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1. Matrices
Exercise 1. Given a field k and a positive integer n, denote by Mn (k) the set of all
n × n matrices with coefficients in k. Show that
     
A 0n×m C 0n×m AC 0n×m
× =
0m×n B 0m×n D 0m×n BD
where A, C ∈ Mn (k), B, D ∈ Mm (k).
Exercise 2. Compute the square of the matrices
 
  0 0 0 1
  0 0 1

0 1  0 0 1 0
R1 := 1 , R2 := , R3 := 0 1 0 , R4 :=  .
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Show that R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 are invertible and find their inverses.
Exercise 3. Prove or disprove the following
2 4 0 ±2 0

statement: If A is a 2 × 2 matrix with real
entries satisfying A = ( 0 9 ), then A = 0 ±3 .
Exercise 4. Compute R4 AR4−1 where
 
a11 a12 a13 a14
a21 a22 a23 a24 
A= a31
.
a32 a33 a34 
a41 a42 a43 a44
Exercise 5. Compute
 
  α1 0 0 0
  α1 0 0
α1 0  0 α2 0 0  −1
R1 [α1 ]R1−1 , R2 R2−1 , R3  0 α2 0  R3−1 , R4 
 0 0 α3 0  R4 .

0 α2
0 0 α3
0 0 0 α4
Definition 6. Given two n × n matrices M1 , M2 with coefficients in a field k, the matrix
M1 is said to be similar to M2 over k if there exists an invertible matrix P with coefficients
in k such that P M1 P −1 = M2 .
Exercise 7. Show that if M1 is similar to M2 over k, then M2 is similar to M1 over k.
Definition 8. Let A be a square matrix with coefficients in k. Then the characteristic
polynomial of A is defined as det(XI − A) where I denotes the identity matrix of size same
as the size of A.
Exercise 9. Show that similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial.
Definition 10. A square matrix M with coefficients in a field k is called nilpotent if
M i = 0 for some integer i ≥ 1.
1
 Exercise 11. Show that the matrices
 
  0 1 0 0
  0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0
N1 := 0 , N2 := , N3 := 0 0 1 , N4 :=  
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
are nilpotent. More generally, show that the matrix
 
0 1 0 0 ... 0 0
0 0 1 0 ... 00
0 0 0 1 ... 00
 
0 0 0 0 ... 00
 
Nn := . . .
 .. .. .. .. ... ..
.. 
 . ..

0 0 0 0 . . . 0 1
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 0 n×n
is nilpotent.
Exercise 12. Show that Nn and Nnt are similar (where Nnt denotes the transpose of Nn ).
Exercise 13. Compute R1 N1 R1−1 , R2 N2 R2−1 , R3 N3 R3−1 , R4 N4 R4−1 .
1
Definition 14. A vector space over a field F is an abelian group (V, +) together with
a map
F × V → V, (c, v) 7→ cv,
called scalar multiplication, such that the following conditions hold.
(i) a(v + w) = av + aw for all a ∈ F, v, w ∈ V .
(ii) (a + b)v = av + bv for all a, b ∈ F, v ∈ V .
(iii) (ab)v = a(bv) for all a, b ∈ F, v ∈ V .
(iv) 1v = v for all v ∈ V .
Example 15. k is a vector space over k. k[t] is a vector space over k.
Remark 16. One knows/learns that k is a vector space over itself. But it should be
noted that it is absolutey necessary to mention how the scalar multiplication F × V → V is
defined. For instance, V = C can be seen as a vector space over F = C by defining the scalar
multiplication F × V → V by sending (c, v) 7→ cv. However, V = C can be also be seen
as a vector space over F = C by defining the scalar multiplication F × V → V by sending
(c, v) 7→ cv.
1Skip this footnote if you wish. Given two group homomorphisms f, g : V → V of the abelian group
V , show that
f +g :V →V given by (f + g)(v) = f (v) + g(v) for v ∈ V
is also a group homomorphism and f ◦ g is also a group homomorphism. Show that under this composition
laws, the set HomZ-linear (V, V ) of all group homomorphisms V → V forms a ring. Prove that saying that
the additive group V is a vector space over a field k is same as saying there exists a ring homomorphism
F → HomZ-linear (V, V ). More precisely, show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the scalar
multiplications on V by F and the ring homomorphisms from F to HomZ-linear (V, V ).
2
 Definition 17. Let V, W be vector spaces over a field k. A map T : V → W is called
k-linear operator if T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) for all v1 , v2 ∈ V and T (cv) = T (v) for all
c ∈ k, v ∈ V .
Example 18. Multiplication by t is a linear operator on k[t].
Exercise 19. Prove or disprove: V = ker T ⊕ ImT for any linear operator T : V → V
on a vector space V .
Exercise 20. Let n be a positive integer. Let V denote the vector space of polynomi-
als in the variable x with coefficients in the field Q of rational numbers and of degree at
d
most n. Find out the matrix 
 of the differentiation operator ( dx ) with respect to the basis
n!
xn−r | r = 0, 1, · · · , n .
(n − r)!
Exercise 21. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space
V over a field k. Show that there exists a nonzero polynomial f (t) with coefficients in k such
that f (T ) = 0. (Hint: Consider v, T v, T 2 v, · · · and use the fact that V is finite dimensional
over k).
Definition 22. Recall the definition of subspaces.
Definition 23. Recall the definitions of kernel and image of a linear operator.
Exercise 24. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on vector space V over a field k. If
ker T i = ker T i+1 for some positive integer i, then show that ker T n = ker T i for any n ≥ i.
Exercise 25. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on vector space V over a field k. If
ImT i = ImT i+1 for some positive integer i, then show that ImT n = ImT i for any n ≥ i.
Exercise 26. Let T : V → V be a nilpotent linear operator on an n-dimensional vector
space V over a field k. Show that T n = 0.
Exercise 27. If n ≥ 2, then show that there is no n × n matrix M such that M 2 = Nn .
More generally, solve [HK71][Exercise 10, p. 250].
Exercise 28. Let T : V → V be a non-nilpotent linear operator on a finite dimensional
vector space of dimension d. Then show that V = ker T n−1 ⊕ ImT n−1 .
Definition 29. Given two vector spaces V1 , V2 over a field k, define their direct product
is denoted by V1 × V2 , which is defined as the abelian group V1 × V2 2 on which elements of
k act by the rule:
c · (v1 , v2 ) := (cv1 , cv2 )
for any c ∈ k, v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 .
Definition 30. Let V1 , V2 be vector spaces over a field k and T1 : V1 → V1 , T2 : V2 → V2
be linear operators. Define the linear operator T1 × T2 : V1 × V2 → V1 × V2 by
(T1 × T2 )(v1 , v2 ) := (T1 (v1 ), T2 (v2 )) where v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 .
2Recall that given two abelian groups G1 , G2 , their direct product is defined as the set G1 × G2 of all
pairs of the form (g1 , g2 ) where g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 , and the set G1 × G2 is equipped with the composition law:
(g1 , g2 ) ◦ (g10 , g20 ) := (g1 g10 , g2 g20 ) where g1 , g10 ∈ G1 , g2 , g20 ∈ G2 ,
which makes G1 × G2 into a group.
3
 Exercise 31. Check the direct product of linear operators is a linear operator.
Exercise 32. Think about Exercise 1.
Exercise 33. Let M1 , M2 be similar matrices with coefficients in a field k. Show that
ker M1 is isomorphic to ker M2 . Deduce that ker(M1 − cI), ker(M2 − cI) have the same
dimension for any c ∈ k (where I denotes the identity matrix of size same as the size of M1 ).
Exercise 34. Let M1 , M2 be similar matrices with coefficients in a field k. Show that
Im(M1 − cI)n is isomorphic to Im(M2 − cI)n for any integer n ≥ 1 and any element c ∈ k
(where I denotes the identity matrix of size same as the size of M1 ).
Exercise 35. Give examples of matrices A, B (of the same size) such that A, B have
equal characteristic polynomials and A, B are not similar.
Exercise 36. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V
over a field k. If m1 (x) is a nonzero polynomial in k[x] of least degree such that m1 (T ) = 0
and if m2 (x) is a nonzero polynomial in k[x] of least degree such that m2 (T ) = 0, then show
that m1 (x) = cm2 (x) for some nonzero element c ∈ k. Deduce that there exists at most one
nonzero monic polynomial in k[x] of least degree which vanishes at T .
Definition 37. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space
V over a field k. The minimal polynomial of T is the nonzero monic polynomial of least
degree m(x) with coefficients in k such that m(T ) = 0.
Exercise 38. Show that minimal polynomial exists.
Exercise 39. Let A be an n × n matrix with minimal polynomial m(x). Let In denote
the n × n identity matrix. Let c be an element of k. Find out the minimal polynomial of
cIn + A in terms of m(x). Find out the minimal polynomial of cIn − A in terms of m(x).
Exercise 40. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space
V over a field k. If f (t) is an element of k[t] such that f (T ) is equal to the zero operator,
then show that the minimal polynomial of T divides f (t).
Exercise 41. Give examples of matrices A, B (of the same size) such that A, B have
equal minimal polynomials and A, B are not similar.
Exercise 42. Find out the characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial of Nn .
Definition 43. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a vector space V over a field
k. An eigen value of T is an element λ ∈ k such that T v = λv for some nonzero element
v ∈ V . An eigen vector of T is a nonzero element v ∈ V such that T v = λv for some λ ∈ k.
Definition 44. A linear operator T : V → V on a finite dimensional vector V over k
is called diagonalizable if there is a basis for V consisting of eigen vectors of T .
Exercise 45. Show that a matrix M with coefficients in a field k is diagonalizable if
there exists an invertible matrix P with coefficients in k such that P M P −1 is a diagonal
matrix.
Exercise 46. Show that Nn is not diagonalizable for each n ≥ 2. Show that the zero
matrix is the only nilpotent matrix which is diagonalizable.
4
 Exercise 47. Show that every matrix A with coefficients in a field k satisfying A2 = A
is diagonalizable.
Exercise 48. Let In denote the n × n identity matrix (over a field k) and c denote an
element of k. Denote the matrix cIn + Nn by Jc,n . Observe that
 
c 1 0 0 ... 0 0
0 c 1 0 . . . 0 0 
0 0 c 1 . . . 0 0 
 
0 0 0 c . . . 0 0
 
Jc,n = 
. . . . .
 .. .. .. .. . . ... ... 

 
0 0 0 0 . . . c 1
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 c n×n
t
(1) Show that Jc,n and Jc,n are similar.
m
(2) Show that if c 6= 0, then for any positive integer m, the matrix Jc,n is not diagonal-
izable.
m
(3) Deduce that if c 6= 0, then for any negative integer m, the matrix Jc,n is not diago-
nalizable (Hint: Exercises 33, 46).
(4) Find out the characteristic polynomial of Jc,n .
(5) Use Exercise 42 to find out the minimal polynomial of Jc,n (Hint: Exercise 39).
(6) Compute R1 Jc,1 R1−1 , R2 Jc,2 R2−1 , R3 Jc,3 R3−1 , R4 Jc,4 R4−1 .
Definition 49. A matrix of the form Jc,n is called elementary Jordan matrix/block with
characteristic value c.
Exercise 50. Compute the characteristic polynomial of the following matrices.
−a0
 
0 0 0 0 ... 0
  1 0 0 0 . . . 0 −a1 
 0 0 0 −a0
0 1 0 0 . . . 0 −a2
  
  0 0 −a0 

0 −a0 1 0 0 −a1  
, 0 0 1 0 . . . 0 −a3

−a0 , , 1 0 −a1 , 
    
1 −a1 0 1 0 −a2    ... ... ... ... . . . .. .. 
0 1 −a2 . . 
0 0 1 −a3  
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −an−2 
0 0 0 0 ... 1 −an−1 n×n
Show that for any field k and any monic polynomial f (t) ∈ k[t], there exists a linear operator
T on certain finite dimensional vector space over k such that the characteristic polynomial
of T is equal to f (t).
Definition 51. Given a monic polynomial f (t) = tn + cn−1 tn−1 + · · · + c1 t + c0 in k[t],
the matrix
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −c0
 
1 0 0 0 . . . 0 −c1 
0 1 0 0 . . . 0 −c2 
 
0 0 1 0 . . . 0 −c3 
 
Cf (t) := 
. . . . .
 .. .. .. .. . . ... .. 
. 
 
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −c 
n−2
0 0 0 0 . . . 1 −cn−1 n×n
5
is called the companion matrix of f (t).
Exercise 52. Compute the characteristic polynomials of the matrices A, B defined by
 
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −a0
 1 0 0 0 . . . 0 −a1 
 
 0 1 0 0 . . . 0 −a2 
 
 0 0 1 0 . . . 0 −a3 0n×m 
 .. .. .. .. . . .. ..
 
 . . . . . . .


0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −a
 
 n−2 
 0 0 0 0 . . . 1 −an−1
 
A :=  ,

0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −b0 


1 0 0 0 . . . 0 −b1 
 


 0 1 0 0 . . . 0 −b2  

 0m×n 0 0 1 0 . . . 0 −b 3


 .. .. .. .. . . .. .. 

 . . . . . . . 

 0 0 0 0 . . . 0 −bm−2 
0 0 0 0 . . . 1 −bm−1 (n+m)×(n+m)
   
α 1 0 0 ... 0 0
 0 α 1 0 . . . 0 0 
  
 0 0 α 1 . . . 0 0


  
 0 0 0 α . . . 0 0

 . . . . 0n×m 
  .. .. .. .. . . . ... ... 
 

   
 0 0 0 0 . . . α 1 
    0 0 0 0 ... 0 α

Jα,n 0n×m

n×n 
B := = ,
  
0m×n Jβ,m  β 1 0 0 ... 0 0 

 0 β 1 0 . . . 0 0 

0 0 β 1 . . . 0 0
   
 
0 0 0 β . . . 0 0
   
 0m×n . . . . . 
 .. .. .. .. . . ... ... 
  
   
 0 0 0 0 . . . β 1 
 
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 β m×m
6 β, compute the minimal
where ai , bj , α, β denote elements of a field k. Assuming α =
polynomial of B.
Definition 53. Let T : V → V be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space
V over a field k. The characteristic polynomial of T is defined to be the det(XI − A) where
A denote the matrix of T with respect to some basis of V .
Note that the characteristic polynomial of a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector
space is well-defined by Exercise 9.
2. Quotient spaces, Isomorphism theorems
Definition 54. Let V be a vector space over a field k and W be a subspace of V . Then
define the relation ∼ on V by the rule: v1 ∼ v2 if v1 − v2 belongs to W .
6
 Exercise 55. Verify that ∼ is an equivalence relation on V
Definition 56. Let V, W be as above. Let V /W denote the set of equivalence classes
under ∼. Define
+ : V /W × V /W → V /W by [v1 ] + [v2 ] := [v1 + v2 ].
Exercise 57. Suppose f (t) is nonzero. Denote by (f (t)) the set of all multiples of f (t),
i.e., the set of elements of k[t] of the form xf (t) where x ∈ k[t]. Then check that (f (t)) is a
subspace of k[t], k[t]/(f (t)) is a finite dimensional vector space over k, and the equivalence
classes of 1, · · · , tn−1 form a basis of this vector space over k where n denotes the degree of
f (t).
Exercise 58. Define multt : k[t]/(f (t)) → k[t]/(f (t)) by
multt ([p(t)]) = [tp(t)].
(1) Check that multt is a k-linear operator on k[t]/(f (t)).
(2) Show that if f (t) = tn , then the matrix of multt on k[t]/(f (t)) with respect to the
basis {[1], [t], · · · , [tn−1 ]} is equal to
 
  0 0 0 0
  0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0
0 , , 1 0 0 ,  
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1 0
when n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
(3) If f (t) = tn + an−1 tn−1 + an−2 tn−2 + · · · + a1 t + a0 , then prove that the matrix of
multt on k[t]/(f (t)) with respect to the basis {[1], [t], · · · , [tn−1 ]} is equal to
 
  0 0 0 −a0
  0 0 −a0

0 −a0 1 0 0 −a1 
(2.1) −a0 , , 1 0 −a1  ,  
1 −a1 0 1 0 −a2 
0 1 −a2
0 0 1 −a3
when n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
(4) Let α be an element of k and f (t) be equal to (t−α)n . Then show that the matrix of
multt on k[t]/(f (t)) with respect to the basis {[1], [t − α], [(t − α)2 ], · · · , [(t − α)n−1 ]}
is equal to
 
  α 0 0 0
  α 0 0

α 0 1 α 0 0
(2.2) α , , 1 α 0 ,  
1 α 0 1 α 0
0 1 α
0 0 1 α
when n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.

7
 Bibliography

[HK71] Kenneth Hoffman and Ray Kunze, Linear algebra, Second edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1971. MR 0276251