STREAMFLOW

AMOUNT OF SURFACE WATER

The amount of water flowing in surface water courses at any

instant of time is small in terms of the earth’s total water
budget, but it is of considerable importance to those concerned
with water resources development, supply and management.
 FACTS & FIGURES

The River Nile is the longest

river in the world. It measures
6,695 kilometres from its
source in Burundi, along the
White Nile, to its delta on the
Mediterranean Sea. Of ficially,
the shor test river is the D River,
Oregan, USA , which is just 37
metres long.

The big gest river in t he world ,

measured by the amount of
water that flows down it, is t he
Amazon. On average 1 20,000
cubic metres (about 20
swimming pools' wor th) of
water flows out of its mouth
ever y second.
 USAGE OF RIVER

 For Water Supply

 For Mankind
 For Energy Generation
 For Fish and Wildlife
 For Ecosystem
 For Irrigation
 For Navigation
 Etc.
 For Industry
 For Municipal

 For Flood Control  SHARED BY ALL!

 For Drainage
 RIVER USAGES &
PARAMETERS OF INTEREST

 For Navigation – how fast water is moving, what’s the level of the water,
what’s the flow direction , etc.

 For Irrigation – what’s the quality of the water, what’s the amount of
water that could be supplied into the scheme, etc.

 For Water Supply – what’s the quality of the water, is it high or low
water level, what’s the amount of water that we could collect for fur ther
distribution, etc.

 For Flood Control – what’s the level of flood, what’s the flow velocity,
etc.

 For Design Purposes (e.g. Hydroelectric Power, Reser voir, Dam, and
other hydraulic structures) – what’s the discharge of the river, what’s
the area of the river cross -section, what’s the velocity of water in the
river, etc.
 PARAMETERS OF INTEREST
IN HYDROLOGY

Thus, it could be said that a knowledge of the

quantity and quality
of river / stream flow is a requisite for …

municipal, industrial, agricultural, and other water supply

projects; flood control; reservoir design and operation;
hydroelectric power generation; water -based recreation;
navigation; fish and wildlife management; drainage, the
management of natural systems such as wetlands; and water
and wastewater treatment.
 STREAMFLOW DATA

 Streamflow data are

needed to enable
hydrologists to discover
the quantity and quality of
the earth’s water
resources on a
comprehensive and
continuous basis.

 The successful processing

and publication of the
streamflow data depend
largely on the quality of
the field measurements .
 RIVER IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

River is the only

phase of the
hydrological cycle
in which the water
is confined in well -
defined channels
which permit
accurate
measurements to
be made of the
quantities
involved.
 2 CATEGORIES
OF STREAMFLOW DATA

1. Data required for planning and design - Data for planning

and design may not necessarily have an immediate use but
are valuable in the long term for civil engineering works of
various types and for flood forecasting and control. Planning
and design data are also used to examine long -term trends
of the stream environment.

2. Data required for current use – Current use data have an

immediate high return value since the data are invariably
required initially for operation and control. Current use
streamflow stations are operated for as long as the need
remains.
UPSTREAM & DOWNSTREAM OF A RIVER
RIVER CROSS-SECTION
 WHAT TO BE MEASURED ?

Q=AxV
 Discharge, Q (m 3 /s)

 Cross-Sectional Area, A (m 2 )
 width,
 depth

 Velocity, V (m/s)
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE RIVER
(AT DIFFERENT CHAINAGE)
VELOCIT Y OF THE RIVER
(AT DIFFERENT STRIP)
VELOCIT Y DISTRIBUTION IN STREAM SECTION

 Velocity distribution in a
channel is not uniform
over the width and depth
of the channel.
 Velocity is greatest in the
deepest part of the
channel and
 is zero along the
boundary of the flow.
 The greatest velocity
occurs just under the
water surface, in the
deepest part of the
channel of a straight
reach.
 The velocity distribution in a stream across a vertical section
is approximately logarithmic in nature. Mean velocity is
required to evaluate discharge . For computing the average
velocity a large number of points will be needed to define this
distribution. The average velocity in the vertical section is
determined as
 s d
1
V
d  V (s)ds
s 0

Where:
V varies with the depth, 0 sd.
d is the depth of flow.
s is the depth at which the velocity is measured or known.
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCIT Y

 Shallow streams (< 3m)

velocity measured at 0.6 times the depth of flow, V 0.6 ,

below the water surface:


V  V0.6
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCIT Y

 Moderately deep
streams
 V0.8  V0.2
V 
2

V 0 . 2 is the velocity
measured at 0.2
times the depth of
flow below the
water sur face ,

V 0 . 8 is the velocity
measured times
the depth of flow
below the water
sur face
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCIT Y

 Streams with flood flow

where V 0 . 5 is the surface velocity measured within a depth

of 0.5m below the water surface;

C: reduction factor, usually between 0.85 and 0.95 ,

obtained from measurements taken at lower stages
 RIVER WATER-LEVEL
(WL DATA WILL BE CONVERTED TO Q)
RIVER GAUGING STATION
(MEASURE WATER-LEVEL)
 CATEGORY OF GAUGES

Two (2) categories of gauges used

to measure water level (a.k.a. stage):

1. non-recording gauges
2. recording gauges.
 NON-RECORDING GAUGES

 Manually observed at fixed hours.

1) Staff Gauge,
2) Wire Weight Gauge,
 STAFF GAUGE

 Mounted ver tically and

rigidly attached to a
permanent structure
such as a bridge, wall,
abutment, etc.

 Gauge indicates water -

sur face elevation on a
staf f that is graduated
with clear and accurate
markings in centimeters.

 A por tion or the scale is

immersed in the water at
all times.
 WIRE WEIGHT GAUGE

 Measures water-sur face

elevation from above,
(e.g. from bridge or
overhead structure).

 A weight is lowered
from the structure until it
reaches the
water sur face.

 The gauge has a drum.

 The number of revolution of the

drum is measured by a
mechanical counter, which in
turn, measures the length of the
wire transmitted to reach the
water sur face.
 RECORDING GAUGES

 Automatic or Self-Recording.

 Provide a continuous record of water level.

1) The float type

2) The bubble gauge or
manometer-servo water level sensor
3) The pressure transducer
 FLOAT T YPE RECORDER

 Consists of a float attached to one end of a cable that

passes over a pulley and is counterweighted at the end.

 Float follows rises and falls of water level , and this

movement is recorded by a pen installed in the apparatus.
The recorder is mounted in a weatherproof housing on top
of a culvert and stilling well.
The purpose of the stilling well
is to dampen the water-surface
fluctuations so that
the float records changes
in the water elevation,
but does not reflect wave
action or other interference .
BUBBLE-GAUGE SENSOR

 A pressure-actuated
system in which an
orifice at the end of
a tubing is installed
underneath the water
surface at the
location of the gauge
datum.

 Water level is
directly proportional
to the pressure
experienced at the
orifice.
 PRESSURE TRANDUCERS

 Convert water pressure

into electrical signals that
can be recorded at the
gauge site or at a remote
location.
 COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC GAUGES

Pressure tranducer,
Sensor type Ultrasonic
Float gauge, capacitance,
Bubble gauge electrode

Recording Mechanical Electromechanical Electronic

method

Solid-state
Chart on Printer,
Data drum, strip
Digital paper,
Magnetic tape,
-Semiconductor
storage Digital tape -Magnetic
chart Disk, drum
-Optical
 STREAMFLOW
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT METHODS

Measurement of
Streamflow

Direct Indirect
Measurement Measurement

Stage- Hydraulic
Velocity-Area Chemical/ Ultrasonic Slope-Area DIscharge
Electromagnetic Structures
Dilution

Mid-Section Flumes,
Weirs
Gated
Structures
Mean-Section etc
DIRECT MEASUREMENT
 TO MEASURE STREAM VELOCIT Y
( 1 . BY C U R R E N T M E T E R )

Current meter is the most common method

of discharge measurement.
CURRENT METER
 CURRENT METER

 Current Meter is equipped

with a propeller or
cup-equipped rotating
wheel that is driven by
water current.

 Calibrated to register flow

velocity relative to the
number of wheel
rotations.

 Most commonly used:

vertical-axis cup meter:
Price current meter
 PROCEDURES OF
CURRENT METER MEASUREMENT

 By wading

Measurements are made by entering the stream. Applicable to shallow

depths.

 From a bridge

Handline or a sounding reel supported by a bridge board or a portable

crane is used to suspend the meter and the sounding weight.

 From a cableway

Cableway measurement is superior to bridge measurement because

there is no obstruction of the flow passage.
 PROCEDURES OF CURRENT METER
MEASUREMENT

 By Boat

In deep rivers, where no cableways or suitable bridges are available,

the measurement is made by boat.

A tag line is first stretched across the section.

The tag line serves the dual purpose of holding the boat in position
during the measurement and measuring of the width of the river.
 BY WADING
(WHEN THE DEPTH AND VELOCIT Y PERMIT)
 FROM BRIDGES
(IF THESE ARE CONSIDERED SUITABLE)
 BY CABLEWAY
(WHEN THE SPAN PERMITS THE INSTALLATION OF A
CABLEWAY, AND THE RIVER IS TOO DEEP TO WADE)
 BY BOAT
( I F T H E RI VE R I S TOO W I DE FOR A CA BLE WAY I N STA LLATI ON)
 BY MOVING BOAT
(IF THE RIVER IS WIDE ENOUGH)
 TO MEASURE STREAM VELOCIT Y
( 2 . BY F LOAT S - I F T H E VE LOC I T Y I S TOO LOW OR TOO H I G H TO
USE A C URRE N T M E T E R OR T H E RE A RE I C E F LOE S I N T H E RI VE R)
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
(1 . VELOCIT Y- AREA METHOD)

 The discharge is derived from the sum

of the products of stream velocity,
depth and distance between verticals ,
the stream velocity usually being
obtained by a current meter.

 For a continuous record of discharge in

a stable prismatic open channel with
no variable backwater effects, a
unique relation exists between water
level (stage) and discharge.

 Once established, this stage -discharge

relation is used to derive discharge
values from recordings of stage.
 VELOCIT Y-AREA METHOD

 Discharge is determined from the area of cross section and

the mean velocity.

 Area of cross section of the river is determined from the

profile of the river bed obtained by sounding / river survey.

 The river cross section is divided in to a suitable number of

vertical segments (or strips )…
Generally, 15 to 25 segments are taken.

 Total discharge in the river is computed as the sum of the

discharges in various segments.

 Discharge in each segment is equal to the area of the

segment multiplied by the mean velocity of flow.
Two (2) methods of determining the discharge:

1. Mid-section method

2. Mean-section method
 (A) MID-SECTION METHOD

 In this method, the area of cross - section is divided into several

segments, and the mean velocity ( V m ) is measured on a vertical
line in the middle of the segment. The mean depth of the
segment is also taken at the middle of the segment .

 If b is the width of the segment and d m is the mean depth, the

discharge in the segment is given by:

ΔQ = (b d m )V m

where V m is the mean velocity

along the middle line of the segment.

 Total discharge Q = ΣQ

 The discharge in the end two triangular strips is usually

neglected. However, for greater accuracy, the discharge in these
triangular strips should also be calculated by measuring the
depth and velocity at the centroids of these strips.
MID-SECTION METHOD
 (B) MEAN-SECTION METHOD

 In this method, the segment is taken between two vertical line

on which the velocity and depth are measured .

 The velocity in the segment is taken as the average of the mean

velocities V 1 and V 2 determined at the two adjacent verticals .

 Similarly, the depth is also taken as the average of two depths d 1

and d 2 . Thus the discharge in the segment is given by
 d  d 2   V1  V2 
Q  b  1  
 2  2 
 Total discharge Q = ΣQ

 This method is slightly more accurate than the mid -section

method .
MEAN-SECTION METHOD
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
( 2 . BY C H E M I CA L / DI LUT I ON M E T H OD)

 A tracer liquid is injected into the channel and the water is

sampled at a point further downstream where turbulence has
mixed the tracer uniformly throughout the cross -section.

 The change in concentration between the solution injected

and the water at the sampling station is converted into a
measure of the discharge.
 CHEMICAL / DILUTION METHOD

 Employs the conservation of mass of the tracer to be

used to measure discharge.
 Mediums for main tracers used:
 Common salt, fluorescent dyes, radioactive materials
 Properties of tracer:
 able to mix freely with flow;
 should not react with sediment, channel boundaries,
or vegetation, and
 should not evaporate.
 2 methods:
 Constant injection method
 Sudden injection method
CONSTANT INJECTION RATE METHOD

 HOW??

 The tracer of
concentration C 1 is
injected into the stream
at a constant rate Q c at
a defined location.

 Samples are taken at a

downstream point where
the concentration
gradually rises to a
constant value C 2 .
 CONSTANT INJECTION RATE METHOD

C0Q  C1Qc  (Q  QC )C2

C1  C2
Q Qc
C2  C0

 In general, C1 is much greater than C2; then

C1
Q q
C2
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
( 3 . BY ULT RA SON I C M E T H OD)

 The velocity of flow is measured by

transmitting an ultrasonic pulse
diagonally across the channel in both
directions simultaneously.

 The dif ference in time transits is a

measure of the velocity which has to
be multiplied by the cross -sectional
area to derive discharge.

 The ultrasonic method therefore also

follows the principles of velocity -area
measurements.
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
( 4 . BY E LE C T ROMAG NETI C M E T H OD)

 The discharge is found by measuring the electromotive force

(emf) produced by a moving conductor (the flowing water)
through a magnetic field produced by a coil placed either
below or above the open channel. The emf is proportional to
the discharge.
INDIRECT MEASUREMENT
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
( 5 . BY SLOP E - A RE A M E T H OD)

 The discharge is derived

from measurements of the
slope of the water sur face
and the cross-section of
the channel over a fairly
straight reach , assuming a
roughness coef ficient for
the channel boundaries.

 Based on the principle of

energy conser vation .

 A stream reach is
selected. From Bernoulli’s
equation applied to the
ends of the reach (section
1 and 2)
 SLOPE-AREA METHOD

 By knowing these values:

 water-surface elevations,
 channel cross-sections,
 and Manning’s n at the two sections,
Q from the stream reach can be computed.

 This method is very powerful but involves a trial and

error solution.

 This method can also be used to estimate discharge

of an ungauged stream during flood events.
 BY SLOPE-AREA
(IF NO OTHER METHOD IS SUITABLE DURING FLOODS)

 Where:
 V is the river velocity (or 'specific discharge'),
 R is the 'hydraulic radius' which is the cross -sectional area of the flow divided by
the wetted perimeter,
 S is approximated by the downstream slope on the river surface, and
 n is Manning's roughness coefficient (which varies between 0.025 and 0.07 in
natural channels).

 In other words, if the water-sur face slope and the 'hydraulic mean
depth' (» 'hydraulic radius') increase so does the river's velocity, while
if the channel roughness increases, the river velocity reduces (Hewlett,
1982 p102-103).
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
(6. BY STAGE -FALL-DISCHARGE METHOD)

 In a stable open channel af fected by backwater, a relation is

established between fall ( slope) and discharge.
 TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
( 7. BY H Y DRAULI C ST RUC T URE M E T H OD)

 Types of flow -measuring

structures used:
 Broad-crested weirs,
 Flumes made of concrete,
masonry or metal sheets,
 V-notches

 When flow -measuring

structure is installed in a
stream, it produces a
unique control section in
the flow.

 Q is measured as: Q  f (H )

 Where f is some function,

H is water-surface
elevation
 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE METHOD
(WEIR AND FLUMES)

The relation between stage (or

head) and discharge over a weir
or through a flume is
established from laboratory (or
field) calibration. The discharge
is subsequently derived from
this rating equation.
 SELECTION OF METHOD

1) Velocity - Area Method

2) Weirs and Flumes

3) Ultrasonic and Electromagnetic Methods

4) Dilution Techniques

5) Stage-Fall-Discharge and Slope - Area Method

 1 ST PRIORIT Y
(VELOCIT Y-AREA METHOD)

Generally, consideration is given first to the possibility of

installing a velocity -area station especially if it is known that a
relation can be established between stage and discharge .
 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

 Discharge measurements may then be carried out using

current meter :

 by wading (when the depth and velocity permit),

 by cableway (when the span permits the installation of a cableway,
and the river is too deep to wade),
 by boat (if the river is too wide for a cableway installation),
 by moving boat (if the river is wide enough),
 by floats (if the velocity is too low or too high to use a current meter
or there are ice floes in the river),
 by slope-area (if no other method is suitable during floods) or
 from bridges (if these are considered suitable).
 2 ND PRIORIT Y
(WEIRS AND FLUMES)

 In small rivers (under 100m in width) , a measuring structure

may be considered, particularly if backwater conditions
prevail.

 The main factors to be assessed for a measuring structure are

cost, head loss (af flux) available, Froude number and bed
conditions.

 Flumes are normally only considered in narrow channels

under, say, 50m.
 3 RD PRIORIT Y
(ULTRASONIC & ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS)

 The ultrasonic and electromagnetic methods provide a

continuous measurement of discharge for all designed stages of
flow and continue to do so under backwater conditions even if
the flow actually reverses due, for example, to tidal influence.

 The main restrictions for the ultrasonic method are that a source
of electric power should be available , the river should not be
more than about 300m wide with suitable minimum depth and
should have no weed growth or significant sediment transport.

 The electromagnetic method also requires a source of power and

is restricted to rivers about 40m wide but continues to measure
under weed conditions or heavy sediment load.
 4 TH PRIORIT Y
(DILUTION TECHNIQUE)

 Dilution gauging is not in such general use as other methods

because the technique requires specially trained staf f.
Nevertheless it is the most suitable method available for
discharge measurements in turbulent mountain streams .

 It is used mainly for spot measurements especially in the

calibration of other methods, for example measuring
structures, but in certain situations it may be the only
suitable method. It is also the only fully direct method for the
measurement of discharge since the velocity, depth or area
does not enter into the computation.
 5 TH PRIORIT Y
(STAGE-FALL-DISCHARGE & SLOPE - AREA METHOD)

 These methods are indirect methods of measurement, but have

their place under conditions where the above methods are not
suitable or unavailable. The stage -fall-discharge method is
particularly useful under backwater conditions especially in large
rivers, when it may be the only suitable method. The slope -area
method is useful in the measurement of floods, either current or
historical, the latter from flood marks.

 The stage-fall-discharge method may take the form of a

permanent station; the slope-area method is used for spot
measurements and may be employed at a permanent velocity -
area station for measuring the highest flows . The later method
depends, however, on Manning’s ‘n’ or Chezy’s C roughness
coefficients and, unless these are established on site from
measurements, the method is an approximate one only.
RIVER MODELING / SIMULATION
TIDE COINCIDE WITH RAINFALL