METAL FORMING AND RELATED ANALYSIS

(Compression Test)

Metal forming is one of the most prominent manufacturing processes used in industry. In this
exercise, the principles underlying forming are understood. Compression test is carrried on an alu-
minium cylinder using a hydraulic press. Using the data obtained from the test, Engineering stress -
strain curve, True stress - strain curve are plotted and compared. Strength and strain rate coefficients
are found out.

NOMENCLATURE

e Engineering strain
σ Engineering Stress, Pa
 True strain
σt True Stress, Pa
n Strain hardening exponent
K Strength coefficient, Pa
m Strain rate sensitivity exponent
C Strain rate strength constant, Pa

I. INTRODUCTION

Compression testing is a useful procedure for measur-

ing the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits
of a material. Measuring the plastic flow behavior re-
quires frictionless test conditions, while measuring duc-
tile fracture limits compression is carried out with fric-
tion. It is also useful for measurement of elastic and
compressive fracture properties of brittle materials or
FIG. 1. Hydraulic Press in Workshop
low-ductility materials.

II. OBJECTIVES
Work piece
Material : Aluminium
Length : 28.10 mm
The objectives of this exercise are: Diameter : 25.40 mm
1. To understand the metal forming.

2. To plot the true stress - strain curve and the engi-

neering stress - strain curve.

3. To find the Strength coefficient, Strain hardening

exponent, Strain rate strength constant, Strain rate
sensitivity exponent.

III. MACHINE AND WORK PIECE DETAILS

Hydraulic Press : Max. Load - 100 tonnes

vernier callipers : Least count - 0.02 mm FIG. 2. Work piece on which compression test is done
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1. Buckling, when L/D > 5

2. Shearing, when L/D > 2.5
3. Double barreling, when L/D > 2.0 and friction is
present at the contact surfaces
4. Barreling, when L/D < 2.0 and friction is present
at the contact surfaces
5. Homogenous compression, when L/D < 2.0 and no
friction is present at the contact surfaces
6. Compressive instability due to work-softening
FIG. 3. Manufacturing drawing of Job material

IV. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

Stress - Strain relations[1]

 = ln(1 + e)

σt = σ (1 + e)

The relations describing the state of stress and strain

are called constitutive equations as they depend on the
material behavior. Hooke’s law which states that strain
is proportional to applied stress is applicable in elastic
range where deformation is considered to be uniform.
However, plastic deformation is indeed uniform but
only up to some extent of strain value. As a result of
complex mechanism involved in plastic deformation,
FIG. 4. Modes of Deformation in Compression testing
the true stress and true strain are related by Power law
expressions. one such relation is the Holloman-Ludwig
equation.

σt = Kn
log σt = log K + n log 
Another power law equation which relates the true
stress and true strain rate is
σt = C ˙ m
log σt = log C + m log ˙
V. PROCEDURE
• Initial dimensions of the workpiece are measured
using the vernier callipers and noted.
• lubricant is applied to the work piecr and the ram
of the press to reduce friction.
• The workpiece is placed in the hydraulic press and
then the machine is switched on.
• Load is applied gradually on the work piece.
• Readings of load and displacement are obtained
through the Data acquisition system.

Modes of Deformation in Compression testing[2] • The machine is switched off and the work piece is
removed.
Figure 4 illustrates the modes of deformation in com-
pression testing.
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VI. OBSERVATIONS From figure 15 ,

log C = 8.45914

K = 287.83 MP a

m = 0.2589

FIG. 5. Work piece after compression

FIG. 6. Crack along 45◦ plane

FIG. 8. Engineering Stress - strain curve

FIG. 7. Crack in the axial direction of the cylinder

VII. RESULTS

From figure 14 ,

log K = 8.73762

FIG. 9. True Stress - strain curve

K = 546.54 MP a

n = 0.4093
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FIG. 10. Comparision of Engineering Stress - strain curve and FIG. 13. Logrithmic plot of True Stress vs true strain rate
True Stress - strain curve

FIG. 14. Linear fit for Logrithmic plot of True Stress vs true
FIG. 11. True Stress vs true strain rate strain

FIG. 15. Linear fit for Logrithmic plot of True Stress vs true
FIG. 12. Logrithmic plot of True Stress vs true strain strain rate
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VIII. INFERENCE Stress considers actual area of cross secion and in

tension, actual area decreases due to Poisson’s effect.
Orange peel defect In Compression, it is reversed, Engineering Stress is
always higher than the corresponding True Stress as the
actual area is increasing due to Poisson’s effect.
Orange peel is a cosmetic defect associated with a
rough surface appearance after forming a component
Engineering Strain in Tension is always higher than
from sheet metal. It is called orange peel because the
corresponding True Strain as Engineering Strain con-
surface has the appearance of the surface of an orange.
siders original length while True Strain considers actual
length and actual length is always higher than original
During sheet metal forming the individual grains
length in Tension. In Compression, Engineering Strain
in the metal tend to deform independently of each
is always lower than corresponding True Strain.
other. Consequently there are differences in the amount
of metal thickening or thinning between neighboring
Becsuse of the above two points, the slope of En-
grains and within each grain. As a result, the grains
gineering Stress - Strain diagram in tension is always
stand out in relief on the surface. The larger the amount
lower than corresponding True Stress - Strain diagram
of deformation and the larger the grain size, the more
and vice versa in Compression. This is clearly seen in
apparent is the effect. With a small-grained material,
figure 10.
there is less variation in the amount of thickening or
thinning between the grains and the individual grains
are too small for the eye to detect the surface variations. IX. APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

Though the present exercise is not sheet metal form-

ing, this defect is seen in the deformed work piece as
shown in figure 5. This is the pecularity of aluminium.
Only aluminium alloys show this kind of behaviour in
compression.
Roll Forming
Roll bending or Roll Forming is a forming process
in which cylindrical shaped product are profuced from
plate or steel metals.

Failure along 45◦ plane

As seen in figure 6, this type of failure is the most

common one. Material fails when the load exceeds the
fracture point. this happens along the plane 45◦ from
the direction of load as it has maximum shear. Slip
planes slide upon each other mostly in this direction,
resulting in the failure.

Failure parallel to the axial direction of the cylinder

As seen in figure 7, this type of failure occurs when

the hoop stress produced on the outer surface of the
cylinder during compression is greater than the Ulti-
mate strength of the material.
FIG. 16. Typical Roll bending
The hoop stress is the force exerted circumferentially
(perpendicular both to the axis and to the radius of the
object) in both directions on every particle in the cylin-
der wall.
Most of the outer structures of the Launch vehicles
are made of sheet metal in different structural configu-
Comparision of Engineering stress-strain curve and True rations. The design of these configurations is dictated
stress-strain curve by the rolling parameters. [3]

Engineering Stress is always lower than corre-

sponding True Stress in tension, as Engineering Stress
considers original area of cross section while True
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Explosive forming[4]

Explosive forming is a high energy rate forming pro-

cess in which is replaced by an explosive charge. The
explosives used are generally high explosive chemicals,
gaseous mixtures, or propellants.

FIG. 18. Saturn V rocket fuel tank bottom segment, made

through explosive forming

REFERENCES

FIG. 19. Stand-off technique in Explosive forming

1. Principles of Metal Manufacturing Processes - J. Bed-
does, M. J. Bibby
4. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107144/Metal-
2. http://www.instron.in/en-in/our-
20-Forming-20-20-Powder-20-
company/library/test-types/compression-
metallurgy/lecture9/lecture9.htm; accessed
test; accessed on 18/09/18
on 19/09/18
3. Design and Analysis of Isogrid Interstage Structure,
End-Rings and Interface Fasteners - Internship Re-
port - S V Janakiram, Aalokeparno Dhar