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arXiv:hep-ph/0302020v1 4 Feb 2003
Baryogenesis∗
Riazuddin
National Center for Physics
Quaid-e-Azam University
Islamabad 45320 Pakistan
and
Department of Physics
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran 31261 Saudi Arabia
February 1, 2008
Abstract
An introduction to particle aspects of cosmology with particular
refrence to primordial nucleosynthesis, dark matter and baryeogenesis
is provided. In particular, various scenarios–Grand Unified Theory
baryogenesis, electroweak baryogenesis and baryogenesis through lep-
togenesis are reviewed.
∗
Lectures delivered at Department of Physics, KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (April
2002 and September 2002).
1
1 Introduction
I will first discuss Nucleosynthesis and show how it leads to two big problems
in cosmology: Dark Matter and Baryogenesis. Before I discuss Primordial
Nucleo-synthesis, I give you some background:
2 Thermal Equilibrium
Consider an arbitrary volume V in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath at
temperature T . The particle density ni (i, particle index) at temperature T
is given by
!3 Z −1
Ni gi kB T ∞ E
ni = = 2 exp ±1 z 2 dz. (1)
V 2π h̄c 0 kB T
where
qc 2 1/2
z= , E = (qc)2 + mi c2 (3)
kB T
and gi are the number of spin states, q is the momentum of the particle and
mi is its mass. The + sign is for the fermions (F ) and − sign is for the bosons
(B). In particular for i = photon, m = 0, g = 2. In writing Eqs. (1) and (2),
2
we have put the chemical potential µi = 0. For photon µ = 0. Since particles
and antiparticles are in equilibrium with photons µi = −µī . If there is no
asymmetry between the number of particles and antiparticles, µi = µī = 0.
If the difference between the number of particles and antiparticles is small
compared with the number of photons,
µi µ
= ī ≪ 1 (4)
kB T kB T
and the chemical potential can be neglected. For the photon gas, we get from
Eqs. (1) and (2) [T0 = 2.7250 K, subscript 0 denotes the present value of the
temperature of cosmic background (CMB) radiation]
!3
ζ (3) kB T 1.2 1 3
nγ = 2 2 =2 2 (kB T )3 (5)
π h̄c π h̄c
3
2.4 1
nγ0 = (kB T0 )3 = 410.50 cm−3 (6)
π 2 h̄c
3
T
nγ (T ) = 410.50 cm−3 , (7)
2.725
ζ (4) 1 3
ργ c2 = 6 2 (kB T )4
π h̄c
π2 1 3
= (kB T )4 ≃ 2.7nγ (kB T ) (8)
15 h̄c
ργ0 = 2.60 × 10−10 GeV cm−3 (9)
The zeta functions are defined as follows
Z ∞ 2
z dz
= Γ (3) ζ (3)
0 ez − 1
Z ∞ 2
z dz
−2
3
z
= 1 − 2 Γ (3) ζ (3) = Γ (3) ζ (3)
0 e +1 4
Z ∞ 3
z dz
= Γ (4) ζ (4)
0 ez − 1
Z ∞ 3
z dz
−3
7
z
= 1 − 2 Γ (4) ζ (4) = Γ (4) ζ (4)
0 e +1 8
For a gas of extreme relativistic particles (ER), kB T ≫ mi c2 , qc ≫ mi c2 , we
thus get
gB gB
nB = nγ , ρB = ργ (10a)
2 2
3
3 gF 7 gF
nF = nγ , ρF = ργ . (10b)
4 2 8 2
The entropy S for the photon gas is given by
R3 4
S= ργ (T ) . (11)
T 3
For any relativistic gas
R3 4
S= ρ (T ) . (12)
T 3
Thus for a gas consisting of extreme relativistic particles (bosons and fermions):
(h̄ = c = 1)
1 ′
n(T ) = g (T ) nγ (T )
2
1.2 ′
= 2
g (T ) (kB T )3 (13)
π
1
ρ (T ) = g∗ (T ) ργ (T )
2
π2
= g∗ (T ) (kB T )4 (14)
30
R3 2
S= g∗ (T ) ργ (T ), (15)
T 3
where
3X
g ′(T ) =
X
gFgB + (16a)
B 4 F
X 7X
g∗ (T ) = gB + gF (16b)
B 8 F
are called the “effective” degrees of freedom. We note that entropy per unit
volume is given by
1 S s 2π 2
3
= = g∗ (T ) (kB T )3 . (17)
kB R kB 45
4
For non-relativistic gas kB T ≪ mi c2 , we use the Boltzmann distribution
!3 Z
gi kB T ∞ E
ni = 2 exp − z 2 dz (18)
2π h̄c 0 kB T
1 q 2 c2
" #
2
E ≈ mi c 1+ . (19)
2 (mi c2 )2
This gives
!3 !3/2
mi c2
" #
gi kB T c2 /k BT
ni = e−mi (20)
(2π)3/2 h̄c kB T
ρi = ni mi . (21)
Expansion rate is given by the Hubble Parameter
Ṙ
H=
R
where [R (t) is a scale factor for distances in co–moving coordinates and
describes the expansion of the universe]
8πGN ρ 2 Λc2 R2
Ṙ2 = R − kc2 + (22)
3 3
The second term on the right hand side is due to curvature of space while the
third term containing the cosmological constant Λ, which being very small
(|Λ| < 3 × 10−52 m−2 ) is usually neglected. There is now evidence that k = 0
(in any case for early universe ρ ∼ 1/R4 and as such the second and third
terms on r.h.s. of Eq. (22) can be neglected compared to the first term).
Thus
Ṙ 8πGN ρ 1/2
H= ≃ (23)
R 3
For relativistic particles as already seen
π2
ρ (T ) = g∗ (T ) (kB T )4
30
and
X 7X
g∗ (T ) = gB + gF
Bosons 8 F
5
denote the effective degrees of freedom. Thus
s
2
4π 3 ∗ 1/2 (kB T )
H = [g (T )]
45 h̄Mpl
(kB T )2
= 1.66 [g ∗ (T )]1/2
h̄Mpl
!2
∗ 1/2 kB T
= 0.21 [g (T )] s−1 (24)
MeV
−1/2
where h̄Mpl = GN is the Planck mass: Mpl ≃ 1019 GeV.
gd αX mX
(
kB T ≪ mX
γX ≈ m2 (26)
gd αX kBXT kB T ≫ mX .
The reaction rate for the collision processes is given by
[number of target particles per unit volume
γc = hσ vi
which is proportional to (kB T )3 ].
6
Thus
2
gd αX (kB T )5
γc ≃ h i2 (27)
(kB T )2 + m2X
γ ≥ H Equilibrium (28)
γ ∼ H Freeze Out (29)
γ ≪ H Out of Equilibrium (30)
3 Primordial Nucleosynthesis
After the discovery of cosmic back ground radiation (CMB), the firse success
of big bang cosmology was the correct prediction of primordial abundance of
He (≃ 24%). This was cooked by nuclear reactions when the universe was
seconds old (T ≃ 1010 K= 1 MeV)
At temperatures ≥ 1 MeV, the weak reactions such as
ν̄e + p ↔ e+ + n
e− + p ↔ νe + n (31)
are still fast compared with the expansion rate of the universe to maintain
thermodynamic equilibrium between p and n. The abundance ratio at equi-
librium is given by
n
∼ e−∆m/(kB T ) , kB T > kB TD ∼ 1 MeV, t = 1 sec. (32)
p
Using ∆m = (mn − mp ) = 1.3 MeV and kB T = kB TD = 1 MeV, we find
n/p = 0.27. The rates for the above reactions are given by weak interactions
except that we have to take into account Pauli’s exclusion principle. Then
1 G2F Z 2 2 h i−1 h i−1
(n→p)
γ = 2 3 A Ee pν dpν 1 + eEν /kB T 1 − 1 + eEe /kT (33)
π h̄ π
where
A = gV2 + 3gA2 = gV2 1 + 3gA2 /gV2 , gA /gV ≃ 1.26, gV ≃ 0.9750, (34)
gV and gA are vector and axial vector coupling constants of the nucleon.
The second factor in the integral is due to Pauli Principle which suppresses
7
the rate by a factor equal to fraction of all states that are unfilled. For
kB T ≫ Q = (mn − mp ) we have
Ee ≃ Eν ≃ pν c = qc = (kB T ) z.
Thus we obtain
!3
1 G2 kB T ∞
Z h i−1
γ (n→p)
≃γ (p→n)
≃ 2 FA (kB T )2 z 4 dz [1 + ez ]−1 1 + e−z
π π h̄c 0
8
if Nν = 3.
As the temperature cools past the decoupling temperature kB TD ≈ 1
MeV, it is no longer possible to maintain the thermal equilibrium. The ratio
n/p thereafter is frozen out and is approximately constant (it decreases slowly
due to weak decay of neutron). The freeze out n/p ratio is given by
where τn is neutron life time and we have used the Q−value Q = (mn −
mp ) + me = 1.8 MeV for the reactions (31). Helium nucleosynthesis occurs
at T < TS because of deuteron bottle neck. For T > TS , the deuteron formed
is knocked out by photo dissociation
γ + D → p + n,
since the binding energy ∆B for the deuteron is only 2.2 MeV. The formation
of deuteron actually starts after kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV; TS is called nucleosynthesis
temperature. The estimate that kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV can be obtained as follows
[η = nnB0
γ0
]:
ndiss
γ 1
∼ e−∆B/kB T ≤ 1. (39)
nB η
Thus
∆B
− ≈ ln η. (40)
kB TS
Using ∆B ≈ 2.2 MeV , and η ≈ 10−10 , we find kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV.
For T > TS , photodissociation is so rapid that deuteron abundance is
negligibly small and this provides a bottleneck to further nucleosynethesis.
The deuteron “bottleneck” thus delay nucleosynthesis till kB T ≤ 0.1 MeV.
But once the bottleneck is passed, nucleosynthesis proceeds rapidly and es-
sentially all neutrons are incorporated into 4 He :
n+p → D+γ
D+D → 3 H + p, 3 He + n
3
H +D → 4 He + n
3
H + 4 He → 7 Li
9
It is clear from the above reactions that 4 He abundance is given by
2 (n / p) 0.32
Y = = = 0.276. (41a)
1+n / p 1.16
The ratio Y changes from TD to TS due to the neutron decay n → p+e− + ν̄e .
During this time n/p changes from 0.16 to 0.14. Thus at T = TS ,
0.28
Y = = 0.246. (41b)
1.14
It is clear from Eqs. (37) and (40) that
η↑ TS ↑, Y ↑⇒ less unburned D
Now D/H ratio in primeval samples of the universe has been measured.
The UV light (neutral H and D are seen by their UV absorption) came from
distant quasars and absorbers were pregalactic gas clouds. The abundance
was found to be:
D/H = (3.0 ± 0.1) × 10−5 ,
pinning
η = (6 ± 3) × 10−10 (42)
We now want to express it in terms of baryon density as a fraction of the
critical density ρc
nB0
ρB = mN nB , η = , nγ0 = 410.50cm−3
nγ0
ρB
ΩB =
ρc
3H02
ρc = = 1.054 × 10−5 h20 GeVcm−3
8πGN
10
H0 (the present value of Hubble parmater)
in very good agreement with the value inferred from Big-Bang Nucleosyn-
thesis [BBN].
4 Dark Matter
At a large scale, measurements of velocity flows of galaxies give
ρm
Ωm = = 0.35 ± 0.007 (45)
ρc
Such a matter density is much larger than the visible matter density. This
implies that most of the mass in the universe is dark; it does not emit or
absorb any of the electromagnetic ratio. The value of ΩB given in Eq. (43)is
far below the amount of dark matter needed to hold structures in the universe
together. The situation is summarized in the pyramid shown in Fig. 1.
The detection of the CMB signature of acoustic oscillations in measuere-
ments of CMB anisotropy also implies
ΩT = 1.03 ± 0.06
Ωk = 0
11
In the inflationary scienario of the universe, Ω is driven to unity, in agreement
with the above observed value of Ω. Now from the relation (22)
Ṙ2 8π kc2 1 2
H2 = = G N ρ − + Λc
R2 3 R2 3
we obtain
1 = Ωm + Ωk + ΩΛ (46)
where we have expressed the cosmological constant in terms of vacuum energy
ρΛ :
ΩΛ = 1 − Ωm
= 0.65 (48)
p + p̄ → γ + γ.
12
The question we wish to answer is, how does the interchange affect the nuclear
density nB or nB̄ . We start with nB = nB̄ . At T ≤ 1GeV, the equilibrium
abundance of nucleons and antinucleons is, using Eqs. (20) and (5)
nB n
η = = B̄
nγ nγ
gi 1 mN 3/2 −mN /kB T
= (2π)1/2 e (51)
2.4 4 kB T
The freeze out temperature T is given by
1
γann ≃ H = 1.66 (g ∗ )1/2 (kB T ∗ )2 (52)
Mpl
where
γann = nB hσvi
σ is the nucleon-antinucleon annhilation crosssection which we may take as
1
m2
with v ≃ c = 1. Thus using Eq. (20) for nB
π
!3/2
mN kB T ∗ ∗ 1 1
gi e−mN /kB T 2
= 1.66 (g ∗)1/2 (kB T ∗ )2 (53)
2π mπ Mpl
1 1 −x∗ 1
8 3/2
mN x∗1/2 2
e = 1.66 (9)1/2 (54)
(2π) mπ Mpl
∗ 8 1 Mpl
x∗−1/2 ex = mN ≃ 5 × 1019 (55)
3 (1.66) (2π)3/2 m2π
13
This contradicts η = (6 ± 3) × 10−10 , which then reflect some primordial
baryon asymmetry in the universe. To summarize
nB → nB − nB̄
nB − nB̄
η = ≃ (6 ± 3) × 10−10 (57)
nγ
5 Baryogensis
5.1 Sakharov’s Conditions
Towards finding a solution of the second big problem of Cosmology, namly,
that of baryogensis (η ≃ 3 × 10−10 ), Sakharov’s three conditions, which we
enumerate below, must be satisfied: Assuming that the universe started with
a complete matter-antimatter symmetry in a standard big bang picture, one
can obtain matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe provided that the
following three conditions are satisfied
(i) Underlying theory must posses
∆B 6= 0
nB →C,CP nB̄
14
1
where β = kB T
. Equilibrium average of B is
hBiT = T r e−βH B̂
= T r θ−1 θe−βH B̂
= T r θe−βH B̂θ−1
= T r θe−βH θ−1 θB̂θ−1
= T r e−βH −B̂
= −T r e−βH B̂
= − hBiT (59)
where we have used the fact that H commutes with CP T ≡ θ. Thus hBiT =
0.
Finally to establish asymmetry dynamically, B violating processes must
be out of equilibrium in the Universe. This can be seen as follows:
" #
d∆nB − m−µ
kB T
− m̄−µ̄
kB T
= − γ6B e − γ6B e (60)
dt
where γ6B denotes the rate for 6 B and µ is the chemical potential: µ̄ = −µ.
− m
Since m = m̄ by CP T theorem, e kB T is not relevent and we omit it. Then
for kB T ≫ µ,
d∆nB −2µ
= γ6B (61)
dt kB T
On the other hand
2ζ (3) ′ µ
−µ
3
∆nB = g (k B T ) e kB T
− e kB T
π2
2 ′ 2µ
≃ 2
g (kB T )3 . (62)
π kB T
2µ
Thus eliminating kB T
d∆nB π2 γ6B
= − ∆nB
dt 2 g (kB T )3
′
π2
= − Γ6B ∆nB (63)
2
15
γ γ6B
where Γ6B = g′ (k 6BT )3 = nB
gives the rate for 6 B. The solution of above
B
equation gives
π2
Γ6B t
∆nB = (∆nB )initial e− 2 . (64)
What we learn from this result is that if B-violating processes are ever in
equilibrium, then these processes actully washes out any initial condition for
Γ6B t ≥ 1.
After establishing the above preliminaries we shall consider baryogensis at
three levels: (i) Grand Unification (GUT) (ii) Electroweak (iii) Baryogensis
induced by Leptogensis.
16
where g∗ is the effective number of degrees of freedom. The number of baryons
at TD are given by
nB = nXD ∆B. (67)
where ∆B denotes baryon asymmetry in X-decays. Thus from Eqs. (65)
and (66)
!
nB 45 gX
kB = (2.4) 4 ∆B
s D 4π g∗
!
gX
= 0.28 ∆B. (68)
g∗
But (nB /s)D = (nB /s)0 , where 0 denotes the present time. Thus
nB
kB ≈ 3 × 10−3 − 10−2 ∆B. (70)
s 0
s s s
= +
kB 0 kB γ0 kB ν0
4
" #
2π 1 1 4 X
= gγ nγ0 + × gνi nν0
45 × 1.2 2 2 3 i
21 1 4
= 3.6 1 + nγ0 ≈ 7 nγ0 . (71)
4 2 11
Now [cf. Eqs. (17) and (5)] where we have used that nν0 = (3/11) nγ0 and
i gνi = 3(7/8).1.2. Hence from Eq. (70), we get
P
!
nB
≈ 21 × 10−3 to 10−2 ∆B ≈ 2 × 10−2 to 10−1 ∆B.
nγ 0
≃ A (∆B) , (72)
17
where A ∼ 10−1 − 10−2 . Now we can write
Γ (X → f ) − Γ̄ X̄ → f¯
h i
X
∆B = Bf , (73)
f Γtot (X)
1 2
f ≡ {ql, q̄ q̄} , Bf = , −
3 3
∆B vanishes if CP and C are conserved. The X−particles can generate ∆B,
by the processes of the following type [r is the branching ratio]
X → ql : r B1 = 1/3
X → q̄q̄ : 1 − r B̄2 = −2/3
X̄ → q̄¯l : r̄ B̄1 = −1/3
X̄ → qq : 1 − r̄ B2 = 2/3.
BX = r B1 + (1 − r) B̄2
BX̄ = r̄ B̄1 + (1 − r̄) B2 . (74)
Thus
1h i
∆B = r B1 + (1 − r) B̄2 + r̄ B̄1 + (1 − r̄) B2
2
1h i
= r B1 − B̄2 + r̄ B̄1 − B2 + B̄2 + B2
2
1
= (r − r̄) . (75)
2
¿From Eqs. (75) and (72), we see that we can explain the baryon number
generation if r 6= r̄ i.e. X−interactions violate C and CP. Also we require
∆B ∼ 10−8 in order to explain the present baryon number η = nB /nγ ≈
10−10 .
Let us now obtain an estimate for TD . If kB TD > mX , the thermal
equilibrium can be maintained by inverse decays. Thus the condition for
departure from equilibrium is [cf. Eqs. (24) and (26) kB TD ≃ mX ]:
2
1 1/2 (kB TD )
αX gd (kB TD ) ≈ 1.66 g∗ . (76)
3 Mpl
18
The factor 1/3 is due to spin average [X is a vector particle]. Now using
gd ≈ 12 × 2 = 24 and g∗ ≈ 160, we get
Let us first consider the minimal 5H which contains Higgs doublet of the SM:
Color singlet
(1, 2, 1/2) ,
the latter two quantum numbers refer to
SU(2) × U(1).
19
where denoting by χ, a member of H3 , where φ is some exchanged state,
another Higgs or a gauge boson. Thus r is given by Fig. 3.
2
r ∼ γ0 + γ1 I Mχ2 − iε (79)
where the first part is the CP violating and the second part is determined
by the rescattering dynamics. Thus
1
η = A∆Bχ = A (r − r̄) ≈ A Im (γ0 γ1∗ ) Im I (81)
2
where A comes from out of the equilibrium condition as seen previously;
Im (γ0 γ1∗ ) gives CP and C violation while Im I comes from GUT’s dynamics.
There is no firm pediction for η.
In particular, take φ in the above figure as 5H as shown in Fig.4. We
can choose f to be real and h has 3 phases. Even so we can not generate
in the lowest non-trival order CP violation. This is because γ0 ∼ f real and
γ1 ∼ f hh̄, which has no CP phase. Also gauge exchange [φ ≡ Gµ ] give no
phase. One can eventually generate η to higher order loop graphs. But then
η ∼ 10−16 , which is too small .
It is possible to obtain η ∼ 10−10 by either (i) adding Higgs in the 45 repre-
sentation or (ii) by using more elaborate GUT’s e.g. SO(10). In SO(10) there
exists a fermion that is singlet under SM, carries L = −1 and is identified
with νR . CP violation may be provided by the complex Yukawa couplings
between the right-handed and the left-handed neutrinos and scalar Higgs.
The right-handed neutrinos acquire a Majorana mass MN = O (B − L) i.e.
at the scale where U(1)B−L is broken, and its out of equilibrium decays may
generate a non-vanishing (B − L) asymmetry. We shall come back to the
role of right-handed neutrino in generating η when we consider Leptogenesis.
20
6 Electroweak Baryogenesis
In the SM, both baryon number ,B, and lepton number ,L, symmetries hold
at the classical level
LSM →B,L LSM .
However, because of the chiral nature of electroweak theory, at quantum level
both JBµ and JLµ are not conserved, so called electroweak anamoly:
∂µ JBµ = ∂µ JLµ
α′
!
α2 µν
= Ng Wa W̃aµν − Fµν F̃µν (82)
π 8π
g2 ′2
where Ng is the number of generations, α2 = 4π2 , α′ = g4π are couplings
corresponding to SUL (2) × U(1); W̃µν = 12 εµναβ Wαβ . Then
µ
∂µ (JBµ − JLµ ) = ∂µ JB−L =0
µ µ
∂µ (JB + JL ) 6= 0 (83)
Further
∆B = B (+∞) − B (−∞)
Z ∞ Z
= dt∂0 d3 xJB0 (~x, t)
−∞
Z ∞ Z
= dt d3 x∂µ JBµ (~x, t) (84)
−∞
since by Gauss’s theorm we can convert d3 x∂i JBi (~x, t) into a surface integral
R
which we can put equal to zero. Similarly for ∆L. Note that ∆ (B − L) = 0;
the electroweak anamoly preserves B − L. But
∆ (B + L) 6= 0
= 2Ng ν (85)
where
α2 Z 4
ν= d xWaµν W̃aµν
8π
Now in some theories, one can find classical solutions of the Euclidean field
equations. These solutions, called instantons, are localized in Euclidean time
21
as well as in space. Let us consider a pure Yang-Mills field: Time t in
Minkowsky space must be replaced by it in Euclidean space. Then the Eu-
clidean Action
Z
SE = d4 xE LE (xE ) = −iS
1 a a
LE (xE ) = F F (86)
g 2 µν µν
There is no distinction between covariant and contravariant indices in Eu-
clidean space. Here
i a
Aaµ → A
g µ
a i a
Fµν → F
g µν
h i
a
Fµν = ∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ + Aaµ , Aaν
T a Aaµ
X
Aµ =
a
T a Fµν
a
X
Fµν =
a
F̃µν = ±Fµν .
e−inθ |ni .
X
|θi = (88)
i
22
It has been shown by t’Hooft that the transition probility between two closet
vacuua is given by
2 2
∼ e−8π /g for ν = 1. (89)
This is the zero temperature solution:
8π 2
SE ∼ (90)
g2
g2
For our problem 4π
= α2 . Thus (B + L) violating amplitude is
A ∼ e(−2π/α2 )ν (91)
23
m2H
mH
where C mW
is a function of λ, m2W
∼ λ:
Then, the transition probability per unit time per unit volume is
3 " #
mW −Esp (T )
Psp (T ) = µ m4W exp (94)
α2 T T
where µ is a dimensionless constant and the Boltzmann suppression appears
large.
However, it is to be expected that, when EW symmetry becomes restored
at temperature of around 100 GeV [mW (T ) → 0, Electroweak phase tran-
sition] there will no longer be an exponential suppression. Now the only
important scale in the symmetric phase is α2 T so that dimensional ground,
we expect
Psp (T ) = K (α2 T )4 (95)
where numerical estimates yielded K ∼0.1 − 1.
Lattice simulation indicates
24
This implies any ∆nB+L established above
Tmax ∼ α24 Mpl
This gives
η ∼ 5.5 × 10−12 δ ∼ 10−18
The other possibility is the leptogensis, where one tries to generate L 6= 0
but no B from neutrino physics well before the electroweak transition, and L
gets partially converted into B due to electroweak anamoly. This is discussed
in the next section.
∆ (B − L) = 0
∆ (B + L) = 2Ng = 6
25
Further B + L asymmetry generated before EW transition i.e. at T >
TEW , will be washed out. However, since only left handed fields couple to
sphalerons, a non zero value of B + L can persist in the high temperature
symmetric phase if there exist a non vanishing B − L asymmetry [see below].
As already seen
2 ′ 3 2µi
ni − n̄i = 2 g T
π T
This also implies
4 ′ 2
nB = B gT
π2
4 ′ 2
nL = L 2g T (104)
π
where B and L are baryon and lepton asymmetry respectively.
Note that in SM
!
uLi 1
qLi = B= ,L=0
dLi 3
uRi , dRi
!
νLi
ℓLi = B = 0, L = 1
eLi
νRi , eRi
Thus in Eq. (104)
1X
B = 3× (2µqi + 2µui + 2µdi )
3 i
X
L = (2µli + 2µei) (105)
i
In high temperature plasma quarks, leptons and Higgs interact via Yukawa
and gauge couplings and in addition, via the non perturbative sphaleron pro-
cesses. In thermal equilibrium all these processes yield constraints between
various chemical potentials. The effective interaction
OB+L = Πi (qLi qLi qLi ℓLi )
yields X
(3µqi + µli) = 0 (106)
i
26
Another constraint is provided by vanishing of total charge of plasma
3 31 2µqi + 3 34 µui
" #
X
=0
i
+3 − 23 µdi + (−1) 2µli + (−2) µei + 1
N
(1) µφ
27
Using the above equations, we can write (109) as
4 1 1 2
− µl + 2 − µl + µφ − − µl − µφ − (−µl − µφ ) + µφ = 0
3 3 3 N
Thus finally we can express µq , µu , µd , µe , and µφ interms of µl .
8 1 4N
µφ = N µl = µl
3 4N + 2 6N + 3
1
µd = − µl − µφ
3
1 4N
= − µl − µl
3 6N + 3
6N + 1
= − µl
6N + 3
1
µu = − µl + µφ
3
1 4N
= − µl + µl
3 6N + 3
2N − 1
= µl
6N + 3
µe = µl − µφ
4N
= µl − µl
6N + 3
2N + 3
= µl (111)
6N + 3
Hence from Eqs. (105)
2 2N − 1 6N + 1
B = N − µl + µl − µl
3 6N + 3 6N + 3
µl
= [−4N − 2 + 2N − 1 − 6N − 1]
6N + 3
(8N + 4)
= −N µl
3 (2N + 1)
4N
= − µl (112)
3
2N + 3
L = N 2µl + µl
6N + 3
28
14N 2 + 9N
= µl (113)
6N + 3
8N 2 + 4N + 14N 2 + 9N
B−L = − µl
6N + 3
22N 2 + 13N
= − µl (114)
6N + 3
B 8N 2 + 4N
=
B−L 22N 2 + 13N
8N + 4
=
22N + 13
8Ng + 4nH
= ≡a (115)
22Ng + 13nH
These relations hold for T ≫ v. In general B/B − L is a function of v/T .
For SM, Ng = 3, nH = 1 so that a = 28/79.
Thus finally we obtain
nB − nB̄
YB ( ≡ )
s
a
= aYB−L = YL (116)
a−1
Note that by using Eq. (71),
ηγ 1
YB = η ≃ η
s 7
1
(6 ± 3) × 10−10
7
In SM as well as in SU(5), B −L is conserved and no asymmetry in B −L
can be generated. However, adding a right handed Majorana neutrino to the
SM breaks B −L, and the primordial lepton asymmetry may be generated by
the out of equilibrium decay of heavy right handed Majorana neutrino NR .
The simple extension of SM can be embedded in GUTs with gauge group
containing SO(10). Majorana neutrinos can also lead to See-saw mechanism,
explaining the smallness of light neutrino ν masses.
The relevent couplings are
1
L = ℓ̄L φhν NR + N̄Rc MNR + h.c. (117)
2
29
where φ is the usual Higgs doublet under SU(2)L while the second term gives
Majorana mass for the right handed neutrino N. The vacuum expection value
of the Higgs field hφi generates neutrino Dirac masses
mD = hν hφi (118)
L∆L=2
G T
= ℓL iσ2 φ C −1 φT iσ2 ℓL (119)
M
This generates a Majorana mass for light neutrinos
G
mν = hφi20 (120)
M
Further
mN ≡ M ≫ mD (121)
If the ∆L = 2 interactions are in equilibrium, but the right handed elec-
trons are not, then µl − µφ − µe = 0 is replaced by [c.f. Eq. (117)]
µl + µφ = 0 ⇒ µl = −µφ (122)
2
µq + 2µu − µd − µl + µφ = 0 (123)
N
30
The equations give
3N
µl = − µe
14N + 6
2N
µd = − µl
14N + 6
4N
µu =
14N + 6
N
µq = , (124)
14N + 6
so that from Eq. (105)
2N 4N 2N
B = N + − µe
14N + 6 14N + 6 14N + 6
4N 2
= µe
14N + 6
6N
L = N − + 1 µe
14N + 6
8N 2 + 6N
= µe
14N + 6
−4N 2 − 6N
B−L =
14N + 6
B 4N 2 −2N −4N − 3
= 2
= = a; a − 1 =
B−L −4N − 6N 2N + 3 2N + 3
B 2N a
= = (125)
L 4N + 3 a−1
The above relations hold if the corresponding interactions are in thermal
equilibrium i.e. in the range
which is of interest for baryongenesis; this is the case for all gauge inter-
actions. This is not always true for Yukawa interactions. The rate of a
scattering process between left and right handed fermions, Higgs bosons and
W -bosons
ψL φ −→ ψR W
31
is [c.f. Eq. (27), kB = 1]
5
2 (kB T )
γ ∼ α2 h 4 = α2 h2 T (126)
(kB T )
The equilibrium condition is satisfied for
T2
γ > H = 1.66g∗1/2
MPl
1 3
T < α2 h2 MPl 1/2
∼ h2 1/2
1017
1.66g∗ 1.66g∗
T < h2 1016 GeV (127)
NR −→ φ̄ + ℓ
NR −→ φ + ℓ̄
they violate lepton number. The interference between the tree-level ampli-
tude and the absorption part of the one-loop vertex leads to lepton asym-
a
metry (and baryon asymmetry ηB = a−1 ηL ) of the right order of magnitude
32
to explain the observed ηB . It has been observed that CP violation may be
considerably enhanced if two heavy right handed ν’s are nearly degenerate
in mass.
As already seen ∆L = 2 interaction of the form
G mν
(ℓL ℓL φφ) = ℓL ℓL φφ (129)
M hφi2
is generated through the exchange of NR [Fig. 7].
These processes will take place with the rate
1 T3 X
γ∆L=2 (T ) = 3 4 m2νi
π hφi i=e,µ,τ
where
TX ≡ Min TB−L , 1012 GeV (131)
33
TB−L is the temperature at which B − L number production takes place.
Now 1012 is the temperature at which sphaleron transitions enter in equi-
librium. Thus #2
TX −1/2
"
2
X
mνi ≤ 0.4 eV (132)
i=e,µ,τ TSPH
We can reverse the argument and for TB−L ≃ 1016 GeV as in SO(10), Eq.
(130) implies
−1/2
mν ≤ 2 eV 106 = 2 × 10−3 eV (133)
which is of interest in neutrino oscillations.
8 Thermal Leptogenesis
One starts from a thermal distribution of heavy Majorana neutrinos which
have CP violating decay modes into standard leptons: Natural candidates are
νRi , i = 1, 2, 3; one in each of the three lepton families, while the Lagrangian
of electroweak interactions keep invariance under the SU(2)L × U(1)Y gauge
transformations.
In this case Yukawa interactions are described by
1
LY = −ℓ̄Li φhLij eRj + ℓ̄Li φ̃h∗Lij νRj − ν̄Rc MνR + h.c. (134)
2
the lepton number violation is induced by the third term. M is a Majorana
mass matrix while hL are the Yukawa couplings. After spontaneous symme-
try breaking the vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field hφi = v ≃ 175
GeV generates the Dirac mass term (mD )ij = hij v, assumed to be small com-
pared to M. Light neutrino mass matrix Mν arises from the diagonalizating
the 6 × 6 neutrino mass matrix
!
0 mTD
Mν = (135)
mD M
mν = −mTD M −1 mD (136)
34
This also yields light and heavy neutrino mass eigenstates
ν ≃ VνT νL + νLc Vν∗
N ≃ νR + νRc
mNi = Mi (137)
where Vν is the neutrino mixing matrix. We shall restrict our discussion to
the case of hierarchical Majorana neutrino masses, M1 ≪ M2 , M3 so that if
the interactions of N1 = N are in thermal equilibrium when N2 and N3 decay,
the asymmetry produced by N2 and N3 can be erased before N1 decays. The
asymmetry is then generated by the out of equilibrium CP violating decays
of N → ℓH versus N → ℓ̄H at a temperature T ∼ M ≡ M1 ≪ M2 , M3 .
The crcuial ingredients in leptogenesis scenario is CP asymmetry gen-
erated through the interference between tree level and one-loop Majorana
neutrino decay diagrams. In the simplest extension of SM, these are shown
below in Fig. 8.
Then the CP asymmetry is caused by interference between the above
diagrams:
Γ (N1 → ℓi H) − Γ N1 → ℓ̄i H ∗
ǫ1 =
Γ (N1 → ℓi H) + Γ N1 → ℓ̄i H ∗
Mℓ2 Mℓ2
" ! !#
1 1 X
= Im [h1i h1k h∗ℓi h∗ℓk ] f +g (138)
8π |h1i |2 ℓ=2,3 M12 M12
√
1+x
f (x) = x 1 − (1 + x) ln
√ x
x 1 1
→ − , as → 0 (139)
x
√ 2 √ x
x x
g (x) = →−
1−x x
and
1
I1lik = Im [h1i h1k h∗ℓi h∗2k ] (140)
|h1i |2
Thus
3 ik M1 ik M1
ǫ1 = − I12 + I13 (141)
16π M2 M3
35
ik 1 ∗ ∗
I12 = 2 Im [h1i h1k h2i h2k ] (142)
|h1i |
Now
1 M1 2 M
2
1
ik
I12 = Im mD m†D + Im †
mD mD
v 2 mD m†D 12 M2 13 M3
11
For illustrative purposes we consider two right handed neutrinos N1,2 and
take !
a a′ 0
mD = (146)
0 b b′
36
Then the seesaw form (136) becomes
a 0 1
! !
0 a a′ 0
mν = a′ b M1
1
0 0 b b′
0 b′ M2
a2 aa′
M1 M1
0
aa′ a′2 b2 bb′
=
M1 M1
+ M2 M2
(147)
bb′ b′2
0 M2 M1
b ′2 2 a2
Under the assumption, M , b ≪
2 M2 M1
, this give the mass eigenvalues 0,
b′2 a2 +a′2
M2
, M1 . We may identify
!2
a2 + a′2
∆m2atm = m23 − m21 = (149)
M1
!2
b′2
∆m2s = m22 − m21 = (150)
M2
so that
a2 + a′2 1/2 1/2
≃ ∆m2atm ≃ 3 × 10−3 eV2
M1
≃ 5 × 10−2 eV (151)
′2
b 1/2 1/2
≃ ∆m2s = 5 × 10−2 eV2 (152)
M2
≃ 7 × 10−3 eV
Now
2
mD m†D = |a|2 + |a′ |
11
mD m†D = a′ b∗ (153)
12
37
Therefore [c.f. Eq. (141)]
3 1 ′ ∗ 2 M1
h i
ǫ1 = − 2 2 Im (a b ) (154)
16πv 2 |a| + |a′ | M2
This gives the right order magnitude as typical numbers one expects for
K ≃10−1 to 10−2 .
Acknowledgements: The author would like to acknowledge the support
of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for this work.
9 Figure Captions
Figure 1: Cosmic density pyramid
Figure 3: Loop level Higgs and gauge particles contribution to baryon asymmetry
38
Figure 6: Feynmann diagram for scattering process between left and right handed
fermions, Higgs bosons and W boson
Figure 8: Tree and one–loop level Majorana (heavy) neutrino decay diagrams
39
References
[ ] The lectures are based on the following refrences:
[3] For derivation of Eq. (33), see S. Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology
(Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1972) Sec. 15.7
[4] Figure 1 is taken from: J. R. Primack and N.E. Abrams, Cosmic Ques-
tions: An Introduction, in Cosmic Questions, Editor J.B. Miller, The New
York Academy of Sciences, New York 2001, page 11
[5] For Dark Energy and Dark Matter, see for example, M.S.Turner, The New
Cosmology, in Proceedings of XX International Symposium on Lepton
and Photon Interactions and High Energies, Editors: Juliet Lee–Franzini,
Paulo Franzini and Falio Bossu, World Scientific 2002, p.540 and refrences
there in
[6] For Sec. 4.1, see J.V. Narlikar, An Introduction to Cosmology, Cambridge
University Press, 1995, Sec. 6.2
[7] Ref. 2
[8] A. Riotto and Mark Trodden, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci., 1999, 49:35
40
[10] see also W. Rodejohann, hep-ph/0207053; Zhi-Zhong Xing, hep-
ph/0209066; G.C. Branco, R.G. Felipe, F.R. Joaqium, M.N. Rebelo, hep-
ph/0202030; H. Murayama, hep-ph/0208005
[11] The illustrative example in sec. 8 is taken from P.H. Frampton, S.L.
Glashow and T. Yanagida, hep-ph/0208157 V2
41