating sys- soles.
tem must be incapable of raising the (d) The control location order from
temperature of any windshield or win- left to right must be power (thrust)
dow to a point where there would be— lever, propeller (rpm control), and mix-
(1) Structural failure that adversely ture control (condition lever and fuel
affects the integrity of the cabin; or cutoff for turbine-powered airplanes).
(2) There would be a danger of fire. Power (thrust) levers must be at least
(h) In addition, for commuter cat- one inch higher or longer to make
egory airplanes, the following applies: them more prominent than propeller
(1) Windshield panes directly in front (rpm control) or mixture controls. Car-
of the pilots in the normal conduct of buretor heat or alternate air control
their duties, and the supporting struc- must be to the left of the throttle or at
tures for these panes, must withstand, least eight inches from the mixture
without penetration, the impact of a control when located other than on a
two-pound bird when the velocity of pedestal. Carburetor heat or alternate
the airplane (relative to the bird along air control, when located on a pedestal
the airplane’s flight path) is equal to must be aft or below the power (thrust)
the airplane’s maximum approach flap lever. Supercharger controls must be
speed. located below or aft of the propeller
(2) The windshield panels in front of controls. Airplanes with tandem seat-
the pilots must be arranged so that, as- ing or single-place airplanes may uti-
suming the loss of vision through any lize control locations on the left side of
one panel, one or more panels remain the cabin compartment; however, loca-
available for use by a pilot seated at a tion order from left to right must be
pilot station to permit continued safe power (thrust) lever, propeller (rpm
flight and landing. control) and mixture control.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (e) Identical powerplant controls for
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, each engine must be located to prevent
1969; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993; 58 confusion as to the engines they con-
FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5166, trol.
Feb. 9, 1996] (1) Conventional multiengine power-
plant controls must be located so that
§ 23.777 Cockpit controls. the left control(s) operates the left en-
(a) Each cockpit control must be lo- gines(s) and the right control(s) oper-
cated and (except where its function is ates the right engine(s).
obvious) identified to provide conven- (2) On twin-engine airplanes with
ient operation and to prevent confusion front and rear engine locations (tan-
and inadvertent operation. dem), the left powerplant controls
(b) The controls must be located and must operate the front engine and the
arranged so that the pilot, when seat- right powerplant controls must operate
ed, has full and unrestricted movement the rear engine.
of each control without interference (f) Wing flap and auxiliary lift device
from either his clothing or the cockpit controls must be located—
structure. (1) Centrally, or to the right of the
(c) Powerplant controls must be lo- pedestal or powerplant throttle control
cated— centerline; and
(1) For multiengine airplanes, on the (2) Far enough away from the landing
pedestal or overhead at or near the gear control to avoid confusion.
center of the cockpit; (g) The landing gear control must be
(2) For single and tandem seated sin- located to the left of the throttle cen-
gle-engine airplanes, on the left side terline or pedestal centerline.
console or instrument panel; (h) Each fuel feed selector control
(3) For other single-engine airplanes must comply with § 23.995 and be lo-
at or near the center of the cockpit, on cated and arranged so that the pilot
the pedestal, instrument panel, or can see and reach it without moving
overhead; and any seat or primary flight control
(4) For airplanes, with side-by-side when his seat is at any position in
pilot seats and with two sets of power- which it can be placed.
240
(1) For a mechanical fuel selector: Motion and effect

(i) The indication of the selected fuel
valve position must be by means of a Trim tabs Switch motion or mechan-
(or equiv- ical rotation of control
pointer and must provide positive iden- alent). to produce similar rota-
tification and feel (detent, etc.) of the tion of the airplane
selected position. about an axis parallel to
(ii) The position indicator pointer the axis control. Axis of
must be located at the part of the han- roll trim control may be
displaced to accommo-
dle that is the maximum dimension of
date comfortable actu-
the handle measured from the center of ation by the pilot. For
rotation. single-engine airplanes,
(2) For electrical or electronic fuel direction of pilot’s hand
selector: movement must be in
the same sense as air-
(i) Digital controls or electrical
plane response for rud-
switches must be properly labelled. der trim if only a por-
(ii) Means must be provided to indi- tion of a rotational ele-
cate to the flight crew the tank or ment is accessible.
function selected. Selector switch posi- (b) Powerplant and auxiliary con-
tion is not acceptable as a means of in- trols:
dication. The ‘‘off’’ or ‘‘closed’’ posi-
tion must be indicated in red. Motion and effect
(3) If the fuel valve selector handle or
(1) Powerplant
electrical or digital selection is also a controls:
fuel shut-off selector, the off position Power Forward to increase for-
marking must be colored red. If a sepa- (thrust) ward thrust and rear-
rate emergency shut-off means is pro- lever. ward to increase rear-
vided, it also must be colored red. ward thrust.
Propellers .. Forward to increase rpm.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as Mixture ...... Forward or upward for
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, rich.
1969; Amdt. 23–33, 51 FR 26656, July 24, 1986; Fuel ........... Forward for open.
Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996] Carburetor, Forward or upward for
air heat cold.
§ 23.779 Motion and effect of cockpit or alter-
controls. nate air.
Super- Forward or upward for low
Cockpit controls must be designed so charger. blower.
that they operate in accordance with Turbosuper- Forward, upward, or
the following movement and actuation: chargers. clockwise to increase
pressure.
(a) Aerodynamic controls: Rotary con- Clockwise from off to full
trols. on.
Motion and effect (2) Auxiliary
controls:
(1) Primary con- Fuel tank Right for right tanks, left
trols: selector. for left tanks.
Aileron ...... Right (clockwise) for right Landing Down to extend.
wing down. gear.
Elevator ..... Rearward for nose up. Speed Aft to extend.
Rudder ....... Right pedal forward for brakes.
nose right.
(2) Secondary [Amdt. 23–33, 51 FR 26656, July 24, 1986, as
controls: amended by Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9,
Flaps (or Forward or up for flaps up 1996]
auxiliary or auxiliary device
lift de- stowed; rearward or § 23.781 Cockpit control knob shape.
vices). down for flaps down or (a) Flap and landing gear control
auxiliary device de- knobs must conform to the general
ployed. shapes (but not necessarily the exact
sizes or specific proportions) in the fol-
lowing figure:
241
§ 23.781 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
242
(b) Powerplant control knobs must disk or any other potential hazard so
conform to the general shapes (but not as to endanger persons using the door.
necessarily the exact sizes or specific (c) Each external passenger or crew
proportions) in the following figure: door must comply with the following
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 requirements:
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– (1) There must be a means to lock
33, 51 FR 26657, July 24, 1986] and safeguard the door against inad-
vertent opening during flight by per-
§ 23.783 Doors. sons, by cargo, or as a result of me-
(a) Each closed cabin with passenger chanical failure.
accommodations must have at least (2) The door must be openable from
one adequate and easily accessible ex- the inside and the outside when the in-
ternal door. ternal locking mechanism is in the
(b) Passenger doors must not be lo- locked position.
cated with respect to any propeller
243
§ 23.785 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(3) There must be a means of opening (3) There must be a visual warning
which is simple and obvious and is ar- means to signal a flight crewmember if
ranged and marked inside and outside the external door is not fully closed
so that the door can be readily located, and locked. The means must be de-
unlocked, and opened, even in dark- signed so that any failure, or combina-
ness. tion of failures, that would result in an
(4) The door must meet the marking erroneous closed and locked indication
requirements of § 23.811 of this part. is improbable for doors for which the
(5) The door must be reasonably free initial opening movement is not in-
from jamming as a result of fuselage ward.
deformation in an emergency landing. (f) In addition, for commuter cat-
(6) Auxiliary locking devices that are egory airplanes, the following require-
actuated externally to the airplane ments apply:
may be used but such devices must be (1) Each passenger entry door must
overridden by the normal internal qualify as a floor level emergency exit.
opening means. This exit must have a rectangular
opening of not less than 24 inches wide
(d) In addition, each external pas-
by 48 inches high, with corner radii not
senger or crew door, for a commuter
greater than one-third the width of the
category airplane, must comply with
exit.
the following requirements:
(2) If an integral stair is installed at
(1) Each door must be openable from a passenger entry door, the stair must
both the inside and outside, even be designed so that, when subjected to
though persons may be crowded the inertia loads resulting from the ul-
against the door on the inside of the timate static load factors in
airplane. § 23.561(b)(2) and following the collapse
(2) If inward opening doors are used, of one or more legs of the landing gear,
there must be a means to prevent occu- it will not reduce the effectiveness of
pants from crowding against the door emergency egress through the pas-
to the extent that would interfere with senger entry door.
opening the door. (g) If lavatory doors are installed,
(3) Auxiliary locking devices may be they must be designed to preclude an
used. occupant from becoming trapped inside
(e) Each external door on a com- the lavatory. If a locking mechanism is
muter category airplane, each external installed, it must be capable of being
door forward of any engine or propeller unlocked from outside of the lavatory.
on a normal, utility, or acrobatic cat-
egory airplane, and each door of the [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
pressure vessel on a pressurized air- 36, 53 FR 30813, Aug. 15, 1988; Amdt. 23–46, 59
plane must comply with the following FR 25772, May 17, 1994; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR
requirements: 5166, Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) There must be a means to lock
and safeguard each external door, in- § 23.785 Seats, berths, litters, safety
cluding cargo and service type doors, belts, and shoulder harnesses.
against inadvertent opening in flight, There must be a seat or berth for
by persons, by cargo, or as a result of each occupant that meets the fol-
mechanical failure or failure of a single lowing:
structural element, either during or (a) Each seat/restraint system and
after closure. the supporting structure must be de-
(2) There must be a provision for di- signed to support occupants weighing
rect visual inspection of the locking at least 215 pounds when subjected to
mechanism to determine if the exter- the maximum load factors cor-
nal door, for which the initial opening responding to the specified flight and
movement is not inward, is fully closed ground load conditions, as defined in
and locked. The provisions must be dis- the approved operating envelope of the
cernible, under operating lighting con- airplane. In addition, these loads must
ditions, by a crewmember using a be multiplied by a factor of 1.33 in de-
flashlight or an equivalent lighting termining the strength of all fittings
source. and the attachment of—
244
(1) Each seat to the structure; and (i) The cabin area surrounding each
(2) Each safety belt and shoulder har- seat, including the structure, interior
ness to the seat or structure. walls, instrument panel, control wheel,
(b) Each forward-facing or aft-facing pedals, and seats within striking dis-
seat/restraint system in normal, util- tance of the occupant’s head or torso
ity, or acrobatic category airplanes (with the restraint system fastened)
must consist of a seat, a safety belt, must be free of potentially injurious
and a shoulder harness, with a metal- objects, sharp edges, protuberances,
to-metal latching device, that are de- and hard surfaces. If energy absorbing
signed to provide the occupant protec- designs or devices are used to meet this
tion provisions required in § 23.562. requirement, they must protect the oc-
Other seat orientations must provide cupant from serious injury when the
the same level of occupant protection occupant is subjected to the inertia
as a forward-facing or aft-facing seat loads resulting from the ultimate stat-
with a safety belt and a shoulder har- ic load factors prescribed in
ness, and must provide the protection § 23.561(b)(2) of this part, or they must
provisions of § 23.562. comply with the occupant protection
(c) For commuter category airplanes, provisions of § 23.562 of this part, as re-
each seat and the supporting structure quired in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
must be designed for occupants weigh- section.
(j) Each seat track must be fitted
ing at least 170 pounds when subjected
with stops to prevent the seat from
to the inertia loads resulting from the
sliding off the track.
ultimate static load factors prescribed
(k) Each seat/restraint system may
in § 23.561(b)(2) of this part. Each occu-
use design features, such as crushing or
pant must be protected from serious
separation of certain components, to
head injury when subjected to the iner-
reduce occupant loads when showing
tia loads resulting from these load fac-
compliance with the requirements of
tors by a safety belt and shoulder har-
§ 23.562 of this part; otherwise, the sys-
ness, with a metal-to-metal latching
tem must remain intact.
device, for the front seats and a safety
(l) For the purposes of this section, a
belt, or a safety belt and shoulder har-
front seat is a seat located at a flight
ness, with a metal-to-metal latching
crewmember station or any seat lo-
device, for each seat other than the
cated alongside such a seat.
front seats.
(m) Each berth, or provisions for a
(d) Each restraint system must have litter, installed parallel to the longitu-
a single-point release for occupant dinal axis of the airplane, must be de-
evacuation. signed so that the forward part has a
(e) The restraint system for each padded end-board, canvas diaphragm,
crewmember must allow the crew- or equivalent means that can with-
member, when seated with the safety stand the load reactions from a 215-
belt and shoulder harness fastened, to pound occupant when subjected to the
perform all functions necessary for inertia loads resulting from the ulti-
flight operations. mate static load factors of § 23.561(b)(2)
(f) Each pilot seat must be designed of this part. In addition—
for the reactions resulting from the ap- (1) Each berth or litter must have an
plication of pilot forces to the primary occupant restraint system and may not
flight controls as prescribed in § 23.395 have corners or other parts likely to
of this part. cause serious injury to a person occu-
(g) There must be a means to secure pying it during emergency landing con-
each safety belt and shoulder harness, ditions; and
when not in use, to prevent inter- (2) Occupant restraint system attach-
ference with the operation of the air- ments for the berth or litter must
plane and with rapid occupant egress in withstand the inertia loads resulting
an emergency. from the ultimate static load factors of
(h) Unless otherwise placarded, each § 23.561(b)(2) of this part.
seat in a utility or acrobatic category (n) Proof of compliance with the stat-
airplane must be designed to accommo- ic strength requirements of this sec-
date an occupant wearing a parachute. tion for seats and berths approved as
245
§ 23.787 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
part of the type design and for seat and other occupants’ seats or where the
berth installations may be shown by— flightcrew members’ compartment is
(1) Structural analysis, if the struc- separated from the passenger compart-
ture conforms to conventional airplane ment, there must be at least one illu-
types for which existing methods of minated sign (using either letters or
analysis are known to be reliable; symbols) notifying all passengers when
(2) A combination of structural anal- seat belts should be fastened. Signs
ysis and static load tests to limit load; that notify when seat belts should be
or fastened must:
(3) Static load tests to ultimate (a) When illuminated, be legible to
loads. each person seated in the passenger
[Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30813, Aug. 15, 1988; Amdt. compartment under all probable light-
23–36, 54 FR 50737, Dec. 11, 1989; Amdt. 23–49, ing conditions; and
61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996] (b) Be installed so that a flightcrew
member can, when seated at the
§ 23.787 Baggage and cargo compart-
ments. flightcrew member’s station, turn the
illumination on and off.
(a) Each baggage and cargo compart-
ment must: [Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) Be designed for its placarded max-
imum weight of contents and for the § 23.803 Emergency evacuation.
critical load distributions at the appro- (a) For commuter category airplanes,
priate maximum load factors cor- an evacuation demonstration must be
responding to the flight and ground conducted utilizing the maximum
load conditions of this part. number of occupants for which certifi-
(2) Have means to prevent the con- cation is desired. The demonstration
tents of any compartment from becom- must be conducted under simulated
ing a hazard by shifting, and to protect night conditions using only the emer-
any controls, wiring, lines, equipment gency exits on the most critical side of
or accessories whose damage or failure the airplane. The participants must be
would affect safe operations. representative of average airline pas-
(3) Have a means to protect occu- sengers with no prior practice or re-
pants from injury by the contents of hearsal for the demonstration. Evacu-
any compartment, located aft of the
ation must be completed within 90 sec-
occupants and separated by structure,
onds.
when the ultimate forward inertial
load factor is 9g and assuming the max- (b) In addition, when certification to
imum allowed baggage or cargo weight the emergency exit provisions of
for the compartment. § 23.807(d)(4) is requested, only the
(b) Designs that provide for baggage emergency lighting system required by
or cargo to be carried in the same com- § 23.812 may be used to provide cabin in-
partment as passengers must have a terior illumination during the evacu-
means to protect the occupants from ation demonstration required in para-
injury when the baggage or cargo is graph (a) of this section.
subjected to the inertial loads result- [Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1987, as
ing from the ultimate static load fac- amended by Amdt. 23–46, 59 FR 25773, May 17,
tors of § 23.561(b)(3), assuming the max- 1994]
imum allowed baggage or cargo weight
for the compartment. § 23.805 Flightcrew emergency exits.
(c) For airplanes that are used only For airplanes where the proximity of
for the carriage of cargo, the flightcrew the passenger emergency exits to the
emergency exits must meet the re- flightcrew area does not offer a conven-
quirements of § 23.807 under any cargo ient and readily accessible means of
loading conditions. evacuation for the flightcrew, the fol-
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996] lowing apply:
(a) There must be either one emer-
§ 23.791 Passenger information signs. gency exit on each side of the airplane,
For those airplanes in which the or a top hatch emergency exit, in the
flightcrew members cannot observe the flightcrew area;
246
(b) Each emergency exit must be lo- must be designed to be overridden by

cated to allow rapid evacuation of the the normal internal opening means.
crew and have a size and shape of at The inside handles of emergency exits
least a 19- by 20-inch unobstructed rec- that open outward must be adequately
tangular opening; and protected against inadvertent oper-
(c) For each emergency exit that is ation. In addition, each emergency exit
not less than six feet from the ground, must—
an assisting means must be provided. (1) Be readily accessible, requiring no
The assisting means may be a rope or exceptional agility to be used in emer-
any other means demonstrated to be gencies;
suitable for the purpose. If the assist- (2) Have a method of opening that is
ing means is a rope, or an approved de- simple and obvious;
vice equivalent to a rope, it must be— (3) Be arranged and marked for easy
(1) Attached to the fuselage structure location and operation, even in dark-
at or above the top of the emergency ness;
exit opening or, for a device at a pilot’s
(4) Have reasonable provisions
emergency exit window, at another ap-
proved location if the stowed device, or against jamming by fuselage deforma-
its attachment, would reduce the pi- tion; and
lot’s view; and (5) In the case of acrobatic category
(2) Able (with its attachment) to airplanes, allow each occupant to aban-
withstand a 400-pound static load. don the airplane at any speed between
VSO and VD; and
[Doc. No. 26324, 59 FR 25773, May 17, 1994] (6) In the case of utility category air-
§ 23.807 Emergency exits. planes certificated for spinning, allow
each occupant to abandon the airplane
(a) Number and location. Emergency at the highest speed likely to be
exits must be located to allow escape achieved in the maneuver for which the
without crowding in any probable airplane is certificated.
crash attitude. The airplane must have (c) Tests. The proper functioning of
at least the following emergency exits: each emergency exit must be shown by
(1) For all airplanes with a seating
tests.
capacity of two or more, excluding air-
planes with canopies, at least one (d) Doors and exits. In addition, for
emergency exit on the opposite side of commuter category airplanes, the fol-
the cabin from the main door specified lowing requirements apply:
in § 23.783 of this part. (1) In addition to the passenger entry
(2) [Reserved] door—
(3) If the pilot compartment is sepa- (i) For an airplane with a total pas-
rated from the cabin by a door that is senger seating capacity of 15 or fewer,
likely to block the pilot’s escape in a an emergency exit, as defined in para-
minor crash, there must be an exit in graph (b) of this section, is required on
the pilot’s compartment. The number each side of the cabin; and
of exits required by paragraph (a)(1) of (ii) For an airplane with a total pas-
this section must then be separately senger seating capacity of 16 through
determined for the passenger compart- 19, three emergency exits, as defined in
ment, using the seating capacity of paragraph (b) of this section, are re-
that compartment. quired with one on the same side as the
(4) Emergency exits must not be lo- passenger entry door and two on the
cated with respect to any propeller side opposite the door.
disk or any other potential hazard so (2) A means must be provided to lock
as to endanger persons using that exit. each emergency exit and to safeguard
(b) Type and operation. Emergency against its opening in flight, either in-
exits must be movable windows, panels, advertently by persons or as a result of
canopies, or external doors, openable mechanical failure. In addition, a
from both inside and outside the air- means for direct visual inspection of
plane, that provide a clear and unob- the locking mechanism must be pro-
structed opening large enough to admit vided to determine that each emer-
a 19-by-26-inch ellipse. Auxiliary lock- gency exit for which the initial opening
ing devices used to secure the airplane movement is outward is fully locked.
247
§ 23.811 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(3) Each required emergency exit, ex- greater than one-third the width of the
cept floor level exits, must be located exit.
over the wing or, if not less than six [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
feet from the ground, must be provided amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13,
with an acceptable means to assist the 1969; Amdt. 23–10, 36 FR 2864, Feb. 11, 1971;
occupants to descend to the ground. Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt.
Emergency exits must be distributed as 23–36, 53 FR 30814, Aug. 15, 1988; 53 FR 34194,
uniformly as practical, taking into ac- Sept. 2, 1988; Amdt. 23–46, 59 FR 25773, May
17, 1994; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996]
count passenger seating configuration.
(4) Unless the applicant has complied § 23.811 Emergency exit marking.
with paragraph (d)(1) of this section,
(a) Each emergency exit and external
there must be an emergency exit on
door in the passenger compartment
the side of the cabin opposite the pas-
must be externally marked and readily
senger entry door, provided that— identifiable from outside the airplane
(i) For an airplane having a pas- by—
senger seating configuration of nine or (1) A conspicuous visual identifica-
fewer, the emergency exit has a rectan- tion scheme; and
gular opening measuring not less than (2) A permanent decal or placard on
19 inches by 26 inches high with corner or adjacent to the emergency exit
radii not greater than one-third the which shows the means of opening the
width of the exit, located over the emergency exit, including any special
wing, with a step up inside the airplane instructions, if applicable.
of not more than 29 inches and a step (b) In addition, for commuter cat-
down outside the airplane of not more egory airplanes, these exits and doors
than 36 inches; must be internally marked with the
(ii) For an airplane having a pas- word ‘‘exit’’ by a sign which has white
senger seating configuration of 10 to 19 letters 1 inch high on a red background
passengers, the emergency exit has a 2 inches high, be self-illuminated or
rectangular opening measuring not less independently, internally electrically
than 20 inches wide by 36 inches high, illuminated, and have a minimum
with corner radii not greater than one- brightness of at least 160 micro-
third the width of the exit, and with a lamberts. The color may be reversed if
step up inside the airplane of not more the passenger compartment illumina-
than 20 inches. If the exit is located tion is essentially the same.
over the wing, the step down outside (c) In addition, when certification to
the airplane may not exceed 27 inches; the emergency exit provisions of
and § 23.807(d)(4) is requested, the following
(iii) The airplane complies with the apply:
additional requirements of (1) Each emergency exit, its means of
access, and its means of opening, must
§§ 23.561(b)(2)(iv), 23.803(b), 23.811(c),
be conspicuously marked;
23.812, 23.813(b), and 23.815.
(2) The identity and location of each
(e) For multiengine airplanes, ditch-
emergency exit must be recognizable
ing emergency exits must be provided from a distance equal to the width of
in accordance with the following re- the cabin;
quirements, unless the emergency exits (3) Means must be provided to assist
required by paragraph (a) or (d) of this occupants in locating the emergency
section already comply with them: exits in conditions of dense smoke;
(1) One exit above the waterline on (4) The location of the operating han-
each side of the airplane having the di- dle and instructions for opening each
mensions specified in paragraph (b) or emergency exit from inside the air-
(d) of this section, as applicable; and plane must be shown by marking that
(2) If side exits cannot be above the is readable from a distance of 30 inches;
waterline, there must be a readily ac- (5) Each passenger entry door oper-
cessible overhead hatch emergency exit ating handle must—
that has a rectangular opening meas- (i) Be self-illuminated with an initial
uring not less than 20 inches wide by 36 brightness of at least 160 micro-
inches long, with corner radii not lamberts; or
248
(ii) Be conspicuously located and well ing system is independent of the power
illuminated by the emergency lighting supply to the main lighting system.
even in conditions of occupant crowd- (b) There must be a crew warning
ing at the door; light that illuminates in the cockpit
(6) Each passenger entry door with a when power is on in the airplane and
locking mechanism that is released by the emergency lighting control device
rotary motion of the handle must be is not armed.
marked— (c) The emergency lights must be op-
(i) With a red arrow, with a shaft of erable manually from the flightcrew
at least three-fourths of an inch wide station and be provided with automatic
and a head twice the width of the shaft, activation. The cockpit control device
extending along at least 70 degrees of must have ‘‘on,’’ ‘‘off,’’ and ‘‘armed’’
arc at a radius approximately equal to positions so that, when armed in the
three-fourths of the handle length; cockpit, the lights will operate by
(ii) So that the center line of the exit automatic activation.
handle is within ± one inch of the pro- (d) There must be a means to safe-
jected point of the arrow when the han- guard against inadvertent operation of
dle has reached full travel and has re- the cockpit control device from the
leased the locking mechanism; ‘‘armed’’ or ‘‘on’’ positions.
(iii) With the word ‘‘open’’ in red let- (e) The cockpit control device must
ters, one inch high, placed horizontally have provisions to allow the emergency
near the head of the arrow; and lighting system to be armed or acti-
(7) In addition to the requirements of vated at any time that it may be need-
paragraph (a) of this section, the exter- ed.
nal marking of each emergency exit (f) When armed, the emergency light-
must— ing system must activate and remain
(i) Include a 2-inch colorband out- lighted when—
lining the exit; and (1) The normal electrical power of
the airplane is lost; or
(ii) Have a color contrast that is
(2) The airplane is subjected to an
readily distinguishable from the sur-
impact that results in a deceleration in
rounding fuselage surface. The contrast
excess of 2g and a velocity change in
must be such that if the reflectance of
excess of 3.5 feet-per-second, acting
the darker color is 15 percent or less,
along the longitudinal axis of the air-
the reflectance of the lighter color
plane; or
must be at least 45 percent. ‘‘Reflec-
(3) Any other emergency condition
tance’’ is the ratio of the luminous flux
exists where automatic activation of
reflected by a body to the luminous
the emergency lighting is necessary to
flux it receives. When the reflectance
aid with occupant evacuation.
of the darker color is greater than 15
(g) The emergency lighting system
percent, at least a 30 percent difference
must be capable of being turned off and
between its reflectance and the reflec-
reset by the flightcrew after automatic
tance of the lighter color must be pro-
activation.
vided.
(h) The emergency lighting system
[Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30814, Aug. 15, 1988; 53 FR must provide internal lighting, includ-
34194, Sept. 2, 1988, as amended by Amdt. 23– ing—
46, 59 FR 25773, May 17, 1994] (1) Illuminated emergency exit mark-
ing and locating signs, including those
§ 23.812 Emergency lighting. required in § 23.811(b);
When certification to the emergency (2) Sources of general illumination in
exit provisions of § 23.807(d)(4) is re- the cabin that provide an average illu-
quested, the following apply: mination of not less than 0.05 foot-can-
(a) An emergency lighting system, dle and an illumination at any point of
independent of the main cabin lighting not less than 0.01 foot-candle when
system, must be installed. However, measured along the center line of the
the source of general cabin illumina- main passenger aisle(s) and at the seat
tion may be common to both the emer- armrest height; and
gency and main lighting systems if the (3) Floor proximity emergency escape
power supply to the emergency light- path marking that provides emergency
249
§23.813 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
evacuation guidance for the airplane assistance in evacuation of passengers

occupants when all sources of illumina- without reducing the unobstructed
tion more than 4 feet above the cabin width of the passageway below 20
aisle floor are totally obscured. inches.
(i) The energy supply to each emer- (3) If it is necessary to pass through
gency lighting unit must provide the a passageway between passenger com-
required level of illumination for at partments to reach a required emer-
least 10 minutes at the critical ambient gency exit from any seat in the pas-
conditions after activation of the senger cabin, the passageway must be
emergency lighting system. unobstructed; however, curtains may
(j) If rechargeable batteries are used be used if they allow free entry
as the energy supply for the emergency
through the passageway.
lighting system, they may be re-
charged from the main electrical power (4) No door may be installed in any
system of the airplane provided the partition between passenger compart-
charging circuit is designed to preclude ments unless that door has a means to
inadvertent battery discharge into the latch it in the open position. The latch-
charging circuit faults. If the emer- ing means must be able to withstand
gency lighting system does not include the loads imposed upon it by the door
a charging circuit, battery condition when the door is subjected to the iner-
monitors are required. tia loads resulting from the ultimate
(k) Components of the emergency static load factors prescribed in
lighting system, including batteries, § 23.561(b)(2).
wiring, relays, lamps, and switches, (5) If it is necessary to pass through
must be capable of normal operation a doorway separating the passenger
after being subjected to the inertia cabin from other areas to reach a re-
forces resulting from the ultimate load quired emergency exit from any pas-
factors prescribed in § 23.561(b)(2). senger seat, the door must have a
(l) The emergency lighting system means to latch it in the open position.
must be designed so that after any sin- The latching means must be able to
gle transverse vertical separation of withstand the loads imposed upon it by
the fuselage during a crash landing: the door when the door is subjected to
(1) At least 75 percent of all elec- the inertia loads resulting from the ul-
trically illuminated emergency lights timate static load factors prescribed in
required by this section remain opera- § 23.561(b)(2).
tive; and
(2) Each electrically illuminated exit [Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30815, Aug. 15, 1988, as
sign required by § 23.811 (b) and (c) re- amended by Amdt. 23–46, 59 FR 25774, May 17,
mains operative, except those that are 1994]
directly damaged by the fuselage sepa-
ration. § 23.815 Width of aisle.
[Doc. No. 26324, 59 FR 25774, May 17, 1994]

(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, for commuter cat-
§23.813 Emergency exit access. egory airplanes, the width of the main
(a) For commuter category airplanes, passenger aisle at any point between
access to window-type emergency exits seats must equal or exceed the values
may not be obstructed by seats or seat in the following table:
backs. Minimum main passenger aisle width
(b) In addition, when certification to Number of pas-
senger seats Less than 25 25 inches and
the emergency exit provisions of inches from floor more from floor
§ 23.807(d)(4) is requested, the following
emergency exit access must be pro- 10 through 19 ....... 9 inches ................ 15 inches.
vided:
(1) The passageway leading from the (b) When certification to the emer-
aisle to the passenger entry door must gency exist provisions of § 23.807(d)(4) is
be unobstructed and at least 20 inches requested, the main passenger aisle
wide. width at any point between the seats
(2) There must be enough space next must equal or exceed the following val-
to the passenger entry door to allow ues:
250
Minimum main passenger large enough so that the failure of any

aisle width (inches) one valve would not cause an appre-
Number of passenger seats ciable rise in the pressure differential.
Less than 25 inches
25 inches and more The pressure differential is positive
from floor from floor
when the internal pressure is greater
10 or fewer ................................ 1 12 15 than the external.
11 through 19 ............................ 12 20
(2) Two reverse pressure differential
1 A narrower width not less than 9 inches may be approved
relief valves (or their equivalent) to
when substantiated by tests found necessary by the
Administrator. automatically prevent a negative pres-
sure differential that would damage
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1987, as the structure. However, one valve is
amended by Amdt. 23–46, 59 FR 25774, May 17, enough if it is of a design that reason-
1994] ably precludes its malfunctioning.
(3) A means by which the pressure
§ 23.831 Ventilation.
differential can be rapidly equalized.
(a) Each passenger and crew compart- (4) An automatic or manual regulator
ment must be suitably ventilated. Car- for controlling the intake or exhaust
bon monoxide concentration may not airflow, or both, for maintaining the
exceed one part in 20,000 parts of air. required internal pressures and airflow
(b) For pressurized airplanes, the rates.
ventilating air in the flightcrew and (5) Instruments to indicate to the
passenger compartments must be free pilot the pressure differential, the
of harmful or hazardous concentrations cabin pressure altitude, and the rate of
of gases and vapors in normal oper- change of cabin pressure altitude.
ations and in the event of reasonably (6) Warning indication at the pilot
probable failures or malfunctioning of station to indicate when the safe or
the ventilating, heating, pressuriza- preset pressure differential is exceeded
tion, or other systems and equipment. and when a cabin pressure altitude of
If accumulation of hazardous quan- 10,000 feet is exceeded.
tities of smoke in the cockpit area is (7) A warning placard for the pilot if
reasonably probable, smoke evacuation the structure is not designed for pres-
must be readily accomplished starting sure differentials up to the maximum
with full pressurization and without relief valve setting in combination
depressurizing beyond safe limits. with landing loads.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 (8) A means to stop rotation of the
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– compressor or to divert airflow from
34, 52 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. 23–42, 56 the cabin if continued rotation of an
FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991] engine-driven cabin compressor or con-
PRESSURIZATION tinued flow of any compressor bleed air
will create a hazard if a malfunction
§ 23.841 Pressurized cabins. occurs.
(a) If certification for operation over [Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973, as
25,000 feet is requested, the airplane amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20,
must be able to maintain a cabin pres- 1976; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996]
sure altitude of not more than 15,000
§ 23.843 Pressurization tests.
feet in event of any probable failure or
malfunction in the pressurization sys- (a) Strength test. The complete pres-
tem. surized cabin, including doors, win-
(b) Pressurized cabins must have at dows, canopy, and valves, must be test-
least the following valves, controls, ed as a pressure vessel for the pressure
and indicators, for controlling cabin differential specified in § 23.365(d).
pressure: (b) Functional tests. The following
(1) Two pressure relief valves to auto- functional tests must be performed:
matically limit the positive pressure (1) Tests of the functioning and ca-
differential to a predetermined value pacity of the positive and negative
at the maximum rate of flow delivered pressure differential valves, and of the
by the pressure source. The combined emergency release valve, to simulate
capacity of the relief valves must be the effects of closed regulator valves.
251
§ 23.851 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) Tests of the pressurization system (1) There must be an adequate num-
to show proper functioning under each ber of self-contained, removable ash-
possible condition of pressure, tem- trays; and
perature, and moisture, up to the max- (2) Where the crew compartment is
imum altitude for which certification separated from the passenger compart-
is requested. ment, there must be at least one illu-
(3) Flight tests, to show the perform- minated sign (using either letters or
ance of the pressure supply, pressure symbols) notifying all passengers when
and flow regulators, indicators, and smoking is prohibited. Signs which no-
warning signals, in steady and stepped tify when smoking is prohibited must—
climbs and descents at rates cor- (i) When illuminated, be legible to
responding to the maximum attainable each passenger seated in the passenger
within the operating limitations of the cabin under all probable lighting condi-
airplane, up to the maximum altitude tions; and
for which certification is requested. (ii) Be so constructed that the crew
(4) Tests of each door and emergency can turn the illumination on and off;
exit, to show that they operate prop- and
erly after being subjected to the flight (d) In addition, for commuter cat-
tests prescribed in paragraph (b)(3) of egory airplanes the following require-
this section. ments apply:
(1) Each disposal receptacle for tow-
FIRE PROTECTION els, paper, or waste must be fully en-
§ 23.851 Fire extinguishers. closed and constructed of at least fire
resistant materials and must contain
(a) There must be at least one hand fires likely to occur in it under normal
fire extinguisher for use in the pilot use. The ability of the disposal recep-
compartment that is located within tacle to contain those fires under all
easy access of the pilot while seated. probable conditions of wear, misalign-
(b) There must be at least one hand ment, and ventilation expected in serv-
fire extinguisher located conveniently ice must be demonstrated by test. A
in the passenger compartment— placard containing the legible words
(1) Of each airplane accommodating ‘‘No Cigarette Disposal’’ must be lo-
more than 6 passengers; and cated on or near each disposal recep-
(2) Of each commuter category air- tacle door.
plane. (2) Lavatories must have ‘‘No Smok-
(c) For hand fire extinguishers, the ing’’ or ‘‘No Smoking in Lavatory’’
following apply: placards located conspicuously on each
(1) The type and quantity of each ex- side of the entry door and self-con-
tinguishing agent used must be appro- tained, removable ashtrays located
priate to the kinds of fire likely to conspicuously on or near the entry side
occur where that agent is to be used. of each lavatory door, except that one
(2) Each extinguisher for use in a per- ashtray may serve more than one lava-
sonnel compartment must be designed tory door if it can be seen from the
to minimize the hazard of toxic gas cabin side of each lavatory door served.
concentrations. The placards must have red letters at
least 1⁄2 inch high on a white back-
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993] ground at least 1 inch high (a ‘‘No
Smoking’’ symbol may be included on
§ 23.853 Passenger and crew compart- the placard).
ment interiors.
(3) Materials (including finishes or
For each compartment to be used by decorative surfaces applied to the ma-
the crew or passengers: terials) used in each compartment oc-
(a) The materials must be at least cupied by the crew or passengers must
flame-resistant; meet the following test criteria as ap-
(b) [Reserved] plicable:
(c) If smoking is to be prohibited, (i) Interior ceiling panels, interior
there must be a placard so stating, and wall panels, partitions, galley struc-
if smoking is to be allowed— ture, large cabinet walls, structural
252
flooring, and materials used in the con- cargo and baggage tiedown equipment,
struction of stowage compartments including containers, bins, pallets, etc.,
(other than underseat stowage com- used in passenger or crew compart-
partments and compartments for stow- ments, may not have an average burn
ing small items such as magazines and rate greater than 2.5 inches per minute
maps) must be self-extinguishing when when tested horizontally in accordance
tested vertically in accordance with with the applicable portions of appen-
the applicable portions of appendix F dix F of this part or by other approved
of this part or by other equivalent equivalent methods.
methods. The average burn length may
(v) Except for electrical wire cable
not exceed 6 inches and the average
flame time after removal of the flame insulation, and for small parts (such as
source may not exceed 15 seconds. knobs, handles, rollers, fasteners, clips,
Drippings from the test specimen may grommets, rub strips, pulleys, and
not continue to flame for more than an small electrical parts) that the Admin-
average of 3 seconds after falling. istrator finds would not contribute sig-
(ii) Floor covering, textiles (includ- nificantly to the propagation of a fire,
ing draperies and upholstery), seat materials in items not specified in
cushions, padding, decorative and non- paragraphs (d)(3)(i), (ii), (iii), or (iv) of
decorative coated fabrics, leather, this section may not have a burn rate
trays and galley furnishings, electrical greater than 4.0 inches per minute
conduit, thermal and acoustical insula- when tested horizontally in accordance
tion and insulation covering, air duct- with the applicable portions of appen-
ing, joint and edge covering, cargo dix F of this part or by other approved
compartment liners, insulation blan- equivalent methods.
kets, cargo covers and transparencies, (e) Lines, tanks, or equipment con-
molded and thermoformed parts, air taining fuel, oil, or other flammable
ducting joints, and trim strips (decora-
fluids may not be installed in such
tive and chafing), that are constructed
compartments unless adequately
of materials not covered in paragraph
(d)(3)(iv) of this section must be self ex- shielded, isolated, or otherwise pro-
tinguishing when tested vertically in tected so that any breakage or failure
accordance with the applicable por- of such an item would not create a haz-
tions of appendix F of this part or ard.
other approved equivalent methods. (f) Airplane materials located on the
The average burn length may not ex- cabin side of the firewall must be self-
ceed 8 inches and the average flame extinguishing or be located at such a
time after removal of the flame source distance from the firewall, or otherwise
may not exceed 15 seconds. Drippings protected, so that ignition will not
from the test specimen may not con- occur if the firewall is subjected to a
tinue to flame for more than an aver- flame temperature of not less than
age of 5 seconds after falling. 2,000 degrees F for 15 minutes. For self-
(iii) Motion picture film must be extinguishing materials (except elec-
safety film meeting the Standard Spec- trical wire and cable insulation and
ifications for Safety Photographic small parts that the Administrator
Film PH1.25 (available from the Amer- finds would not contribute signifi-
ican National Standards Institute, 1430 cantly to the propagation of a fire), a
Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018) or an vertifical self-extinguishing test must
FAA approved equivalent. If the film be conducted in accordance with appen-
travels through ducts, the ducts must
dix F of this part or an equivalent
meet the requirements of paragraph
method approved by the Adminis-
(d)(3)(ii) of this section.
(iv) Acrylic windows and signs, parts trator. The average burn length of the
constructed in whole or in part of elas- material may not exceed 6 inches and
tomeric materials, edge-lighted instru- the average flame time after removal
ment assemblies consisting of two or of the flame source may not exceed 15
more instruments in a common hous- seconds. Drippings from the material
ing, seatbelts, shoulder harnesses, and test specimen may not continue to
253
§ 23.855 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
flame for more than an average of 3 cordance with the applicable provisions
seconds after falling. of §§23.1182 through 23.1191 and 23.1203:
(1) The region surrounding the heat-
[Amdt. 23–14, 23 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973, as
amended by Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, er, if this region contains any flam-
1978; Amdt. 23–25, 45 FR 7755, Feb. 4, 1980; mable fluid system components (ex-
Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1987] cluding the heater fuel system) that
could—
§ 23.855 Cargo and baggage compart- (i) Be damaged by heater malfunc-
ment fire protection. tioning; or
(a) Sources of heat within each cargo (ii) Allow flammable fluids or vapors
and baggage compartment that are ca- to reach the heater in case of leakage.
pable of igniting the compartment con- (2) The region surrounding the heat-
tents must be shielded and insulated to er, if the heater fuel system has fit-
prevent such ignition. tings that, if they leaked, would allow
(b) Each cargo and baggage compart- fuel vapor to enter this region.
ment must be constructed of materials (3) The part of the ventilating air
that meet the appropriate provisions of passage that surrounds the combustion
§ 23.853(d)(3). chamber.
(c) In addition, for commuter cat- (b) Ventilating air ducts. Each ven-
egory airplanes, each cargo and bag- tilating air duct passing through any
gage compartment must: fire region must be fireproof. In addi-
(1) Be located where the presence of a tion—
fire would be easily discovered by the (1) Unless isolation is provided by
pilots when seated at their duty sta- fireproof valves or by equally effective
tion, or it must be equipped with a means, the ventilating air duct down-
smoke or fire detector system to give a stream of each heater must be fireproof
warning at the pilots’ station, and pro- for a distance great enough to ensure
vide sufficient access to enable a pilot that any fire originating in the heater
to effectively reach any part of the can be contained in the duct; and
compartment with the contents of a (2) Each part of any ventilating duct
hand held fire extinguisher, or passing through any region having a
(2) Be equipped with a smoke or fire flammable fluid system must be con-
detector system to give a warning at structed or isolated from that system
the pilots’ station and have ceiling and so that the malfunctioning of any com-
sidewall liners and floor panels con- ponent of that system cannot intro-
structed of materials that have been duce flammable fluids or vapors into
subjected to and meet the 45 degree the ventilating airstream.
angle test of appendix F of this part. (c) Combustion air ducts. Each com-
The flame may not penetrate (pass bustion air duct must be fireproof for a
through) the material during applica- distance great enough to prevent dam-
tion of the flame or subsequent to its age from backfiring or reverse flame
removal. The average flame time after propagation. In addition—
removal of the flame source may not (1) No combustion air duct may have
exceed 15 seconds, and the average glow a common opening with the ventilating
time may not exceed 10 seconds. The airstream unless flames from backfires
compartment must be constructed to or reverse burning cannot enter the
provide fire protection that is not less ventilating airstream under any oper-
than that required of its individual ating condition, including reverse flow
panels; or or malfunctioning of the heater or its
associated components; and
(3) Be constructed and sealed to con-
(2) No combustion air duct may re-
tain any fire within the compartment.
strict the prompt relief of any backfire
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5167, Feb. 9, 1996] that, if so restricted, could cause heat-
er failure.
§ 23.859 Combustion heater fire pro- (d) Heater controls: general. Provision
tection. must be made to prevent the hazardous
(a) Combustion heater fire regions. The accumulation of water or ice on or in
following combustion heater fire re- any heater control component, control
gions must be protected from fire in ac- system tubing, or safety control.
254
(e) Heater safety controls. (1) Each (h) Heater fuel systems. Each heater
combustion heater must have the fol- fuel system must meet each power-
lowing safety controls: plant fuel system requirement affect-
(i) Means independent of the compo- ing safe heater operation. Each heater
nents for the normal continuous con- fuel system component within the ven-
trol of air temperature, airflow, and tilating airstream must be protected
fuel flow must be provided to auto- by shrouds so that no leakage from
matically shut off the ignition and fuel those components can enter the ven-
supply to that heater at a point remote tilating airstream.
from that heater when any of the fol- (i) Drains. There must be means to
lowing occurs: safely drain fuel that might accumu-
(A) The heater exchanger tempera- late within the combustion chamber or
ture exceeds safe limits. the heater exchanger. In addition—
(B) The ventilating air temperature (1) Each part of any drain that oper-
exceeds safe limits. ates at high temperatures must be pro-
(C) The combustion airflow becomes tected in the same manner as heater
inadequate for safe operation. exhausts; and
(D) The ventilating airflow becomes (2) Each drain must be protected
inadequate for safe operation. from hazardous ice accumulation under
(ii) Means to warn the crew when any any operating condition.
heater whose heat output is essential [Amdt. 23–27, 45 FR 70387, Oct. 23, 1980]
for safe operation has been shut off by
the automatic means prescribed in § 23.863 Flammable fluid fire protec-
paragraph (e)(1)(i) of this section. tion.
(2) The means for complying with (a) In each area where flammable
paragraph (e)(1)(i) of this section for fluids or vapors might escape by leak-
any individual heater must— age of a fluid system, there must be
(i) Be independent of components means to minimize the probability of
serving any other heater whose heat ignition of the fluids and vapors, and
output is essential for safe operations; the resultant hazard if ignition does
and occur.
(ii) Keep the heater off until re- (b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
started by the crew. this section must be shown by analysis
(f) Air intakes. Each combustion and or tests, and the following factors must
ventilating air intake must be located be considered:
so that no flammable fluids or vapors (1) Possible sources and paths of fluid
can enter the heater system under any leakage, and means of detecting leak-
operating condition— age.
(1) During normal operation; or (2) Flammability characteristics of
(2) As a result of the malfunctioning fluids, including effects of any combus-
of any other component. tible or absorbing materials.
(g) Heater exhaust. Heater exhaust (3) Possible ignition sources, includ-
systems must meet the provisions of ing electrical faults, overheating of
§§ 23.1121 and 23.1123. In addition, there equipment, and malfunctioning of pro-
must be provisions in the design of the tective devices.
heater exhaust system to safely expel (4) Means available for controlling or
the products of combustion to prevent extinguishing a fire, such as stopping
the occurrence of— flow of fluids, shutting down equip-
(1) Fuel leakage from the exhaust to ment, fireproof containment, or use of
surrounding compartments; extinguishing agents.
(2) Exhaust gas impingement on sur- (5) Ability of airplane components
rounding equipment or structure; that are critical to safety of flight to
(3) Ignition of flammable fluids by withstand fire and heat.
the exhaust, if the exhaust is in a com- (c) If action by the flight crew is re-
partment containing flammable fluid quired to prevent or counteract a fluid
lines; and fire (e.g. equipment shutdown or actu-
(4) Restrictions in the exhaust sys- ation of a fire extinguisher), quick act-
tem to relieve backfires that, if so re- ing means must be provided to alert
stricted, could cause heater failure. the crew.
255
§ 23.865 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(d) Each area where flammable fluids Subpart E—Powerplant

or vapors might escape by leakage of a
fluid system must be identified and de- GENERAL
fined.
§ 23.901 Installation.
[Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978]
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
§ 23.865 Fire protection of flight con- airplane powerplant installation in-
trols, engine mounts, and other cludes each component that—
flight structure. (1) Is necessary for propulsion; and
(2) Affects the safety of the major
Flight controls, engine mounts, and
propulsive units.
other flight structure located in des-
(b) Each powerplant installation
ignated fire zones, or in adjacent areas
must be constructed and arranged to—
that would be subjected to the effects
(1) Ensure safe operation to the max-
of fire in the designated fire zones, imum altitude for which approval is re-
must be constructed of fireproof mate- quested.
rial or be shielded so that they are ca- (2) Be accessible for necessary inspec-
pable of withstanding the effects of a tions and maintenance.
fire. Engine vibration isolators must (c) Engine cowls and nacelles must be
incorporate suitable features to ensure easily removable or openable by the
that the engine is retained if the non- pilot to provide adequate access to and
fireproof portions of the isolators dete- exposure of the engine compartment
riorate from the effects of a fire. for preflight checks.
[Doc. No. 27805, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996] (d) Each turbine engine installation
must be constructed and arranged to—
ELECTRICAL BONDING AND LIGHTNING (1) Result in carcass vibration char-
PROTECTION acteristics that do not exceed those es-
tablished during the type certification
§ 23.867 Electrical bonding and protec- of the engine.
tion against lightning and static (2) Ensure that the capability of the
electricity. installed engine to withstand the in-
(a) The airplane must be protected gestion of rain, hail, ice, and birds into
against catastrophic effects from light- the engine inlet is not less than the ca-
ning. pability established for the engine
(b) For metallic components, compli- itself under § 23.903(a)(2).
ance with paragraph (a) of this section (e) The installation must comply
may be shown by— with—
(1) Bonding the components properly (1) The instructions provided under
to the airframe; or the engine type certificate and the pro-
(2) Designing the components so that peller type certificate.
a strike will not endanger the airplane. (2) The applicable provisions of this
(c) For nonmetallic components, subpart.
compliance with paragraph (a) of this (f) Each auxiliary power unit instal-
lation must meet the applicable por-
section may be shown by—
tions of this part.
(1) Designing the components to min-
imize the effect of a strike; or [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(2) Incorporating acceptable means of amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13,
diverting the resulting electrical cur- 1969; Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6846, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
rent so as not to endanger the airplane. 23–34, 52 FR 1832, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. 23–34, 52
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, 1969] FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR
18970, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136,
MISCELLANEOUS Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 23–53, 63 FR 14797, Mar. 26,
1998]
§ 23.871 Leveling means.
§ 23.903 Engines.
There must be means for determining
(a) Engine type certificate. (1) Each en-
when the airplane is in a level position
gine must have a type certificate and
on the ground.
must meet the applicable requirements
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, 1969] of part 34 of this chapter.
256
(2) Each turbine engine and its in- chanical damage to the engine or air-
stallation must comply with one of the plane, as a result of starting the engine
following: in any conditions in which starting is
(i) Sections 33.76, 33.77 and 33.78 of to be permitted, is reduced to a min-
this chapter in effect on December 13, imum. Any techniques and associated
2000. limitations for engine starting must be
(ii) Sections 33.77 and 33.78 of this established and included in the Air-
chapter in effect on April 30, 1998, or as plane Flight Manual, approved manual
subsequently amended before Decem- material, or applicable operating plac-
ber 13, 2000; or ards. Means must be provided for—
(iii) Section 33.77 of this chapter in (i) Restarting any engine of a multi-
effect on October 31, 1974, or as subse- engine airplane in flight, and
quently amended before April 30, 1998, (ii) Stopping any engine in flight,
unless that engine’s foreign object in- after engine failure, if continued en-
gestion service history has resulted in gine rotation would cause a hazard to
an unsafe condition; or the airplane.
(iv) Be shown to have a foreign object (2) In addition, for commuter cat-
ingestion service history in similar in- egory airplanes, the following apply:
stallation locations which has not re- (i) Each component of the stopping
sulted in any unsafe condition. system on the engine side of the fire-
NOTE: § 33.77 of this chapter in effect on Oc- wall that might be exposed to fire must
tober 31, 1974, was published in 14 CFR parts be at least fire resistant.
1 to 59, Revised as of January 1, 1975. See 39 (ii) If hydraulic propeller feathering
FR 35467, October 1, 1974. systems are used for this purpose, the
(b) Turbine engine installations. For feathering lines must be at least fire
turbine engine installations— resistant under the operating condi-
(1) Design precautions must be taken tions that may be expected to exist
to minimize the hazards to the airplane during feathering.
in the event of an engine rotor failure (e) Starting and stopping (turbine en-
or of a fire originating inside the engine). Turbine engine installations
gine which burns through the engine must comply with the following:
case. (1) The design of the installation
(2) The powerplant systems associ- must be such that risk of fire or me-
ated with engine control devices, sys- chanical damage to the engine or the
tems, and instrumentation must be de- airplane, as a result of starting the en-
signed to give reasonable assurance gine in any conditions in which start-
that those operating limitations that ing is to be permitted, is reduced to a
adversely affect turbine rotor struc- minimum. Any techniques and associ-
tural integrity will not be exceeded in ated limitations must be established
service. and included in the Airplane Flight
(c) Engine isolation. The powerplants Manual, approved manual material, or
must be arranged and isolated from applicable operating placards.
each other to allow operation, in at (2) There must be means for stopping
least one configuration, so that the combustion within any engine and for
failure or malfunction of any engine, or stopping the rotation of any engine if
the failure or malfunction (including continued rotation would cause a haz-
destruction by fire in the engine com- ard to the airplane. Each component of
partment) of any system that can af- the engine stopping system located in
fect an engine (other than a fuel tank any fire zone must be fire resistant. If
if only one fuel tank is installed), will hydraulic propeller feathering systems
not: are used for stopping the engine, the
(1) Prevent the continued safe oper- hydraulic feathering lines or hoses
ation of the remaining engines; or must be fire resistant.
(2) Require immediate action by any (3) It must be possible to restart an
crewmember for continued safe oper- engine in flight. Any techniques and
ation of the remaining engines. associated limitations must be estab-
(d) Starting and stopping (piston en- lished and included in the Airplane
gine). (1) The design of the installation Flight Manual, approved manual mate-
must be such that risk of fire or me- rial, or applicable operating placards.
257
§ 23.904 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(4) It must be demonstrated in flight condition must be suitably protected

that when restarting engines following to prevent ice formation, or it must be
a false start, all fuel or vapor is dis- shown that any ice shed into the pro-
charged in such a way that it does not peller disc will not create a hazardous
constitute a fire hazard. condition.
(f) Restart envelope. An altitude and (f) Each pusher propeller must be
airspeed envelope must be established marked so that the disc is conspicuous
for the airplane for in-flight engine re- under normal daylight ground condi-
starting and each installed engine tions.
must have a restart capability within (g) If the engine exhaust gases are
that envelope. discharged into the pusher propeller
(g) Restart capability. For turbine en- disc, it must be shown by tests, or
gine powered airplanes, if the min- analysis supported by tests, that the
imum windmilling speed of the en- propeller is capable of continuous safe
gines, following the in-flight shutdown operation.
of all engines, is insufficient to provide (h) All engine cowling, access doors,
the necessary electrical power for en- and other removable items must be de-
gine ignition, a power source inde- signed to ensure that they will not sep-
pendent of the engine-driven electrical arate from the airplane and contact
power generating system must be pro- the pusher propeller.
vided to permit in-flight engine igni- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
tion for restarting. amended by Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept.
11, 1980; Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984;
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973, as
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18970, Apr. 9, 1993]
1976; Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980; § 23.907 Propeller vibration.
Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
23–34, 52 FR 1832, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. 23–40, 55 (a) Each propeller other than a con-
FR 32861, Aug. 10, 1990; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR ventional fixed-pitch wooden propeller
18970, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, must be shown to have vibration
Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 23–53, 63 FR 14798, Mar. 26, stresses, in normal operating condi-
1998; Amdt. 23–54, 65 FR 55854, Sept. 14, 2000] tions, that do not exceed values that
have been shown by the propeller man-
§ 23.904 Automatic power reserve sys-
tem. ufacturer to be safe for continuous op-
eration. This must be shown by—
If installed, an automatic power re- (1) Measurement of stresses through
serve (APR) system that automatically direct testing of the propeller;
advances the power or thrust on the op- (2) Comparison with similar installa-
erating engine(s), when any engine tions for which these measurements
fails during takeoff, must comply with have been made; or
appendix H of this part. (3) Any other acceptable test method
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18970, Apr. 9, 1993] or service experience that proves the
safety of the installation.
§ 23.905 Propellers. (b) Proof of safe vibration character-
(a) Each propeller must have a type istics for any type of propeller, except
certificate. for conventional, fixed-pitch, wood pro-
(b) Engine power and propeller shaft pellers must be shown where necessary.
rotational speed may not exceed the [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
limits for which the propeller is certifi- FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
cated. 51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996]
(c) Each featherable propeller must
have a means to unfeather it in flight. § 23.909 Turbocharger systems.
(d) Each component of the propeller (a) Each turbocharger must be ap-
blade pitch control system must meet proved under the engine type certifi-
the requirements of § 35.42 of this chap- cate or it must be shown that the tur-
ter. bocharger system, while in its normal
(e) All areas of the airplane forward engine installation and operating in
of the pusher propeller that are likely the engine environment—
to accumulate and shed ice into the (1) Can withstand, without defect, an
propeller disc during any operating endurance test of 150 hours that meets
258
the applicable requirements of § 33.49 of the level, normal takeoff, or taxing at-
this subchapter; and titude, whichever is most critical. In
(2) Will have no adverse effect upon addition, for each airplane with con-
the engine. ventional landing gear struts using
(b) Control system malfunctions, vi- fluid or mechanical means for absorb-
brations, and abnormal speeds and ing landing shocks, there must be posi-
temperatures expected in service may tive clearance between the propeller
not damage the turbocharger com- and the ground in the level takeoff at-
pressor or turbine.
titude with the critical tire completely
(c) Each turbocharger case must be
deflated and the corresponding landing
able to contain fragments of a com-
pressor or turbine that fails at the gear strut bottomed. Positive clear-
highest speed that is obtainable with ance for airplanes using leaf spring
normal speed control devices inoper- struts is shown with a deflection cor-
ative. responding to 1.5g.
(d) Each intercooler installation, (b) Aft-mounted propellers. In addition
where provided, must comply with the to the clearances specified in para-
following— graph (a) of this section, an airplane
(1) The mounting provisions of the with an aft mounted propeller must be
intercooler must be designed to with- designed such that the propeller will
stand the loads imposed on the system; not contact the runway surface when
(2) It must be shown that, under the the airplane is in the maximum pitch
installed vibration environment, the attitude attainable during normal
intercooler will not fail in a manner al- takeoffs and landings.
lowing portions of the intercooler to be (c) Water clearance. There must be a
ingested by the engine; and clearance of at least 18 inches between
(3) Airflow through the intercooler each propeller and the water, unless
must not discharge directly on any air-
compliance with § 23.239 can be shown
plane component (e.g., windshield) un-
with a lesser clearance.
less such discharge is shown to cause
no hazard to the airplane under all op- (d) Structural clearance. There must
erating conditions. be—
(e) Engine power, cooling character- (1) At least one inch radial clearance
istics, operating limits, and procedures between the blade tips and the airplane
affected by the turbocharger system in- structure, plus any additional radial
stallations must be evaluated. Turbo- clearance necessary to prevent harmful
charger operating procedures and limi- vibration;
tations must be included in the Air- (2) At least one-half inch longitudinal
plane Flight Manual in accordance clearance between the propeller blades
with § 23.1581. or cuffs and stationary parts of the air-
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13092, Aug. 13, 1969, as plane; and
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18970, Apr. 9, (3) Positive clearance between other
1993] rotating parts of the propeller or spin-
ner and stationary parts of the air-
§ 23.925 Propeller clearance. plane.
Unless smaller clearances are sub-
stantiated, propeller clearances, with [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9,
the airplane at the most adverse com-
1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996;
bination of weight and center of grav- Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5148, Feb. 9, 1996]
ity, and with the propeller in the most
adverse pitch position, may not be less § 23.929 Engine installation ice protec-
than the following: tion.
(a) Ground clearance. There must be a
clearance of at least seven inches (for Propellers (except wooden propellers)
each airplane with nose wheel landing and other components of complete en-
gear) or nine inches (for each airplane gine installations must be protected
with tail wheel landing gear) between against the accumulation of ice as nec-
each propeller and the ground with the essary to enable satisfactory func-
landing gear statically deflected and in tioning without appreciable loss of
259
§ 23.933 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
thrust when operated in the icing con- flight, low-pitch position. The analysis
ditions for which certification is re- may include or be supported by the
quested. analysis made to show compliance with
[Amdt. 23–14, 33 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973, as
§ 35.21 for the type certification of the
amended by Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, propeller and associated installation
1996] components. Credit will be given for
pertinent analysis and testing com-
§ 23.933 Reversing systems. pleted by the engine and propeller
(a) For turbojet and turbofan reversing manufacturers.
systems. (1) Each system intended for [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, 1993, as
ground operation only must be de- amended by Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9,
signed so that, during any reversal in 1996]
flight, the engine will produce no more
than flight idle thrust. In addition, it § 23.934 Turbojet and turbofan engine
must be shown by analysis or test, or thrust reverser systems tests.
both, that— Thrust reverser systems of turbojet
(i) Each operable reverser can be re- or turbofan engines must meet the re-
stored to the forward thrust position; quirements of § 33.97 of this chapter or
or it must be demonstrated by tests that
(ii) The airplane is capable of contin- engine operation and vibratory levels
ued safe flight and landing under any are not affected.
possible position of the thrust reverser.
(2) Each system intended for in-flight [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, 1993]
use must be designed so that no unsafe § 23.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting
condition will result during normal op- systems.
eration of the system, or from any fail-
ure, or likely combination of failures, (a) Turbopropeller-powered airplane
of the reversing system under any op- propeller-drag limiting systems must
erating condition including ground op- be designed so that no single failure or
eration. Failure of structural elements malfunction of any of the systems dur-
need not be considered if the prob- ing normal or emergency operation re-
ability of this type of failure is ex- sults in propeller drag in excess of that
tremely remote. for which the airplane was designed
(3) Each system must have a means under the structural requirements of
to prevent the engine from producing this part. Failure of structural ele-
more than idle thrust when the revers- ments of the drag limiting systems
ing system malfunctions; except that it need not be considered if the prob-
may produce any greater thrust that is ability of this kind of failure is ex-
shown to allow directional control to tremely remote.
be maintained, with aerodynamic (b) As used in this section, drag lim-
means alone, under the most critical iting systems include manual or auto-
reversing condition expected in oper- matic devices that, when actuated
ation. after engine power loss, can move the
(b) For propeller reversing systems. (1) propeller blades toward the feather po-
Each system must be designed so that sition to reduce windmilling drag to a
no single failure, likely combination of safe level.
failures or malfunction of the system [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13, 1969, as
will result in unwanted reverse thrust amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9,
under any operating condition. Failure 1993]
of structural elements need not be con-
sidered if the probability of this type of § 23.939 Powerplant operating charac-
failure is extremely remote. teristics.
(2) Compliance with paragraph (b)(1) (a) Turbine engine powerplant oper-
of this section must be shown by fail- ating characteristics must be inves-
ure analysis, or testing, or both, for tigated in flight to determine that no
propeller systems that allow the pro- adverse characteristics (such as stall,
peller blades to move from the flight surge, or flameout) are present, to a
low-pitch position to a position that is hazardous degree, during normal and
substantially less than the normal emergency operation within the range
260
of operating limitations of the airplane range with fuel initially saturated with
and of the engine. water at 80° F and having 0.75cc of free
(b) Turbocharged reciprocating en- water per gallon added and cooled to
gine operating characteristics must be the most critical condition for icing
investigated in flight to assure that no likely to be encountered in operation.
adverse characteristics, as a result of (d) Each fuel system for a turbine en-
an inadvertent overboost, surge, flood- gine powered airplane must meet the
ing, or vapor lock, are present during applicable fuel venting requirements of
normal or emergency operation of the part 34 of this chapter.
engine(s) throughout the range of oper-
[Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35459, Oct. 1, 1974, as
ating limitations of both airplane and
engine. 1990; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, 1993]
(c) For turbine engines, the air inlet
system must not, as a result of airflow § 23.953 Fuel system independence.
distortion during normal operation,
cause vibration harmful to the engine. (a) Each fuel system for a multien-
gine airplane must be arranged so that,
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093 Aug. 13, 1969, as in at least one system configuration,
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, the failure of any one component
1973; Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977;
(other than a fuel tank) will not result
Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991]
in the loss of power of more than one
§ 23.943 Negative acceleration. engine or require immediate action by
the pilot to prevent the loss of power of
No hazardous malfunction of an en-
more than one engine.
gine, an auxiliary power unit approved
(b) If a single fuel tank (or series of
for use in flight, or any component or
fuel tanks interconnected to function
system associated with the powerplant
as a single fuel tank) is used on a
or auxiliary power unit may occur
multiengine airplane, the following
when the airplane is operated at the
must be provided:
negative accelerations within the
(1) Independent tank outlets for each
flight envelopes prescribed in § 23.333.
engine, each incorporating a shut-off
This must be shown for the greatest
valve at the tank. This shutoff valve
value and duration of the acceleration
may also serve as the fire wall shutoff
expected in service.
valve required if the line between the
[Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977, as valve and the engine compartment does
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, not contain more than one quart of
1993] fuel (or any greater amount shown to
FUEL SYSTEM be safe) that can escape into the engine
compartment.
§ 23.951 General. (2) At least two vents arranged to
minimize the probability of both vents
(a) Each fuel system must be con-
becoming obstructed simultaneously.
structed and arranged to ensure fuel
flow at a rate and pressure established (3) Filler caps designed to minimize
for proper engine and auxiliary power the probability of incorrect installa-
unit functioning under each likely option or inflight loss.
erating condition, including any ma- (4) A fuel system in which those parts
neuver for which certification is re- of the system from each tank outlet to
quested and during which the engine or any engine are independent of each
auxiliary power unit is permitted to be part of the system supplying fuel to
in operation. any other engine.
(b) Each fuel system must be ar- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
ranged so that— amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093 Aug. 13,
(1) No fuel pump can draw fuel from 1969; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, 1993]
more than one tank at a time; or
(2) There are means to prevent intro- § 23.954 Fuel system lightning protec-
ducing air into the system. tion.
(c) Each fuel system for a turbine en- The fuel system must be designed
gine must be capable of sustained oper- and arranged to prevent the ignition of
ation throughout its flow and pressure fuel vapor within the system by—
261
§ 23.955 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(a) Direct lightning strikes to areas (3) The fuel pressure, with main and
having a high probability of stroke at- emergency pumps operating simulta-
tachment; neously, must not exceed the fuel inlet
(b) Swept lightning strokes on areas pressure limits of the engine unless it
where swept strokes are highly prob- can be shown that no adverse effect oc-
able; and curs.
(c) Corona or streamering at fuel (d) Auxiliary fuel systems and fuel
vent outlets. transfer systems. Paragraphs (b), (c), and
(f) of this section apply to each auxil-
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13, 1969]
iary and transfer system, except that—
§ 23.955 Fuel flow. (1) The required fuel flow rate must
be established upon the basis of max-
(a) General. The ability of the fuel imum continuous power and engine ro-
system to provide fuel at the rates tational speed, instead of takeoff power
specified in this section and at a pres- and fuel consumption; and
sure sufficient for proper engine oper- (2) If there is a placard providing op-
ation must be shown in the attitude erating instructions, a lesser flow rate
that is most critical with respect to may be used for transferring fuel from
fuel feed and quantity of unusable fuel. any auxiliary tank into a larger main
These conditions may be simulated in a tank. This lesser flow rate must be ade-
suitable mockup. In addition— quate to maintain engine maximum
(1) The quantity of fuel in the tank continuous power but the flow rate
may not exceed the amount established must not overfill the main tank at
as the unusable fuel supply for that lower engine powers.
tank under § 23.959(a) plus that quan- (e) Multiple fuel tanks. For recipro-
tity necessary to show compliance with cating engines that are supplied with
this section. fuel from more than one tank, if engine
(2) If there is a fuel flowmeter, it power loss becomes apparent due to
must be blocked during the flow test fuel depletion from the tank selected,
and the fuel must flow through the it must be possible after switching to
meter or its bypass. any full tank, in level flight, to obtain
(3) If there is a flowmeter without a 75 percent maximum continuous power
bypass, it must not have any probable on that engine in not more than—
failure mode that would restrict fuel (1) 10 seconds for naturally aspirated
flow below the level required for this single-engine airplanes;
fuel demonstration. (2) 20 seconds for turbocharged sin-
(4) The fuel flow must include that gle-engine airplanes, provided that 75
flow necessary for vapor return flow, percent maximum continuous natu-
jet pump drive flow, and for all other rally aspirated power is regained with-
purposes for which fuel is used. in 10 seconds; or
(b) Gravity systems. The fuel flow rate (3) 20 seconds for multiengine air-
for gravity systems (main and reserve planes.
supply) must be 150 percent of the (f) Turbine engine fuel systems. Each
takeoff fuel consumption of the engine. turbine engine fuel system must pro-
(c) Pump systems. The fuel flow rate vide at least 100 percent of the fuel flow
for each pump system (main and re- required by the engine under each in-
serve supply) for each reciprocating en- tended operation condition and maneu-
gine must be 125 percent of the fuel ver. The conditions may be simulated
flow required by the engine at the max- in a suitable mockup. This flow must—
imum takeoff power approved under (1) Be shown with the airplane in the
this part. most adverse fuel feed condition (with
(1) This flow rate is required for each respect to altitudes, attitudes, and
main pump and each emergency pump, other conditions) that is expected in
and must be available when the pump operation; and
is operating as it would during takeoff; (2) For multiengine airplanes, not-
(2) For each hand-operated pump, withstanding the lower flow rate al-
this rate must occur at not more than lowed by paragraph (d) of this section,
60 complete cycles (120 single strokes) be automatically uninterrupted with
per minute. respect to any engine until all the fuel
262
scheduled for use by that engine has that tank. Fuel system component fail-
been consumed. In addition— ures need not be considered.
(i) For the purposes of this section, (b) The effect on the usable fuel
‘‘fuel scheduled for use by that engine’’ quantity as a result of a failure of any
means all fuel in any tank intended for pump shall be determined.
use by a specific engine. [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13, 1969, as
(ii) The fuel system design must amended by Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17,
clearly indicate the engine for which 1977; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996]
fuel in any tank is scheduled.
(iii) Compliance with this paragraph § 23.961 Fuel system hot weather oper-
must require no pilot action after com- ation.
pletion of the engine starting phase of Each fuel system must be free from
operations. vapor lock when using fuel at its crit-
(3) For single-engine airplanes, re- ical temperature, with respect to vapor
quire no pilot action after completion formation, when operating the airplane
of the engine starting phase of oper- in all critical operating and environ-
ations unless means are provided that mental conditions for which approval
unmistakenly alert the pilot to take is requested. For turbine fuel, the ini-
any needed action at least five minutes tial temperature must be 110 °F, ¥0 °,
prior to the needed action; such pilot +5 °F or the maximum outside air tem-
action must not cause any change in perature for which approval is re-
engine operation; and such pilot action quested, whichever is more critical.
must not distract pilot attention from
essential flight duties during any phase [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18972, Apr. 9, 1993; 58
FR 27060, May 6, 1993]
of operations for which the airplane is
approved. § 23.963 Fuel tanks: General.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (a) Each fuel tank must be able to
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13, withstand, without failure, the vibra-
1969; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18971, Apr. 9, 1993; tion, inertia, fluid, and structural loads
Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996]
that it may be subjected to in oper-
§ 23.957 Flow between interconnected ation.
tanks. (b) Each flexible fuel tank liner must
be shown to be suitable for the par-
(a) It must be impossible, in a grav-
ticular application.
ity feed system with interconnected
(c) Each integral fuel tank must have
tank outlets, for enough fuel to flow
adequate facilities for interior inspec-
between the tanks to cause an overflow tion and repair.
of fuel from any tank vent under the (d) The total usable capacity of the
conditions in § 23.959, except that full fuel tanks must be enough for at least
tanks must be used. one-half hour of operation at maximum
(b) If fuel can be pumped from one continuous power.
tank to another in flight, the fuel tank (e) Each fuel quantity indicator must
vents and the fuel transfer system be adjusted, as specified in § 23.1337(b),
must be designed so that no structural to account for the unusable fuel supply
damage to any airplane component can determined under § 23.959(a).
occur because of overfilling of any
tank. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt 23–
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as 34, 52 FR 1832, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. 23–43, 58
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18972, Apr. 9, FR 18972, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136,
1993] Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.959 Unusable fuel supply. § 23.965 Fuel tank tests.

(a) The unusable fuel supply for each (a) Each fuel tank must be able to
tank must be established as not less withstand the following pressures with-
than that quantity at which the first out failure or leakage:
evidence of malfunctioning occurs (1) For each conventional metal tank
under the most adverse fuel feed condi- and nonmetallic tank with walls not
tion occurring under each intended op- supported by the airplane structure, a
eration and flight maneuver involving pressure of 3.5 p.s.i., or that pressure
263
§ 23.967 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
developed during maximum ultimate of vibration must be the test fre-

acceleration with a full tank, which- quency.
ever is greater. (iii) If more than one frequency of vi-
(2) For each integral tank, the pres- bration resulting from any rpm within
sure developed during the maximum the normal operating range of engine
limit acceleration of the airplane with or propeller speeds is critical, the most
a full tank, with simultaneous applica- critical of these frequencies must be
tion of the critical limit structural the test frequency.
loads. (4) Under paragraph (b)(3) (ii) and (iii)
(3) For each nonmetallic tank with of this section, the time of test must be
walls supported by the airplane struc- adjusted to accomplish the same num-
ture and constructed in an acceptable ber of vibration cycles that would be
manner using acceptable basic tank accomplished in 25 hours at the fre-
material, and with actual or simulated quency specified in paragraph (b)(3)(i)
support conditions, a pressure of 2 p.s.i. of this section.
for the first tank of a specific design. (5) During the test, the tank assem-
The supporting structure must be de- bly must be rocked at a rate of 16 to 20
signed for the critical loads occurring complete cycles per minute, through
in the flight or landing strength condi- an angle of 15° on either side of the hor-
tions combined with the fuel pressure izontal (30° total), about an axis par-
loads resulting from the corresponding allel to the axis of the fuselage, for 25
accelerations. hours.
(c) Each integral tank using methods
(b) Each fuel tank with large, unsup-
of construction and sealing not pre-
ported, or unstiffened flat sur-
viously proven to be adequate by test
faces,whose failure or deformation
data or service experience must be able
could cause fuel leakage, must be able
to withstand the vibration test speci-
to withstand the following test without
fied in paragraphs (b)(1) through (4) of
leakage, failure, or excessive deforma-
this section.
tion of the tank walls:
(d) Each tank with a nonmetallic
(1) Each complete tank assembly and liner must be subjected to the sloshing
its support must be vibration tested test outlined in paragraph (b)(5) of this
while mounted to simulate the actual section, with the fuel at room tempera-
installation. ture. In addition, a specimen liner of
(2) Except as specified in paragraph the same basic construction as that to
(b)(4) of this section, the tank assembly be used in the airplane must, when in-
must be vibrated for 25 hours at a total stalled in a suitable test tank, with-
displacement of not less than 1⁄32 of an stand the sloshing test with fuel at a
inch (unless another displacement is temperature of 110° F.
substantiated) while 2⁄3 filled with
water or other suitable test fluid. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(3) The test frequency of vibration
1993; Amdt. 23–43, 61 FR 253, Jan. 4, 1996;
must be as follows: Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, Feb. 9, 1996]
(i) If no frequency of vibration result-
ing from any rpm within the normal § 23.967 Fuel tank installation.
operating range of engine or propeller (a) Each fuel tank must be supported
speeds is critical, the test frequency of so that tank loads are not con-
vibration is: centrated. In addition—
(A) The number of cycles per minute (1) There must be pads, if necessary,
obtained by multiplying the maximum to prevent chafing between each tank
continuous propeller speed in rpm by and its supports;
0.9 for propeller-driven airplanes, and (2) Padding must be nonabsorbent or
(B) For non-propeller driven air- treated to prevent the absorption of
planes the test frequency of vibration fuel;
is 2,000 cycles per minute. (3) If a flexible tank liner is used, it
(ii) If only one frequency of vibration must be supported so that it is not re-
resulting from any rpm within the nor- quired to withstand fluid loads;
mal operating range of engine or pro- (4) Interior surfaces adjacent to the
peller speeds is critical, that frequency liner must be smooth and free from
264
projections that could cause wear, un- (ii) The most critical landing gear leg
less— collapsed and the other landing gear
(i) Provisions are made for protection legs extended.
of the liner at those points; or In showing compliance with paragraph
(ii) The construction of the liner (e)(2) of this section, the tearing away
itself provides such protection; and of an engine mount must be considered
(5) A positive pressure must be main- unless all the engines are installed
tained within the vapor space of each above the wing or on the tail or fuse-
bladder cell under any condition of op- lage of the airplane.
eration, except for a particular condi-
tion for which it is shown that a zero [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
or negative pressure will not cause the amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13903, Aug. 13,
bladder cell to collapse; and 1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973;
Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt.
(6) Syphoning of fuel (other than 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 23–36,
minor spillage) or collapse of bladder 53 FR 30815, Aug. 15, 1988; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR
fuel cells may not result from improper 18972, Apr. 9, 1993]
securing or loss of the fuel filler cap.
(b) Each tank compartment must be § 23.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
ventilated and drained to prevent the
Each fuel tank must have an expan-
accumulation of flammable fluids or
sion space of not less than two percent
vapors. Each compartment adjacent to
a tank that is an integral part of the of the tank capacity, unless the tank
airplane structure must also be venti- vent discharges clear of the airplane
lated and drained. (in which case no expansion space is re-
(c) No fuel tank may be on the engine quired). It must be impossible to fill
side of the firewall. There must be at the expansion space inadvertently with
least one-half inch of clearance be- the airplane in the normal ground atti-
tween the fuel tank and the firewall. tude.
No part of the engine nacelle skin that
lies immediately behind a major air § 23.971 Fuel tank sump.
opening from the engine compartment (a) Each fuel tank must have a drain-
may act as the wall of an integral able sump with an effective capacity,
tank. in the normal ground and flight atti-
(d) Each fuel tank must be isolated tudes, of 0.25 percent of the tank capac-
from personnel compartments by a ity, or 1⁄16 gallon, whichever is greater.
fume-proof and fuel-proof enclosure (b) Each fuel tank must allow drain-
that is vented and drained to the exte- age of any hazardous quantity of water
rior of the airplane. The required en- from any part of the tank to its sump
closure must sustain any personnel with the airplane in the normal ground
compartment pressurization loads attitude.
without permanent deformation or fail- (c) Each reciprocating engine fuel
ure under the conditions of §§ 23.365 and system must have a sediment bowl or
23.843 of this part. A bladder-type fuel chamber that is accessible for drain-
cell, if used, must have a retaining
age; has a capacity of 1 ounce for every
shell at least equivalent to a metal fuel
20 gallons of fuel tank capacity; and
tank in structural integrity.
each fuel tank outlet is located so that,
(e) Fuel tanks must be designed, lo-
in the normal flight attitude, water
cated, and installed so as to retain fuel:
will drain from all parts of the tank ex-
(1) When subjected to the inertia
cept the sump to the sediment bowl or
loads resulting from the ultimate stat-
chamber.
ic load factors prescribed in
§ 23.561(b)(2) of this part; and (d) Each sump, sediment bowl, and
sediment chamber drain required by
(2) Under conditions likely to occur
when the airplane lands on a paved paragraphs (a), (b), and (c) of this sec-
runway at a normal landing speed tion must comply with the drain provi-
under each of the following conditions: sions of § 23.999(b)(1) and (b)(2).
(i) The airplane in a normal landing [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18972, Apr. 9, 1993; 58
attitude and its landing gear retracted. FR 27060, May 6, 1993]
265
§ 23.973 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
§ 23.973 Fuel tank filler connection. age is provided. Any drain valve in-
(a) Each fuel tank filler connection stalled must be accessible for drainage;
must be marked as prescribed in (6) No vent may terminate at a point
§ 23.1557(c). where the discharge of fuel from the
(b) Spilled fuel must be prevented vent outlet will constitute a fire haz-
from entering the fuel tank compart- ard or from which fumes may enter
ment or any part of the airplane other personnel compartments; and
than the tank itself. (7) Vents must be arranged to pre-
(c) Each filler cap must provide a vent the loss of fuel, except fuel dis-
fuel-tight seal for the main filler open- charged because of thermal expansion,
ing. However, there may be small open- when the airplane is parked in any di-
ings in the fuel tank cap for venting rection on a ramp having a one-percent
purposes or for the purpose of allowing slope.
passage of a fuel gauge through the cap (b) Each carburetor with vapor elimi-
provided such openings comply with nation connections and each fuel injec-
the requirements of § 23.975(a). tion engine employing vapor return
(d) Each fuel filling point, except provisions must have a separate vent
pressure fueling connection points, line to lead vapors back to the top of
must have a provision for electrically one of the fuel tanks. If there is more
bonding the airplane to ground fueling than one tank and it is necessary to
equipment. use these tanks in a definite sequence
(e) For airplanes with engines requir- for any reason, the vapor vent line
ing gasoline as the only permissible must lead back to the fuel tank to be
fuel, the inside diameter of the fuel used first, unless the relative capac-
filler opening must be no larger than ities of the tanks are such that return
2.36 inches. to another tank is preferable.
(f) For airplanes with turbine en- (c) For acrobatic category airplanes,
gines, the inside diameter of the fuel excessive loss of fuel during acrobatic
filler opening must be no smaller than maneuvers, including short periods of
2.95 inches. inverted flight, must be prevented. It
must be impossible for fuel to siphon
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
from the vent when normal flight has
18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt. 23–43, 58 been resumed after any acrobatic ma-
FR 18972, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136, neuver for which certification is re-
Feb. 9, 1996] quested.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
§ 23.975 Fuel tank vents and carbu- FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
retor vapor vents. 18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt. 23–29, 49
(a) Each fuel tank must be vented FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR
from the top part of the expansion 18973, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5136,
space. In addition— Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) Each vent outlet must be located
and constructed in a manner that mini- § 23.977 Fuel tank outlet.
mizes the possibility of its being ob- (a) There must be a fuel strainer for
structed by ice or other foreign matter; the fuel tank outlet or for the booster
(2) Each vent must be constructed to pump. This strainer must—
prevent siphoning of fuel during nor- (1) For reciprocating engine powered
mal operation; airplanes, have 8 to 16 meshes per inch;
(3) The venting capacity must allow and
the rapid relief of excessive differences (2) For turbine engine powered air-
of pressure between the interior and planes, prevent the passage of any ob-
exterior of the tank; ject that could restrict fuel flow or
(4) Airspaces of tanks with inter- damage any fuel system component.
connected outlets must be inter- (b) The clear area of each fuel tank
connected; outlet strainer must be at least five
(5) There may be no point in any vent times the area of the outlet line.
line where moisture can accumulate (c) The diameter of each strainer
with the airplane in either the ground must be at least that of the fuel tank
or level flight attitudes, unless drain- outlet.
266
(d) Each strainer must be accessible of this section), is a main pump. In ad-
for inspection and cleaning. dition—
[Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976, as (i) There must be at least one main
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, pump for each turbine engine;
1993] (ii) The power supply for the main
pump for each engine must be inde-
§ 23.979 Pressure fueling systems. pendent of the power supply for each
For pressure fueling systems, the fol- main pump for any other engine; and
lowing apply: (iii) For each main pump, provision
(a) Each pressure fueling system fuel must be made to allow the bypass of
manifold connection must have means each positive displacement fuel pump
to prevent the escape of hazardous other than a fuel injection pump ap-
quantities of fuel from the system if proved as part of the engine.
the fuel entry valve fails. (b) Emergency pumps. There must be
(b) An automatic shutoff means must an emergency pump immediately avail-
be provided to prevent the quantity of able to supply fuel to the engine if any
fuel in each tank from exceeding the main pump (other than a fuel injection
maximum quantity approved for that pump approved as part of an engine)
tank. This means must— fails. The power supply for each emer-
(1) Allow checking for proper shutoff gency pump must be independent of the
operation before each fueling of the power supply for each corresponding
tank; and main pump.
(2) For commuter category airplanes, (c) Warning means. If both the main
indicate at each fueling station, a fail- pump and emergency pump operate
ure of the shutoff means to stop the continuously, there must be a means to
fuel flow at the maximum quantity ap- indicate to the appropriate flight crew-
proved for that tank. members a malfunction of either pump.
(c) A means must be provided to pre- (d) Operation of any fuel pump may
vent damage to the fuel system in the not affect engine operation so as to
event of failure of the automatic shut- create a hazard, regardless of the en-
off means prescribed in paragraph (b) gine power or thrust setting or the
of this section. functional status of any other fuel
(d) All parts of the fuel system up to pump.
the tank which are subjected to fueling
pressures must have a proof pressure of [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
1.33 times, and an ultimate pressure of amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13,
at least 2.0 times, the surge pressure 1969; Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980;
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993]
likely to occur during fueling.
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973, as § 23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
1996]
and supported to prevent excessive vi-
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS bration and to withstand loads due to
fuel pressure and accelerated flight
§ 23.991 Fuel pumps. conditions.
(a) Main pumps. For main pumps, the (b) Each fuel line connected to com-
following apply: ponents of the airplane between which
(1) For reciprocating engine installa- relative motion could exist must have
tions having fuel pumps to supply fuel provisions for flexibility.
to the engine, at least one pump for (c) Each flexible connection in fuel
each engine must be directly driven by lines that may be under pressure and
the engine and must meet § 23.955. This subjected to axial loading must use
pump is a main pump. flexible hose assemblies.
(2) For turbine engine installations, (d) Each flexible hose must be shown
each fuel pump required for proper en- to be suitable for the particular appli-
gine operation, or required to meet the cation.
fuel system requirements of this sub- (e) No flexible hose that might be ad-
part (other than those in paragraph (b) versely affected by exposure to high
267
§ 23.994 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
temperatures may be used where exces- through the ‘‘OFF’’ position when
sive temperatures will exist during op- changing from one tank to another.
eration or after engine shutdown. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19,
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1973; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976;
1993] Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt.
23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 23.994 Fuel system components.
§ 23.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
Fuel system components in an engine
There must be a fuel strainer or filter
nacelle or in the fuselage must be pro-
between the fuel tank outlet and the
tected from damage which could result inlet of either the fuel metering device
in spillage of enough fuel to constitute or an engine driven positive displace-
a fire hazard as a result of a wheels-up ment pump, whichever is nearer the
landing on a paved runway. fuel tank outlet. This fuel strainer or
[Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984] filter must—
(a) Be accessible for draining and
§ 23.995 Fuel valves and controls. cleaning and must incorporate a screen
or element which is easily removable;
(a) There must be a means to allow
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain
appropriate flight crew members to
except that it need not have a drain if
rapidly shut off, in flight, the fuel to
the strainer or filter is easily remov-
each engine individually. able for drain purposes;
(b) No shutoff valve may be on the (c) Be mounted so that its weight is
engine side of any firewall. In addition, not supported by the connecting lines
there must be means to— or by the inlet or outlet connections of
(1) Guard against inadvertent oper- the strainer or filter itself, unless ade-
ation of each shutoff valve; and quate strength margins under all load-
(2) Allow appropriate flight crew ing conditions are provided in the lines
members to reopen each valve rapidly and connections; and
after it has been closed. (d) Have the capacity (with respect to
(c) Each valve and fuel system con- operating limitations established for
trol must be supported so that loads re- the engine) to ensure that engine fuel
sulting from its operation or from ac- system functioning is not impaired,
celerated flight conditions are not with the fuel contaminated to a degree
transmitted to the lines connected to (with respect to particle size and den-
the valve. sity) that is greater than that estab-
(d) Each valve and fuel system con- lished for the engine during its type
trol must be installed so that gravity certification.
and vibration will not affect the se- (e) In addition, for commuter cat-
lected position. egory airplanes, unless means are pro-
vided in the fuel system to prevent the
(e) Each fuel valve handle and its
accumulation of ice on the filter, a
connections to the valve mechanism means must be provided to automati-
must have design features that mini- cally maintain the fuel flow if ice clog-
mize the possibility of incorrect instal- ging of the filter occurs.
lation.
(f) Each check valve must be con- [Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35459, Oct. 1, 1974, as
structed, or otherwise incorporate pro-
1984; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1832, Jan. 15, 1987;
visions, to preclude incorrect assembly Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993]
or connection of the valve.
(g) Fuel tank selector valves must— § 23.999 Fuel system drains.
(1) Require a separate and distinct (a) There must be at least one drain
action to place the selector in the to allow safe drainage of the entire fuel
‘‘OFF’’ position; and system with the airplane in its normal
(2) Have the tank selector positions ground attitude.
located in such a manner that it is im- (b) Each drain required by paragraph
possible for the selector to pass (a) of this section and § 23.971 must—
268
(1) Discharge clear of all parts of the (4) The jettisoning operation does not
airplane; adversely affect the controllability of
(2) Have a drain valve— the airplane.
(i) That has manual or automatic (d) For reciprocating engine powered
means for positive locking in the airplanes, the jettisoning system must
closed position; be designed so that it is not possible to
(ii) That is readily accessible; jettison the fuel in the tanks used for
(iii) That can be easily opened and takeoff and landing below the level al-
closed; lowing 45 minutes flight at 75 percent
(iv) That allows the fuel to be caught
maximum continuous power. However,
for examination;
if there is an auxiliary control inde-
(v) That can be observed for proper
pendent of the main jettisoning con-
closing; and
(vi) That is either located or pro- trol, the system may be designed to
tected to prevent fuel spillage in the jettison all the fuel.
event of a landing with landing gear re- (e) For turbine engine powered air-
tracted. planes, the jettisoning system must be
designed so that it is not possible to
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as jettison fuel in the tanks used for
1976; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993]
takeoff and landing below the level al-
lowing climb from sea level to 10,000
§ 23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system. feet and thereafter allowing 45 minutes
(a) If the design landing weight is cruise at a speed for maximum range.
less than that permitted under the re- (f) The fuel jettisoning valve must be
quirements of § 23.473(b), the airplane designed to allow flight crewmembers
must have a fuel jettisoning system in- to close the valve during any part of
stalled that is able to jettison enough the jettisoning operation.
fuel to bring the maximum weight (g) Unless it is shown that using any
down to the design landing weight. The means (including flaps, slots, and slats)
average rate of fuel jettisoning must be for changing the airflow across or
at least 1 percent of the maximum around the wings does not adversely af-
weight per minute, except that the fect fuel jettisoning, there must be a
time required to jettison the fuel need placard, adjacent to the jettisoning
not be less than 10 minutes. control, to warn flight crewmembers
(b) Fuel jettisoning must be dem- against jettisoning fuel while the
onstrated at maximum weight with means that change the airflow are
flaps and landing gear up and in— being used.
(1) A power-off glide at 1.4 VS1; (h) The fuel jettisoning system must
(2) A climb, at the speed at which the be designed so that any reasonably
one-engine-inoperative enroute climb probable single malfunction in the sys-
data have been established in accord- tem will not result in a hazardous con-
ance with § 23.69(b), with the critical dition due to unsymmetrical jetti-
engine inoperative and the remaining soning of, or inability to jettison, fuel.
engines at maximum continuous
power; and [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13094, Aug. 13, 1969, as
(3) Level flight at 1.4 VS1, if the re- amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9,
sults of the tests in the conditions 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
specified in paragraphs (b)(1) and (2) of
OIL SYSTEM
this section show that this condition
could be critical. § 23.1011 General.
(c) During the flight tests prescribed
in paragraph (b) of this section, it must (a) For oil systems and components
be shown that— that have been approved under the en-
(1) The fuel jettisoning system and gine airworthiness requirements and
its operation are free from fire hazard; where those requirements are equal to
(2) The fuel discharges clear of any or more severe than the corresponding
part of the airplane; requirements of subpart E of this part,
(3) Fuel or fumes do not enter any that approval need not be duplicated.
parts of the airplane; and Where the requirements of subpart E of
269
§ 23.1013 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
this part are more severe, substan- must have provisions for fitting a
tiation must be shown to the require- drain.
ments of subpart E of this part. (d) Vent. Oil tanks must be vented as
(b) Each engine must have an inde- follows:
pendent oil system that can supply it (1) Each oil tank must be vented to
with an appropriate quantity of oil at a the engine from the top part of the ex-
temperature not above that safe for pansion space so that the vent connec-
continuous operation. tion is not covered by oil under any
(c) The usable oil tank capacity may normal flight condition.
not be less than the product of the en- (2) Oil tank vents must be arranged
durance of the airplane under critical so that condensed water vapor that
operating conditions and the maximum might freeze and obstruct the line can-
oil consumption of the engine under not accumulate at any point.
the same conditions, plus a suitable (3) For acrobatic category airplanes,
margin to ensure adequate circulation there must be means to prevent haz-
and cooling. ardous loss of oil during acrobatic ma-
(d) For an oil system without an oil neuvers, including short periods of in-
transfer system, only the usable oil verted flight.
tank capacity may be considered. The (e) Outlet. No oil tank outlet may be
amount of oil in the engine oil lines, enclosed by any screen or guard that
the oil radiator, and the feathering re- would reduce the flow of oil below a
serve, may not be considered. safe value at any operating tempera-
(e) If an oil transfer system is used,
ture. No oil tank outlet diameter may
and the transfer pump can pump some
be less than the diameter of the engine
of the oil in the transfer lines into the
oil pump inlet. Each oil tank used with
main engine oil tanks, the amount of
a turbine engine must have means to
oil in these lines that can be pumped
prevent entrance into the tank itself,
by the transfer pump may be included
or into the tank outlet, of any object
in the oil capacity.
that might obstruct the flow of oil
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as through the system. There must be a
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, shutoff valve at the outlet of each oil
1993] tank used with a turbine engine, unless
the external portion of the oil system
§ 23.1013 Oil tanks.
(including oil tank supports) is fire-
(a) Installation. Each oil tank must be proof.
installed to— (f) Flexible liners. Each flexible oil
(1) Meet the requirements of § 23.967 tank liner must be of an acceptable
(a) and (b); and kind.
(2) Withstand any vibration, inertia, (g) Each oil tank filler cap of an oil
and fluid loads expected in operation. tank that is used with an engine must
(b) Expansion space. Oil tank expan- provide an oiltight seal.
sion space must be provided so that—
(1) Each oil tank used with a recipro- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
cating engine has an expansion space of amended by Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35459 Oct. 1,
not less than the greater of 10 percent 1974; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993;
Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
of the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon, and
each oil tank used with a turbine en- § 23.1015 Oil tank tests.
gine has an expansion space of not less
than 10 percent of the tank capacity; Each oil tank must be tested under
and § 23.965, except that—
(2) It is impossible to fill the expan- (a) The applied pressure must be five
sion space inadvertently with the air- p.s.i. for the tank construction instead
plane in the normal ground attitude. of the pressures specified in § 23.965(a);
(c) Filler connection. Each oil tank (b) For a tank with a nonmetallic
filler connection must be marked as liner the test fluid must be oil rather
specified in § 23.1557(c). Each recessed than fuel as specified in § 23.965(d), and
oil tank filler connection of an oil tank the slosh test on a specimen liner must
used with a turbine engine, that can re- be conducted with the oil at 250° F.;
tain any appreciable quantity of oil, and
270
(c) For pressurized tanks used with a lished for the engine for its type cer-
turbine engine, the test pressure may tification.
not be less than 5 p.s.i. plus the max- (3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it
imum operating pressure of the tank. is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate a means to indicate con-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, tamination before it reaches the capac-
1974] ity established in accordance with
paragraph (a)(2) of this section.
§ 23.1017 Oil lines and fittings. (4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
(a) Oil lines. Oil lines must meet must be constructed and installed so
§ 23.993 and must accommodate a flow that the release of collected contami-
of oil at a rate and pressure adequate nants is minimized by appropriate lo-
for proper engine functioning under cation of the bypass to ensure that col-
any normal operating condition. lected contaminants are not in the by-
(b) Breather lines. Breather lines must pass flow path.
be arranged so that— (5) An oil strainer or filter that has
(1) Condensed water vapor or oil that no bypass, except one that is installed
might freeze and obstruct the line can- at an oil tank outlet, must have a
not accumulate at any point; means to connect it to the warning
(2) The breather discharge will not system required in § 23.1305(c)(9).
constitute a fire hazard if foaming oc- (b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
curs, or cause emitted oil to strike the powerplant installation using recipro-
pilot’s windshield; cating engines must be constructed and
(3) The breather does not discharge installed so that oil will flow at the
into the engine air induction system; normal rate through the rest of the
and system with the strainer or filter ele-
ment completely blocked.
(4) For acrobatic category airplanes,
there is no excessive loss of oil from [Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974, as
the breather during acrobatic maneu- amended by Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23,
vers, including short periods of in- 1984; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993]
verted flight.
(5) The breather outlet is protected § 23.1021 Oil system drains.
against blockage by ice or foreign mat- A drain (or drains) must be provided
ter. to allow safe drainage of the oil sys-
tem. Each drain must—
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(a) Be accessible;
1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973] (b) Have drain valves, or other clo-
sures, employing manual or automatic
§ 23.1019 Oil strainer or filter. shut-off means for positive locking in
the closed position; and
(a) Each turbine engine installation
(c) Be located or protected to prevent
must incorporate an oil strainer or fil-
inadvertent operation.
ter through which all of the engine oil
flows and which meets the following re- [Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984, as
quirements: amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9,
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has 1993]
a bypass, must be constructed and in-
§ 23.1023 Oil radiators.
stalled so that oil will flow at the nor-
mal rate through the rest of the sys- Each oil radiator and its supporting
tem with the strainer or filter com- structures must be able to withstand
pletely blocked. the vibration, inertia, and oil pressure
(2) The oil strainer or filter must loads to which it would be subjected in
have the capacity (with respect to op- operation.
erating limitations established for the
engine) to ensure that engine oil sys- § 23.1027 Propeller feathering system.
tem functioning is not impaired when (a) If the propeller feathering system
the oil is contaminated to a degree uses engine oil and that oil supply can
(with respect to particle size and den- become depleted due to failure of any
sity) that is greater than that estab- part of the oil system, a means must be
271
§ 23.1041 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
incorporated to reserve enough oil to operation with the turbocharger is re-

operate the feathering system. quested.
(b) The amount of reserved oil must (5) For a reciprocating engine, the
be enough to accomplish feathering mixture settings must be the leanest
and must be available only to the recommended for climb.
feathering pump. (b) Maximum ambient atmospheric tem-
(c) The ability of the system to ac- perature. A maximum ambient atmos-
complish feathering with the reserved pheric temperature corresponding to
oil must be shown. sea level conditions of at least 100 de-
(d) Provision must be made to pre- grees F must be established. The as-
vent sludge or other foreign matter sumed temperature lapse rate is 3.6 de-
from affecting the safe operation of the grees F per thousand feet of altitude
propeller feathering system. above sea level until a temperature of
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as ¥69.7 degrees F is reached, above which
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, altitude the temperature is considered
1973; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993] constant at ¥69.7 degrees F. However,
for winterization installations, the ap-
COOLING plicant may select a maximum ambi-
ent atmospheric temperature cor-
§ 23.1041 General. responding to sea level conditions of
The powerplant and auxiliary power less than 100 degrees F.
unit cooling provisions must maintain (c) Correction factor (except cylinder
the temperatures of powerplant compo- barrels). Temperatures of engine fluids
nents and engine fluids, and auxiliary and powerplant components (except
power unit components and fluids with- cylinder barrels) for which temperature
in the limits established for those com- limits are established, must be cor-
ponents and fluids under the most ad- rected by adding to them the difference
verse ground, water, and flight oper- between the maximum ambient atmos-
ations to the maximum altitude and pheric temperature for the relevant al-
maximum ambient atmospheric tem- titude for which approval has been re-
perature conditions for which approval quested and the temperature of the am-
is requested, and after normal engine bient air at the time of the first occur-
and auxiliary power unit shutdown. rence of the maximum fluid or compo-
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993, as nent temperature recorded during the
amended by Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, cooling test.
1996] (d) Correction factor for cylinder barrel
temperatures. Cylinder barrel tempera-
§ 23.1043 Cooling tests. tures must be corrected by adding to
(a) General. Compliance with § 23.1041 them 0.7 times the difference between
must be shown on the basis of tests, for the maximum ambient atmospheric
which the following apply: temperature for the relevant altitude
(1) If the tests are conducted under for which approval has been requested
ambient atmospheric temperature con- and the temperature of the ambient air
ditions deviating from the maximum at the time of the first occurrence of
for which approval is requested, the re- the maximum cylinder barrel tempera-
corded powerplant temperatures must ture recorded during the cooling test.
be corrected under paragraphs (c) and [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(d) of this section, unless a more ra- amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13094, Aug. 13,
tional correction method is applicable. 1969; Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978;
(2) No corrected temperature deter- Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
mined under paragraph (a)(1) of this
section may exceed established limits. § 23.1045 Cooling test procedures for
(3) The fuel used during the cooling turbine engine powered airplanes.
tests must be of the minimum grade (a) Compliance with § 23.1041 must be
approved for the engine. shown for all phases of operation. The
(4) For turbocharged engines, each airplane must be flown in the configu-
turbocharger must be operated through rations, at the speeds, and following
that part of the climb profile for which the procedures recommended in the
272
Airplane Flight Manual for the rel- (2) There are pads or other isolation
evant stage of flight, that correspond means between the tank and its sup-
to the applicable performance require- ports to prevent chafing.
ments that are critical to cooling. (3) Pads or any other isolation means
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized that is used must be nonabsorbent or
under the conditions from which entry must be treated to prevent absorption
is made into each stage of flight being of flammable fluids; and
investigated, unless the entry condi- (4) No air or vapor can be trapped in
tion normally is not one during which any part of the system, except the
component and engine fluid tempera- coolant tank expansion space, during
tures would stabilize (in which case, filling or during operation.
operation through the full entry condi- (b) Coolant tank. The tank capacity
tion must be conducted before entry must be at least one gallon, plus 10 per-
into the stage of flight being inves- cent of the cooling system capacity. In
tigated in order to allow temperatures addition—
to reach their natural levels at the
(1) Each coolant tank must be able to
time of entry). The takeoff cooling test
withstand the vibration, inertia, and
must be preceded by a period during
fluid loads to which it may be sub-
which the powerplant component and
jected in operation;
engine fluid temperatures are sta-
bilized with the engines at ground idle. (2) Each coolant tank must have an
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of expansion space of at least 10 percent
flight must be continued until— of the total cooling system capacity;
(1) The component and engine fluid and
temperatures stabilize; (3) It must be impossible to fill the
(2) The stage of flight is completed; expansion space inadvertently with the
or airplane in the normal ground attitude.
(3) An operating limitation is (c) Filler connection. Each coolant
reached. tank filler connection must be marked
as specified in § 23.1557(c). In addition—
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13094, Aug. 13, 1969, as
(1) Spilled coolant must be prevented
1996] from entering the coolant tank com-
partment or any part of the airplane
§ 23.1047 Cooling test procedures for other than the tank itself; and
reciprocating engine powered air- (2) Each recessed coolant filler con-
planes. nection must have a drain that dis-
Compliance with § 23.1041 must be charges clear of the entire airplane.
shown for the climb (or, for multien- (d) Lines and fittings. Each coolant
gine airplanes with negative one-en- system line and fitting must meet the
gine-inoperative rates of climb, the de- requirements of § 23.993, except that the
scent) stage of flight. The airplane inside diameter of the engine coolant
must be flown in the configurations, at inlet and outlet lines may not be less
the speeds and following the procedures than the diameter of the corresponding
recommended in the Airplane Flight engine inlet and outlet connections.
Manual, that correspond to the appli- (e) Radiators. Each coolant radiator
cable performance requirements that must be able to withstand any vibra-
are critical to cooling. tion, inertia, and coolant pressure load
[Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996] to which it may normally be subjected.
In addition—
LIQUID COOLING (1) Each radiator must be supported
to allow expansion due to operating
§ 23.1061 Installation. temperatures and prevent the trans-
(a) General. Each liquid-cooled engine mittal of harmful vibration to the radi-
must have an independent cooling sys- ator; and
tem (including coolant tank) installed (2) If flammable coolant is used, the
so that— air intake duct to the coolant radiator
(1) Each coolant tank is supported so must be located so that (in case of fire)
that tank loads are distributed over a flames from the nacelle cannot strike
large part of the tank surface; the radiator.
273
§ 23.1063 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(f) Drains. There must be an acces- (3) The supplying of air to the engine
sible drain that— through the alternate air intake sys-
(1) Drains the entire cooling system tem may not result in a loss of exces-
(including the coolant tank, radiator, sive power in addition to the power loss
and the engine) when the airplane is in due to the rise in air temperature.
the normal ground altitude; (4) Each automatic alternate air door
(2) Discharges clear of the entire air- must have an override means acces-
plane; and sible to the flight crew.
(3) Has means to positively lock it (5) Each automatic alternate air door
closed. must have a means to indicate to the
flight crew when it is not closed.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (c) For turbine engine powered air-
planes—
1993]
(1) There must be means to prevent
§ 23.1063 Coolant tank tests. hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
overflow from drains, vents, or other
Each coolant tank must be tested components of flammable fluid systems
under § 23.965, except that— from entering the engine intake sys-
(a) The test required by § 23.965(a)(1) tem; and
must be replaced with a similar test (2) The airplane must be designed to
using the sum of the pressure devel- prevent water or slush on the runway,
oped during the maximum ultimate ac- taxiway, or other airport operating
celeration with a full tank or a pres- surfaces from being directed into the
sure of 3.5 pounds per square inch, engine or auxiliary power unit air in-
whichever is greater, plus the max- take ducts in hazardous quantities.
imum working pressure of the system; The air intake ducts must be located or
and protected so as to minimize the hazard
(b) For a tank with a nonmetallic of ingestion of foreign matter during
liner the test fluid must be coolant takeoff, landing, and taxiing.
rather than fuel as specified in
§ 23.965(d), and the slosh test on a speci- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
men liner must be conducted with the
1969; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993; 58
coolant at operating temperature. FR 27060, May 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137,
Feb. 9, 1996]
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 23.1093 Induction system icing pro-
§ 23.1091 Air induction system. tection.
(a) The air induction system for each (a) Reciprocating engines. Each recip-
engine and auxiliary power unit and rocating engine air induction system
their accessories must supply the air must have means to prevent and elimi-
required by that engine and auxiliary nate icing. Unless this is done by other
power unit and their accessories under means, it must be shown that, in air
the operating conditions for which cer- free of visible moisture at a tempera-
tification is requested. ture of 30° F.—
(b) Each reciprocating engine instal- (1) Each airplane with sea level en-
lation must have at least two separate gines using conventional venturi car-
air intake sources and must meet the buretors has a preheater that can pro-
following: vide a heat rise of 90° F. with the en-
(1) Primary air intakes may open gines at 75 percent of maximum contin-
within the cowling if that part of the uous power;
cowling is isolated from the engine ac- (2) Each airplane with altitude en-
cessory section by a fire-resistant dia- gines using conventional venturi car-
phragm or if there are means to pre- buretors has a preheater that can pro-
vent the emergence of backfire flames. vide a heat rise of 120° F. with the en-
(2) Each alternate air intake must be gines at 75 percent of maximum contin-
located in a sheltered position and may uous power;
not open within the cowling if the (3) Each airplane with altitude en-
emergence of backfire flames will re- gines using fuel metering device tend-
sult in a hazard. ing to prevent icing has a preheater
274
that, with the engines at 60 percent of drops having a mean effective diameter
maximum continuous power, can pro- not less than 20 microns, followed by
vide a heat rise of— momentary operation at takeoff power
(i) 100° F.; or or thrust. During the 30 minutes of idle
(ii) 40° F., if a fluid deicing system operation, the engine may be run up
meeting the requirements of §§ 23.1095 periodically to a moderate power or
through 23.1099 is installed; thrust setting in a manner acceptable
(4) Each airplane with sea level en- to the Administrator.
gine(s) using fuel metering device tend- (c) Reciprocating engines with Super-
ing to prevent icing has a sheltered al- chargers. For airplanes with recipro-
ternate source of air with a preheat of cating engines having superchargers to
not less than 60 °F with the engines at pressurize the air before it enters the
75 percent of maximum continuous fuel metering device, the heat rise in
power; the air caused by that supercharging at
(5) Each airplane with sea level or al- any altitude may be utilized in deter-
titude engine(s) using fuel injection mining compliance with paragraph (a)
systems having metering components of this section if the heat rise utilized
on which impact ice may accumulate is that which will be available, auto-
has a preheater capable of providing a matically, for the applicable altitudes
heat rise of 75 °F when the engine is op- and operating condition because of su-
erating at 75 percent of its maximum percharging.
continuous power; and
[Amdt. 23-7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13, 1969, as
(6) Each airplane with sea level or al- amended by Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1,
titude engine(s) using fuel injection 1974; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976;
systems not having fuel metering com- Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15041, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt.
ponents projecting into the airstream 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt. 23–43, 58
on which ice may form, and intro- FR 18973, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5137,
ducing fuel into the air induction sys- Feb. 9, 1996]
tem downstream of any components or
other obstruction on which ice pro- § 23.1095 Carburetor deicing fluid flow
rate.
duced by fuel evaporation may form,
has a sheltered alternate source of air (a) If a carburetor deicing fluid sys-
with a preheat of not less than 60 °F tem is used, it must be able to simulta-
with the engines at 75 percent of its neously supply each engine with a rate
maximum continuous power. of fluid flow, expressed in pounds per
(b) Turbine engines. (1) Each turbine hour, of not less than 2.5 times the
engine and its air inlet system must square root of the maximum contin-
operate throughout the flight power uous power of the engine.
range of the engine (including idling), (b) The fluid must be introduced into
without the accumulation of ice on en- the air induction system—
gine or inlet system components that (1) Close to, and upstream of, the car-
would adversely affect engine oper- buretor; and
ation or cause a serious loss of power (2) So that it is equally distributed
or thrust— over the entire cross section of the in-
(i) Under the icing conditions speci- duction system air passages.
fied in appendix C of part 25 of this
chapter; and § 23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid sys-
(ii) In snow, both falling and blowing, tem capacity.
within the limitations established for (a) The capacity of each carburetor
the airplane for such operation. deicing fluid system—
(2) Each turbine engine must idle for (1) May not be less than the greater
30 minutes on the ground, with the air of—
bleed available for engine icing protec- (i) That required to provide fluid at
tion at its critical condition, without the rate specified in § 23.1095 for a time
adverse effect, in an atmosphere that is equal to three percent of the maximum
at a temperature between 15° and 30° F endurance of the airplane; or
(between ¥9° and ¥1° C) and has a liq- (ii) 20 minutes at that flow rate; and
uid water content not less than 0.3 (2) Need not exceed that required for
grams per cubic meter in the form of two hours of operation.
275
§ 23.1099 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(b) If the available preheat exceeds (1) Fireproof within the auxiliary
50° F. but is less than 100° F., the ca- power unit compartment;
pacity of the system may be decreased (2) Fireproof for a sufficient distance
in proportion to the heat rise available upstream of the auxiliary power unit
in excess of 50° F. compartment to prevent hot gas re-
verse flow from burning through the
§ 23.1099 Carburetor deicing fluid sys- duct and entering any other compart-
tem detail design. ment of the airplane in which a hazard
Each carburetor deicing fluid system would be created by the entry of the
must meet the applicable requirements hot gases;
for the design of a fuel system, except (3) Constructed of materials suitable
as specified in §§ 23.1095 and 23.1097. to the environmental conditions ex-
pected in service, except in those areas
§ 23.1101 Induction air preheater de-
sign. requiring fireproof or fire resistant ma-
terials; and
Each exhaust-heated, induction air (4) Constructed of materials that will
preheater must be designed and con- not absorb or trap hazardous quantities
structed to— of flammable fluids that could be ig-
(a) Ensure ventilation of the pre- nited by a surge or reverse-flow condi-
heater when the induction air pre- tion.
heater is not being used during engine
(f) Induction system ducts that sup-
operation;
ply air to a cabin pressurization sys-
(b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
tem must be suitably constructed of
manifold parts that it surrounds; and
material that will not produce haz-
(c) Allow inspection of critical parts
ardous quantities of toxic gases or iso-
of the preheater itself.
lated to prevent hazardous quantities
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as of toxic gases from entering the cabin
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, during a powerplant fire.
1993]
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
§ 23.1103 Induction system ducts. amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13,
1969; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993]
(a) Each induction system duct must
have a drain to prevent the accumula- § 23.1105 Induction system screens.
tion of fuel or moisture in the normal
ground and flight attitudes. No drain If induction system screens are
may discharge where it will cause a used—
fire hazard. (a) Each screen must be upstream of
(b) Each duct connected to compo- the carburetor or fuel injection system.
nents between which relative motion (b) No screen may be in any part of
could exist must have means for flexi- the induction system that is the only
bility. passage through which air can reach
(c) Each flexible induction system the engine, unless—
duct must be capable of withstanding (1) The available preheat is at least
the effects of temperature extremes, 100° F.; and
fuel, oil, water, and solvents to which (2) The screen can be deiced by heat-
it is expected to be exposed in service ed air;
and maintenance without hazardous (c) No screen may be deiced by alco-
deterioration or delamination. hol alone; and
(d) For reciprocating engine installa- (d) It must be impossible for fuel to
tions, each induction system duct must strike any screen.
be—
(1) Strong enough to prevent induc- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
tion system failures resulting from FR 258, Jan. 9, 1996, as amended by Amdt. 23–
normal backfire conditions; and 51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
(2) Fire resistant in any compart-
ment for which a fire extinguishing § 23.1107 Induction system filters.
system is required. If an air filter is used to protect the
(e) Each inlet system duct for an aux- engine against foreign material par-
iliary power unit must be— ticles in the induction air supply—
276
(a) Each air filter must be capable of tamination in any personnel compart-
withstanding the effects of tempera- ment.
ture extremes, rain, fuel, oil, and sol- (b) Each exhaust system part with a
vents to which it is expected to be ex- surface hot enough to ignite flammable
posed in service and maintenance; and fluids or vapors must be located or
(b) Each air filter shall have a design shielded so that leakage from any sys-
feature to prevent material separated tem carrying flammable fluids or va-
from the filter media from interfering pors will not result in a fire caused by
with proper fuel metering operation. impingement of the fluids or vapors on
any part of the exhaust system includ-
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993, as
ing shields for the exhaust system.
1996] (c) Each exhaust system must be sep-
arated by fireproof shields from adja-
§ 23.1109 Turbocharger bleed air sys- cent flammable parts of the airplane
tem. that are outside of the engine and aux-
The following applies to iliary power unit compartments.
turbocharged bleed air systems used (d) No exhaust gases may discharge
for cabin pressurization: dangerously near any fuel or oil system
(a) The cabin air system may not be drain.
subject to hazardous contamination (e) No exhaust gases may be dis-
following any probable failure of the charged where they will cause a glare
turbocharger or its lubrication system. seriously affecting pilot vision at
(b) The turbocharger supply air must night.
be taken from a source where it cannot (f) Each exhaust system component
be contaminated by harmful or haz- must be ventilated to prevent points of
ardous gases or vapors following any excessively high temperature.
probable failure or malfunction of the (g) If significant traps exist, each
engine exhaust, hydraulic, fuel, or oil turbine engine and auxiliary power
system. unit exhaust system must have drains
discharging clear of the airplane, in
[Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991] any normal ground and flight attitude,
to prevent fuel accumulation after the
§ 23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air sys- failure of an attempted engine or auxil-
tem.
iary power unit start.
For turbine engine bleed air systems, (h) Each exhaust heat exchanger
the following apply: must incorporate means to prevent
(a) No hazard may result if duct rup- blockage of the exhaust port after any
ture or failure occurs anywhere be- internal heat exchanger failure.
tween the engine port and the airplane (i) For the purpose of compliance
unit served by the bleed air. with § 23.603, the failure of any part of
(b) The effect on airplane and engine the exhaust system will be considered
performance of using maximum bleed to adversely affect safety.
air must be established.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(c) Hazardous contamination of cabin amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13,
air systems may not result from fail- 1969; Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977;
ures of the engine lubricating system. Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt.
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13, 1969, as 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
1976]
§ 23.1123 Exhaust system.
(a) Each exhaust system must be fire-
EXHAUST SYSTEM proof and corrosion-resistant, and must
have means to prevent failure due to
§ 23.1121 General. expansion by operating temperatures.
For powerplant and auxiliary power (b) Each exhaust system must be sup-
unit installations, the following ported to withstand the vibration and
apply— inertia loads to which it may be sub-
(a) Each exhaust system must ensure jected in operation.
safe disposal of exhaust gases without (c) Parts of the system connected to
fire hazard or carbon monoxide con- components between which relative
277
§ 23.1125 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
motion could exist must have means (f) The portion of each powerplant
for flexibility. control located in the engine compart-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
ment that is required to be operated in
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, the event of fire must be at least fire
1993] resistant.
(g) Powerplant valve controls located
§ 23.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers. in the cockpit must have—
For reciprocating engine powered air- (1) For manual valves, positive stops
planes the following apply: or in the case of fuel valves suitable
(a) Each exhaust heat exchanger index provisions, in the open and closed
must be constructed and installed to position; and
withstand the vibration, inertia, and (2) For power-assisted valves, a
other loads that it may be subjected to means to indicate to the flight crew
in normal operation. In addition— when the valve—
(1) Each exchanger must be suitable (i) Is in the fully open or fully closed
for continued operation at high tem- position; or
peratures and resistant to corrosion (ii) Is moving between the fully open
from exhaust gases; and fully closed position.
(2) There must be means for inspec- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
tion of critical parts of each exchanger; amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13,
and 1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973;
(3) Each exchanger must have cooling Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt.
provisions wherever it is subject to 23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996]
contact with exhaust gases.
(b) Each heat exchanger used for § 23.1142 Auxiliary power unit con-
heating ventilating air must be controls.
structed so that exhaust gases may not Means must be provided on the flight
enter the ventilating air. deck for the starting, stopping, moni-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as toring, and emergency shutdown of
amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, each installed auxiliary power unit.
1976] [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993]
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND § 23.1143 Engine controls.
ACCESSORIES
(a) There must be a separate power or
§ 23.1141 Powerplant controls: Gen- thrust control for each engine and a
eral. separate control for each supercharger
(a) Powerplant controls must be lo- that requires a control.
cated and arranged under § 23.777 and (b) Power, thrust, and supercharger
marked under § 23.1555(a). controls must be arranged to allow—
(b) Each flexible control must be (1) Separate control of each engine
shown to be suitable for the particular and each supercharger; and
application. (2) Simultaneous control of all en-
(c) Each control must be able to gines and all superchargers.
maintain any necessary position with- (c) Each power, thrust, or super-
out— charger control must give a positive
(1) Constant attention by flight crew and immediate responsive means of
members; or controlling its engine or supercharger.
(2) Tendency to creep due to control (d) The power, thrust, or super-
loads or vibration. charger controls for each engine or su-
(d) Each control must be able to percharger must be independent of
withstand operating loads without fail- those for every other engine or super-
ure or excessive deflection. charger.
(e) For turbine engine powered air- (e) For each fluid injection (other
planes, no single failure or malfunc- than fuel) system and its controls not
tion, or probable combination thereof, provided and approved as part of the
in any powerplant control system may engine, the applicant must show that
cause the failure of any powerplant the flow of the injection fluid is ade-
function necessary for safety. quately controlled.
278
(f) If a power, thrust, or a fuel con- control toward lean or shut-off posi-
trol (other than a mixture control) in- tion.
corporates a fuel shutoff feature, the (b) For reciprocating single-engine
control must have a means to prevent airplanes, each manual engine mixture
the inadvertent movement of the con- control must be designed so that, if the
trol into the off position. The means control separates at the engine fuel
must— metering device, the airplane is capa-
(1) Have a positive lock or stop at the ble of continued safe flight and land-
idle position; and ing.
(2) Require a separate and distinct
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
operation to place the control in the amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13,
shutoff position. 1969; Amdt. 23–33, 51 FR 26657, July 24, 1986;
(g) For reciprocating single-engine Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993]
airplanes, each power or thrust control
must be designed so that if the control § 23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch
separates at the engine fuel metering controls.
device, the airplane is capable of con- (a) If there are propeller speed or
tinued safe flight and landing. pitch controls, they must be grouped
[Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13, 1969, as and arranged to allow—
amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, (1) Separate control of each pro-
1976; Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; peller; and
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. (2) Simultaneous control of all pro-
23–51, 61 FR 5137, Feb. 9, 1996] pellers.
§ 23.1145 Ignition switches. (b) The controls must allow ready
synchronization of all propellers on
(a) Ignition switches must control multiengine airplanes.
and shut off each ignition circuit on
each engine. § 23.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
(b) There must be means to quickly If there are propeller feathering con-
shut off all ignition on multiengine air- trols installed, it must be possible to
planes by the grouping of switches or feather each propeller separately. Each
by a master ignition control. control must have a means to prevent
(c) Each group of ignition switches, inadvertent operation.
except ignition switches for turbine en-
gines for which continuous ignition is [Doc. No. 27804, 61 FR 5138, Feb. 9, 1996]
not required, and each master ignition
control must have a means to prevent § 23.1155 Turbine engine reverse
its inadvertent operation. thrust and propeller pitch settings
below the flight regime.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
For turbine engine installations,
18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt. 23–43, 58 each control for reverse thrust and for
FR 18974, Apr. 9, 1993] propeller pitch settings below the
flight regime must have means to pre-
§ 23.1147 Mixture controls. vent its inadvertent operation. The
means must have a positive lock or
(a) If there are mixture controls,
stop at the flight idle position and
each engine must have a separate con-
must require a separate and distinct
trol, and each mixture control must
operation by the crew to displace the
have guards or must be shaped or ar-
control from the flight regime (forward
ranged to prevent confusion by feel
thrust regime for turbojet powered air-
with other controls.
planes).
(1) The controls must be grouped and
arranged to allow— [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13, 1969]
(i) Separate control of each engine;
and § 23.1157 Carburetor air temperature
(ii) Simultaneous control of all en- controls.
gines. There must be a separate carburetor
(2) The controls must require a sepa- air temperature control for each en-
rate and distinct operation to move the gine.
279
§ 23.1163 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
§ 23.1163 Powerplant accessories. gine ignition system and the greatest

(a) Each engine mounted accessory demands of any electrical system com-
must— ponents that draw from the same
(1) Be approved for mounting on the source.
engine involved and use the provisions (c) The design of the engine ignition
on the engines for mounting; or system must account for—
(2) Have torque limiting means on all (1) The condition of an inoperative
accessory drives in order to prevent the generator;
torque limits established for those (2) The condition of a completely de-
drives from being exceeded; and pleted battery with the generator run-
(3) In addition to paragraphs (a)(1) or ning at its normal operating speed; and
(a)(2) of this section, be sealed to pre- (3) The condition of a completely de-
vent contamination of the engine oil pleted battery with the generator oper-
system and the accessory system. ating at idling speed, if there is only
(b) Electrical equipment subject to one battery.
arcing or sparking must be installed to (d) There must be means to warn ap-
minimize the probability of contact propriate crewmembers if malfunc-
with any flammable fluids or vapors tioning of any part of the electrical
that might be present in a free state. system is causing the continuous dis-
(c) Each generator rated at or more charge of any battery used for engine
than 6 kilowatts must be designed and ignition.
installed to minimize the probability (e) Each turbine engine ignition sys-
of a fire hazard in the event it malfunc- tem must be independent of any elec-
tions. trical circuit that is not used for as-
(d) If the continued rotation of any sisting, controlling, or analyzing the
accessory remotely driven by the en- operation of that system.
gine is hazardous when malfunctioning (f) In addition, for commuter cat-
occurs, a means to prevent rotation egory airplanes, each turbopropeller ig-
without interfering with the continued nition system must be an essential
operation of the engine must be pro- electrical load.
vided. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
(e) Each accessory driven by a gear- amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465 Dec. 20,
box that is not approved as part of the 1976; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987]
powerplant driving the gearbox must—
(1) Have torque limiting means to POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
prevent the torque limits established
for the affected drive from being ex- § 23.1181 Designated fire zones; re-
ceeded; gions included.
(2) Use the provisions on the gearbox Designated fire zones are—
for mounting; and (a) For reciprocating engines—
(3) Be sealed to prevent contamina- (1) The power section;
tion of the gearbox oil system and the (2) The accessory section;
accessory system. (3) Any complete powerplant com-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
partment in which there is no isolation
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, between the power section and the ac-
1973; Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; cessory section.
Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1832, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. (b) For turbine engines—
23–42, 56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991] (1) The compressor and accessory sec-
tions;
§ 23.1165 Engine ignition systems. (2) The combustor, turbine and tail-
(a) Each battery ignition system pipe sections that contain lines or com-
must be supplemented by a generator ponents carrying flammable fluids or
that is automatically available as an gases.
alternate source of electrical energy to (3) Any complete powerplant com-
allow continued engine operation if partment in which there is no isolation
any battery becomes depleted. between compressor, accessory, com-
(b) The capacity of batteries and gen- bustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections.
erators must be large enough to meet (c) Any auxiliary power unit com-
the simultaneous demands of the en- partment; and
280
(d) Any fuel-burning heater, and (2) Vent and drain lines, and their fit-
other combustion equipment installa- tings, whose failure will not result in,
tion described in § 23.859. or add to, a fire hazard.
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, 1993, as [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5138, Feb. 9, amended by Amdt. 23–5, 32 FR 6912, May 5,
1996] 1967; Amdt. 23–15, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974;
Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
§ 23.1182 Nacelle areas behind fire- 23–51, 61 FR 5138, Feb. 9, 1996]
walls.
§ 23.1189 Shutoff means.
Components, lines, and fittings, ex-
cept those subject to the provisions of (a) For each multiengine airplane the
§ 23.1351(e), located behind the engine- following apply:
compartment firewall must be con- (1) Each engine installation must
structed of such materials and located have means to shut off or otherwise
at such distances from the firewall prevent hazardous quantities of fuel,
that they will not suffer damage suffi- oil, deicing fluid, and other flammable
cient to endanger the airplane if a por- liquids from flowing into, within, or
tion of the engine side of the firewall is through any engine compartment, ex-
subjected to a flame temperature of cept in lines, fittings, and components
not less than 2000 °F for 15 minutes. forming an integral part of an engine.
(2) The closing of the fuel shutoff
[Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31816, Nov. 19, 1973] valve for any engine may not make any
fuel unavailable to the remaining en-
§ 23.1183 Lines, fittings, and compo-
nents. gines that would be available to those
engines with that valve open.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (3) Operation of any shutoff means
(b) of this section, each component, may not interfere with the later emer-
line, and fitting carrying flammable gency operation of other equipment
fluids, gas, or air in any area subject to such as propeller feathering devices.
engine fire conditions must be at least (4) Each shutoff must be outside of
fire resistant, except that flammable the engine compartment unless an
fluid tanks and supports which are part equal degree of safety is provided with
of and attached to the engine must be the shutoff inside the compartment.
fireproof or be enclosed by a fireproof (5) Not more than one quart of flam-
shield unless damage by fire to any mable fluid may escape into the engine
non-fireproof part will not cause leak- compartment after engine shutoff. For
age or spillage of flammable fluid. those installations where the flam-
Components must be shielded or lo- mable fluid that escapes after shut-
cated so as to safeguard against the ig- down cannot be limited to one quart, it
nition of leaking flammable fluid. must be demonstrated that this greater
Flexible hose assemblies (hose and end amount can be safely contained or
fittings) must be shown to be suitable drained overboard.
for the particular application. An inte- (6) There must be means to guard
gral oil sump of less than 25–quart ca- against inadvertent operation of each
pacity on a reciprocating engine need shutoff means, and to make it possible
not be fireproof nor be enclosed by a for the crew to reopen the shutoff
fireproof shield. means in flight after it has been closed.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does (b) Turbine engine installations need
not apply to— not have an engine oil system shutoff
(1) Lines, fittings, and components if—
which are already approved as part of a (1) The oil tank is integral with, or
type certificated engine; and mounted on, the engine; and
281
§ 23.1191 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) All oil system components exter- (1) Stainless steel sheet, 0.015 inch
nal to the engine are fireproof or lo- thick.
cated in areas not subject to engine (2) Mild steel sheet (coated with alu-
fire conditions. minum or otherwise protected against
(c) Power operated valves must have corrosion) 0.018 inch thick.
means to indicate to the flight crew (3) Terne plate, 0.018 inch thick.
when the valve has reached the se- (4) Monel metal, 0.018 inch thick.
lected position and must be designed so (5) Steel or copper base alloy firewall
that the valve will not move from the fittings.
selected position under vibration con- (6) Titanium sheet, 0.016 inch thick.
ditions likely to exist at the valve lo-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
cation.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as 1993; 58 FR 27060, May 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13, FR 5138, Feb. 9, 1996]
1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973;
Amdt. 23–29, 49 FR 6847, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt. § 23.1192 Engine accessory compart-
23–43, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, 1993] ment diaphragm.
For aircooled radial engines, the en-
§ 23.1191 Firewalls.
gine power section and all portions of
(a) Each engine, auxiliary power the exhaust sytem must be isolated
unit, fuel burning heater, and other from the engine accessory compart-
combustion equipment, must be iso- ment by a diaphragm that meets the
lated from the rest of the airplane by firewall requirements of § 23.1191.
firewalls, shrouds, or equivalent
means. [Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973]
(b) Each firewall or shroud must be
§ 23.1193 Cowling and nacelle.
constructed so that no hazardous quan-
tity of liquid, gas, or flame can pass (a) Each cowling must be constructed
from the compartment created by the and supported so that it can resist any
firewall or shroud to other parts of the vibration, inertia, and air loads to
airplane. which it may be subjected in operation.
(c) Each opening in the firewall or (b) There must be means for rapid
shroud must be sealed with close fit- and complete drainage of each part of
ting, fireproof grommets, bushings, or the cowling in the normal ground and
firewall fittings. flight attitudes. Drain operation may
(d) [Reserved] be shown by test, analysis, or both, to
(e) Each firewall and shroud must be ensure that under normal aerodynamic
fireproof and protected against corro- pressure distribution expected in serv-
sion. ice each drain will operate as designed.
(f) Compliance with the criteria for No drain may discharge where it will
fireproof materials or components cause a fire hazard.
must be shown as follows: (c) Cowling must be at least fire re-
(1) The flame to which the materials sistant.
or components are subjected must be (d) Each part behind an opening in
2,000 ± 150°F. the engine compartment cowling must
(2) Sheet materials approximately 10 be at least fire resistant for a distance
inches square must be subjected to the of at least 24 inches aft of the opening.
flame from a suitable burner. (e) Each part of the cowling subjected
(3) The flame must be large enough to high temperatures due to its near-
to maintain the required test tempera- ness to exhaust sytem ports or exhaust
ture over an area approximately five gas impingement, must be fire proof.
inches square. (f) Each nacelle of a multiengine air-
(g) Firewall materials and fittings plane with supercharged engines must
must resist flame penetration for at be designed and constructed so that
least 15 minutes. with the landing gear retracted, a fire
(h) The following materials may be in the engine compartment will not
used in firewalls or shrouds without burn through a cowling or nacelle and
being tested as required by this sec- enter a nacelle area other than the en-
tion: gine compartment.
282
(g) In addition, for commuter cat- enced in the compartment in which

egory airplanes, the airplane must be they are stored.
designed so that no fire originating in (b) If any toxic extinguishing agent is
any engine compartment can enter, ei- used, provisions must be made to pre-
ther through openings or by burn- vent harmful concentrations of fluid or
through, any other region where it fluid vapors (from leakage during nor-
would create additional hazards. mal operation of the airplane or as a
result of discharging the fire extin-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– guisher on the ground or in flight) from
18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt. 23–34, 52 entering any personnel compartment,
FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987; 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, even though a defect may exist in the
1993] extinguishing system. This must be
shown by test except for built-in car-
§ 23.1195 Fire extinguishing systems. bon dioxide fuselage compartment fire
(a) For commuter category airplanes, extinguishing systems for which—
fire extinguishing systems must be in- (1) Five pounds or less of carbon diox-
stalled and compliance shown with the ide will be discharged, under estab-
following: lished fire control procedures, into any
(1) Except for combustor, turbine, fuselage compartment; or
and tailpipe sections of turbine-engine (2) Protective breathing equipment is
installations that contain lines or com- available for each flight crewmember
ponents carrying flammable fluids or on flight deck duty.
gases for which a fire originating in [Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987]
these sections is shown to be control-
lable, a fire extinguisher system must § 23.1199 Extinguishing agent con-
serve each engine compartment; tainers.
(2) The fire extinguishing system, the For commuter category airplanes,
quantity of the extinguishing agent, the following applies:
the rate of discharge, and the discharge (a) Each extinguishing agent con-
distribution must be adequate to extin- tainer must have a pressure relief to
guish fires. An individual ‘‘one shot’’ prevent bursting of the container by
system may be used. excessive internal pressures.
(3) The fire extinguishing system for (b) The discharge end of each dis-
a nacelle must be able to simulta- charge line from a pressure relief con-
neously protect each compartment of nection must be located so that dis-
the nacelle for which protection is pro- charge of the fire extinguishing agent
vided. would not damage the airplane. The
(b) If an auxiliary power unit is in- line must also be located or protected
stalled in any airplane certificated to to prevent clogging caused by ice or
this part, that auxiliary power unit other foreign matter.
compartment must be served by a fire (c) A means must be provided for
extinguishing system meeting the re- each fire extinguishing agent container
quirements of paragraph (a)(2) of this to indicate that the container has dis-
section. charged or that the charging pressure
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987, as is below the established minimum nec-
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, essary for proper functioning.
1993] (d) The temperature of each con-
tainer must be maintained, under in-
§ 23.1197 Fire extinguishing agents. tended operating conditions, to prevent
For commuter category airplanes, the pressure in the container from—
the following applies: (1) Falling below that necessary to
(a) Fire extinguishing agents must— provide an adequate rate of discharge;
(1) Be capable of extinguishing or
flames emanating from any burning of (2) Rising high enough to cause pre-
fluids or other combustible materials mature discharge.
in the area protected by the fire extin- (e) If a pyrotechnic capsule is used to
guishing system; and discharge the extinguishing agent,
(2) Have thermal stability over the each container must be installed so
temperature range likely to be experi- that temperature conditions will not
283
§ 23.1201 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
cause hazardous deterioration of the Subpart F—Equipment

pyrotechnic capsule.
GENERAL
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987; 52 FR
34745, Sept. 14, 1987] § 23.1301 Function and installation.
§ 23.1201 Fire extinguishing systems Each item of installed equipment
materials. must—
(a) Be of a kind and design appro-
For commuter category airplanes, priate to its intended function.
the following apply: (b) Be labeled as to its identification,
(a) No material in any fire extin- function, or operating limitations, or
guishing system may react chemically any applicable combination of these
with any extinguishing agent so as to factors;
create a hazard. (c) Be installed according to limita-
(b) Each system component in an en- tions specified for that equipment; and
gine compartment must be fireproof. (d) Function properly when installed.
[Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, 1987; 52 FR [Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36968, July 18, 1977]
7262, Mar. 9, 1987]
§ 23.1303 Flight and navigation instru-
ments.
§ 23.1203 Fire detector system.
The following are the minimum re-
(a) There must be means that ensure quired flight and navigation instru-
the prompt detection of a fire in— ments:
(1) An engine compartment of— (a) An airspeed indicator.
(i) Multiengine turbine powered air- (b) An altimeter.
planes; (c) A direction indicator (non-
(ii) Multiengine reciprocating engine stabilized magnetic compass).
powered airplanes incorporating (d) For reciprocating engine-powered
turbochargers; airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds
(iii) Airplanes with engine(s) located maximum weight and turbine engine
where they are not readily visible from powered airplanes, a free air tempera-
the cockpit; and ture indicator or an air-temperature
indicator which provides indications
(iv) All commuter category air-
that are convertible to free-air.
planes.
(e) A speed warning device for—
(2) The auxiliary power unit compart- (1) Turbine engine powered airplanes;
ment of any airplane incorporating an and
auxiliary power unit. (2) Other airplanes for which VMO/
(b) Each fire detector must be con- MMO and VD/MD are established under
structed and installed to withstand the §§ 23.335(b)(4) and 23.1505(c) if VMO/MMO
vibration, inertia, and other loads to is greater than 0.8 VD/MD.
which it may be subjected in operation. The speed warning device must give
(c) No fire detector may be affected effective aural warning (differing dis-
by any oil, water, other fluids, or tinctively from aural warnings used for
fumes that might be present. other purposes) to the pilots whenever
(d) There must be means to allow the the speed exceeds VMO plus 6 knots or
crew to check, in flight, the func- MMO+0.01. The upper limit of the pro-
tioning of each fire detector electric duction tolerance for the warning de-
circuit. vice may not exceed the prescribed
warning speed. The lower limit of the
(e) Wiring and other components of
warning device must be set to mini-
each fire detector system in a des- mize nuisance warning;
ignated fire zone must be at least fire (f) When an attitude display is in-
resistant. stalled, the instrument design must
[Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977, as not provide any means, accessible to
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1833, Jan. 15, the flightcrew, of adjusting the relative
1987; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, 1993; positions of the attitude reference sym-
Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5138, Feb. 9, 1996] bol and the horizon line beyond that
necessary for parallax correction.
284
(g) In addition, for commuter cat- (1) An induction system air tempera-
egory airplanes: ture indicator for each engine equipped
(1) If airspeed limitations vary with with a preheater and having induction
altitude, the airspeed indicator must air temperature limitations that can
have a maximum allowable airspeed in- be exceeded with preheat.
dicator showing the variation of VMO (2) A tachometer indicator for each
with altitude. engine.
(2) The altimeter must be a sensitive (3) A cylinder head temperature indi-
type. cator for—
(3) Having a passenger seating con- (i) Each air-cooled engine with cowl
figuration of 10 or more, excluding the flaps;
pilot’s seats and that are approved for (ii) [Reserved]
IFR operations, a third attitude instru- (iii) Each commuter category air-
ment must be provided that: plane.
(i) Is powered from a source inde-
(4) For each pump-fed engine, a
pendent of the electrical generating
means:
system;
(i) That continuously indicates, to
(ii) Continues reliable operation for a
the pilot, the fuel pressure or fuel flow;
minimum of 30 minutes after total fail-
or
ure of the electrical generating system;
(iii) Operates independently of any (ii) That continuously monitors the
other attitude indicating system; fuel system and warns the pilot of any
fuel flow trend that could lead to en-
(iv) Is operative without selection
after total failure of the electrical gen- gine failure.
erating system; (5) A manifold pressure indicator for
(v) Is located on the instrument each altitude engine and for each en-
panel in a position acceptable to the gine with a controllable propeller.
Administrator that will make it plain- (6) For each turbocharger installa-
ly visible to and usable by any pilot at tion:
the pilot’s station; and (i) If limitations are established for
(vi) Is appropriately lighted during either carburetor (or manifold) air
all phases of operation. inlet temperature or exhaust gas or
turbocharger turbine inlet tempera-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as ture, indicators must be furnished for
each temperature for which the limita-
1976; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, 1993;
Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5168, Feb. 9, 1996] tion is established unless it is shown
that the limitation will not be exceed-
§ 23.1305 Powerplant instruments. ed in all intended operations.
The following are required power- (ii) If its oil system is separate from
plant instruments: the engine oil system, oil pressure and
(a) For all airplanes. (1) A fuel quan- oil temperature indicators must be pro-
tity indicator for each fuel tank, in- vided.
stalled in accordance with § 23.1337(b). (7) A coolant temperature indicator
(2) An oil pressure indicator for each for each liquid-cooled engine.
engine. (c) For turbine engine-powered air-
(3) An oil temperature indicator for planes. In addition to the powerplant
each engine. instruments required by paragraph (a)
(4) An oil quantity measuring device of this section, the following power-
for each oil tank which meets the re- plant instruments are required:
quirements of § 23.1337(d). (1) A gas temperature indicator for
(5) A fire warning means for those each engine.
airplanes required to comply with (2) A fuel flowmeter indicator for
§ 23.1203. each engine.
(b) For reciprocating engine-powered (3) A fuel low pressure warning
airplanes. In addition to the powerplant means for each engine.
instruments required by paragraph (a) (4) A fuel low level warning means for
of this section, the following power- any fuel tank that should not be de-
plant instruments are required: pleted of fuel in normal operations.
285
§ 23.1307 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(5) A tachometer indicator (to indi- § 23.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.

cate the speed of the rotors with estab-
The equipment necessary for an air-
lished limiting speeds) for each engine.
plane to operate at the maximum oper-
(6) An oil low pressure warning
ating altitude and in the kinds of oper-
means for each engine.
ation and meteorological conditions
(7) An indicating means to indicate
for which certification is requested and
the functioning of the powerplant ice
is approved in accordance with § 23.1559
protection system for each engine.
must be included in the type design.
(8) For each engine, an indicating
means for the fuel strainer or filter re- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
quired by § 23.997 to indicate the occur- FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
rence of contamination of the strainer 23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 23–43, 58
or filter before it reaches the capacity FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5168,
Feb. 9, 1996]
established in accordance with
§ 23.997(d). § 23.1309 Equipment, systems, and in-
(9) For each engine, a warning means stallations.
for the oil strainer or filter required by
§ 23.1019, if it has no bypass, to warn the (a) Each item of equipment, each sys-
pilot of the occurrence of contamina- tem, and each installation:
tion of the strainer or filter screen be- (1) When performing its intended
fore it reaches the capacity established function, may not adversely affect the
in accordance with § 23.1019(a)(5). response, operation, or accuracy of
(10) An indicating means to indicate any—
the functioning of any heater used to (i) Equipment essential to safe oper-
prevent ice clogging of fuel system ation; or
components. (ii) Other equipment unless there is a
(d) For turbojet/turbofan engine-pow- means to inform the pilot of the effect.
ered airplanes. In addition to the power- (2) In a single-engine airplane, must
plant instruments required by para- be designed to minimize hazards to the
graphs (a) and (c) of this section, the airplane in the event of a probable mal-
following powerplant instruments are function or failure.
required: (3) In a multiengine airplane, must be
(1) For each engine, an indicator to designed to prevent hazards to the air-
indicate thrust or to indicate a param- plane in the event of a probable mal-
eter that can be related to thrust, in- function or failure.
cluding a free air temperature indi- (4) In a commuter category airplane,
cator if needed for this purpose. must be designed to safeguard against
(2) For each engine, a position indi- hazards to the airplane in the event of
cating means to indicate to the flight their malfunction or failure.
crew when the thrust reverser, if in- (b) The design of each item of equip-
stalled, is in the reverse thrust posi- ment, each system, and each installa-
tion. tion must be examined separately and
(e) For turbopropeller-powered air- in relationship to other airplane sys-
planes. In addition to the powerplant tems and installations to determine if
instruments required by paragraphs (a) the airplane is dependent upon its func-
and (c) of this section, the following tion for continued safe flight and land-
powerplant instruments are required: ing and, for airplanes not limited to
(1) A torque indicator for each en- VFR conditions, if failure of a system
gine. would significantly reduce the capa-
(2) A position indicating means to in- bility of the airplane or the ability of
dicate to the flight crew when the pro- the crew to cope with adverse oper-
peller blade angle is below the flight ating conditions. Each item of equip-
low pitch position, for each propeller, ment, each system, and each installa-
unless it can be shown that such occur- tion identified by this examination as
rence is highly improbable. one upon which the airplane is depend-
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18975, Apr. 9, 1993; 58 ent for proper functioning to ensure
FR 27060, May 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–51, 61 FR 5138, continued safe flight and landing, or
Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 23–52, 61 FR 13644, Mar. 27, whose failure would significantly re-
1996] duce the capability of the airplane or
286
the ability of the crew to cope with ad- (1) Loads connected to the power dis-
verse operating conditions, must be de- tribution system with the system func-
signed to comply with the following ad- tioning normally.
ditional requirements: (2) Essential loads after failure of—
(1) It must perform its intended func- (i) Any one engine on two-engine air-
tion under any foreseeable operating planes; or
condition. (ii) Any two engines on an airplane
(2) When systems and associated with three or more engines; or
components are considered separately (iii) Any power converter or energy
and in relation to other systems— storage device.
(i) The occurrence of any failure con- (3) Essential loads for which an alter-
dition that would prevent the contin- nate source of power is required, as ap-
ued safe flight and landing of the air-
plicable, by the operating rules of this
plane must be extremely improbable;
chapter, after any failure or malfunc-
and
tion in any one power supply system,
(ii) The occurrence of any other fail-
distribution system, or other utiliza-
ure condition that would significantly
reduce the capability of the airplane or tion system.
the ability of the crew to cope with ad- (d) In determining compliance with
verse operating conditions must be im- paragraph (c)(2) of this section, the
probable. power loads may be assumed to be re-
(3) Warning information must be produced under a monitoring procedure
vided to alert the crew to unsafe sys- consistent with safety in the kinds of
tem operating conditions and to enable operations authorized. Loads not re-
them to take appropriate corrective quired in controlled flight need not be
action. Systems, controls, and associ- considered for the two-engine-inoper-
ated monitoring and warning means ative condition on airplanes with three
must be designed to minimize crew er- or more engines.
rors that could create additional haz- (e) In showing compliance with this
ards. section with regard to the electrical
(4) Compliance with the requirements power system and to equipment design
of paragraph (b)(2) of this section may and installation, critical environ-
be shown by analysis and, where nec- mental and atmospheric conditions, in-
essary, by appropriate ground, flight, cluding radio frequency energy and the
or simulator tests. The analysis must effects (both direct and indirect) of
consider— lightning strikes, must be considered.
(i) Possible modes of failure, includ- For electrical generation, distribution,
ing malfunctions and damage from ex- and utilization equipment required by
ternal sources; or used in complying with this chapter,
(ii) The probability of multiple fail- the ability to provide continuous, safe
ures, and the probability of undetected service under forseeable environmental
faults.; conditions may be shown by environ-
(iii) The resulting effects on the air- mental tests, design analysis, or ref-
plane and occupants, considering the erence to previous comparable service
stage of flight and operating condi- experience on other airplanes.
tions; and
(f) As used in this section, ‘‘system’’
(iv) The crew warning cues, correc- refers to all pneumatic systems, fluid
tive action required, and the crew’s ca-
systems, electrical systems, mechan-
pability of determining faults.
ical systems, and powerplant systems
(c) Each item of equipment, each sys-
included in the airplane design, except
tem, and each installation whose func-
for the following:
tioning is required by this chapter and
that requires a power supply is an ‘‘es- (1) Powerplant systems provided as
sential load’’ on the power supply. The part of the certificated engine.
power sources and the system must be (2) The flight structure (such a wing,
able to supply the following power empennage, control surfaces and their
loads in probable operating combina- systems, the fuselage, engine mount-
tions and for probable durations: ing, and landing gear and their related
287
§ 23.1311 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
primary attachments) whose require- (7) Incorporate visual displays of in-

ments are specific in subparts C and D strument markings, required by
of this part. §§ 23.1541 through 23.1553, or visual dis-
plays that alert the pilot to abnormal
[Amdt. 23–41, 55 FR 43309, Oct. 26, 1990; 55 FR
operational values or approaches to es-
47028, Nov. 8, l990, as amended by Amdt. 23–
49, 61 FR 5168, Feb. 9, 1996] tablished limitation values, for each
parameter required to be displayed by
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION this part.
(b) The electronic display indicators,
§ 23.1311 Electronic display instru- including their systems and installa-
ment systems. tions, and considering other airplane
(a) Electronic display indicators, in- systems, must be designed so that one
cluding those with features that make display of information essential for
isolation and independence between continued safe flight and landing will
powerplant instrument systems im- remain available to the crew, without
practical, must: need for immediate action by any pilot
for continued safe operation, after any
(1) Meet the arrangement and visi-
single failure or probable combination
bility requirements of § 23.1321.
of failures.
(2) Be easily legible under all lighting
(c) As used in this section, ‘‘instru-
conditions encountered in the cockpit,
ment’’ includes devices that are phys-
including direct sunlight, considering
ically contained in one unit, and de-
the expected electronic display bright-
vices that are composed of two or more
ness level at the end of an electronic
physically separate units or compo-
display indictor’s useful life. Specific
nents connected together (such as a re-
limitations on display system useful
mote indicating gyroscopic direction
life must be contained in the Instruc-
indicator that includes a magnetic
tions for Continued Airworthiness re-
sensing element, a gyroscopic unit, an
quired by § 23.1529.
amplifier, and an indicator connected
(3) Not inhibit the primary display of together). As used in this section, ‘‘pri-
attitude, airspeed, altitude, or power- mary’’ display refers to the display of a
plant parameters needed by any pilot parameter that is located in the instru-
to set power within established limita- ment panel such that the pilot looks at
tions, in any normal mode of oper- it first when wanting to view that pa-
ation. rameter.
(4) Not inhibit the primary display of
engine parameters needed by any pilot [Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5168, Feb. 9, 1996]
to properly set or monitor powerplant
limitations during the engine starting § 23.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
mode of operation. (a) Each flight, navigation, and pow-
(5) Have an independent magnetic di- erplant instrument for use by any re-
rection indicator and either an inde- quired pilot during takeoff, initial
pendent secondary mechanical altim- climb, final approach, and landing
eter, airspeed indicator, and attitude must be located so that any pilot seat-
instrument or individual electronic ed at the controls can monitor the air-
display indicators for the altitude, airplane’s flight path and these instru-
speed, and attitude that are inde- ments with minimum head and eye
pendent from the airplane’s primary movement. The powerplant instru-
electrical power system. These sec- ments for these flight conditions are
ondary instruments may be installed in those needed to set power within pow-
panel positions that are displaced from erplant limitations.
the primary positions specified by (b) For each multiengine airplane,
§ 23.1321(d), but must be located where identical powerplant instruments must
they meet the pilot’s visibility require- be located so as to prevent confusion as
ments of § 23.1321(a). to which engine each instrument re-
(6) Incorporate sensory cues for the lates.
pilot that are equivalent to those in (c) Instrument panel vibration may
the instrument being replaced by the not damage, or impair the accuracy of,
electronic display indicators. any instrument.
288
(d) For each airplane, the flight in- the color differs sufficiently from the
struments required by § 23.1303, and, as colors prescribed in paragraphs (a)
applicable, by the operating rules of through (c) of this section to avoid pos-
this chapter, must be grouped on the sible confusion.
instrument panel and centered as near- (e) Effective under all probable cock-
ly as practicable about the vertical pit lighting conditions.
plane of each required pilot’s forward
vision. In addition: [Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976, as
(1) The instrument that most effec-
1993]
tively indicates the attitude must be
on the panel in the top center position; § 23.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
(2) The instrument that most effec-
tively indicates airspeed must be adja- (a) Each airspeed indicating
cent to and directly to the left of the instrucment must be calibrated to indi-
instrument in the top center position; cate true airspeed (at sea level with a
(3) The instrument that most effec- standard atmosphere) with a minimum
tively indicates altitude must be adja- practicable instrument calibration
cent to and directly to the right of the error when the corresponding pitot and
instrument in the top center position; static pressures are applied.
(4) The instrument that most effec- (b) Each airspeed system must be
tively indicates direction of flight, calibrated in flight to determine the
other than the magnetic direction indi- system error. The system error, includ-
cator required by § 23.1303(c), must be ing position error, but excluding the
adjacent to and directly below the in- airspeed indicator instrument calibra-
strument in the top center position; tion error, may not exceed three per-
and cent of the calibrated airspeed or five
(5) Electronic display indicators may knots, whichever is greater, through-
be used for compliance with paragraphs out the following speed ranges:
(d)(1) through (d)(4) of this section (1) 1.3 VS1 to VMO/MMO or VNE, which-
when such displays comply with re- ever is appropriate with flaps re-
quirements in § 23.1311. tracted.
(e) If a visual indicator is provided to (2) 1.3 VS1 to VFE with flaps extended.
indicate malfunction of an instrument, (c) The design and installation of
it must be effective under all probable each airspeed indicating system must
cockpit lighting conditions. provide positive drainage of moisture
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as from the pitot static plumbing.
amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31824, Nov. 19, (d) If certification for instrument
1973; Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36968, July 18, 1977; flight rules or flight in icing conditions
Amdt. 23–41, 55 FR 43310, Oct. 26, 1990; 55 FR
is requested, each airspeed system
46888, Nov. 7, 1990; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5168,
Feb. 9, 1996] must have a heated pitot tube or an
equivalent means of preventing mal-
§ 23.1322 Warning, caution, and advi- function due to icing.
sory lights. (e) In addition, for commuter cat-
If warning, caution, or advisory egory airplanes, the airspeed indi-
lights are installed in the cockpit, they cating system must be calibrated to de-
must, unless otherwise approved by the termine the system error during the
Administrator, be— accelerate-takeoff ground run. The
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights in- ground run calibration must be ob-
dicating a hazard which may require tained between 0.8 of the minimum
immediate corrective action); value of V1, and 1.2 times the maximum
(b) Amber, for caution lights (lights value of V1 considering the approved
indicating the possible need for future ranges of altitude and weight. The
corrective action); ground run calibration must be deter-
(c) Green, for safe operation lights; mined assuming an engine failure at
and the minimum value of V1.
(d) Any other color, including white, (f) For commuter category airplanes,
for lights not described in paragraphs where duplicate airspeed indicators are
(a) through (c) of this section, provided required, their respective pitot tubes
289
§ 23.1325 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
must be far enough apart to avoid dam- the maximum cabin differential pres-
age to both tubes in a collision with a sure or 100 feet, whichever is greater.
bird. (3) If a static pressure system is pro-
[Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36968, July 18, 1977, as vided for any instrument, device, or
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1834, Jan. 15, system required by the operating rules
1987; 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–42, of this chapter, each static pressure
56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR port must be designed or located in
5168, Feb. 9, 1996] such a manner that the correlation be-
§ 23.1325 Static pressure system. tween air pressure in the static pres-
sure system and true ambient atmos-
(a) Each instrument provided with pheric static pressure is not altered
static pressure case connections must when the airplane encounters icing
be so vented that the influence of air- conditions. An antiicing means or an
plane speed, the opening and closing of alternate source of static pressure may
windows, airflow variations, moisture,
be used in showing compliance with
or other foreign matter will least af-
this requirement. If the reading of the
fect the accuracy of the instruments
altimeter, when on the alternate static
except as noted in paragraph (b)(3) of
pressure system differs from the read-
this section.
(b) If a static pressure system is nec- ing of the altimeter when on the pri-
essary for the functioning of instru- mary static system by more than 50
ments, systems, or devices, it must feet, a correction card must be pro-
comply with the provisions of para- vided for the alternate static system.
graphs (b) (1) through (3) of this sec- (c) Except as provided in paragraph
tion. (d) of this section, if the static pressure
(1) The design and installation of a system incorporates both a primary
static pressure system must be such and an alternate static pressure source,
that— the means for selecting one or the
(i) Positive drainage of moisture is other source must be designed so
provided; that—
(ii) Chafing of the tubing, and exces- (1) When either source is selected, the
sive distortion or restriction at bends other is blocked off; and
in the tubing, is avoided; and (2) Both sources cannot be blocked
(iii) The materials used are durable, off simultaneously.
suitable for the purpose intended, and (d) For unpressurized airplanes, para-
protected against corrosion. graph (c)(1) of this section does not
(2) A proof test must be conducted to apply if it can be demonstrated that
demonstrate the integrity of the static the static pressure system calibration,
pressure system in the following man- when either static pressure source is
ner: selected, is not changed by the other
(i) Unpressurized airplanes. Evacuate static pressure source being open or
the static pressure system to a pres- blocked.
sure differential of approximately 1
(e) Each static pressure system must
inch of mercury or to a reading on the
be calibrated in flight to determine the
altimeter, 1,000 feet above the aircraft
elevation at the time of the test. With- system error. The system error, in in-
out additional pumping for a period of dicated pressure altitude, at sea-level,
1 minute, the loss of indicated altitude with a standard atmosphere, excluding
must not exceed 100 feet on the altim- instrument calibration error, may not
eter. exceed ±30 feet per 100 knot speed for
(ii) Pressurized airplanes. Evacuate the appropriate configuration in the
the static pressure system until a pres- speed range between 1.3 VS0 with flaps
sure differential equivalent to the max- extended, and 1.8 VS1 with flaps re-
imum cabin pressure differential for tracted. However, the error need not be
which the airplane is type certificated less than 30 feet.
is achieved. Without additional pump- (f) [Reserved]
ing for a period of 1 minute, the loss of (g) For airplanes prohibited from
indicated altitude must not exceed 2 flight in instrument meteorological or
percent of the equivalent altitude of icing conditions, in accordance with
290
§ 23.1559(b) of this part, paragraph (b)(3) grees must be placarded in accordance

of this section does not apply. with § 23.1547(e).
[Amdt. 23–1, 30 FR 8261, June 29, 1965, as [Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977]
amended by Amdt. 23–6, 32 FR 7586, May 24,
1967; 32 FR 13505, Sept. 27, 1967; 32 FR 13714, § 23.1329 Automatic pilot system.
Sept. 30, 1967; Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36968, July If an automatic pilot system is in-
18, 1977; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1834, Jan. 15, 1987; stalled, it must meet the following:
Amdt. 23–42, 56 FR 354, Jan. 3, 1991; Amdt. 23– (a) Each system must be designed so
49, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR
that the automatic pilot can—
5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) Be quickly and positively dis-
§ 23.1326 Pitot heat indication systems. engaged by the pilots to prevent it
from interfering with their control of
If a flight instrument pitot heating the airplane; or
system is installed to meet the require- (2) Be sufficiently overpowered by
ments specified in § 23.1323(d), an indi- one pilot to let him control the air-
cation system must be provided to in- plane.
dicate to the flight crew when that (b) If the provisions of paragraph
pitot heating system is not operating. (a)(1) of this section are applied, the
The indication system must comply quick release (emergency) control
with the following requirements: must be located on the control wheel
(a) The indication provided must in- (both control wheels if the airplane can
corporate an amber light that is in be operated from either pilot seat) on
clear view of a flightcrew member. the side opposite the throttles, or on
(b) The indication provided must be the stick control, (both stick controls,
designed to alert the flight crew if ei- if the airplane can be operated from ei-
ther of the following conditions exist: ther pilot seat) such that it can be op-
(1) The pitot heating system is erated without moving the hand from
switched ‘‘off.’’ its normal position on the control.
(c) Unless there is automatic syn-
(2) The pitot heating system is
chronization, each system must have a
switched ‘‘on’’ and any pitot tube heat-
means to readily indicate to the pilot
ing element is inoperative. the alignment of the actuating device
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996] in relation to the control system it op-
erates.
§ 23.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. (d) Each manually operated control
(a) Except as provided in paragraph for the system operation must be read-
ily accessible to the pilot. Each control
(b) of this section—
must operate in the same plane and
(1) Each magnetic direction indicator sense of motion as specified in § 23.779
must be installed so that its accuracy for cockpit controls. The direction of
is not excessively affected by the air- motion must be plainly indicated on or
plane’s vibration or magnetic fields; near each control.
and (e) Each system must be designed and
(2) The compensated installation may adjusted so that, within the range of
not have a deviation in level flight, adjustment available to the pilot, it
greater than ten degrees on any head- cannot produce hazardous loads on the
ing. airplane or create hazardous deviations
(b) A magnetic nonstabilized direc- in the flight path, under any flight con-
tion indicator may deviate more than dition appropriate to its use, either
ten degrees due to the operation of during normal operation or in the
electrically powered systems such as event of a malfunction, assuming that
electrically heated windshields if ei- corrective action begins within a rea-
ther a magnetic stabilized direction in- sonable period of time.
dicator, which does not have a devi- (f) Each system must be designed so
ation in level flight greater than ten that a single malfunction will not
degrees on any heading, or a gyroscopic produce a hardover signal in more than
direction indicator, is installed. Devi- one control axis. If the automatic pilot
ations of a magnetic nonstabilized di- integrates signals from auxiliary con-
rection indicator of more than 10 de- trols or furnishes signals for operation
291
§ 23.1331 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
of other equipment, positive interlocks dicate to the flight crew its current
and sequencing of engagement to pre- mode of operation. Selector switch po-
vent improper operation are required. sition is not acceptable as a means of
(g) There must be protection against indication.
adverse interaction of integrated com-
[Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977]
ponents, resulting from a malfunction.
(h) If the automatic pilot system can § 23.1337 Powerplant instruments in-
be coupled to airborne navigation stallation.
equipment, means must be provided to
indicate to the flight crew the current (a) Instruments and instrument lines.
mode of operation. Selector switch po- (1) Each powerplant and auxiliary
sition is not acceptable as a means of power unit instrument line must meet
indication. the requirements of § 23.993.
(2) Each line carrying flammable
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 fluids under pressure must—
23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 23–43, 58 (i) Have restricting orifices or other
FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, safety devices at the source of pressure
Feb. 9, 1996] to prevent the escape of excessive fluid
if the line fails; and
§ 23.1331 Instruments using a power (ii) Be installed and located so that
source. the escape of fluids would not create a
For each instrument that uses a hazard.
power source, the following apply: (3) Each powerplant and auxiliary
(a) Each instrument must have an in- power unit instrument that utilizes
tegral visual power annunciator or sep- flammable fluids must be installed and
arate power indicator to indicate when located so that the escape of fluid
power is not adequate to sustain proper would not create a hazard.
instrument performance. If a separate (b) Fuel quantity indication. There
indicator is used, it must be located so must be a means to indicate to the
that the pilot using the instruments flightcrew members the quantity of us-
can monitor the indicator with min- able fuel in each tank during flight. An
imum head and eye movement. The indicator calibrated in appropriate
power must be sensed at or near the units and clearly marked to indicate
point where it enters the instrument. those units must be used. In addition:
For electric and vacuum/pressure in- (1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
struments, the power is considered to be calibrated to read ‘‘zero’’ during
be adequate when the voltage or the level flight when the quantity of fuel
vacuum/pressure, respectively, is with- remaining in the tank is equal to the
in approved limits. unusable fuel supply determined under
(b) The installation and power supply § 23.959(a);
systems must be designed so that— (2) Each exposed sight gauge used as
(1) The failure of one instrument will a fuel quantity indicator must be pro-
not interfere with the proper supply of tected against damage;
energy to the remaining instrument; (3) Each sight gauge that forms a
and trap in which water can collect and
(2) The failure of the energy supply freeze must have means to allow drain-
from one source will not interfere with age on the ground;
the proper supply of energy from any (4) There must be a means to indicate
other source. the amount of usable fuel in each tank
(c) There must be at least two inde- when the airplane is on the ground
pendent sources of power (not driven (such as by a stick gauge);
by the same engine on multiengine air-
(5) Tanks with interconnected outlets
planes), and a manual or an automatic
and airspaces may be considered as one
means to select each power source.
tank and need not have separate indi-
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993] cators; and
(6) No fuel quantity indicator is re-
§ 23.1335 Flight director systems. quired for an auxiliary tank that is
If a flight director system is in- used only to transfer fuel to other
stalled, means must be provided to in- tanks if the relative size of the tank,
292
the rate of fuel transfer, and operating (i) Free from hazards in itself, in its
instructions are adequate to— method of operation, and in its effects
(i) Guard against overflow; and on other parts of the airplane;
(ii) Give the flight crewmembers (ii) Protected from fuel, oil, water,
prompt warning if transfer is not pro- other detrimental substances, and me-
ceeding as planned. chanical damage; and
(c) Fuel flowmeter system. If a fuel (iii) So designed that the risk of elec-
flowmeter system is installed, each trical shock to crew, passengers, and
metering component must have a ground personnel is reduced to a min-
means to by-pass the fuel supply if imum.
malfunctioning of that component se- (2) Electric power sources must func-
verely restricts fuel flow. tion properly when connected in com-
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There must bination or independently.
be a means to indicate the quantity of
(3) No failure or malfunction of any
oil in each tank—
(1) On the ground (such as by a stick electric power source may impair the
gauge); and ability of any remaining source to sup-
(2) In flight, to the flight crew mem- ply load circuits essential for safe oper-
bers, if there is an oil transfer system ation.
or a reserve oil supply system. (4) In addition, for commuter cat-
egory airplanes, the following apply:
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (i) Each system must be designed so
1969; Amdt. 23–18, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977; that essential load circuits can be sup-
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. plied in the event of reasonably prob-
23–51, 61 FR 5138, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 23–49, 61 able faults or open circuits including
FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996] faults in heavy current carrying cables;
(ii) A means must be accessible in
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT flight to the flight crewmembers for
§ 23.1351 General. the individual and collective dis-
connection of the electrical power
(a) Electrical system capacity. Each sources from the system;
electrical system must be adequate for (iii) The system must be designed so
the intended use. In addition— that voltage and frequency, if applica-
(1) Electric power sources, their ble, at the terminals of all essential
transmission cables, and their associ- load equipment can be maintained
ated control and protective devices, within the limits for which the equip-
must be able to furnish the required ment is designed during any probable
power at the proper voltage to each operating conditions;
load circuit essential for safe oper-
(iv) If two independent sources of
ation; and
electrical power for particular equip-
(2) Compliance with paragraph (a)(1)
of this section must be shown as fol- ment or systems are required, their
lows— electrical energy supply must be en-
(i) For normal, utility, and acrobatic sured by means such as duplicate elec-
category airplanes, by an electrical trical equipment, throwover switching,
load analysis or by electrical measure- or multichannel or loop circuits sepa-
ments that account for the electrical rately routed; and
loads applied to the electrical system (v) For the purpose of complying
in probable combinations and for prob- with paragraph (b)(5) of this section,
able durations; and the distribution system includes the
(ii) For commuter category air- distribution busses, their associated
planes, by an electrical load analysis feeders, and each control and protec-
that accounts for the electrical loads tive device.
applied to the electrical system in (c) Generating system. There must be
probable combinations and for probable at least one generator/alternator if the
durations. electrical system supplies power to
(b) Function. For each electrical sys- load circuits essential for safe oper-
tem, the following apply: ation. In addition—
(1) Each system, when installed, (1) Each generator/alternator must be
must be— able to deliver its continuous rated
293
§ 23.1353 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
power, or such power as is limited by having a reverse polarity, or a reverse

its regulation system. phase sequence, can supply power to
(2) Generator/alternator voltage con- the airplane’s electrical system. The
trol equipment must be able to depend- external power connection must be lo-
ably regulate the generator/alternator cated so that its use will not result in
output within rated limits. a hazard to the airplane or ground per-
(3) Automatic means must be pro- sonnel.
vided to prevent damage to any gener- (g) It must be shown by analysis,
ator/alternator and adverse effects on tests, or both, that the airplane can be
the airplane electrical system due to operated safely in VFR conditions, for
reverse current. A means must also be a period of not less than five minutes,
provided to disconnect each generator/ with the normal electrical power (elec-
alternator from the battery and other trical power sources excluding the bat-
generators/alternators. tery and any other standby electrical
(4) There must be a means to give im- sources) inoperative, with critical type
mediate warning to the flight crew of a fuel (from the standpoint of flameout
failure of any generator/alternator. and restart capability), and with the
(5) Each generator/alternator must airplane initially at the maximum cer-
have an overvoltage control designed tificated altitude. Parts of the elec-
and installed to prevent damage to the trical system may remain on if—
electrical system, or to equipment sup- (1) A single malfunction, including a
plied by the electrical system that wire bundle or junction box fire, can-
could result if that generator/alter- not result in loss of the part turned off
nator were to develop an overvoltage and the part turned on; and
condition. (2) The parts turned on are elec-
(d) Instruments. A means must exist trically and mechanically isolated
to indicate to appropriate flight crew- from the parts turned off.
members the electric power system [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
quantities essential for safe operation. amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13,
(1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic 1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31824, Nov. 19, 1973;
category airplanes with direct current Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt.
systems, an ammeter that can be 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977; Amdt. 23–34,
52 FR 1834, Jan. 15, 1987; 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14,
switched into each generator feeder 1987; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993;
may be used and, if only one generator Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996]
exists, the ammeter may be in the bat-
tery feeder. § 23.1353 Storage battery design and
(2) For commuter category airplanes, installation.
the essential electric power system (a) Each storage battery must be de-
quantities include the voltage and cur- signed and installed as prescribed in
rent supplied by each generator. this section.
(e) Fire resistance. Electrical equip- (b) Safe cell temperatures and pres-
ment must be so designed and installed sures must be maintained during any
that in the event of a fire in the engine probable charging and discharging con-
compartment, during which the surface dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
of the firewall adjacent to the fire is temperature may result when the bat-
heated to 2,000° F for 5 minutes or to a tery is recharged (after previous com-
lesser temperature substantiated by plete discharge)—
the applicant, the equipment essential (1) At maximum regulated voltage or
to continued safe operation and located power;
behind the firewall will function satis- (2) During a flight of maximum dura-
factorily and will not create an addition; and
tional fire hazard. (3) Under the most adverse cooling
(f) External power. If provisions are condition likely to occur in service.
made for connecting external power to (c) Compliance with paragraph (b) of
the airplane, and that external power this section must be shown by tests un-
can be electrically connected to equip- less experience with similar batteries
ment other than that used for engine and installations has shown that main-
starting, means must be provided to taining safe cell temperatures and
ensure that no external power supply pressures presents no problem.
294
(d) No explosive or toxic gases emit- (1) Main circuits of starter motors
ted by any battery in normal oper- used during starting only; and
ation, or as the result of any probable (2) Circuits in which no hazard is pre-
malfunction in the charging system or sented by their omission.
battery installation, may accumulate (b) A protective device for a circuit
in hazardous quantities within the air- essential to flight safety may not be
plane. used to protect any other circuit.
(e) No corrosive fluids or gases that (c) Each resettable circuit protective
may escape from the battery may dam- device (‘‘trip free’’ device in which the
age surrounding structures or adjacent tripping mechanism cannot be over-
essential equipment. ridden by the operating control) must
(f) Each nickel cadmium battery in-
be designed so that—
stallation capable of being used to
start an engine or auxiliary power unit (1) A manual operation is required to
must have provisions to prevent any restore service after tripping; and
hazardous effect on structure or essen- (2) If an overload or circuit fault ex-
tial systems that may be caused by the ists, the device will open the circuit re-
maximum amount of heat the battery gardless of the position of the oper-
can generate during a short circuit of ating control.
the battery or of its individual cells. (d) If the ability to reset a circuit
(g) Nickel cadmium battery installa- breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
tions capable of being used to start an safety in flight, that circuit breaker or
engine or auxiliary power unit must fuse must be so located and identified
have— that it can be readily reset or replaced
(1) A system to control the charging in flight.
rate of the battery automatically so as (e) For fuses identified as replaceable
to prevent battery overheating; in flight—
(2) A battery temperature sensing (1) There must be one spare of each
and over-temperature warning system rating or 50 percent spare fuses of each
with a means for disconnecting the rating, whichever is greater; and
battery from its charging source in the (2) The spare fuse(s) must be readily
event of an over-temperature condi- accessible to any required pilot.
tion; or
(3) A battery failure sensing and [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
warning system with a means for dis- FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
connecting the battery from its charg- 20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977]; Amdt. 23–43, 58
FR 18976, Apr. 9, 1993
ing source in the event of battery fail-
ure. § 23.1359 Electrical system fire protec-
(h) In the event of a complete loss of tion.
the primary electrical power gener-
ating system, the battery must be ca- (a) Each component of the electrical
pable of providing at least 30 minutes system must meet the applicable fire
of electrical power to those loads that protection requirements of §§ 23.863 and
are essential to continued safe flight 23.1182.
and landing. The 30 minute time period (b) Electrical cables, terminals, and
includes the time needed for the pilots equipment in designated fire zones that
to recognize the loss of generated are used during emergency procedures
power and take appropriate load shed- must be fire-resistant.
ding action. (c) Insulation on electrical wire and
electrical cable must be self-extin-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– guishing when tested at an angle of 60
20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977; Amdt. 23–21, 43 degrees in accordance with the applica-
FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, ble portions of appendix F of this part,
Feb. 9, 1996] or other approved equivalent methods.
The average burn length must not ex-
§ 23.1357 Circuit protective devices. ceed 3 inches (76 mm) and the average
(a) Protective devices, such as fuses flame time after removal of the flame
or circuit breakers, must be installed source must not exceed 30 seconds.
in all electrical circuits other than— Drippings from the test specimen must
295
§ 23.1361 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
not continue to flame for more than an (c) Main power cables (including gen-
average of 3 seconds after falling. erator cables) in the fuselage must be
designed to allow a reasonable degree
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996]
of deformation and stretching without
§ 23.1361 Master switch arrangement. failure and must—
(1) Be separated from flammable fluid
(a) There must be a master switch ar- lines; or
rangement to allow ready disconnec- (2) Be shrouded by means of elec-
tion of each electric power source from trically insulated flexible conduit, or
power distribution systems, except as equivalent, which is in addition to the
provided in paragraph (b) of this sec- normal cable insulation.
tion. The point of disconnection must (d) Means of identification must be
be adjacent to the sources controlled provided for electrical cables, termi-
by the switch arrangement. If separate nals, and connectors.
switches are incorporated into the
(e) Electrical cables must be in-
master switch arrangement, a means
stalled such that the risk of mechan-
must be provided for the switch ar-
ical damage and/or damage cased by
rangement to be operated by one hand
fluids vapors, or sources of heat, is
with a single movement.
minimized.
(b) Load circuits may be connected so
(f) Where a cable cannot be protected
that they remain energized when the
by a circuit protection device or other
master switch is open, if the circuits
overload protection, it must not cause
are isolated, or physically shielded, to
a fire hazard under fault conditions.
prevent their igniting flammable fluids
or vapors that might be liberated by [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
the leakage or rupture of any flam- amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31824, Nov. 19,
mable fluid system; and 1973; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993;
Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996]
(1) The circuits are required for con-
tinued operation of the engine; or § 23.1367 Switches.
(2) The circuits are protected by cir-
cuit protective devices with a rating of Each switch must be—
five amperes or less adjacent to the (a) Able to carry its rated current;
electric power source. (b) Constructed with enough distance
(3) In addition, two or more circuits or insulating material between current
installed in accordance with the re- carrying parts and the housing so that
quirements of paragraph (b)(2) of this vibration in flight will not cause short-
section must not be used to supply a ing;
load of more than five amperes. (c) Accessible to appropriate flight
(c) The master switch or its controls crewmembers; and
must be so installed that the switch is (d) Labeled as to operation and the
easily discernible and accessible to a circuit controlled.
crewmember.
LIGHTS
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– § 23.1381 Instrument lights.
20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977; Amdt. 23–43, 58
FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, The instrument lights must—
Feb. 9, 1996] (a) Make each instrument and con-
trol easily readable and discernible;
§ 23.1365 Electric cables and equip- (b) Be installed so that their direct
ment. rays, and rays reflected from the wind-
(a) Each electric connecting cable shield or other surface, are shielded
must be of adequate capacity. from the pilot’s eyes; and
(b) Any equipment that is associated (c) Have enough distance or insu-
with any electrical cable installation lating material between current car-
and that would overheat in the event of rying parts and the housing so that vi-
circuit overload or fault must be flame bration in flight will not cause short-
resistant. That equipment and the elec- ing.
trical cables must not emit dangerous A cabin dome light is not an instru-
quantities of toxic fumes. ment light.
296
§ 23.1383 Taxi and landing lights. (c) Dihedral angle R (right) is formed
Each taxi and landing light must be by two intersecting vertical planes, the
designed and installed so that: first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
(a) No dangerous glare is visible to the airplane, and the other at 110 de-
the pilots. grees to the right of the first, as viewed
(b) The pilot is not seriously affected when looking forward along the longi-
by halation. tudinal axis.
(c) It provides enough light for night (d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
operations. by two intersecting vertical planes
(d) It does not cause a fire hazard in making angles of 70 degrees to the
any configuration. right and to the left, respectively, to a
vertical plane passing through the lon-
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996] gitudinal axis, as viewed when looking
aft along the longitudinal axis.
§ 23.1385 Position light system installa- (e) If the rear position light, when
tion.
mounted as far aft as practicable in ac-
(a) General. Each part of each posi- cordance with § 23.1385(c), cannot show
tion light system must meet the appli- unbroken light within dihedral angle A
cable requirements of this section and (as defined in paragraph (d) of this sec-
each system as a whole must meet the tion), a solid angle or angles of ob-
requirements of §§ 23.1387 through structed visibility totaling not more
23.1397. than 0.04 steradians is allowable within
(b) Left and right position lights. Left that dihedral angle, if such solid angle
and right position lights must consist is within a cone whose apex is at the
of a red and a green light spaced lat- rear position light and whose elements
erally as far apart as practicable and make an angle of 30° with a vertical
installed on the airplane such that, line passing through the rear position
with the airplane in the normal flying light.
position, the red light is on the left
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
side and the green light is on the right
side. 12, 36 FR 21278, Nov. 5, 1971; Amdt. 23–43, 58
(c) Rear position light. The rear posi- FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993]
tion light must be a white light mount-
ed as far aft as practicable on the tail § 23.1389 Position light distribution
or on each wing tip. and intensities.
(d) Light covers and color filters. Each (a) General. The intensities prescribed
light cover or color filter must be at in this section must be provided by new
least flame resistant and may not equipment with each light cover and
change color or shape or lose any ap- color filter in place. Intensities must
preciable light transmission during be determined with the light source op-
normal use. erating at a steady value equal to the
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as average luminous output of the source
amended by Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, at the normal operating voltage of the
1976; Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993] airplane. The light distribution and in-
tensity of each position light must
§ 23.1387 Position light system dihe- meet the requirements of paragraph (b)
dral angles. of this section.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) Position lights. The light distribu-
(e) of this section, each position light tion and intensities of position lights
must, as installed, show unbroken light must be expressed in terms of min-
within the dihedral angles described in imum intensities in the horizontal
this section. plane, minimum intensities in any
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed vertical plane, and maximum inten-
by two intersecting vertical planes, the sities in overlapping beams, within di-
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of hedral angles L, R, and A, and must
the airplane, and the other at 110 de- meet the following requirements:
grees to the left of the first, as viewed (1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
when looking forward along the longi- Each intensity in the horizontal plane
tudinal axis. (the plane containing the longitudinal
297
§ 23.1391 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
axis of the airplane and perpendicular Angle from right

or left of longitu-
to the plane of symmetry of the air- Dihedral angle (light in- dinal axis, meas- Intensity
cluded) (candles)
plane) must equal or exceed the values ured from dead
ahead
in § 23.1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane. L and R (red and green) .... 0° to 10° .............. 40
10° to 20° ............ 30
Each intensity in any vertical plane 20° to 110° .......... 5
(the plane perpendicular to the hori- A (rear white) ..................... 110° to 180° ........ 20
zontal plane) must equal or exceed the
appropriate value in § 23.1393, where I is [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
the minimum intensity prescribed in amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9,
§ 23.1391 for the corresponding angles in 1993]
the horizontal plane.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between adja- § 23.1393 Minimum intensities in any
vertical plane of position lights.
cent signals. No intensity in any over-
lap between adjacent signals may ex- Each position light intensity must
ceed the values in § 23.1395, except that equal or exceed the applicable values in
higher intensities in overlaps may be the following table:
used with main beam intensities sub- Angle above or below the horizontal plane Intensity, l
stantially greater than the minima
0° ......................................................................... 1.00
specified in §§ 23.1391 and 23.1393, if the 0° to 5° ................................................................ 0.90
overlap intensities in relation to the 5° to 10° .............................................................. 0.80
main beam intensities do not adversely 10° to 15° ............................................................ 0.70
15° to 20° ............................................................ 0.50
affect signal clarity. When the peak in- 20° to 30° ............................................................ 0.30
tensity of the left and right position 30° to 40° ............................................................ 0.10
40° to 90° ............................................................ 0.05
lights is more than 100 candles, the
maximum overlap intensities between
them may exceed the values in § 23.1395 [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
if the overlap intensity in Area A is amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9,
1993]
not more than 10 percent of peak posi-
tion light intensity and the overlap in- § 23.1395 Maximum intensities in over-
tensity in Area B is not more than 2.5 lapping beams of position lights.
percent of peak position light inten- No position light intensity may ex-
sity. ceed the applicable values in the fol-
(c) Rear position light installation. A lowing equal or exceed the applicable
single rear position light may be in- values in § 23.1389(b)(3):
stalled in a position displaced laterally
Maximum intensity
from the plane of symmetry of an air-
Overlaps
plane if— Area A Area B
(candles) (candles)
(1) The axis of the maximum cone of
illumination is parallel to the flight Green in dihedral angle L ............. 10 1
Red in dihedral angle R ................ 10 1
path in level flight; and Green in dihedral angle A ............. 5 1
(2) There is no obstruction aft of the Red in dihedral angle A ................ 5 1
light and between planes 70 degrees to Rear white in dihedral angle L ...... 5 1
Rear white in dihedral angle R ..... 5 1
the right and left of the axis of max-
imum illumination.
Where—
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (a) Area A includes all directions in
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
1993] through the light source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
§ 23.1391 Minimum intensities in the than 10 degrees but less than 20 de-
horizontal plane of position lights. grees; and
Each position light intensity must (b) Area B includes all directions in
equal or exceed the applicable values in the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
the following table: through the light source and intersect
298
the common boundary plane at more the vital areas around the airplane,
than 20 degrees. considering the physical configuration
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
and flight characteristics of the air-
amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, plane. The field of coverage must ex-
1993] tend in each direction within at least
75 degrees above and 75 degrees below
§ 23.1397 Color specifications. the horizontal plane of the airplane,
Each position light color must have except that there may be solid angles
the applicable International Commis- of obstructed visibility totaling not
sion on Illumination chromaticity co- more than 0.5 steradians.
ordinates as follows: (c) Flashing characteristics. The ar-
(a) Aviation red— rangement of the system, that is, the
number of light sources, beam width,
‘‘y’’ is not greater than 0.335; and
speed of rotation, and other character-
‘‘z’’ is not greater than 0.002.
istics, must give an effective flash fre-
(b) Aviation green— quency of not less than 40, nor more
‘‘x’’ is not greater than 0.440¥0.320 y; than 100, cycles per minute. The effec-
‘‘x’’ is not greater than y ¥0.170; and tive flash frequency is the frequency at
‘‘y’’ is not less than 0.390¥0.170 x. which the airplane’s complete anti-
collision light system is observed from
(c) Aviation white—
a distance, and applies to each sector
‘‘x’’ is not less than 0.300 and not greater of light including any overlaps that
than 0.540; exist when the system consists of more
‘‘y’’ is not less than ‘‘x ¥0.040’’ or ‘‘y0 than one light source. In overlaps,
¥0.010,’’ whichever is the smaller; and
‘‘y’’ is not greater than ‘‘x+0.020’’ nor flash frequencies may exceed 100, but
‘‘0.636¥0.400 x ’’; not 180, cycles per minute.
Where ‘‘y0’’ is the ‘‘y’’ coordinate of the (d) Color. Each anticollision light
Planckian radiator for the value of ‘‘x’’ con- must be either aviation red or aviation
sidered. white and must meet the applicable re-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, quirements of § 23.1397.
amended by Amdt. 23–11, 36 FR 12971, July 10, (e) Light intensity. The minimum
1971] light intensities in any vertical plane,
measured with the red filter (if used)
§ 23.1399 Riding light. and expressed in terms of ‘‘effective’’
(a) Each riding (anchor) light re- intensities, must meet the require-
quired for a seaplane or amphibian, ments of paragraph (f) of this section.
must be installed so that it can— The following relation must be as-
(1) Show a white light for at least sumed:
two miles at night under clear atmos-
t2
pheric conditions; and
(2) Show the maximum unbroken ∫t I (t )dt
Ie = 1
0.2 + (t 2 − t1 )
light practicable when the airplane is
moored or drifting on the water.
(b) Externally hung lights may be where:
used.
Ie =effective intensity (candles).
§ 23.1401 Anticollision light system. I(t) =instantaneous intensity as a function of
time.
(a) General. The airplane must have t2¥t1 =flash time interval (seconds).
an anticollision light system that:
(1) Consists of one or more approved Normally, the maximum value of effec-
anticollision lights located so that tive intensity is obtained when t2 and t1
their light will not impair the flight are chosen so that the effective inten-
crewmembers’ vision or detract from sity is equal to the instantaneous in-
the conspicuity of the position lights; tensity at t2 and t1.
and (f) Minimum effective intensities for
(2) Meets the requirements of para- anticollision lights. Each anticollision
graphs (b) through (f) of this section. light effective intensity must equal or
(b) Field of coverage. The system must exceed the applicable values in the fol-
consist of enough lights to illuminate lowing table.
299
§ 23.1411 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
Effective in- § 23.1416 Pneumatic de-icer boot sys-

Angle above or below the horizontal plane tensity (can- tem.
dles)
If certification with ice protection
0° to 5° .............................................................. 400
5° to 10° ............................................................ 240
provisions is desired and a pneumatic
10° to 20° .......................................................... 80 de-icer boot system is installed—
20° to 30° .......................................................... 40 (a) The system must meet the re-
30° to 75° .......................................................... 20 quirements specified in § 23.1419.
(b) The system and its components
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as must be designed to perform their in-
amended by Amdt. 23–11, 36 FR 12972, July 10, tended function under any normal sys-
1971; Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977; tem operating temperature or pressure,
Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9, 1996] and
(c) Means to indicate to the flight
SAFETY EQUIPMENT crew that the pneumatic de-icer boot
system is receiving adequate pressure
§ 23.1411 General. and is functioning normally must be
(a) Required safety equipment to be provided.
used by the flight crew in an emer- [Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978]
gency, such as automatic liferaft re-
leases, must be readily accessible. § 23.1419 Ice protection.
(b) Stowage provisions for required If certification with ice protection
safety equipment must be furnished provisions is desired, compliance with
and must— the requirements of this section and
(1) Be arranged so that the equip- other applicable sections of this part
ment is directly accessible and its loca- must be shown:
tion is obvious; and (a) An analysis must be performed to
(2) Protect the safety equipment establish, on the basis of the airplane’s
from damage caused by being subjected operational needs, the adequacy of the
to the inertia loads resulting from the ice protection system for the various
ultimate static load factors specified in components of the airplane. In addi-
§ 23.561(b)(3) of this part. tion, tests of the ice protection system
must be conducted to demonstrate that
[Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55465, Dec. 20, 1976, as the airplane is capable of operating
amended by Amdt. 23–36, 53 FR 30815, Aug. 15, safely in continuous maximum and
1988] intermittent maximum icing condi-
tions, as described in appendix C of
§ 23.1415 Ditching equipment. part 25 of this chapter. As used in this
(a) Emergency flotation and sig- section, ‘‘Capable of operating safely,’’
naling equipment required by any oper- means that airplane performance, con-
ating rule in this chapter must be in- trollability, maneuverability, and sta-
stalled so that it is readily available to bility must not be less than that re-
the crew and passengers. quired in part 23, subpart B.
(b) Each raft and each life preserver (b) Except as provided by paragraph
must be approved. (c) of this section, in addition to the
analysis and physical evaluation pre-
(c) Each raft released automatically
scribed in paragraph (a) of this section,
or by the pilot must be attached to the
the effectiveness of the ice protection
airplane by a line to keep it alongside system and its components must be
the airplane. This line must be weak shown by flight tests of the airplane or
enough to break before submerging the its components in measured natural at-
empty raft to which it is attached. mospheric icing conditions and by one
(d) Each signaling device required by or more of the following tests, as found
any operating rule in this chapter, necessary to determine the adequacy of
must be accessible, function satisfac- the ice protection system—
torily, and must be free of any hazard (1) Laboratory dry air or simulated
in its operation. icing tests, or a combination of both, of
300
the components or models of the com- radio or electronic unit, or system of

ponents. units, required by this chapter.
(2) Flight dry air tests of the ice pro- (c) For those airplanes required to
tection system as a whole, or its indi- have more than one flightcrew mem-
vidual components. ber, or whose operation will require
(3) Flight test of the airplane or its more than one flightcrew member, the
components in measured simulated cockpit must be evaluated to deter-
icing conditions. mine if the flightcrew members, when
(c) If certification with ice protection seated at their duty station, can con-
has been accomplished on prior type verse without difficulty under the ac-
certificated airplanes whose designs in- tual cockpit noise conditions when the
clude components that are airplane is being operated. If the air-
thermodynamically and aero- plane design includes provision for the
dynamically equivalent to those used use of communication headsets, the
on a new airplane design, certification evaluation must also consider condi-
of these equivalent components may be tions where headsets are being used. If
accomplished by reference to pre- the evaluation shows conditions under
viously accomplished tests, required in which it will be difficult to converse,
§ 23.1419 (a) and (b), provided that the an intercommunication system must
applicant accounts for any differences be provided.
in installation of these components. (d) If installed communication equip-
(d) A means must be identified or ment includes transmitter ‘‘off-on’’
provided for determining the formation switching, that switching means must
of ice on the critical parts of the air- be designed to return from the ‘‘trans-
plane. Adequate lighting must be pro- mit’’ to the ‘‘off’’ position when it is
vided for the use of this means during released and ensure that the trans-
night operation. Also, when monitoring mitter will return to the off (non trans-
of the external surfaces of the airplane mitting) state.
by the flight crew is required for oper- (e) If provisions for the use of com-
ation of the ice protection equipment, munication headsets are provided, it
external lighting must be provided that must be demonstrated that the
is adequate to enable the monitoring to flightcrew members will receive all
be done at night. Any illumination aural warnings under the actual cock-
that is used must be of a type that will pit noise conditions when the airplane
not cause glare or reflection that is being operated when any headset is
would handicap crewmembers in the being used.
performance of their duties. The Air- [Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993, as
plane Flight Manual or other approved amended by Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5169, Feb. 9,
manual material must describe the 1996]
means of determining ice formation
and must contain information for the § 23.1435 Hydraulic systems.
safe operation of the airplane in icing
(a) Design. Each hydraulic system
conditions.
must be designed as follows:
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993] (1) Each hydraulic system and its ele-
ments must withstand, without yield-
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT ing, the structural loads expected in
addition to hydraulic loads.
§ 23.1431 Electronic equipment. (2) A means to indicate the pressure
(a) In showing compliance with in each hydraulic system which sup-
§ 23.1309(b)(1) and (2) with respect to plies two or more primary functions
radio and electronic equipment and must be provided to the flight crew.
their installations, critical environ- (3) There must be means to ensure
mental conditions must be considered. that the pressure, including transient
(b) Radio and electronic equipment, (surge) pressure, in any part of the sys-
controls, and wiring must be installed tem will not exceed the safe limit
so that operation of any unit or system above design operating pressure and to
of units will not adversely affect the si- prevent excessive pressure resulting
multaneous operation of any other from fluid volumetric changes in all
301
§ 23.1437 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
lines which are likely to remain closed § 23.1441 Oxygen equipment and sup-
long enough for such changes to occur. ply.
(4) The minimum design burst pres- (a) If certification with supplemental
sure must be 2.5 times the operating oxygen equipment is requested, or the
pressure. airplane is approved for operations at
(b) Tests. Each system must be sub- or above altitudes where oxygen is re-
stantiated by proof pressure tests. quired to be used by the operating
When proof tested, no part of any sys- rules, oxygen equipment must be pro-
tem may fail, malfunction, or experi- vided that meets the requirements of
ence a permanent set. The proof load of this section and §§ 23.1443 through
each system must be at least 1.5 times 23.1449. Portable oxygen equipment
the maximum operating pressure of may be used to meet the requirements
that system. of this part if the portable equipment
(c) Accumulators. A hydraulic accu- is shown to comply with the applicable
mulator or reservoir may be installed requirements, is identified in the air-
on the engine side of any firewall if— plane type design, and its stowage pro-
(1) It is an integral part of an engine visions are found to be in compliance
or propeller system, or with the requirements of § 23.561.
(2) The reservoir is nonpressurized (b) The oxygen system must be free
and the total capacity of all such non- from hazards in itself, in its method of
pressurized reservoirs is one quart or operation, and its effect upon other
less. components.
(c) There must be a means to allow
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as the crew to readily determine, during
the flight, the quantity of oxygen
1969; Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31824, Nov. 19, 1973;
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18977, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt. available in each source of supply.
23–49, 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9, 1996] (d) Each required flight crewmember
must be provided with—
§ 23.1437 Accessories for multiengine (1) Demand oxygen equipment if the
airplanes. airplane is to be certificated for oper-
For multiengine airplanes, engine- ation above 25,000 feet.
driven accessories essential to safe op- (2) Pressure demand oxygen equip-
eration must be distributed among two ment if the airplane is to be certifi-
or more engines so that the failure of cated for operation above 40,000 feet.
any one engine will not impair safe op- (e) There must be a means, readily
eration through the malfunctioning of available to the crew in flight, to turn
these accessories. on and to shut off the oxygen supply at
the high pressure source. This shutoff
§ 23.1438 Pressurization and pneu- requirement does not apply to chem-
matic systems. ical oxygen generators.
(a) Pressurization system elements [Amdt. 23–9, 35 FR 6386, Apr. 21, 1970, as
must be burst pressure tested to 2.0 amended by Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18978, Apr. 9,
times, and proof pressure tested to 1.5 1993]
times, the maximum normal operating
§ 23.1443 Minimum mass flow of sup-
pressure. plemental oxygen.
(b) Pneumatic system elements must
be burst pressure tested to 3.0 times, (a) If continuous flow oxygen equip-
and proof pressure tested to 1.5 times, ment is installed, an applicant must
the maximum normal operating pres- show compliance with the require-
sure. ments of either paragraphs (a)(1) and
(a)(2) or paragraph (a)(3) of this sec-
(c) An analysis, or a combination of
tion:
analysis and test, may be substituted
(1) For each passenger, the minimum
for any test required by paragraph (a)
mass flow of supplemental oxygen re-
or (b) of this section if the Adminis-
quired at various cabin pressure alti-
trator finds it equivalent to the re-
tudes may not be less than the flow re-
quired test.
quired to maintain, during inspiration
[Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977] and while using the oxygen equipment
302
(including masks) provided, the fol- stant time interval between respira-
lowing mean tracheal oxygen partial tions.
pressures: (2) For each flight crewmember, the
(i) At cabin pressure altitudes above minimum mass flow may not be less
10,000 feet up to and including 18,500 than the flow required to maintain,
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial during inspiration, a mean tracheal ox-
pressure of 100 mm. Hg when breathing ygen partial pressure of 149 mm. Hg
15 liters per minute, Body Tempera- when breathing 15 liters per minute,
ture, Pressure, Saturated (BTPS) and BTPS, and with a maximum tidal vol-
with a tidal volume of 700 cc. with a ume of 700 cc. with a constant time in-
constant time interval between res- terval between respirations.
pirations. (3) The minimum mass flow of sup-
(ii) At cabin pressure altitudes above plemental oxygen supplied for each
18,500 feet up to and including 40,000 user must be at a rate not less than
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial that shown in the following figure for
pressure of 83.8 mm. Hg when breathing each altitude up to and including the
30 liters per minute, BTPS, and with a maximum operating altitude of the air-
tidal volume of 1,100 cc. with a con- plane.
(b) If demand equipment is installed (c) If first-aid oxygen equipment is

for use by flight crewmembers, the installed, the minimum mass flow of
minimum mass flow of supplemental oxygen to each user may not be less
oxygen required for each flight crew- than 4 liters per minute, STPD. How-
member may not be less than the flow ever, there may be a means to decrease
required to maintain, during inspira- this flow to not less than 2 liters per
tion, a mean tracheal oxygen partial minute, STPD, at any cabin altitude.
pressure of 122 mm. Hg up to and in- The quantity of oxygen required is
cluding a cabin pressure altitude of based upon an average flow rate of 3 li-
35,000 feet, and 95 percent oxygen be- ters per minute per person for whom
tween cabin pressure altitudes of 35,000 first-aid oxygen is required.
and 40,000 feet, when breathing 20 liters (d) As used in this section:
per minute BTPS. In addition, there (1) BTPS means Body Temperature,
must be means to allow the crew to use and Pressure, Saturated (which is, 37
undiluted oxygen at their discretion. °C, and the ambient pressure to which
the body is exposed, minus 47 mm. Hg,
303
§ 23.1445 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
which is the tracheal pressure dis- nasal cannula or its connecting tubing
placed by water vapor pressure when must have permanently affixed—
the breathed air becomes saturated (i) A visible warning against smoking
with water vapor at 37 °C). while in use;
(2) STPD means Standard, Tempera- (ii) An illustration of the correct
ture, and Pressure, Dry (which is, 0 °C method of donning; and
at 760 mm. Hg with no water vapor). (iii) A visible warning against use
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18978, Apr. 9, 1993] with nasal obstructions or head colds
with resultant nasal congestion.
§ 23.1445 Oxygen distribution system. (c) If certification for operation
(a) Except for flexible lines from oxy- above 18,000 feet (MSL) is requested,
gen outlets to the dispensing units, or each oxygen dispensing unit must
where shown to be otherwise suitable cover the nose and mouth of the user.
to the installation, nonmetallic tubing (d) For a pressurized airplane de-
must not be used for any oxygen line signed to operate at flight altitudes
that is normally pressurized during above 25,000 feet (MSL), the dispensing
flight. units must meet the following:
(b) Nonmetallic oxygen distribution (1) The dispensing units for pas-
lines must not be routed where they sengers must be connected to an oxy-
may be subjected to elevated tempera- gen supply terminal and be imme-
tures, electrical arcing, and released diately available to each occupant
flammable fluids that might result wherever seated.
from any probable failure. (2) The dispensing units for crew-
members must be automatically pre-
[Doc. No. 26344, 58 FR 18978, Apr. 9, 1993]
sented to each crewmember before the
§ 23.1447 Equipment standards for ox- cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000
ygen dispensing units. feet, or the units must be of the quick-
donning type, connected to an oxygen
If oxygen dispensing units are in- supply terminal that is immediately
stalled, the following apply: available to crewmembers at their sta-
(a) There must be an individual dis- tion.
pensing unit for each occupant for (e) If certification for operation
whom supplemental oxygen is to be above 30,000 feet is requested, the dis-
supplied. Each dispensing unit must: pensing units for passengers must be
(1) Provide for effective utilization of automatically presented to each occu-
the oxygen being delivered to the unit. pant before the cabin pressure altitude
(2) Be capable of being readily placed exceeds 15,000 feet.
into position on the face of the user. (f) If an automatic dispensing unit
(3) Be equipped with a suitable means (hose and mask, or other unit) system
to retain the unit in position on the is installed, the crew must be provided
face. with a manual means to make the dis-
(4) If radio equipment is installed, pensing units immediately available in
the flightcrew oxygen dispensing units the event of failure of the automatic
must be designed to allow the use of system.
that equipment and to allow commu-
nication with any other required crew [Amdt. 23–9, 35 FR 6387, Apr. 21, 1970, as
member while at their assigned duty amended by Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18,
station. 1977; Amdt. 23–30, 49 FR 7340, Feb. 28, 1984;
Amdt. 23–43, 58 FR 18978, Apr. 9, 1993; Amdt.
(b) If certification for operation up to 23–49, 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9, 1996]
and including 18,000 feet (MSL) is re-
quested, each oxygen dispensing unit § 23.1449 Means for determining use of
must: oxygen.
(1) Cover the nose and mouth of the
There must be a means to allow the
user; or
crew to determine whether oxygen is
(2) Be a nasal cannula, in which case
being delivered to the dispensing equip-
one oxygen dispensing unit covering
ment.
both the nose and mouth of the user
must be available. In addition, each [Amdt. 23–9, 35 FR 6387, Apr. 21, 1970]
304
§ 23.1450 Chemical oxygen generators. externally applied loads arising from

(a) For the purpose of this section, a consideration of limit structural loads,
chemical oxygen generator is defined that may be acting on that part of the
as a device which produces oxygen by system.
chemical reaction. (b) Oxygen pressure sources and the
(b) Each chemical oxygen generator lines between the source and the shut-
must be designed and installed in ac- off means must be:
cordance with the following require- (1) Protected from unsafe tempera-
ments: tures; and
(1) Surface temperature developed by (2) Located where the probability and
the generator during operation may hazard of rupture in a crash landing
not create a hazard to the airplane or are minimized.
to its occupants. [Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9, 1996]
(2) Means must be provided to relieve
any internal pressure that may be haz- § 23.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
ardous. (a) Each cockpit voice recorder re-
(c) In addition to meeting the re-
quired by the operating rules of this
quirements in paragraph (b) of this sec-
chapter must be approved and must be
tion, each portable chemical oxygen
installed so that it will record the fol-
generator that is capable of sustained
lowing:
operation by successive replacement of
(1) Voice communications trans-
a generator element must be placarded
mitted from or received in the airplane
to show—
by radio.
(1) The rate of oxygen flow, in liters
(2) Voice communications of flight
per minute;
(2) The duration of oxygen flow, in crewmembers on the flight deck.
minutes, for the replaceable generator (3) Voice communications of flight
element; and crewmembers on the flight deck, using
(3) A warning that the replaceable the airplane’s interphone system.
generator element may be hot, unless (4) Voice or audio signals identifying
the element construction is such that navigation or approach aids introduced
the surface temperature cannot exceed into a headset or speaker.
100° F. (5) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers using the passenger loud-
[Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977] speaker system, if there is such a sys-
tem and if the fourth channel is avail-
§ 23.1451 Fire protection for oxygen
equipment. able in accordance with the require-
ments of paragraph (c)(4)(ii) of this sec-
Oxygen equipment and lines must: tion.
(a) Not be installed in any designed (b) The recording requirements of
fire zones. paragraph (a)(2) of this section must be
(b) Be protected from heat that may met by installing a cockpit-mounted
be generated in, or escape from, any area microphone, located in the best
designated fire zone. position for recording voice commu-
(c) Be installed so that escaping oxy- nications originating at the first and
gen cannot come in contact with and second pilot stations and voice commu-
cause ignition of grease, fluid, or vapor nications of other crewmembers on the
accumulations that are present in nor- flight deck when directed to those sta-
mal operation or that may result from tions. The microphone must be so lo-
the failure or malfunction of any other cated and, if necessary, the pre-
system. amplifiers and filters of the recorder
[Doc. No. 27806, 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9, 1996] must be so adjusted or supplemented,
so that the intelligibility of the re-
§ 23.1453 Protection of oxygen equip- corded communications is as high as
ment from rupture. practicable when recorded under flight
(a) Each element of the oxygen sys- cockpit noise conditions and played
tem must have sufficient strength to back. Repeated aural or visual play-
withstand the maximum pressure and back of the record may be used in eval-
temperature, in combination with any uating intelligibility.
305
§ 23.1459 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(c) Each cockpit voice recorder must probability of rupture of the container
be installed so that the part of the as a result of crash impact and con-
communication or audio signals speci- sequent heat damage to the record
fied in paragraph (a) of this section ob- from fire. In meeting this requirement,
tained from each of the following the record container must be as far aft
sources is recorded on a separate chan- as practicable, but may not be where
nel: aft mounted engines may crush the
(1) For the first channel, from each container during impact. However, it
boom, mask, or handheld microphone, need not be outside of the pressurized
headset, or speaker used at the first compartment.
pilot station. (f) If the cockpit voice recorder has a
(2) For the second channel from each bulk erasure device, the installation
boom, mask, or handheld microphone, must be designed to minimize the prob-
headset, or speaker used at the second ability of inadvertent operation and ac-
pilot station. tuation of the device during crash im-
(3) For the third channel—from the pact.
cockpit-mounted area microphone. (g) Each recorder container must:
(4) For the fourth channel from: (1) Be either bright orange or bright
(i) Each boom, mask, or handheld yellow;
microphone, headset, or speaker used
(2) Have reflective tape affixed to its
at the station for the third and fourth
external surface to facilitate its loca-
crewmembers.
tion under water; and
(ii) If the stations specified in para-
graph (c)(4)(i) of this section are not re- (3) Have an underwater locating de-
quired or if the signal at such a station vice, when required by the operating
is picked up by another channel, each rules of this chapter, on or adjacent to
microphone on the flight deck that is the container which is secured in such
used with the passenger loudspeaker manner that they are not likely to be
system, if its signals are not picked up separated during crash impact.
by another channel. [Amdt. 23–35, 53 FR 26142, July 11, 1988]
(5) And that as far as is practicable
all sounds received by the microphone § 23.1459 Flight recorders.
listed in paragraphs (c)(1), (2), and (4) of
(a) Each flight recorder required by
this section must be recorded without
the operating rules of this chapter
interruption irrespective of the posi-
must be installed so that:
tion of the interphone-transmitter key
switch. The design shall ensure that (1) It is supplied with airspeed, alti-
sidetone for the flight crew is produced tude, and directional data obtained
only when the interphone, public ad- from sources that meet the accuracy
dress system, or radio transmitters are requirements of §§ 23.1323, 23.1325, and
in use. 23.1327, as appropriate;
(d) Each cockpit voice recorder must (2) The vertical acceleration sensor is
be installed so that: rigidly attached, and located longitu-
(1) It receives its electric power from dinally either within the approved cen-
the bus that provides the maximum re- ter of gravity limits of the airplane, or
liability for operation of the cockpit at a distance forward or aft of these
voice recorder without jeopardizing limits that does not exceed 25 percent
service to essential or emergency of the airplane’s mean aerodynamic
loads. chord;
(2) There is an automatic means to (3) It receives its electrical power
simultaneously stop the recorder and power from the bus that provides the
prevent each erasure feature from func- maximum reliability for operation of
tioning, within 10 minutes after crash the flight recorder without jeopard-
impact; and izing service to essential or emergency
(3) There is an aural or visual means loads;
for preflight checking of the recorder (4) There is an aural or visual means
for proper operation. for preflight checking of the recorder
(e) The record container must be lo- for proper recording of data in the stor-
cated and mounted to minimize the age medium.
306
(5) Except for recorders powered sole- tors must meet paragraphs (b), (c), or
ly by the engine-driven electrical gen- (d) of this section.
erator system, there is an automatic (b) High energy rotors contained in
means to simultaneously stop a re- equipment must be able to withstand
corder that has a data erasure feature damage caused by malfunctions, vibra-
and prevent each erasure feature from tion, abnormal speeds, and abnormal
functioning, within 10 minutes after temperatures. In addition—
crash impact; and (1) Auxiliary rotor cases must be able
(b) Each nonejectable record con- to contain damage caused by the fail-
tainer must be located and mounted so ure of high energy rotor blades; and
as to minimize the probability of con- (2) Equipment control devices, sys-
tainer rupture resulting from crash im- tems, and instrumentation must rea-
pact and subsequent damage to the sonably ensure that no operating limi-
record from fire. In meeting this re- tations affecting the integrity of high
quirement the record container must energy rotors will be exceeded in serv-
be located as far aft as practicable, but ice.
need not be aft of the pressurized com- (c) It must be shown by test that
partment, and may not be where aft- equipment containing high energy ro-
mounted engines may crush the con- tors can contain any failure of a high
tainer upon impact. energy rotor that occurs at the highest
(c) A correlation must be established speed obtainable with the normal speed
between the flight recorder readings of control devices inoperative.
airspeed, altitude, and heading and the (d) Equipment containing high en-
corresponding readings (taking into ac- ergy rotors must be located where
count correction factors) of the first pi- rotor failure will neither endanger the
lot’s instruments. The correlation occupants nor adversely affect contin-
must cover the airspeed range over ued safe flight.
which the airplane is to be operated, [Amdt. 23–20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977, as
the range of altitude to which the air- amended by Amdt. 23–49, 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9,
plane is limited, and 360 degrees of 1996]
heading. Correlation may be estab-
lished on the ground as appropriate. Subpart G—Operating Limitations
(d) Each recorder container must: and Information
(1) Be either bright orange or bright
yellow; § 23.1501 General.
(2) Have reflective tape affixed to its (a) Each operating limitation speci-
external surface to facilitate its loca- fied in §§ 23.1505 through 23.1527 and
tion under water; and other limitations and information nec-
(3) Have an underwater locating de- essary for safe operation must be es-
vice, when required by the operating tablished.
rules of this chapter, on or adjacent to (b) The operating limitations and
the container which is secured in such other information necessary for safe
a manner that they are not likely to be operation must be made available to
separated during crash impact. the crewmembers as prescribed in
(e) Any novel or unique design or §§ 23.1541 through 23.1589.
operational characteristics of the air-
craft shall be evaluated to determine if [Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978]
any dedicated parameters must be re-
corded on flight recorders in addition § 23.1505 Airspeed limitations.
to or in place of existing requirements. (a) The never-exceed speed VNE must
CITA≤[Amdt. 23–35, 53 FR 26143, July be established so that it is—
11, 1988] (1) Not less than 0.9 times the min-
imum value of VD allowed under
§ 23.1461 Equipment containing high § 23.335; and
energy rotors. (2) Not more than the lesser of—
(a) Equipment, such as Auxiliary (i) 0.9 VD established under § 23.335; or
Power Units (APU) and constant speed (ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
drive units, containing high energy ro- shown under § 23.251.
307
§ 23.1507 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(b) The maximum structural cruising (b) Additional combinations of flap

speed VNO must be established so that setting, airspeed, and engine power
it is— may be established if the structure has
(1) Not less than the minimum value been proven for the corresponding de-
of VC allowed under § 23.335; and sign conditions.
(2) Not more than the lesser of—
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
(i) VC established under § 23.335; or FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
(ii) 0.89 VNE established under para- 50, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996]
graph (a) of this section.
(c) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this sec- § 23.1513 Minimum control speed.
tion do not apply to turbine airplanes The minimum control speed VMC, de-
or to airplanes for which a design div- termined under § 23.149, must be estab-
ing speed VD/MD is established under lished as an operating limitation.
§ 23.335(b)(4). For those airplanes, a
maximum operating limit speed (VMO/ § 23.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
MMO-airspeed or Mach number, which-
The weight and center of gravity lim-
ever is critical at a particular altitude)
itations determined under § 23.23 must
must be established as a speed that
be established as operating limitations.
may not be deliberately exceeded in
any regime of flight (climb, cruise, or § 23.1521 Powerplant limitations.
descent) unless a higher speed is au-
thorized for flight test or pilot training (a) General. The powerplant limita-
operations. VMO/MMO must be estab- tions prescribed in this section must be
lished so that it is not greater than the established so that they do not exceed
design cruising speed VC/MC and so that the corresponding limits for which the
it is sufficiently below VD/MD and the engines or propellers are type certifi-
maximum speed shown under § 23.251 to cated. In addition, other powerplant
make it highly improbable that the limitations used in determining com-
latter speeds will be inadvertently ex- pliance with this part must be estab-
ceeded in operations. The speed margin lished.
between VMO/MMO and VD/MD or the (b) Takeoff operation. The powerplant
maximum speed shown under § 23.251 takeoff operation must be limited by—
may not be less than the speed margin (1) The maximum rotational speed
established between VC/MC and VD/MD (rpm);
under § 23.335(b), or the speed margin (2) The maximum allowable manifold
found necessary in the flight test con- pressure (for reciprocating engines);
ducted under § 23.253. (3) The maximum allowable gas tem-
perature (for turbine engines);
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as (4) The time limit for the use of the
amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13, power or thrust corresponding to the
1969]
limitations established in paragraphs
§ 23.1507 Operating maneuvering (b)(1) through (3) of this section; and
speed. (5) The maximum allowable cylinder
head (as applicable), liquid coolant and
The maximum operating maneu-
oil temperatures.
vering speed, VO, must be established
(c) Continuous operation. The contin-
as an operating limitation. VO is a se-
uous operation must be limited by—
lected speed that is not greater than
(1) The maximum rotational speed;
VS√n established in § 23.335(c).
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993] pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable gas tem-
§ 23.1511 Flap extended speed. perature (for turbine engines); and
(a) The flap extended speed VFE must (4) The maximum allowable cylinder
be established so that it is— head, oil, and liquid coolant tempera-
(1) Not less than the minimum value tures.
of VF allowed in § 23.345(b); and (d) Fuel grade or designation. The min-
(2) Not more than VF established imum fuel grade (for reciprocating en-
under § 23.345(a), (c), and (d). gines), or fuel designation (for turbine
(i) VF established under § 23.345; or engines), must be established so that it
(ii) VF established under § 23.457. is not less than that required for the
308
operation of the engines within the § 23.1524 Maximum passenger seating

limitations in paragraphs (b) and (c) of configuration.
this section. The maximum passenger seating con-
(e) Ambient temperature. For all air- figuration must be established.
planes except reciprocating engine-
powered airplanes of 6,000 pounds or [Amdt. 23–10, 36 FR 2864, Feb. 11, 1971]
less maximum weight, ambient tem-
§ 23.1525 Kinds of operation.
perature limitations (including limita-
tions for winterization installations if The kinds of operation authorized
applicable) must be established as the (e.g. VFR, IFR, day or night) and the
maximum ambient atmospheric tem- meteorological conditions (e.g. icing)
perature at which compliance with the to which the operation of the airplane
cooling provisions of §§ 23.1041 through is limited or from which it is prohib-
23.1047 is shown. ited, must be established appropriate
to the installed equipment.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6, 1993]
21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. 23–45, 58
FR 42165, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR § 23.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
5192, Feb. 9, 1996] (a) The maximum altitude up to
which operation is allowed, as limited
§ 23.1522 Auxiliary power unit limita- by flight, structural, powerplant, func-
tions.
tional or equipment characteristics,
If an auxiliary power unit is in- must be established.
stalled, the limitations established for (b) A maximum operating altitude
the auxiliary power must be specified limitation of not more than 25,000 feet
in the operating limitations for the air- must be established for pressurized air-
plane.[Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42166, Aug. planes unless compliance with
6, 1993] § 23.775(e) is shown.
§ 23.1523 Minimum flight crew. [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6, 1993]
The minimum flight crew must be es- § 23.1529 Instructions for Continued
tablished so that it is sufficient for safe Airworthiness.
operation considering— The applicant must prepare Instruc-
(a) The workload on individual crew- tions for Continued Airworthiness in
members and, in addition for com- accordance with appendix G to this
muter category airplanes, each crew- part that are acceptable to the Admin-
member workload determination must istrator. The instructions may be in-
consider the following: complete at type certification if a pro-
(1) Flight path control, gram exists to ensure their completion
(2) Collision avoidance, prior to delivery of the first airplane or
(3) Navigation, issuance of a standard certificate of
(4) Communications, airworthiness, whichever occurs later.
(5) Operation and monitoring of all
[Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980]
essential airplane systems,
(6) Command decisions, and MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
(7) The accessibility and ease of oper-
ation of necessary controls by the ap- § 23.1541 General.
propriate crewmember during all nor- (a) The airplane must contain—
mal and emergency operations when at (1) The markings and placards speci-
the crewmember flight station; fied in §§ 23.1545 through 23.1567; and
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper- (2) Any additional information, in-
ation of necessary controls by the ap- strument markings, and placards re-
propriate crewmember; and quired for the safe operation if it has
(c) The kinds of operation authorized unusual design, operating, or handling
under § 23.1525. characteristics.
[Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978, as (b) Each marking and placard pre-
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1834, Jan. 15, scribed in paragraph (a) of this sec-
1987] tion—
309
§ 23.1543 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(1) Must be displayed in a con- the maximum weight, and the upper
spicuous place; and limit at the flaps-extended speed VFE
(2) May not be easily erased, dis- established under § 23.1511.
figured, or obscured. (5) For reciprocating multiengine-
(c) For airplanes which are to be cer- powered airplanes of 6,000 pounds or
tificated in more than one category— less maximum weight, for the speed at
(1) The applicant must select one cat- which compliance has been shown with
egory upon which the placards and § 23.69(b) relating to rate of climb at
markings are to be based; and maximum weight and at sea level, a
(2) The placards and marking infor- blue radial line.
mation for all categories in which the (6) For reciprocating multiengine-
airplane is to be certificated must be powered airplanes of 6,000 pounds or
furnished in the Airplane Flight Man- less maximum weight, for the max-
ual. imum value of minimum control speed,
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 VMC, (one-engine-inoperative) deter-
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– mined under § 23.149(b), a red radial
21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978] line.
(c) If VNE or VNO vary with altitude,
§ 23.1543 Instrument markings: Gen-
eral. there must be means to indicate to the
pilot the appropriate limitations
For each instrument— throughout the operating altitude
(a) When markings are on the cover range.
glass of the instrument, there must be
(d) Paragraphs (b)(1) through (b)(3)
means to maintain the correct align-
and paragraph (c) of this section do not
ment of the glass cover with the face of
apply to aircraft for which a maximum
the dial; and
operating speed VMO/MMO is estab-
(b) Each arc and line must be wide
lished under § 23.1505(c). For those air-
enough and located to be clearly visi-
craft there must either be a maximum
ble to the pilot.
allowable airspeed indication showing
(c) All related instruments must be
the variation of VMO/MMO with altitude
calibrated in compatible units.
or compressibility limitations (as ap-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 propriate), or a radial red line marking
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– for VMO/MMO must be made at lowest
50, 61 FR 5192, Feb. 9, 1996] value of VMO/MMO established for any
altitude up to the maximum operating
§ 23.1545 Airspeed indicator.
altitude for the airplane.
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be
marked as specified in paragraph (b) of [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
this section, with the marks located at amended by Amdt. 23–3, 30 FR 14240, Nov. 13,
1965; Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13097, Aug. 13, 1969;
the corresponding indicated airspeeds. Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50593, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt.
(b) The following markings must be 23–50, 61 FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
made:
(1) For the never-exceed speed VNE, a § 23.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
radial red line.
(2) For the caution range, a yellow (a) A placard meeting the require-
arc extending from the red line speci- ments of this section must be installed
fied in paragraph (b)(1) of this section on or near the magnetic direction indi-
to the upper limit of the green arc cator.
specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this sec- (b) The placard must show the cali-
tion. bration of the instrument in level
(3) For the normal operating range, a flight with the engines operating.
green arc with the lower limit at VS1 (c) The placard must state whether
with maximum weight and with land- the calibration was made with radio re-
ing gear and wing flaps retracted, and ceivers on or off.
the upper limit at the maximum struc- (d) Each calibration reading must be
tural cruising speed VNO established in terms of magnetic headings in not
under § 23.1505(b). more than 30 degree increments.
(4) For the flap operating range, a (e) If a magnetic nonstabilized direc-
white arc with the lower limit at VS0 at tion indicator can have a deviation of
310
more than 10 degrees caused by the option corresponding to each tank and to
eration of electrical equipment, the each existing cross feed position;
placard must state which electrical (2) If safe operation requires the use
loads, or combination of loads, would of any tanks in a specific sequence,
cause a deviation of more than 10 de- that sequence must be marked on or
grees when turned on. near the selector for those tanks;
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 (3) The conditions under which the
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– full amount of usable fuel in any re-
20, 42 FR 36969, July 18, 1977] stricted usage fuel tank can safely be
used must be stated on a placard adja-
§ 23.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary cent to the selector valve for that
power unit instruments. tank; and
For each required powerplant and (4) Each valve control for any engine
auxiliary power unit instrument, as ap- of a multiengine airplane must be
propriate to the type of instruments— marked to indicate the position cor-
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable, responding to each engine controlled.
minimum safe operating limit must be (d) Usable fuel capacity must be
marked with a red radial or a red line; marked as follows:
(b) Each normal operating range (1) For fuel systems having no selec-
must be marked with a green arc or tor controls, the usable fuel capacity of
green line, not extending beyond the the system must be indicated at the
maximum and minimum safe limits; fuel quantity indicator.
(c) Each takeoff and precautionary (2) For fuel systems having selector
range must be marked with a yellow controls, the usable fuel capacity
arc or a yellow line; and available at each selector control posi-
(d) Each engine, auxiliary power tion must be indicated near the selec-
unit, or propeller range that is retor control.
stricted because of excessive vibration (e) For accessory, auxiliary, and
stresses must be marked with red arcs emergency controls—
or red lines. (1) If retractable landing gear is used,
the indicator required by § 23.729 must
[Amdt. 23–12, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976, as
amended by Amdt. 23–28, 47 FR 13315, Mar. 29, be marked so that the pilot can, at any
1982; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6, 1993] time, ascertain that the wheels are se-
cured in the extreme positions; and
§ 23.1551 Oil quantity indicator. (2) Each emergency control must be
Each oil quantity indicator must be red and must be marked as to method
marked in sufficient increments to in- of operation. No control other than an
dicate readily and accurately the quan- emergency control, or a control that
tity of oil. serves an emergency function in addi-
tion to its other functions, shall be this
§ 23.1553 Fuel quantity indicator. color.
A red radial line must be marked on [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30
each indicator at the calibrated zero FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23–
reading, as specified in § 23.1337(b)(1). 21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. 23–50, 61
FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
§ 23.1555 Control markings. placards.
(a) Each cockpit control, other than (a) Baggage and cargo compartments,
primary flight controls and simple and ballast location. Each baggage and
push button type starter switches, cargo compartment, and each ballast
must be plainly marked as to its func- location, must have a placard stating
tion and method of operation. any limitations on contents, including
(b) Each secondary control must be weight, that are necessary under the
suitably marked. loading requirements.
(c) For powerplant fuel controls— (b) Seats. If the maximum allowable
(1) Each fuel tank selector control weight to be carried in a seat is less
must be marked to indicate the posi- than 170 pounds, a placard stating the
311
§ 23.1559 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
lesser weight must be permanently ating that other limitations are con-
tached to the seat structure. tained in the Airplane Flight Manual.
(c) Fuel, oil, and coolant filler open- (c) There must be a placard in clear
ings. The following apply: view of the pilot that specifies the kind
(1) Fuel filter openings must be of operations to which the operation of
marked at or near the filler cover the airplane is limited or from which it
with— is prohibited under § 23.1525.
(i) For reciprocating engine-powered
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
airplanes—
(A) The word ‘‘Avgas’’; and § 23.1561 Safety equipment.
(B) The minimum fuel grade.
(ii) For turbine engine-powered air- (a) Safety equipment must be plainly
planes— marked as to method of operation.
(A) The words ‘‘Jet Fuel’’; and (b) Stowage provisions for required
(B) The permissible fuel designations, safety equipment must be marked for
or references to the Airplane Flight the benefit of occupants.
Manual (AFM) for permissible fuel des- § 23.1563 Airspeed placards.
ignations.
(iii) For pressure fueling systems, the There must be an airspeed placard in
maximum permissible fueling supply clear view of the pilot and as close as
pressure and the maximum permissible practicable to the airspeed indicator.
defueling pressure. This placard must list—
(2) Oil filler openings must be (a) The operating maneuvering speed,
marked at or near the filler cover with VO; and
the word ‘‘Oil’’ and the permissible oil (b) The maximum landing gear oper-
designations, or references to the Air- ating speed VLO.
plane Flight Manual (AFM) for permis- (c) For reciprocating multiengine-
sible oil designations. powered airplanes of more than 6,000
(3) Coolant filler openings must be pounds maximum weight, and turbine
marked at or near the filler cover with engine-powered airplanes, the max-
the word ‘‘Coolant’’. imum value of the minimum control
(d) Emergency exit placards. Each speed, VMC (one-engine-inoperative) de-
placard and operating control for each termined under § 23.149(b).
emergency exit must be red. A placard [Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13097, Aug. 13, 1969, as
must be near each emergency exit con- amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6,
trol and must clearly indicate the loca- 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
tion of that exit and its method of op-
eration. § 23.1567 Flight maneuver placard.
(e) The system voltage of each direct (a) For normal category airplanes,
current installation must be clearly there must be a placard in front of and
marked adjacent to its exernal power in clear view of the pilot stating: ‘‘No
connection. acrobatic maneuvers, including spins,
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; as approved.’’
amended by Amdt. 23–21, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, (b) For utility category airplanes,
1977; Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50594, Oct. 30, 1978; there must be—
Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6, 1993] (1) A placard in clear view of the
pilot stating: ‘‘Acrobatic maneuvers
§ 23.1559 Operating limitations are limited to the following ———’’
placard. (list approved maneuvers and the rec-
(a) There must be a placard in clear ommended entry speed for each); and
view of the pilot stating— (2) For those airplanes that do not
(1) That the airplane must be oper- meet the spin requirements for acro-
ated in accordance with the Airplane batic category airplanes, an additional
Flight Manual; and placard in clear view of the pilot stat-
(2) The certification category of the ing: ‘‘Spins Prohibited.’’
airplane to which the placards apply. (c) For acrobatic category airplanes,
(b) For airplanes certificated in more there must be a placard in clear view of
than one category, there must be a the pilot listing the approved acrobatic
placard in clear view of the pilot stat- maneuvers and the recommended entry
312
airspeed for each. If inverted flight ma- (ii) The information prescribed in
neuvers are not approved, the placard §§ 23.1585 through 23.1589 must be deter-
must bear a notation to this effect. mined in accordance with the applica-
(d) For acrobatic category airplanes ble requirements of this part and pre-
and utility category airplanes approved sented in its entirety in a manner ac-
for spinning, there must be a placard in ceptable to the Administrator.
clear view of the pilot— (3) Each page of the Airplane Flight
(1) Listing the control actions for re- Manual containing information pre-
covery from spinning maneuvers; and scribed in this section must be of a
(2) Stating that recovery must be ini- type that is not easily erased, dis-
tiated when spiral characteristics ap- figured, or misplaced, and is capable of
pear, or after not more than six turns being inserted in a manual provided by
or not more than any greater number the applicant, or in a folder, or in any
of turns for which the airplane has other permanent binder.
been certificated. (c) The units used in the Airplane
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 Flight Manual must be the same as
FR 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt. 23– those marked on the appropriate in-
13, 37 FR 20023, Sept. 23, 1972; Amdt. 23–21, 43 struments and placards.
FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5193, (d) All Airplane Flight Manual oper-
Feb. 9, 1996] ational airspeeds, unless otherwise
specified, must be presented as indi-
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL AND cated airspeeds.
APPROVED MANUAL MATERIAL (e) Provision must be made for stow-
§ 23.1581 General. ing the Airplane Flight Manual in a
suitable fixed container which is read-
(a) Furnishing information. An Air- ily accessible to the pilot.
plane Flight Manual must be furnished (f) Revisions and amendments. Each
with each airplane, and it must contain Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) must
the following: contain a means for recording the in-
(1) Information required by §§ 23.1583 corporation of revisions and amend-
through 23.1589. ments.
(2) Other information that is nec-
essary for safe operation because of de- [Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2319, Jan. 16, 1978, as
sign, operating, or handling character- amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1834, Jan. 15,
istics. 1987; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42166, Aug. 6, 1993;
Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5193, Feb. 9, 1996]
(3) Further information necessary to
comply with the relevant operating § 23.1583 Operating limitations.
rules.
(b) Approved information. (1) Except as The Airplane Flight Manual must
provided in paragraph (b)(2) of this sec- contain operating limitations deter-
tion, each part of the Airplane Flight mined under this part 23, including the
Manual containing information pre- following—
scribed in §§ 23.1583 through 23.1589 (a) Airspeed limitations. The following
must be approved, segregated, identi- information must be furnished:
fied and clearly distinguished from (1) Information necessary for the
each unapproved part of that Airplane marking of the airspeed limits on the
Flight Manual. indicator as required in § 23.1545, and
(2) The requirements of paragraph the significance of each of those limits
(b)(1) of this section do not apply to re- and of the color coding used on the in-
ciprocating engine-powered airplanes dicator.
of 6,000 pounds or less maximum (2) The speeds VMC, VO, VLE, and VLO,
weight, if the following is met: if established, and their significance.
(i) Each part of the Airplane Flight (3) In addition, for turbine powered
Manual containing information pre- commuter category airplanes—
scribed in § 23.1583 must be limited to (i) The maximum operating limit
such information, and must be ap- speed, VMO/MMO and a statement that
proved, identified, and clearly distin- this speed must not be deliberately ex-
guished from each other part of the ceeded in any regime of flight (climb,
Airplane Flight Manual. cruise or descent) unless a higher speed
313
§ 23.1583 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
is authorized for flight test or pilot (iii) The takeoff distance determined
training; under § 23.59(a) is equal to the available
(ii) If an airspeed limitation is based runway length; or
upon compressibility effects, a state- (iv) At the option of the applicant,
ment to this effect and information as the takeoff distance determined under
to any symptoms, the probable behav- § 23.59(a) is equal to the available run-
ior of the airplane, and the rec- way length plus the length of any
ommended recovery procedures; and clearway and the takeoff run deter-
(iii) The airspeed limits must be mined under § 23.59(b) is equal to the
shown in terms of VMO/MMO instead of available runway length.
VNO and VNE. (5) For commuter category airplanes,
(b) Powerplant limitations. The fol- the maximum landing weight for each
lowing information must be furnished: airport altitude within the range se-
(1) Limitations required by § 23.1521. lected by the applicant at which—
(2) Explanation of the limitations, (i) The airplane complies with the
when appropriate.
climb requirements of § 23.63(d)(2) for
(3) Information necessary for mark-
ambient temperatures within the range
ing the instruments required by
selected by the applicant; and
§ 23.1549 through § 23.1553.
(ii) The landing distance determined
(c) Weight. The airplane flight man-
ual must include— under § 23.75 for standard temperatures
is equal to the available runway
(1) The maximum weight; and
length.
(2) The maximum landing weight, if
the design landing weight selected by (6) The maximum zero wing fuel
the applicant is less than the max- weight, where relevant, as established
imum weight. in accordance with § 23.343.
(3) For normal, utility, and acrobatic (d) Center of gravity. The established
category reciprocating engine-powered center of gravity limits.
airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds (e) Maneuvers. The following author-
maximum weight and for turbine en- ized maneuvers, appropriate airspeed
gine-powered airplanes in the normal, limitations, and unauthorized maneu-
utility, and acrobatic category, per- vers, as prescribed in this section.
formance operating limitations as fol- (1) Normal category airplanes. No acro-
lows— batic maneuvers, including spins, are
(i) The maximum takeoff weight for authorized.
each airport altitude and ambient tem- (2) Utility category airplanes. A list of
perature within the range selected by authorized maneuvers demonstrated in
the applicant at which the airplane the type flight tests, together with rec-
complies with the climb requirements ommended entry speeds and any other
of § 23.63(c)(1). associated limitations. No other ma-
(ii) The maximum landing weight for neuver is authorized.
each airport altitude and ambient tem- (3) Acrobatic category airplanes. A list
perature within the range selected by
of approved flight maneuvers dem-
the applicant at which the airplane
onstrated in the type flight tests, to-
complies with the climb requirements
gether with recommended entry speeds
of § 23.63(c)(2).
and any other associated limitations.
(4) For commuter category airplanes,
the maximum takeoff weight for each (4) Acrobatic category airplanes and
airport altitude and ambient tempera- utility category airplanes approved for
ture within the range selected by the spinning. Spin recovery procedure es-
applicant at which— tablished to show compliance with
(i) The airplane complies with the § 23.221(c).
climb requirements of § 23.63(d)(1); and (5) Commuter category airplanes. Ma-
(ii) The accelerate-stop distance de- neuvers are limited to any maneuver
termined under § 23.55 is equal to the incident to normal flying, stalls, (ex-
available runway length plus the cept whip stalls) and steep turns in
length of any stopway, if utilized; and which the angle of bank is not more
either: than 60 degrees.
314
(f) Maneuver load factor. The positive of the scheduled performance must be
limit load factors in g’s, and, in addi- furnished, including—
tion, the negative limit load factor for (1) An explanation of significant or
acrobatic category airplanes. unusual flight or ground handling char-
(g) Minimum flight crew. The number acteristics;
and functions of the minimum flight (2) The maximum demonstrated val-
crew determined under § 23.1523. ues of crosswind for takeoff and land-
(h) Kinds of operation. A list of the ing, and procedures and information
kinds of operation to which the air- pertinent to operations in crosswinds;
plane is limited or from which it is pro- (3) A recommended speed for flight in
hibited under § 23.1525, and also a list of rough air. This speed must be chosen to
installed equipment that affects any protect against the occurrence, as a re-
operating limitation and identification sult of gusts, of structural damage to
as to the equipment’s required oper- the airplane and loss of control (for ex-
ational status for the kinds of oper- ample, stalling);
ation for which approval has been (4) Procedures for restarting any tur-
given. bine engine in flight, including the ef-
(i) Maximum operating altitude. The fects of altitude; and
maximum altitude established under (5) Procedures, speeds, and configura-
§ 23.1527. tion(s) for making a normal approach
(j) Maximum passenger seating configu- and landing, in accordance with §§ 23.73
ration. The maximum passenger seating and 23.75, and a transition to the
configuration. balked landing condition.
(k) Allowable lateral fuel loading. The (6) For seaplanes and amphibians,
maximum allowable lateral fuel load- water handling procedures and the
ing differential, if less than the max- demonstrated wave height.
imum possible. (b) In addition to paragraph (a) of
(l) Baggage and cargo loading. The fol- this section, for all single-engine air-
lowing information for each baggage planes, the procedures, speeds, and con-
and cargo compartment or zone— figuration(s) for a glide following en-
(1) The maximum allowable load; and gine failure, in accordance with § 23.71
(2) The maximum intensity of load- and the subsequent forced landing,
ing. must be furnished.
(m) Systems. Any limitations on the (c) In addition to paragraph (a) of
use of airplane systems and equipment. this section, for all multiengine air-
(n) Ambient temperatures. Where ap- planes, the following information must
propriate, maximum and minimum am- be furnished:
bient air temperatures for operation. (1) Procedures, speeds, and configura-
(o) Smoking. Any restrictions on tion(s) for making an approach and
smoking in the airplane. landing with one engine inoperative;
(p) Types of surface. A statement of (2) Procedures, speeds, and configura-
the types of surface on which oper- tion(s) for making a balked landing
ations may be conducted. (See § 23.45(g) with one engine inoperative and the
and § 23.1587 (a)(4), (c)(2), and (d)(4)). conditions under which a balked land-
ing can be performed safely, or a warn-
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as ing against attempting a balked land-
1969; Amdt. 23–10, 36 FR 2864, Feb. 11, 1971;
ing;
Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2320, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. (3) The VSSE determined in § 23.149;
23–23, 43 FR 50594, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 23–34, and
52 FR 1834, Jan. 15, 1987; Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR (4) Procedures for restarting any en-
42166, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5193, gine in flight including the effects of
Feb. 9, 1996] altitude.
(d) In addition to paragraphs (a) and
§ 23.1585 Operating procedures. either (b) or (c) of this section, as ap-
(a) For all airplanes, information propriate, for all normal, utility, and
concerning normal, abnormal (if appli- acrobatic category airplanes, the fol-
cable), and emergency procedures and lowing information must be furnished:
other pertinent information necessary (1) Procedures, speeds, and configura-
for safe operation and the achievement tion(s) for making a normal takeoff, in
315
§ 23.1587 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
accordance with § 23.51 (a) and (b), and event of malfunction, must be fur-
§ 23.53 (a) and (b), and the subsequent nished.
climb, in accordance with § 23.65 and [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5194, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 23.69(a).
(2) Procedures for abandoning a take- § 23.1587 Performance information.
off due to engine failure or other cause. Unless otherwise prescribed, perform-
(e) In addition to paragraphs (a), (c), ance information must be provided
and (d) of this section, for all normal, over the altitude and temperature
utility, and acrobatic category multi- ranges required by § 23.45(b).
engine airplanes, the information must (a) For all airplanes, the following in-
include the following: formation must be furnished—
(1) Procedures and speeds for con- (1) The stalling speeds VSO and VS1
tinuing a takeoff following engine fail- with the landing gear and wing flaps
ure and the conditions under which retracted, determined at maximum
takeoff can safely be continued, or a weight under § 23.49, and the effect on
warning against attempting to con- these stalling speeds of angles of bank
tinue the takeoff. up to 60 degrees;
(2) Procedures, speeds, and configura- (2) The steady rate and gradient of
tions for continuing a climb following climb with all engines operating, deter-
engine failure, after takeoff, in accord- mined under § 23.69(a);
(3) The landing distance, determined
ance with § 23.67, or enroute, in accord-
under § 23.75 for each airport altitude
ance with § 23.69(b).
and standard temperature, and the
(f) In addition to paragraphs (a) and type of surface for which it is valid;
(c) of this section, for commuter cat- (4) The effect on landing distances of
egory airplanes, the information must operation on other than smooth hard
include the following: surfaces, when dry, determined under
(1) Procedures, speeds, and configura- § 23.45(g); and
tion(s) for making a normal takeoff. (5) The effect on landing distances of
(2) Procedures and speeds for car- runway slope and 50 percent of the
rying out an accelerate-stop in accord- headwind component and 150 percent of
ance with § 23.55. the tailwind component.
(3) Procedures and speeds for con- (b) In addition to paragraph (a) of
tinuing a takeoff following engine fail- this section, for all normal, utility, and
ure in accordance with § 23.59(a)(1) and acrobatic category reciprocating en-
for following the flight path deter- gine-powered airplanes of 6,000 pounds
mined under § 23.57 and § 23.61(a). or less maximum weight, the steady
(g) For multiengine airplanes, infor- angle of climb/descent, determined
mation identifying each operating con- under § 23.77(a), must be furnished.
dition in which the fuel system inde- (c) In addition to paragraphs (a) and
pendence prescribed in § 23.953 is nec- (b) of this section, if appropriate, for
essary for safety must be furnished, to- normal, utility, and acrobatic category
gether with instructions for placing airplanes, the following information
the fuel system in a configuration used must be furnished—
(1) The takeoff distance, determined
to show compliance with that section.
under § 23.53 and the type of surface for
(h) For each airplane showing com- which it is valid.
pliance with § 23.1353 (g)(2) or (g)(3), the (2) The effect on takeoff distance of
operating procedures for disconnecting operation on other than smooth hard
the battery from its charging source surfaces, when dry, determined under
must be furnished. § 23.45(g);
(i) Information on the total quantity (3) The effect on takeoff distance of
of usable fuel for each fuel tank, and runway slope and 50 percent of the
the effect on the usable fuel quantity, headwind component and 150 percent of
as a result of a failure of any pump, the tailwind component;
must be furnished. (4) For multiengine reciprocating en-
(j) Procedures for the safe operation gine-powered airplanes of more than
of the airplane’s systems and equip- 6,000 pounds maximum weight and mul-
ment, both in normal use and in the tiengine turbine powered airplanes, the
316
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, App. A
one-engine-inoperative takeoff climb/ (11) The altimeter system calibration

descent gradient, determined under required by § 23.1325(e).
§ 23.66;
[Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5194, Feb. 9, 1996]
(5) For multiengine airplanes, the
enroute rate and gradient of climb/de- § 23.1589 Loading information.
scent with one engine inoperative, de-
termined under § 23.69(b); and The following loading information
(6) For single-engine airplanes, the must be furnished:
glide performance determined under (a) The weight and location of each
§ 23.71. item of equipment that can be easily
(d) In addition to paragraph (a) of removed, relocated, or replaced and
this section, for commuter category that is installed when the airplane was
airplanes, the following information weighed under the requirement of
must be furnished— § 23.25.
(1) The accelerate-stop distance de- (b) Appropriate loading instructions
termined under § 23.55; for each possible loading condition be-
(2) The takeoff distance determined tween the maximum and minimum
under § 23.59(a); weights established under § 23.25, to fa-
(3) At the option of the applicant, the cilitate the center of gravity remain-
takeoff run determined under § 23.59(b); ing within the limits established under
(4) The effect on accelerate-stop dis- § 23.23.
tance, takeoff distance and, if deter- [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
mined, takeoff run, of operation on amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42167, Aug. 6,
other than smooth hard surfaces, when 1993; Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5195, Feb. 9, 1996]
dry, determined under § 23.45(g);
(5) The effect on accelerate-stop dis- APPENDIX A TO PART 23—SIMPLIFIED
tance, takeoff distance, and if deter- DESIGN LOAD CRITERIA
mined, takeoff run, of runway slope A23.1 General.
and 50 percent of the headwind compo-
(a) The design load criteria in this appen-
nent and 150 percent of the tailwind dix are an approved equivalent of those in
component; §§ 23.321 through 23.459 of this subchapter for
(6) The net takeoff flight path deter- an airplane having a maximum weight of
mined under § 23.61(b); 6,000 pounds or less and the following con-
(7) The enroute gradient of climb/de- figuration:
scent with one engine inoperative, de- (1) A single engine excluding turbine pow-
termined under § 23.69(b); erplants;
(8) The effect, on the net takeoff (2) A main wing located closer to the air-
plane’s center of gravity than to the aft, fu-
flight path and on the enroute gradient
selage-mounted, empennage;
of climb/descent with one engine inop- (3) A main wing that contains a quarter-
erative, of 50 percent of the headwind chord sweep angle of not more than 15 de-
component and 150 percent of the tail- grees fore or aft;
wind component; (4) A main wing that is equipped with trail-
(9) Overweight landing performance ing-edge controls (ailerons or flaps, or both);
information (determined by extrapo- (5) A main wing aspect ratio not greater
lation and computed for the range of than 7;
weights between the maximum landing (6) A horizontal tail aspect ratio not great-
er than 4;
and maximum takeoff weights) as fol- (7) A horizontal tail volume coefficient not
lows— less than 0.34;
(i) The maximum weight for each air- (8) A vertical tail aspect ratio not greater
port altitude and ambient temperature than 2;
at which the airplane complies with (9) A vertical tail platform area not great-
the climb requirements of § 23.63(d)(2); er than 10 percent of the wing platform area;
and and
(ii) The landing distance determined (10) Symmetrical airfoils must be used in
both the horizontal and vertical tail designs.
under § 23.75 for each airport altitude
(b) Appendix A criteria may not be used on
and standard temperature. any airplane configuration that contains any
(10) The relationship between IAS of the following design features:
and CAS determined in accordance (1) Canard, tandem-wing, close-coupled, or
with § 23.1323 (b) and (c). tailless arrangements of the lifting surfaces;
317
Pt. 23, App. A 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
(2) Biplane or multiplane wing arrange- is desired, than that required for certifi-
ments; cation in the normal and utility categories.
(3) T-tail, V-tail, or cruciform-tail (+) ar- When designing for landing loads, the land-
rangements; ing gear and the airplane as a whole need
(4) Highly-swept wing platform (more than only be investigated for the category cor-
15-degrees of sweep at the quarter-chord), responding to the maximum design weight.
delta planforms, or slatted lifting surfaces; These simplifications apply to single-engine
or aircraft of conventional types for which ex-
(5) Winglets or other wing tip devices, or perience is available, and the Administrator
outboard fins. may require additional investigations for
A23.3 Special symbols. aircraft with unusual design features.
n1 =Airplane Positive Maneuvering Limit A23.7 Flight loads.
Load Factor. (a) Each flight load may be considered
n2 =Airplane Negative Maneuvering Limit independent of altitude and, except for the
Load Factor. local supporting structure for dead weight
n3 =Airplane Positive Gust Limit Load Fac- items, only the maximum design weight con-
tor at VC. ditions must be investigated.
n4 =Airplane Negative Gust Limit Load Fac- (b) Table 1 and figures 3 and 4 of this ap-
tor at VC. pendix must be used to determine values of
nflap =Airplane Positive Limit Load Factor n1, n2, n3, and n4, corresponding to the max-
With Flaps Fully Extended at VF. imum design weights in the desired cat-
egories.
(c) Figures 1 and 2 of this appendix must be
used to determine values of n3 and n4 cor-
responding to the minimum flying weights in
the desired categories, and, if these load fac-
tors are greater than the load factors at the
design weight, the supporting structure for
dead weight items must be substantiated for
the resulting higher load factors.
(d) Each specified wing and tail loading is
independent of the center of gravity range.
The applicant, however, must select a c.g.
range, and the basic fuselage structure must
be investigated for the most adverse dead
weight loading conditions for the c.g. range
A23.5 Certification in more than one category. selected.
The criteria in this appendix may be used (e) The following loads and loading condi-
for certification in the normal, utility, and tions are the minimums for which strength
acrobatic categories, or in any combination must be provided in the structure:
of these categories. If certification in more (1) Airplane equilibrium. The aerodynamic
than one category is desired, the design cat- wing loads may be considered to act normal
egory weights must be selected to make the to the relative wind, and to have a mag-
term ‘‘ n1W ’’ constant for all categories or nitude of 1.05 times the airplane normal
greater for one desired category than for loads (as determined from paragraphs A23.9
others. The wings and control surfaces (in- (b) and (c) of this appendix) for the positive
cluding wing flaps and tabs) need only be in- flight conditions and a magnitude equal to
vestigated for the maximum value of ‘‘ n1W the airplane normal loads for the negative
’’, or for the category corresponding to the conditions. Each chordwise and normal com-
maximum design weight, where ‘‘ n1W ’’ is ponent of this wing load must be considered.
constant. If the acrobatic category is se- (2) Minimum design airspeeds. The minimum
lected, a special unsymmetrical flight load design airspeeds may be chosen by the appli-
investigation in accordance with paragraphs cant except that they may not be less than
A23.9(c)(2) and A23.11(c)(2) of this appendix the minimum speeds found by using figure 3
must be completed. The wing, wing carry- of this appendix. In addition, VCmin need not
through, and the horizontal tail structures exceed values of 0.9 VH actually obtained at
must be checked for this condition. The sea level for the lowest design weight cat-
basic fuselage structure need only be inves- egory for which certification is desired. In
tigated for the highest load factor design computing these minimum design airspeeds,
category selected. The local supporting n1 may not be less than 3.8.
structure for dead weight items need only be (3) Flight load factor. The limit flight load
designed for the highest load factor imposed factors specified in Table 1 of this appendix
when the particular items are installed in represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force
the airplane. The engine mount, however, component (acting normal to the assumed
must be designed for a higher side load fac- longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the
tor, if certification in the acrobatic category weight of the airplane. A positive flight load
318
factor is an aerodynamic force acting up- side for certification in the acrobatic cat-
ward, with respect to the airplane. egory.
A23.9 Flight conditions. (3) The wing and wing carry-through struc-
tures must be designed for the loads result-
(a) General. Each design condition in para-
ing from a combination of 75 percent of the
graphs (b) and (c) of this section must be
positive maneuvering wing loading on both
used to assure sufficient strength for each
sides of the plane of symmetry and the max-
condition of speed and load factor on or
imum wing torsion resulting from aileron
within the boundary of a V¥n diagram for
displacement. The effect of aileron displace-
the airplane similar to the diagram in figure
ment on wing torsion at VC or VA using the
4 of this appendix. This diagram must also be
basic airfoil moment coefficient modified
used to determine the airplane structural op-
over the aileron portion of the span, must be
erating limitations as specified in
computed as follows:
§§ 23.1501(c) through 23.1513 and § 23.1519.
(b) Symmetrical flight conditions. The air- (i) Cm=Cm +0.01δµ (up aileron side) wing
plane must be designed for symmetrical basic airfoil.
flight conditions as follows: (ii) Cm=Cm ¥0.01δµ(down aileron side) wing
(1) The airplane must be designed for at basic airfoil, where δµ is the up aileron de-
least the four basic flight conditions, ‘‘A’’, flection and δ d is the down aileron deflec-
‘‘D’’, ‘‘E’’, and ‘‘G’’ as noted on the flight en- tion.
velope of figure 4 of this appendix. In addi- (4) ∆ critical, which is the sum of δµ+δ d
tion, the following requirements apply: must be computed as follows:
(i) The design limit flight load factors cor- (i) Compute ∆α and ∆B from the formulas:
responding to conditions ‘‘D’’ and ‘‘E’’ of fig-
VA
ure 4 must be at least as great as those speci-
fied in Table 1 and figure 4 of this appendix, ∆a = × ∆ p and
and the design speed for these conditions VC
must be at least equal to the value of VD
found from figure 3 of this appendix. VA
(ii) For conditions ‘‘A’’ and ‘‘G’’ of figure 4, ∆ b = 0.5 × ∆p
the load factors must correspond to those VD
specified in Table 1 of this appendix, and the
design speeds must be computed using these Where ∆P = the maximum total deflection
load factors with the maximum static lift (sum of both aileron deflections) at VA with
coefficient CNA determined by the applicant. VA, VC, and VD described in subparagraph (2)
However, in the absence of more precise of § 23.7(e) of this appendix.
computations, these latter conditions may (ii) Compute K from the formula:
be based on a value of CNA =±1.35 and the de-
sign speed for condition ‘‘A’’ may be less
than VAmin. (Cm − 0.01δ b )VD 2
K=
(Cm − 0.01δ a )VC
(iii) Conditions ‘‘C’’ and ‘‘F’’ of figure 4
need only be investigated when n3 W/S or n4 2
W/S are greater than n1 W/S or n2 W/S of this
appendix, respectively. where δα is the down aileron deflection cor-
(2) If flaps or other high lift devices in- responding to ∆α, and δ b is the down aileron
tended for use at the relatively low airspeed deflection corresponding to ∆ b as computed
of approach, landing, and takeoff, are in- in step (i).
stalled, the airplane must be designed for the (iii) If K is less than 1.0, ∆α is ∆ critical and
two flight conditions corresponding to the must be used to determine δU and δd. In this
values of limit flap-down factors specified in case, VC is the critical speed which must be
Table 1 of this appendix with the flaps fully used in computing the wing torsion loads
extended at not less than the design flap over the aileron span.
speed VFmin from figure 3 of this appendix. (iv) If K is equal to or greater than 1.0, ∆B
(c) Unsymmetrical flight conditions. Each af- is ∆ critical and must be used to determine
fected structure must be designed for unsym- δU and δD. In this case, Vd is the critical
metrical loadings as follows: speed which must be used in computing the
(1) The aft fuselage-to-wing attachment wing torsion loads over the aileron span.
must be designed for the critical vertical (d) Supplementary conditions; rear lift truss;
surface load determined in accordance with engine torque; side load on engine mount. Each
paragraph SA23.11(c)(1) and (2) of this appen- of the following supplementary conditions
dix. must be investigated:
(2) The wing and wing carry-through struc- (1) In designing the rear lift truss, the spe-
tures must be designed for 100 percent of con- cial condition specified in § 23.369 may be in-
dition ‘‘A’’ loading on one side of the plane vestigated instead of condition ‘‘G’’ of figure
of symmetry and 70 percent on the opposite 4 of this appendix. If this is done, and if cer-
side for certification in the normal and util- tification in more than one category is de-
ity categories, or 60 percent on the opposite sired, the value of W/S used in the formula
319
appearing in § 23.369 must be that for the cat- (c) Surface loading conditions. Each surface
egory corresponding to the maximum gross loading condition must be investigated as
weight. follows:
(2) Each engine mount and its supporting (1) Simplified limit surface loadings for the
structures must be designed for the max- horizontal tail, vertical tail, aileron, wing
imum limit torque corresponding to METO flaps, and trim tabs are specified in figures 5
power and propeller speed acting simulta- and 6 of this appendix.
neously with the limit loads resulting from (i) The distribution of load along the span
the maximum positive maneuvering flight of the surface, irrespective of the chordwise
load factor n1. The limit torque must be ob- load distribution, must be assumed propor-
tional to the total chord, except on horn bal-
tained by multiplying the mean torque by a
ance surfaces.
factor of 1.33 for engines with five or more
(ii) The load on the stabilizer and elevator,
cylinders. For 4, 3, and 2 cylinder engines,
and the load on fin and rudder, must be dis-
the factor must be 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
tributed chordwise as shown in figure 7 of
(3) Each engine mount and its supporting this appendix.
structure must be designed for the loads re- (iii) In order to ensure adequate torsional
sulting from a lateral limit load factor of not strength and to account for maneuvers and
less than 1.47 for the normal and utility cat- gusts, the most severe loads must be consid-
egories, or 2.0 for the acrobatic category. ered in association with every center of pres-
A23.11 Control surface loads. sure position between the leading edge and
the half chord of the mean chord of the sur-
(a) General. Each control surface load must
face (stabilizer and elevator, or fin and rud-
be determined using the criteria of para-
der).
graph (b) of this section and must lie within (iv) To ensure adequate strength under
the simplified loadings of paragraph (c) of high leading edge loads, the most severe sta-
this section. bilizer and fin loads must be further consid-
(b) Limit pilot forces. In each control surface ered as being increased by 50 percent over
loading condition described in paragraphs (c) the leading 10 percent of the chord with the
through (e) of this section, the airloads on loads aft of this appropriately decreased to
the movable surfaces and the corresponding retain the same total load.
deflections need not exceed those which (v) The most severe elevator and rudder
could be obtained in flight by employing the loads should be further considered as being
maximum limit pilot forces specified in the distributed parabolically from three times
table in § 23.397(b). If the surface loads are the mean loading of the surface (stabilizer
limited by these maximum limit pilot forces, and elevator, or fin and rudder) at the lead-
the tabs must either be considered to be de- ing edge of the elevator and rudder, respec-
flected to their maximum travel in the direc- tively, to zero at the trailing edge according
tion which would assist the pilot or the de- to the equation:
flection must correspond to the maximum
2
degree of ‘‘out of trim’’ expected at the speed (c − x)
for the condition under consideration. The P (x) = 3 ( w )
tab load, however, need not exceed the value
specified in Table 2 of this appendix.
cf 2
320
Where— (2) Acceptable maximum and minimum

P(x)=local pressure at the chordwise stations limit pilot forces for elevator, aileron, and
x, rudder controls are shown in the table in
c=chord length of the tail surface, § 23.397(b). These pilots loads must be as-
cf=chord length of the elevator and rudder sumed to act at the appropriate control grips
respectively, and or pads as they would under flight condi-
w̆≤=average surface loading as specified in tions, and to be reacted at the attachments
Figure A5. of the control system to the control surface
(vi) The chordwise loading distribution for horn.
ailerons, wing flaps, and trim tabs are speci- (b) Dual controls. If there are dual controls,
fied in Table 2 of this appendix. the systems must be designed for pilots oper-
(2) If certification in the acrobatic cat- ating in opposition, using individual pilot
egory is desired, the horizontal tail must be loads equal to 75 percent of those obtained in
investigated for an unsymmetrical load of accordance with paragraph (a) of this sec-
100 percent w on one side of the airplane cen- tion, except that individual pilot loads may
terline and 50 percent on the other side of not be less than the minimum limit pilot
the airplane centerline. forces shown in the table in § 23.397(b).
(d) Outboard fins. Outboard fins must meet (c) Ground gust conditions. Ground gust con-
the requirements of § 23.445. ditions must meet the requirements of
(e) Special devices. Special devices must § 23.415.
meet the requirements of § 23.459. (d) Secondary controls and systems. Sec-
ondary controls and systems must meet the
A23.13 Control system loads. requirements of § 23.405.
(a) Primary flight controls and systems. Each
primary flight control and system must be TABLE 1—LIMIT FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS
designed as follows: [Limit flight load factors]
(1) The flight control system and its sup-
porting structure must be designed for loads Flight load factors Normal Utility cat- Acrobatic
corresponding to 125 percent of the computed category egory category
hinge moments of the movable control sur- Flaps up:
face in the conditions prescribed in A23.11 of n1 .......................... 3.8 4.4 6.0
this appendix. In addition— n2 .......................... ¥0.5 n1 .................. ..................
(i) The system limit loads need not exceed n3 .......................... (1) .................. ..................
those that could be produced by the pilot and n4 .......................... (2) .................. ..................
automatic devices operating the controls; Flaps down:
n flap .................... 0.5 n1 .................. ..................
and n flap .................... 3 Zero .................. ..................
(ii) The design must provide a rugged sys-
1 Find n from Fig. 1
tem for service use, including jamming, 2 Find n
3
from Fig. 2
4
ground gusts, taxiing downwind, control in- 3 Verticalwing load may be assumed equal to zero and only
ertia, and friction. the flap part of the wing need be checked for this condition.
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323
324
325
326
327
Pt. 23, App. B 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
FIGURE A7.—CHORDWISE LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR STABILIZER AND ELEVATOR OR FIN AND
RUDDER
measured from stabilizer (or fin) leading

( 2 − E − 3d' ) edge to the local chord. Sign convention
P1 = 2 ( w ) is positive when center of pressure is be-
(1 − E ) hind leading edge.
c=local chord.
P2 = 2 ( w ) (3d' + E − 1) NOTE: Positive values of w̄, P1 and P2 are
all measured in the same direction.
where:
w̄=average surface loading (as specified in [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
figure A.5) amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13097, Aug. 13,
E=ratio of elevator (or rudder) chord to total 1969; 34 FR 14727, Sept. 24, 1969; Amdt. 23–16,
stabilizer and elevator (or fin and rudder) 40 FR 2577, Jan. 14, 1975; Amdt. 23–28, 47 FR
chord. 13315, Mar. 29, 1982; Amdt. 23–48, 61 FR 5149,
d′=ratio of distance of center of pressure of a Feb. 9, 1996]
unit spanwise length of combined sta-
bilizer and elevator (or fin and rudder) APPENDIX B TO PART 23 [RESERVED]
APPENDIX C TO PART 23—BASIC LANDING CONDITIONS
[C23.1 Basic landing conditions]
Tail wheel type Nose wheel type
Level landing
Condition Level landing
Tail-down land- with nose wheel Tail-down land-
Level landing with inclined
ing just clear of ing
reactions ground
Reference section ............................. 23.479(a)(1) 23.481(a)(1) .... 23.479(a)(2)(i) 23.479(a)(2)(ii) ... 23.481(a)(2) and
(b).
Vertical component at c. g ................ nW ................ nW .................. nW .................. nW ..................... nW.

Fore and aft component at c. g ........ KnW ............. 0 ...................... KnW ................ KnW ................... 0.
Lateral component in either direction 0 ................... 0 ...................... 0 ...................... 0 ......................... 0.
at c. g.
Shock absorber extension (hydraulic Note (2) ........ Note (2) .......... Note (2) .......... Note (2) ............. Note (2).
shock absorber).
Shock absorber deflection (rubber or 100 ............... 100 .................. 100 .................. 100 ..................... 100.
spring shock absorber), percent.
Tire deflection ................................... Static ............ Static ............... Static ............... Static .................. Static.
Main wheel loads (both wheels) (Vr) (n-L)W .......... (n–L)W b/d ...... (n-L)W a′/d′ ..... (n-L)W ................ (n-L)W.
Main wheel loads (both wheels) (Dr) KnW ............. 0 ...................... KnW a′/d′ ........ KnW ................... 0.
Tail (nose) wheel loads (Vf) ............. 0 ................... (n–L)W a/d ...... (n–L)W b′/d′ .... 0 ......................... 0.
Tail (nose) wheel loads (Df) ............. 0 ................... 0 ...................... KnW b′/d′ ........ 0 ......................... 0.
328
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, App. D
APPENDIX C TO PART 23—BASIC LANDING CONDITIONS—Continued

[C23.1 Basic landing conditions]
Tail wheel type Nose wheel type
Level landing
Condition Level landing
Tail-down land- with nose wheel Tail-down land-
Level landing with inclined
ing just clear of ing
reactions ground
Notes ................................................. (1), (3), and (4) ................... (1) ................... (1), (3), and (4) .. (3) and (4).
(4).
NOTE (1). K may be determined as follows: K=0.25 for W=3,000 pounds or less; K=0.33 for W=6,000 pounds or greater, with
linear variation of K between these weights.
NOTE (2). For the purpose of design, the maximum load factor is assumed to occur throughout the shock absorber stroke from
25 percent deflection to 100 percent deflection unless otherwise shown and the load factor must be used with whatever shock
absorber extension is most critical for each element of the landing gear.
NOTE (3). Unbalanced moments must be balanced by a rational or conservative method.
NOTE (4). L is defined in § 23.735(b).
NOTE (5). n is the limit inertia load factor, at the c.g. of the airplane, selected under § 23.473 (d), (f), and (g).
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 FR 13099, Aug. 13, 1969]
APPENDIX D TO PART 23—WHEEL SPIN- FHmax =1/re √ 2Iw(VH—Vc)nFVmax/tS

UP AND SPRING-BACK LOADS where—
D23.1 Wheel spin-up loads. FHmax=maximum rearward horizontal force
(a) The following method for determining acting on the wheel (in pounds);
wheel spin-up loads for landing conditions is re=effective rolling radius of wheel under im-
based on NACA T.N. 863. However, the drag pact based on recommended operating
component used for design may not be less tire pressure (which may be assumed to
than the drag load prescribed in § 23.479(b). be equal to the rolling radius under a
static load of njWe) in feet;
329
Pt. 23, App. E 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
Iw=rotational mass moment of inertia of (a) Conditioning. Specimens must be condi-
rolling assembly (in slug feet); tioned to 70 degrees F, plus or minus 5 de-
VH=linear velocity of airplane parallel to grees, and at 50 percent plus or minus 5 per-
ground at instant of contact (assumed to cent relative humidity until moisture equi-
be 1.2 VS0, in feet per second); librium is reached or for 24 hours. Only one
Vc=peripheral speed of tire, if prerotation is specimen at a time may be removed from the
used (in feet per second) (there must be a conditioning environment immediately be-
positive means of pre-rotation before fore subjecting it to the flame.
pre-rotation may be considered); (b) Specimen configuration. Except as pro-
n=equals effective coefficient of friction (0.80 vided for materials used in electrical wire
may be used); and cable insulation and in small parts, ma-
terials must be tested either as a section cut
FVmax=maximum vertical force on wheel
from a fabricated part as installed in the air-
(pounds)= njWe, where We and nj are de-
plane or as a specimen simulating a cut sec-
fined in § 23.725;
tion, such as: a specimen cut from a flat
ts=time interval between ground contact and sheet of the material or a model of the fab-
attainment of maximum vertical force ricated part. The specimen may be cut from
on wheel (seconds). (However, if the any location in a fabricated part; however,
value of FVmax, from the above equation fabricated units, such as sandwich panels,
exceeds 0.8 FVmax, the latter value must may not be separated for a test. The speci-
be used for FHmax.) men thickness must be no thicker than the
(b) The equation assumes a linear vari- minimum thickness to be qualified for use in
ation of load factor with time until the peak the airplane, except that: (1) Thick foam
load is reached and under this assumption, parts, such as seat cushions, must be tested
the equation determines the drag force at in 1⁄2 inch thickness; (2) when showing com-
the time that the wheel peripheral velocity pliance with § 23.853(d)(3)(v) for materials
at radius re equals the airplane velocity. used in small parts that must be tested, the
Most shock absorbers do not exactly follow a materials must be tested in no more than 1⁄8
linear variation of load factor with time. inch thickness; (3) when showing compliance
Therefore, rational or conservative allow- with § 23.1359(c) for materials used in elec-
ances must be made to compensate for these trical wire and cable insulation, the wire and
variations. On most landing gears, the time cable specimens must be the same size as
for wheel spin-up will be less than the time used in the airplane. In the case of fabrics,
required to develop maximum vertical load both the warp and fill direction of the weave
factor for the specified rate of descent and must be tested to determine the most crit-
forward velocity. For exceptionally large ical flammability conditions. When per-
wheels, a wheel peripheral velocity equal to forming the tests prescribed in paragraphs
the ground speed may not have been attained (d) and (e) of this appendix, the specimen
at the time of maximum vertical gear load. must be mounted in a metal frame so that (1)
However, as stated above, the drag spin-up in the vertical tests of paragraph (d) of this
load need not exceed 0.8 of the maximum appendix, the two long edges and the upper
vertical loads. edge are held securely; (2) in the horizontal
(c) Dynamic spring-back of the landing test of paragraph (e) of this appendix, the
gear and adjacent structure at the instant two long edges and the edge away from the
just after the wheels come up to speed may flame are held securely; (3) the exposed area
result in dynamic forward acting loads of of the specimen is at least 2 inches wide and
considerable magnitude. This effect must be 12 inches long, unless the actual size used in
determined, in the level landing condition, the airplane is smaller; and (4) the edge to
by assuming that the wheel spin-up loads which the burner flame is applied must not
calculated by the methods of this appendix consist of the finished or protected edge of
are reversed. Dynamic spring-back is likely the specimen but must be representative of
to become critical for landing gear units the actual cross section of the material or
having wheels of large mass or high landing part installed in the airplane. When per-
speeds. forming the test prescribed in paragraph (f)
of this appendix, the specimen must be
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as mounted in metal frame so that all four
amended by Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42167, Aug. 6, edges are held securely and the exposed area
1993] of the specimen is at least 8 inches by 8
inches.
APPENDIX E TO PART 23 [RESERVED] (c) Apparatus. Except as provided in para-
graph (g) of this appendix, tests must be con-
APPENDIX F TO PART 23—TEST ducted in a draft-free cabinet in accordance
PROCEDURE with Federal Test Method Standard 191
Method 5903 (revised Method 5902) which is
Acceptable test procedure for self-extin- available from the General Services Admin-
guishing materials for showing compliance istration, Business Service Center, Region 3,
with §§ 23.853, 23.855 and 23.1359. Seventh and D Streets SW., Washington,
330
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, App. F
D.C. 20407, or with some other approved tacting the material at the center of the
equivalent method. Specimens which are too specimen and then removed. Flame time,
large for the cabinet must be tested in simi- glow time, and whether the flame penetrates
lar draft-free conditions. (passes through) the specimen must be re-
(d) Vertical test. A minimum of three speci- corded.
mens must be tested and the results aver- (g) Sixty-degree test. A minimum of three
aged. For fabrics, the direction of weave cor- specimens of each wire specification (make
responding to the most critical flammability and size) must be tested. The specimen of
conditions must be parallel to the longest di- wire or cable (including insulation) must be
mension. Each specimen must be supported placed at an angle of 60 degrees with the hor-
vertically. The specimen must be exposed to izontal in the cabinet specified in paragraph
a Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a nominal 3⁄8- (c) of this appendix, with the cabinet door
inch I.D. tube adjusted to give a flame of 11⁄2 open during the test or placed within a
inches in height. The minimum flame tem- chamber approximately 2 feet high × 1 foot ×
perature measured by a calibrated thermo-
1 foot, open at the top and at one vertical
couple pryometer in the center of the flame
side (front), that allows sufficient flow of air
must be 1550° F. The lower edge of the speci-
for complete combustion but is free from
men must be three-fourths inch above the
drafts. The specimen must be parallel to and
top edge of the burner. The flame must be
approximately 6 inches from the front of the
applied to the center line of the lower edge of
the specimen. For materials covered by chamber. The lower end of the specimen
§§ 23.853(d)(3)(i) and 23.853(f), the flame must must be held rigidly clamped. The upper end
be applied for 60 seconds and then removed. of the specimen must pass over a pulley or
For materials covered by § 23.853(d)(3)(ii), the rod and must have an appropriate weight at-
flame must be applied for 12 seconds and tached to it so that the specimen is held
then removed. Flame time, burn length, and tautly throughout the flammability test.
flaming time of drippings, if any, must be re- The test specimen span between lower clamp
corded. The burn length determined in ac- and upper pulley or rod must be 24 inches
cordance with paragraph (h) of this appendix and must be marked 8 inches from the lower
must be measured to the nearest one-tenth end to indicate the central point for flame
inch. application. A flame from a Bunsen or Tirrill
(e) Horizontal test. A minimum of three burner must be applied for 30 seconds at the
specimens must be tested and the results test mark. The burner must be mounted un-
averaged. Each specimen must be supported derneath the test mark on the specimen, per-
horizontally. The exposed surface when in- pendicular to the specimen and at an angle
stalled in the airplane must be face down for of 30 degrees to the vertical plane of the
the test. The specimen must be exposed to a specimen. The burner must have a nominal
Bunsen burner or Tirrill burner with a nomi- bore of three-eighths inch, and must be ad-
nal 3⁄8-inch I.D. tube adjusted to give a flame justed to provide a three-inch-high flame
of 11⁄2 inches in height. The minimum flame with an inner cone approximately one-third
temperature measured by a calibrated ther- of the flame height. The minimum tempera-
mocouple pyrometer in the center of the ture of the hottest portion of the flame, as
flame must be 1550° F. The specimen must be measured with a calibrated thermocouple
positioned so that the edge being tested is pyrometer, may not be less than 1,750 °F. The
three-fourths of an inch above the top of, and burner must be positioned so that the hot-
on the center line of, the burner. The flame test portion of the flame is applied to the
must be applied for 15 seconds and then re- test mark on the wire. Flame time, burn
moved. A minimum of 10 inches of the speci- length, and flaming time drippings, if any,
men must be used for timing purposes, ap- must be recorded. The burn length deter-
proximately 11⁄2 inches must burn before the mined in accordance with paragraph (h) of
burning front reaches the timing zone, and this appendix must be measured to the near-
the average burn rate must be recorded. est one-tenth inch. Breaking of the wire
(f) Forty-five degree test. A minimum of specimen is not considered a failure.
three specimens must be tested and the re- (h) Burn length. Burn length is the distance
sults averaged. The specimens must be sup- from the original edge to the farthest evi-
ported at an angle of 45 degrees to a hori- dence of damage to the test specimen due to
zontal surface. The exposed surface when in- flame impingement, including areas of par-
stalled in the aircraft must be face down for tial or complete consumption, charring, or
the test. The specimens must be exposed to embrittlement, but not including areas soot-
a Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a nominal 3⁄8 ed, stained, warped, or discolored, nor areas
inch I.D. tube adjusted to give a flame of 11⁄2 where material has shrunk or melted away
inches in height. The minimum flame tem- from the heat source.
perature measured by a calibrated thermo-
couple pyrometer in the center of the flame [Amdt. 23–23, 43 FR 50594, Oct. 30, 1978, as
must be 1550°F. Suitable precautions must be amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1835, Jan. 15,
taken to avoid drafts. The flame must be ap- 1987; 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–49,
plied for 30 seconds with one-third con- 61 FR 5170, Feb. 9, 1996]
331
Pt. 23, App. G 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
APPENDIX G TO PART 23—INSTRUCTIONS that provides the recommended periods at

FOR CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS which they should be cleaned, inspected, ad-
justed, tested, and lubricated, and the degree
G23.1 General. (a) This appendix specifies of inspection, the applicable wear tolerances,
requirements for the preparation of Instruc- and work recommended at these periods.
tions for Continued Airworthiness as re- However, the applicant may refer to an ac-
quired by § 23.1529. cessory, instrument, or equipment manufac-
(b) The Instructions for Continued Air-
turer as the source of this information if the
worthiness for each airplane must include
applicant shows that the item has an excep-
the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
for each engine and propeller (hereinafter tionally high degree of complexity requiring
designated ‘products’), for each appliance re- specialized maintenance techniques, test
quired by this chapter, and any required in- equipment, or expertise. The recommended
formation relating to the interface of those overhaul periods and necessary cross ref-
appliances and products with the airplane. If erence to the Airworthiness Limitations sec-
Instructions for Continued Airworthiness are tion of the manual must also be included. In
not supplied by the manufacturer of an ap- addition, the applicant must include an in-
pliance or product installed in the airplane, spection program that includes the fre-
the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness quency and extent of the inspections nec-
for the airplane must include the informa- essary to provide for the continued air-
tion essential to the continued airworthiness worthiness of the airplane.
of the airplane. (2) Troubleshooting information describing
(c) The applicant must submit to the FAA probable malfunctions, how to recognize
a program to show how changes to the In- those malfunctions, and the remedial action
structions for Continued Airworthiness made
for those malfunctions.
by the applicant or by the manufacturers of
products and appliances installed in the air- (3) Information describing the order and
plane will be distributed. method of removing and replacing products
G23.2 Format. (a) The Instructions for and parts with any necessary precautions to
Continued Airworthiness must be in the be taken.
form of a manual or manuals as appropriate (4) Other general procedural instructions
for the quantity of data to be provided. including procedures for system testing dur-
(b) The format of the manual or manuals ing ground running, symmetry checks,
must provide for a practical arrangement. weighing and determining the center of grav-
G23.3 Content. The contents of the manual ity, lifting and shoring, and storage limita-
or manuals must be prepared in the English tions.
language. The Instructions for Continued (c) Diagrams of structural access plates
Airworthiness must contain the following and information needed to gain access for in-
manuals or sections, as appropriate, and inspections when access plates are not pro-
formation: vided.
(a) Airplane maintenance manual or section.
(d) Details for the application of special in-
(1) Introduction information that includes an
spection techniques including radiographic
explanation of the airplane’s features and
and ultrasonic testing where such processes
data to the extent necessary for mainte-
nance or preventive maintenance. are specified.
(2) A description of the airplane and its (e) Information needed to apply protective
systems and installations including its en- treatments to the structure after inspection.
gines, propellers, and appliances. (f) All data relative to structural fasteners
(3) Basic control and operation information such as identification, discard recommenda-
describing how the airplane components and tions, and torque values.
systems are controlled and how they oper- (g) A list of special tools needed.
ate, including any special procedures and (h) In addition, for commuter category air-
limitations that apply. planes, the following information must be
(4) Servicing information that covers de- furnished:
tails regarding servicing points, capacities of (1) Electrical loads applicable to the var-
tanks, reservoirs, types of fluids to be used, ious systems;
pressures applicable to the various systems,
(2) Methods of balancing control surfaces;
location of access panels for inspection and
servicing, locations of lubrication points, lu- (3) Identification of primary and secondary
bricants to be used, equipment required for structures; and
servicing, tow instructions and limitations, (4) Special repair methods applicable to
mooring, jacking, and leveling information. the airplane.
(b) Maintenance instructions. (1) Scheduling G23.4 Airworthiness Limitations section. The
information for each part of the airplane and Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
its engines, auxiliary power units, propellers, must contain a section titled Airworthiness
accessories, instruments, and equipment Limitations that is segregated and clearly
332
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, App. H
distinguishable from the rest of the docu- requirements (except as provided in this ap-
ment. This section must set forth each man- pendix) must be met without requiring any
datory replacement time, structural inspec- action by the crew to increase power or
tion interval, and related structural inspec- thrust.
tion procedure required for type certifi- H23.2, Definitions.
cation. If the Instructions for Continued Air- (a) Automatic power reserve system means
worthiness consist of multiple documents, the entire automatic system used only dur-
the section required by this paragraph must ing takeoff, including all devices both me-
be included in the principal manual. This
chanical and electrical that sense engine
section must contain a legible statement in
failure, transmit signals, actuate fuel con-
a prominent location that reads: ‘‘The Air-
trols or power levers on operating engines,
worthiness Limitations section is FAA ap-
proved and specifies maintenance required including power sources, to achieve the
under §§ 43.16 and 91.403 of the Federal Avia- scheduled power increase and furnish cockpit
tion Regulations unless an alternative pro- information on system operation.
gram has been FAA approved.’’ (b) Selected takeoff power, notwithstanding
the definition of ‘‘Takeoff Power’’ in part 1
[Amdt. 23–26, 45 FR 60171, Sept. 11, 1980, as of the Federal Aviation Regulations, means
amended by Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1835, Jan. 15, the power obtained from each initial power
1987; 52 FR 34745, Sept. 14, 1987; Amdt. 23–37, setting approved for takeoff.
54 FR 34329, Aug. 18, 1989]
(c) Critical Time Interval, as illustrated in
APPENDIX H TO PART 23—INSTALLATION figure H1, means that period starting at V1
minus one second and ending at the intersec-
OF AN AUTOMATIC POWER RESERVE
tion of the engine and APR failure flight
(APR) SYSTEM path line with the minimum performance all
H23.1, General. engine flight path line. The engine and APR
(a) This appendix specifies requirements failure flight path line intersects the one-en-
for installation of an APR engine power con- gine-inoperative flight path line at 400 feet
trol system that automatically advances above the takeoff surface. The engine and
power or thrust on the operating engine(s) in APR failure flight path is based on the air-
the event any engine fails during takeoff. plane’s performance and must have a posi-
(b) With the APR system and associated tive gradient of at least 0.5 percent at 400
systems functioning normally, all applicable feet above the takeoff surface.
H23.3, Reliability and performance require- gine will not create a hazard to the airplane,
ments. or it must be shown that such failures are
(a) It must be shown that, during the crit- improbable.
ical time interval, an APR failure that in- (b) It must be shown that, during the crit-
creases or does not affect power on either en- ical time interval, there are no failure modes
333
Pt. 23, App. H 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–01 Edition)
of the APR system that would result in a tainable takeoff power without exceeding en-
failure that will decrease the power on either gine operating limits;
engine or it must be shown that such failures (3) Prevent deactivation of the APR by
are extremely improbable. manual adjustment of the power levers fol-
(c) It must be shown that, during the crit- lowing an engine failure;
ical time interval, there will be no failure of (4) Provide a means for the flight crew to
the APR system in combination with an en- deactivate the automatic function. This
gine failure or it must be shown that such means must be designed to prevent inad-
failures are extremely improbable. vertent deactivation; and
(d) All applicable performance require- (5) Allow normal manual decrease or in-
ments must be met with an engine failure crease in power up to the maximum takeoff
occurring at the most critical point during power approved for the airplane under the
takeoff with the APR system functioning existing conditions through the use of power
normally. levers, as stated in § 23.1141(c), except as pro-
H23.4, Power setting. vided under paragraph (c) of H23.5 of this ap-
The selected takeoff power set on each en- pendix.
gine at the beginning of the takeoff roll may (c) For airplanes equipped with limiters
not be less than— that automatically prevent engine operating
(a) The power necessary to attain, at V1, 90 limits from being exceeded, other means
percent of the maximum takeoff power ap- may be used to increase the maximum level
proved for the airplane for the existing con- of power controlled by the power levers in
ditions; the event of an APR failure. The means must
(b) That required to permit normal oper- be located on or forward of the power levers,
ation of all safety-related systems and equip- must be easily identified and operated under
ment that are dependent upon engine power all operating conditions by a single action of
or power lever position; and any pilot with the hand that is normally
(c) That shown to be free of hazardous en- used to actuate the power levers, and must
gine response characteristics when power is meet the requirements of § 23.777 (a), (b), and
advanced from the selected takeoff power (c).
level to the maximum approved takeoff H23.6, Powerplant instruments.
power. In addition to the requirements of § 23.1305:
H23.5, Powerplant controls—general. (a) A means must be provided to indicate
(a) In addition to the requirements of when the APR is in the armed or ready con-
§ 23.1141, no single failure or malfunction (or dition.
probable combination thereof) of the APR, (b) If the inherent flight characteristics of
including associated systems, may cause the the airplane do not provide warning that an
failure of any powerplant function necessary engine has failed, a warning system inde-
for safety. pendent of the APR must be provided to give
(b) The APR must be designed to— the pilot a clear warning of any engine fail-
(1) Provide a means to verify to the flight
ure during takeoff.
crew before takeoff that the APR is in an op-
(c) Following an engine failure at V1 or
erating condition to perform its intended
above, there must be means for the crew to
function;
readily and quickly verify that the APR has
(2) Automatically advance power on the
operated satisfactorily.
operating engines following an engine failure
during takeoff to achieve the maximum at- [Doc. 26344, 58 FR 18979, Apr. 9, 1993]
334
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 23, App. I
APPENDIX I TO PART 23—SEAPLANE LOADS
335
[Amdt. 23–45, 58 FR 42167, Aug. 6, 1993; 58 FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993]
PART 25—AIRWORTHINESS STAND- Subpart A—General

ARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY Sec.
AIRPLANES 25.1 Applicability.
25.2 Special retroactive requirements.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
SFAR NO. 13
336

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Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt.

§ 21.621 Transferability and duration. 23.155 Elevator control force in maneuvers.

CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS 23.561 General.

PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS 23.951 General.

10 through 23 ........... 9 inches ............. 15 inches. GENERAL

36. Vibration characteristics. For turbo-

crewmember, when seated with the necessary as a result of required flight

If a weight and center of gravity com- be established so that it is not more

§ 23.33 Propeller speed and pitch lim- PERFORMANCE

(2) From 80 percent, at the standard mospheric conditions reasonably ex-

meet the requirements of § 23.67(a)(1), discontinue the takeoff. The takeoff

§ 23.59(a)(2), do not result from over-ro- § 23.57 Takeoff path.

§ 23.69 Enroute climb/descent. powered airplanes in the normal, util-

(1) Is safe and reliable; and after initiation of movement of the

Values in pounds force applied Pitch Roll Yaw

be met in each configuration for which decreased to at least 50 percent of the

§ 23.233 Directional stability and con- § 23.251 Vibration and buffeting.

Stall warning buffeting within these Unless otherwise provided, prescribed

GENERAL § 23.303 Factor of safety.

any load up to limit loads, the defor- limitations specified in §§ 23.1583

§ 23.335 Design airspeeds. (1) Where W/S′=wing loading at the

(2) A limit engine torque cor- § 23.365 Pressurized cabin loads.

data applicable to the particular en- (iv) Maximum continuous thrust.

(2) The minimum forces specified in H=KcSq

Nose-up pitching ........ 1.0 +39nm÷V×(nm¥1.5) K g U de Va ht S ht  dε 

slipstream effects, in combination with the following conditions. In computing

(1) Steady slip conditions; g=Acceleration due to gravity (ft./

maximum pilot forces specified in and their immediate attaching struc-

Main gear ............................... .......................................................... 0.225W 1 Forward, parallel to drag axis.

Auxiliary gear ......................... Swiveled forward ............................. 0.3W 5 Forward.

Swiveled 45° from forward .............. 0.15W 9 Forward, in plane of wheel.

side load is directed inboard, per-

external aerodynamic pressures, and (3) Consider any significant effects

part of the structure that could con- § 23.605 Fabrication methods.

§ 23.575 Inspections and other proce- § 23.607 Fasteners.

meeting specifications to establish de- (c) Subject to appreciable variability

(ii) The deformation requirements of § 23.623 Bearing factors.

to the speed specified for the selected § 23.659 Mass balance.

§ 23.677 Trim systems. § 23.679 Control system locks.

pilot receives unmistakable warning at (c) There must be means to prevent

(h + d ) (a) If compliance with the ground

probable malfunction or failure will re- FLOATS AND HULLS

PERSONNEL AND CARGO shown that the windshield and side

(1) For a mechanical fuel selector: Motion and effect

(b) Each emergency exit must be lo- must be designed to be overridden by

evacuation guidance for the airplane assistance in evacuation of passengers

[Doc. No. 26324, 59 FR 25774, May 17, 1994]

Minimum main passenger large enough so that the failure of any

(d) Each area where flammable fluids Subpart E—Powerplant

(4) It must be demonstrated in flight condition must be suitably protected

§ 23.959 Unusable fuel supply. § 23.965 Fuel tank tests.

developed during maximum ultimate of vibration must be the test fre-

incorporated to reserve enough oil to operation with the turbocharger is re-

§ 23.1163 Powerplant accessories. gine ignition system and the greatest

(g) In addition, for commuter cat- enced in the compartment in which

cause hazardous deterioration of the Subpart F—Equipment

(5) A tachometer indicator (to indi- § 23.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.

primary attachments) whose require- (7) Incorporate visual displays of in-

§ 23.1559(b) of this part, paragraph (b)(3) grees must be placarded in accordance

power, or such power as is limited by having a reverse polarity, or a reverse

axis of the airplane and perpendicular Angle from right

Effective in- § 23.1416 Pneumatic de-icer boot sys-

the components or models of the com- radio or electronic unit, or system of

(b) If demand equipment is installed (c) If first-aid oxygen equipment is