THEORY OF RELATIVITY NOVEL.

AUTHOR ; ARINY AMOS

DATE; MAY,2018
 ARINY AMOS (2014, AGED 32 YEARS)

BOOK TITLE; ARINY AMOS BEING ANDROID COMPUTER OPERATION.

AUTHOR; ARINY AMOS

3
 ARINY AMOS ;(1992 , (AGED 10 YEARS)

AUTHOR; ARINY AMOS (ANDROID COMPUTER OPERATION.)

AUTHOR; ARINY AMOS

 5

FOREWORD.
Ariny Amos
I Ariny Amos was captured by the spirit of the Galileo Galilei , Albert Einstein, Apollo ,
EVAS program when I was 3 years old. I had been following the space program through
out Neptune and Gemini flights, building model kits and watch ing the launches from my
Odoon Primary school , school in Soroti District , Uganda . we had above groud pool in
the backyard, and I would put abrick in the back of the my swim trunks to hold me down
on the bottom , suckin air through a garden hose, and lay there with my arms and
legacyadrift , pretending I was walking in space. I was off course eagerly anticipating the
Apollo missions to the moon, because that would give me more models to build but it
wasn’t until the February 2006, notable events occurring in 2006 in spaceflight, including
major launches and EVAs. 2006 saw Brazil, Iran, and Sweden all get a national into space
for the first time, Ariny Amos was assigned to operate on facebook website,as an astronaut
commander who guides in any accident accident preventer, when I hope to convey with
from the earth to the moon is what Ariny Amos captured in connection with National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, that going to the moon was no just a technological
endeavor, but and artistic,Chemist, scientific historian one ,like Albert Einstein on the
Sistine chapel ceiling . The same kind of imagination that allowed Albert Einstein to
produce the crowning achievement of his era helped NASA’s engineers build their
moonships, just as Albert Einstein needed faith in his own abilities to sustain him during
that long year of his effort, so faith was at heart of what it took to put men and their shoes
and socks, and pictures on their children , on the surface of the moon.
Above all EVAS launches 2006 was a voyage of inspiration . the thing that still fuels me in
my day- to- day life, as explorer, and what I want to convey to my children , and to the
audience , is that if mankind can figure out a way to put twelve men on the moon , then
honestly , we can solve anything. That why I believe the 2006 missions are of greatest
stories after.
 PREFACE

The eighty’s so called 1980’s were atime of cultural earth quakes ;the horror of the Bill
Gates, Carlos Slim,Sadam Hesein, Angella Merkel, Bill Clinton, Osama Bin Laden ,
Barack Obama and king assassination, The arrival of five mop- topped singers from
Washington D.C -USA, The din of protests , and – most of all – the violent of the the war
in Uganda And something else extraordinary happened ont the night of February 2006
the space flight major launches 2006 EVA .2006.saw brazil,Sweden and Iran get a national
into space for the first time. Walk on the moon. In what seemed like amiralce of
technology, I witnessed it live computer monitor live on internet.i was at Makerkere
University Kampala, in my first years studies Bachelor of science in Agricultural land use
and management. Across the world that Billions of pEople who had worked to make it
happen celebrated their triumph, TV commentators and editorial writers proclaimed that
twenty five years from now our century would be remembered for those footsteps. When
human bings left their planet to explore the universe.
Ariny Amos.
May 2018
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Author , Ariny Amos thanks God of his Natural parents Father ; Thomas Edison Alston
(January 31, 1926 was a Major League Baseball first baseman who played for the St.
Louis Cardinals from 1954 to 1957, the first African-American to do so. A native of
Greensboro, North Carolina, he stood 6'5" (200 cm) and weighed 210 pounds (95 kg).
Alston was acquired by St. Louis via a trade with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific
Coast League, where he played in 180 games in 1953, on January 26, 1954, after team
president Gussie Busch told manager Eddie Stanky to find a black player. Not only did
Busch think excluding blacks from baseball was morally wrong, his company Anheuser–
Busch, which had bought the team a year earlier to keep them from moving to Milwaukee,
sold more beer to African-Americans than any other brewery, leading him to fear the
effect of a boycott.
Mother Kimberly Elise Trammel (born April 17, 1967) was professionally known as
Kimberly Elise, is an American film and television actress. She made her feature film
debut in Set It Off (1996), and later received critical acclaim for her performance in
Beloved (1998).
During her career, Elise has appeared in films such as John Q. (2002), The Manchurian
Candidate (2004), Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2005), The Great Debaters (2007), For
Colored Girls (2010), Dope (2015), Almost Christmas (2016) and Death Wish (2018). She
received a nomination for Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead for her
performance in the 2004 drama film, Woman Thou Art Loosed, and played the leading
roles in a number of made for television movies. Elise also starred in the CBS crime drama
series, Close to Home (2005–07), and in 2013 began starring in the VH1 comedy-drama
series, Hit the Floor. She is four-time NAACP Image Awards winner. And Ariny Amos
thanks Gravitational wave.
 ABSTRACT.
In Physics ,Chemistry, Biology Mathematics and Mythology, the principle of relativity is
the requirement that the equations describing the laws of physics have the same form in all
admissible frames of reference. For example in this book , in the framework of special
relativity the Maxwell equations have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. In
the framework of general relativity the Maxwell equations or the Einstein field equations
have the same form in arbitrary frames of reference. Several principles of relativity have
been successfully applied throughout science, whether implicitly as in Newtonian
mechanics or explicitly as in Albert Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. such
that this book tends to enunciate that The laws by which the states of physical systems
alter are independent of the alternative, to which of two systems of coordinates, in uniform
motion of parallel translation relatively to each other, these alterations of state are
referred (principle of relativity).
The aim of the experiment was to detect the movement of the Earth through the aether.
The theory was that there had to be an aether through which light propagated. Since the
Earth rotates round the sun, it would be travelling through the aether in different
directions in summer and winter, and the experiment was intended to detect this. Ariny
Amos did an experiment and applications in the field,
Preceded by a companion book on Ariny Amos 's experiment and work on applications of
principle or theory of relativity within the early thirty three years from birth 1982-2016
Research reveals Ariny Amos being Scientist. The book distinguishes the type of Androids
Description of Ariny's early life as astronomer , Astrologer.Chronology of events during
Ariny Amos studies at Makerere University Kampala, Imprisonment by remote sensing's
electromagnetic force on applications, or Hendrik Lorentz force, Electric shock and
plasma physics, Seismology,Metaphysics of pluto, Masturbation or perturbation and photo
electric effect Plasma physics , Dreamers's motion phenomenon, Astrophysics of Sweat
and salt bridge in electrochemistry, Rainbow or Hydrogen Spectrum, Alzheimer disease in
Astrology, Turbine and Turbomachine, Electric Generators, Satellite dish as Ariny Amos,
International Womens' day venus crosser asteroid explosions,Hot air, tongue and
electricity, Static electricity, Enamel Grinding and Electricity, Celestial bodies as Ariny's
Natural satellite, Rota fortunae gravitation and healing ability, This book then explains the
principle of relativity of which was introduced by German scientist Albert Einstain, in
1900, Noted that Jesus Christ of Nazareth first taught the principle of relativity during his
life on earth. By surveying the work of scientists and theologians, Laws of physics, Ariny
Amos experiment on relativity principle with White tailed Blue flycatcherbird and
schistocerca nitens grass hopper,several experiments on principle of relativity,conclusions
and recommedations, references,
 CONTENTS.

FOREWORD…………………

PREFACE………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
ABSTRACT…………………

INTRODUCTION………………………

ETYMOLOGY OR LITERATURE REVIEW.………………………………………

SCOPE OF THE STUDY LINKING ASTRONOMY AND PHYSICS IN APPLICATIONS....

EARLY LIFE AS ASTRONOMER , ASTROLOGER……..

PRIMARY EDUCATION…………………

SECONDARYEDUCATION………………………………………………….......................
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY KAMPALA, UGANDA…………………

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE BRITAIN ONLINE STUDY……

EXPLORATION OF AFRICA BY ARINY AMOS…………

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH RESULTS AS AN INTERNET EXPLORER,ZEUS GOD,CLIMATIC

CHANGE AND HOLLY WATER…………………………………………………………………..
IMPRISONMENT BY REMOTE SENSING’S ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE……………
ELECTRIC SHOCK, PLASMA PHYSICS……………………………
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND BARBITURATE OVERDOSE……………………
SEISMOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………..
PLASMA PHYSICS, DREAMER’S MOTION PHENOMENON………………………………
SWEAT, SALT BRIDGE IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY………………………………………….
RAIN BOW OR HYDROGEN SPECTRUM……………………………………………………...
ALZHEIMER DISEASE…………………………………………………………………………....

TURBINE AND TURBO-MACHINE…………………………………………………………………

ELECTRIC GENERATORS………………………………………………………………………….
SATELLITE DISH AS ARINY AMOS……………………………………………………………
ENAMEL GRINDING AND ELECTRICITY………………………………………………………

BIOELECTRICITY AND MEDICAL ELECTRICITY……………………………………………...

FROGS, RABBITS, RATS EXPERIMENTS ON BIOELECTRICITY…………………………..
HOT AIR, TONGE AND ELECTRICITY……………………………………………………………
REMOTE SURGERY………………………………………………………………………………...
PROBOSCIDEA,PANTHERAS,RHINOCEROS AND MOLDS………………………………….
ROTA FORTUNAE AND HEALING ABILITY………………………………………………………
CELESTIAL BODIES OR ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS………………………………………..
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM OR RADIO WAVES AND NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA………………………

INTERNATIONAL WOMEN’S DAY VENUS CROSSER ASTEROID EXPLOSION………….

METAPHYSICS OF PLUTO, MASTURBATION AND PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT……….
EUCHARIST AND SEISMOLOGY EXPERIMENT………………………………………………
OFACTION AND DISCOVERY………………………………………………………………..........

ARINY AMOS AS PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL DUE TO PRODUCTION OF HUMAN

ELECTRICITY………………………………………………………………………………………..
ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENT……………………………………………………………………..
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION………………………………………………………………………
THEORY OF RELATIVITY AND ARINY AMOS
EXPERIMENT…………………………………………………………….
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………
RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………...

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………………………….
 INTRODUCTION.

In physics, the principle of relativity is the requirement that the equations describing the laws of
physics have the same form in all admissible frames of reference. For example, in the framework of
special relativity the Maxwell equations have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. In the
framework of general relativity the Maxwell equations or the Einstein field equations have the same
form in arbitrary frames of reference. Several principles of relativity have been successfully applied
throughout science, whether implicitly as in Newtonian mechanics or explicitly as in Albert Einstein's
special relativity and general relativity. such that
The laws by which the states of physical systems alter are independent of the alternative, to which
of two systems of coordinates, in uniform motion of parallel translation relatively to each other, these
alterations of state are referred (principle of relativity).

The equation sets forth that energy of a body at rest (E) equals its mass (m) times the speed of light
(c) squared.

If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L divided by c
squared. The fact that the energy withdrawn from the body becomes energy of radiation evidently
makes no difference, so that we are led to the more general conclusion that

The mass of a body is a measure of its energy-content; if the energy changes by L, the mass changes
in the same sense by L/9 × 10 power twenty, the energy being measured in ergs, and the mass in
grammes.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY.

Certain principles of relativity have been widely assumed in most scientific disciplines. One of the
most widespread is the belief that any law of nature should be the same at all times; and scientific
investigations generally assume that laws of nature are the same regardless of the person measuring
them. These sorts of principles have been incorporated into scientific inquiry at the most fundamental
of levels.
DEVELOPMENT AND ACCEPTANCE,
Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905, building on many theoretical results
and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and
others. Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work.

Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others
after 1915. The final form of general relativity was published in 1916.[3]

The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression "relative theory"
(German: Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses
the principle of relativity. In the discussion section of the same paper, Alfred Buchererused for the
first time the expression "theory of relativity" (German: Relativitätstheorie).[6][7]

By the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity.[8] It rapidly became
a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic
physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.

By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to
predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory.[3] It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test,
as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics seemed difficult and fully
understandable only by a small number of people. Around 1960, general relativity became central to
physics and astronomy. New mathematical techniques to apply to general relativity streamlined
calculations and made its concepts more easily visualized. As astronomical phenomena were
discovered, such as quasars(1963), the 3-kelvin microwave background
radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the first black hole candidates (1981),[3] the theory explained
their attributes, and measurement of them further confirmed the theory.

THEORY OF RELATIVITY.

The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special
relativity and general relativity.[1] Special relativity applies to elementary particles and their
interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the
law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature.[2] It applies to the cosmological and
astrophysical realm, including astronomy.[3]

The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century, superseding a
200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton.[3][4][5] It introduced concepts
including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of
simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics,
relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with
ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted
extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves

Alfred Heinrich Bucherer in his experiments on relativistic mass. He also was the first who used the
phrase "theory of relativity" for Einstein's theory of special relativity.
The theory of relativity, or simply relativity in physics, usually encompasses two theories by Albert
Einstein: special relativity and general relativity.

Concepts introduced by the theories of relativity include:

Measurements of various quantities are relative to the velocities of observers. In particular, space
contracts and time dilates.
Spacetime: space and time should be considered together and in relation to each other.
The speed of light is nonetheless invariant, the same for all observers.

The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression "relative theory" (German:
Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by Max Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of
relativity. In the discussion section of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the
expression "theory of relativity

SCOPE OF THE STUDY ; LINKING ASTRONOMY AND THEORETICAL PHYSICS

The theory of relativity transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century.
When first published, relativity superseded a 200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by
Isaac Newton. In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their
fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and
astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes and
gravitational waves.

TWO THEORY VIEW

SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND GENERAL RELATIVITY

The theory of relativity was representative of more than a single new physical theory. There are some
explanations for this. First, special relativity was published in 1905, and the final form of general
relativity was published in 1916.

Second, special relativity applies to elementary particles and their interactions, whereas general
relativity applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.

Third, special relativity was accepted in the physics community by 1920. This theory rapidly became a
significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics,
nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics. Conversely, general relativity did not appear to be as
useful. There appeared to be little applicability for experimentalists as most applications were for
astronomical scales. It seemed limited to only making minor corrections to predictions of Newtonian
gravitation theory

Finally, the mathematics of general relativity appeared to be very difficult. Consequently, it was
thought that a small number of people in the world, at that time, could fully understand the theory in
detail, but this has been discredited by Richard Feynman. Then, at around 1960 a critical resurgence in
interest occurred which has resulted in making general relativity central to physics and astronomy.
New mathematical techniques applicable to the study of general relativity substantially streamlined
calculations. From this, physically discernible concepts were isolated from the mathematical
complexity. Also, the discovery of exotic astronomical phenomena, in which general relativity was
relevant, helped to catalyze this resurgence. The astronomical phenomena included quasars (1963),
the 3-kelvin microwave background radiation (1965),pulsars (1967), and the discovery of the first
black hole candidates (1981).

Albert Einstein document stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle-
theories". As such it employs an analytic method. This means that the elements which comprise this
theory are not based on hypothesis but on empirical discovery. The empirical discovery leads to
understanding the general characteristics of natural processes. Mathematical models are then
developed to describe accurately the observed natural processes. Therefore, by analytical means the
necessary conditions that have to be satisfied are deduced. Separate events must satisfy these
conditions. Experience should then match the conclusions.

The special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity are connected. As stated below,
special theory of relativity applies to all physical phenomena except gravity. The general theory
provides the law of gravitation, and its relation to other forces of nature.

SPECIAL RELATIVITY

Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein's 1905 paper
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" for the contributions of many other physicists. Special
relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:

1). The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion relative to one another which
is called principle of relativity.
2). The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion or
of the motion of the light source.

The resultant theory copes with experiment better than classical mechanics. For instance, postulate 2
explains the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment. Moreover, the theory has many surprising
and counter intuitive consequences. Some of these are:

1) Relativity of simultaneity: Two events, simultaneous for one observer, may not be simultaneous for
another observer if the observers are in relative motion.
2) Time dilation: Moving clocks are measured to tick more slowly than an observer's "stationary"
clock.
3) Relativistic mass
4) Length contraction: Objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving
with respect to the observer.
5) Mass–energy equivalence: E = mc squared, energy and mass are equivalent and transmutable.
6) Maximum speed is finite: No physical object, message or field line can travel faster than the speed
of light in a vacuum.

The defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of classical
mechanics by the Lorentz transformations. Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism explains this
phenomena.

GENERAL RELATIVITY

General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Einstein in the years 1907–1915. The
development of general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the states of
accelerated motion and being at rest in a gravitational field (for example when standing on the
surface of the Earth) are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion: an
object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on
them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as is the case in classical mechanics. This is
incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in those theories inertially
moving objects cannot accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve
this difficulty Einstein first proposed that spacetime is curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein field
equations which relate the curvature of spacetime with the mass, energy, and momentum within it.

Some of the consequences of general relativity are:

1) Clocks run slower in deeper gravitational wells. This is called gravitational time dilation.
2) Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton's theory of gravity. (This has been observed in the
orbit of Mercury and in binary pulsars).
3)Rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field.
Rotating masses "drag along" the spacetime around them; a phenomenon termed "frame-dragging".
4) The universe is expanding, and the far parts of it are moving away from us faster than the speed of
light.

Technically, general relativity is a theory of gravitation whose defining feature is its use of the Einstein
field equations. The solutions of the field equations are metric tensors which define the topology of
the spacetime and how objects move inertially.

Experimental evidence
Einstein stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle-theories". As such, it
employs an analytic method, which means that the elements of this theory are not based on
hypothesis but on empirical discovery. By observing natural processes, we understand their general
characteristics, devise mathematical models to describe what we observed, and by analytical means
we deduce the necessary conditions that have to be satisfied. Measurement of separate events
must satisfy these conditions and match the theory's conclusions.[2]
Tests of special relativity

A diagram of the Michelson–Morley experiment

Author.Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) - Created by bdesham in Inkscape.

A diagram of the Michelson–Morley experiment.

Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested by experiment. In the case of
special relativity, these include the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time
dilation.[11] The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since Einstein
published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical
to its validation. These are the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment,
and the Ives–Stilwell experiment. Einstein derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in
1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from experimental
evidence.

Maxwell's equations—the foundation of classical electromagnetism—describe light as a wave that

moves with a characteristic velocity. The modern view is that light needs no medium of transmission,
but Maxwell and his contemporaries were convinced that light waves were propagated in a medium,
analogous to sound propagating in air, and ripples propagating on the surface of a pond. This
hypothetical medium was called the luminiferous aether, at rest relative to the "fixed stars" and
through which the Earth moves. Fresnel's partial ether dragging hypothesis ruled out the
measurement of first-order (v/c) effects, and although observations of second-order effects (v2/c2)
were possible in principle, Maxwell thought they were too small to be detected with then-current
technology.[12][13]

The Michelson–Morley experiment was designed to detect second-order effects of the "aether
wind"—the motion of the aether relative to the earth. Michelson designed an instrument called
the Michelson interferometer to accomplish this. The apparatus was more than accurate enough to
detect the expected effects, but he obtained a null result when the first experiment was conducted in
1881,[14] and again in 1887.[15] Although the failure to detect an aether wind was a disappointment,
the results were accepted by the scientific community.[13] In an attempt to salvage the aether
paradigm, FitzGerald and Lorentz independently created an ad hoc hypothesis in which the length of
material bodies changes according to their motion through the aether.[16] This was the origin
of FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction, and their hypothesis had no theoretical basis. The interpretation
of the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment is that the round-trip travel time for light
is isotropic(independent of direction), but the result alone is not enough to discount the theory of the
aether or validate the predictions of special relativity.[17][18]

The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment shown with interference fringes.

The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment shown with interference fringes.

User:Stigmatella aurantiaca - Own work by the original uploader This vector image was created
withInkscape.

The Kennedy-Thorndike experiment. Key optical components were mounted within vacuum
chamber V on a fused quartz base of extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion. A
water jacket W kept the temperature regulated to within 0.001°C. Monochromatic green
light from a mercury source Hg passed through a Nicol polarizing prism N before entering
the vacuum chamber, and was split by a beam splitter B set at Brewster's angle to prevent
unwanted rear surface reflections. The two beams were directed towards two
mirrors M1 and M2 which were set at distances as divergent as possible given the
coherence length of the 5461 Å mercury line (≈32 cm, allowing a difference in arm length
ΔL ≈ 16 cm). The reflected beams recombined to form circular interference fringes which
were photographed at P. A slit Sallowed multiple exposures across the diameter of the
rings to be recorded on a single photographic plate at different times of day.

While the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the velocity of light is isotropic, it said nothing
about how the magnitude of the velocity changed (if at all) in different inertial frames. The Kennedy–
Thorndike experiment was designed to do that, and was first performed in 1932 by Roy Kennedy
and Edward Thorndike.[19] They obtained a null result, and concluded that "there is no effect ...
unless the velocity of the solar system in space is no more than about half that of the earth in its
orbit".[18][20] That possibility was thought to be too coincidental to provide an acceptable explanation,
so from the null result of their experiment it was concluded that the round-trip time for light is the
same in all inertial reference frames.[17][18]

The Ives–Stilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell first in 1938[21] and
with better accuracy in 1941.[22] It was designed to test the transverse Doppler effect – the redshift of
light from a moving source in a direction perpendicular to its velocity—which had been predicted by
Einstein in 1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was predicted by
classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a correction was observed, from
which was concluded that the frequency of a moving atomic clock is altered according to special
relativity.[17][18]

Those classic experiments have been repeated many times with increased precision. Other
experiments include, for instance, relativistic energy and momentum increase at high
velocities, experimental testing of time dilation, and modern searches for Lorentz violations.

Tests of general relativity

General relativity has also been confirmed many times, the classic experiments being the perihelion
precession of Mercury's orbit, the deflection of light by the Sun, and the gravitational redshift of light.
Other tests confirmed the equivalence principleand frame dragging.

Modern applications
Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering
concerns. Satellite-based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each
satellite is in motion relative to an Earth-bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference
under the theory of relativity. Global positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and the
forthcoming Galileo, must account for all of the relativistic effects, such as the consequences of
Earth's gravitational field, in order to work with precision.[23] This is also the case in the high-precision
measurement of time.[24] Instruments ranging from electron microscopes to particle accelerators
would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.

ETYMOLOGY OR LITERATURE REVIEW.

The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings
obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the
theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein and subsequent work of Max
Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others.
Isaac Newton based his physics on absolute time and space, he also adhered to the principle of
relativity of Galileo Galilei. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all
observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed
to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory and electrodynamics,
during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a "light medium" or Luminiferous
ether was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of James Clerk
Maxwell. According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that
medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to
the aether.

The failure of any known experiment to detect motion through the aether led Hendrik Lorentz,
starting in 1892, to develop a theory of electrodynamics based on an immobile luminiferous aether
(about whose material constitution Lorentz didn't speculate), physical length contraction, and a "local
time" in which Maxwell's equations retain their form in all inertial frames of reference. Working with
Lorentz's aether theory, Henri Poincaré, having earlier proposed the "relativity principle" as a
general law of nature (including electrodynamics and gravitation), used this principle in 1905 to
correct Lorentz's preliminary transformation formulas, resulting in an exact set of equations that are
now called the Lorentz transformations. A little later in the same year Albert Einstein published his
original paper on special relativity in which, again based on the relativity principle, he independently
derived and radically reinterpreted the Lorentz transformations by changing the fundamental
definitions of space and time intervals, while abandoning the absolute simultaneity of Galilean
kinematics, thus avoiding the need for any reference to a luminiferous aether in classical
electrodynamics.[1] Subsequent work of Hermann Minkowski, in which he introduced a 4-dimensional
geometric "spacetime" model for Einstein's version of special relativity, paved the way for Einstein's
later development of his general theory of relativity and laid the foundations of relativistic field
theories.

Aether and electrodynamics of moving bodies

Aether models and Maxwell's equations
Following the work of Thomas Young (1804) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1816), it was believed that
light propagates as a transverse wave within an elastic medium called luminiferous aether. However,
a distinction was made between optical and electrodynamical phenomena so it was necessary to
create specific aether models for all phenomena. Attempts to unify those models or to create a
complete mechanical description of them did not succeed,[2] but after considerable work by many
scientists, including Michael Faraday and Lord Kelvin, James Clerk Maxwell (1864) developed an
accurate theory of electromagnetism by deriving a set of equations
in electricity, magnetism and inductance, named Maxwell's equations. He first proposed that light
was in fact undulations (electromagnetic radiation) in the same aetherial medium that is the cause of
electric and magnetic phenomena. However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the
optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to present a complete mathematical model, he was
not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the aether.[3]
After Heinrich Hertz in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory
was widely accepted. In addition, Oliver Heaviside and Hertz further developed the theory and
introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell-Hertz" or "Heaviside-Hertz"
equations subsequently formed an important basis for the further development of electrodynamics,
and Heaviside's notation is still used today. Other important contributions to Maxwell's theory were
made by George FitzGerald, Joseph John Thomson, John Henry Poynting, Hendrik Lorentz,
and Joseph Larmor.[4][5]

Search for the aether

Regarding the relative motion and the mutual influence of matter and aether, there were two
controversial theories. One was developed by Fresnel (and subsequently Lorentz). This model
(Stationary Aether Theory) supposed that light propagates as a transverse wave and aether is
partially dragged with a certain coefficient by matter. Based on this assumption, Fresnel was able to
explain the aberration of light and many optical phenomena.[6]
The other hypothesis was proposed by George Gabriel Stokes, who stated in 1845 that the aether
was fully dragged by matter (later this view was also shared by Hertz). In this model the aether might
be (by analogy with pine pitch) rigid for fast objects and fluid for slower objects. Thus the Earth could
move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to transport light.[7]Fresnel's theory was
preferred because his dragging coefficient was confirmed by the Fizeau experiment in 1851, who
measured the speed of light in moving liquids.[8]

Albert A. Michelson (1881) tried to measure the relative motion of the Earth and aether (Aether-
Wind), as it was expected in Fresnel's theory, by using an interferometer. He could not determine
any relative motion, so he interpreted the result as a confirmation of the thesis of Stokes.[9] However,
Lorentz (1886) showed Michelson's calculations were wrong and that he had overestimated the
accuracy of the measurement. This, together with the large margin of error, made the result of
Michelson's experiment inconclusive. In addition, Lorentz showed that Stokes' completely dragged
aether led to contradictory consequences, and therefore he supported an aether theory similar to
Fresnel's.[10] To check Fresnel's theory again, Michelson and Edward W. Morley (1886) performed a
repetition of the Fizeau experiment. Fresnel's dragging coefficient was confirmed very exactly on
that occasion, and Michelson was now of the opinion that Fresnel's stationary aether theory was
correct.[11] To clarify the situation, Michelson and Morley (1887) repeated Michelson's 1881-
experiment, and they substantially increased the accuracy of the measurement. However, this now
famous Michelson–Morley experiment again yielded a negative result, i.e., no motion of the
apparatus through the aether was detected (although the Earth's velocity is 60 km/s different in the
northern winter than summer). So the physicists were confronted with two seemingly contradictory
experiments: the 1886-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Fresnel's stationary aether, and
the 1887-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Stokes' completely dragged aether.[12]

A possible solution to the problem was shown by Woldemar Voigt (1887), who investigated
the Doppler effect for waves propagating in an incompressible elastic medium and deduced
transformation relations that left the wave equation in free space unchanged, and explained the
negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. The Voigt transformations include the Lorentz

factor for the y- and z-coordinates, and a new time variable which later was
called "local time". However, Voigt's work was completely ignored by his contemporaries.[13][14]

FitzGerald (1889) offered another explanation of the negative result of the Michelson–Morley
experiment. Contrary to Voigt, he speculated that the intermolecular forces are possibly of electrical
origin so that material bodies would contract in the line of motion (length contraction). This was in
connection with the work of Heaviside (1887), who determined that the electrostatic fields in motion
were deformed (Heaviside Ellipsoid), which leads to physically undetermined conditions at the speed
of light.[15] However, FitzGerald's idea remained widely unknown and was not discussed
before Oliver Lodge published a summary of the idea in 1892.[16] Also Lorentz (1892b) proposed
length contraction independently from FitzGerald in order to explain the Michelson–Morley
experiment. For plausibility reasons, Lorentz referred to the analogy of the contraction of
electrostatic fields. However, even Lorentz admitted that that was not a necessary reason and
length-contraction consequently remained an ad hoc hypothesis.[17][18]

Lorentz's theory of electrons

Lorentz (1892a) set the foundations of Lorentz aether theory, by assuming the existence
of electrons which he separated from the aether, and by replacing the "Maxwell-Hertz" Equations by
the "Maxwell-Lorentz" Equations. In his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to
Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by matter. An important consequence of this notion
was that the velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity of the source. Lorentz gave no
statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic processes, but, vice
versa, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an
abstract electromagnetic æther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like Heaviside,
the contraction of the electrostatic fields.[19]Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the

"Theorem of Corresponding States" for terms of first order in . This theorem states that a moving
observer (relative to the aether) in his "fictitious" field makes the same observations as a resting

observer in his "real" field. An important part of it was local time , which paved the way to
the Lorentz transformation and which he introduced independently of Voigt. With the help of this
concept, Lorentz could explain the aberration of light, the Doppler effect and the Fizeau experiment
as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the
transformation from one system into another – it was Poincaré in 1900 who recognized that "local
time" is actually indicated by moving clocks. Lorentz also recognized that his theory violated the
principle of action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the
immobile aether.[23]

A very similar model was created by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900). Larmor was the first to put
Lorentz's 1895-transformation into a form algebraically equivalent to the modern Lorentz
transformations, however, he stated that his transformations preserved the form of Maxwell's
equations only to second order of . Lorentz later noted that these transformations did in fact

preserve the form of Maxwell's equations to all orders of . Larmor noticed on that occasion that
length-contraction was derivable from the model; furthermore, he calculated some manner of time
dilation for electron orbits. Larmor specified his considerations in 1900 and 1904.[14][24] Independently
of Larmor, also Lorentz (1899) extended his transformation for second order terms and noted a
(mathematical) Time Dilation effect as well.

Other physicists besides Lorentz and Larmor also tried to develop a consistent model of
electrodynamics. For example, Emil Cohn (1900, 1901) created an alternative Electrodynamics in
which he, as one of the first, discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and
would use, like Ernst Mach, the fixed stars as a reference frame instead. Due to inconsistencies
within his theory, like different light speeds in different directions, it was superseded by Lorentz's and
Einstein's.[25]

Electromagnetic mass
During his development of Maxwell's Theory, J. J. Thomson (1881) recognized that charged bodies
are harder to set in motion than uncharged bodies. Electrostatic fields behave as if they add an
"electromagnetic mass" to the mechanical mass of the bodies. I.e., according to Thomson,
electromagnetic energy corresponds to a certain mass. This was interpreted as some form of self-
inductance of the electromagnetic field.[26][27] He also noticed that the mass of a body in motion is
increased by a constant quantity. Thomson's work was continued and perfected by FitzGerald,
Heaviside (1888), and George Frederick Charles Searle (1896, 1897). For the electromagnetic mass
they gave — in modern notation — the formula , where is the electromagnetic mass

and is the electromagnetic energy. Heaviside and Searle also recognized that the increase of
the mass of a body is not constant and varies with its velocity. Consequently, Searle noted the
impossibility of superluminal velocities, because infinite energy would be needed to exceed the
speed of light. Also for Lorentz (1899), the integration of the speed-dependence of masses
recognized by Thomson was especially important. He noticed that the mass not only varied due to
speed, but is also dependent on the direction, and he introduced what Abraham later called
"longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. (The transverse mass corresponds to what later was
called relativistic mass.[28])

Wilhelm Wien (1900) assumed (following the works of Thomson, Heaviside, and Searle) that
the entire mass is of electromagnetic origin, which was formulated in the context that all forces of
nature are electromagnetic ones (the "Electromagnetic World View"). Wien stated that, if it is
assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality
between electromagnetic energy, inertial mass and gravitational mass.[29] In the same paper Henri
Poincaré (1900b) found another way of combining the concepts of mass and energy. He recognized

that electromagnetic energy behaves like a fictitious fluid with mass density of
and defined a fictitious electromagnetic momentum as well. However, he arrived at a radiation
paradox which was fully explained by Einstein in 1905.[30]

Walter Kaufmann (1901–1903) was the first to confirm the velocity dependence of electromagnetic

mass by analyzing the ratio (where is the charge and the mass) of cathode rays.

He found that the value of decreased with the speed, showing that, assuming the charge
constant, the mass of the electron increased with the speed. He also believed that those
experiments confirmed the assumption of Wien, that there is no "real" mechanical mass, but only the
"apparent" electromagnetic mass, or in other words, the mass of all bodies is of electromagnetic
origin.[31]

Max Abraham (1902–1904), who was a supporter of the electromagnetic world view, quickly offered
an explanation for Kaufmann's experiments by deriving expressions for the electromagnetic mass.
Together with this concept, Abraham introduced (like Poincaré in 1900) the notion of

"Electromagnetic Momentum" which is proportional to . But unlike the fictitious quantities

introduced by Poincaré, he considered it as a real physical entity. Abraham also noted (like Lorentz
in 1899) that this mass also depends on the direction and coined the names "Longitudinal" and
"Transverse" Mass. In contrast to Lorentz, he didn't incorporate the Contraction Hypothesis into his
theory, and therefore his mass terms differed from those of Lorentz.[32]

Based on the preceding work on electromagnetic mass, Friedrich Hasenöhrl suggested that part of
the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around
a cavity. The "apparent mass" of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body
emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy. Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass
relation only holds as long as the body radiates, i.e., if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K.
At first he gave the expression for the apparent mass; however, Abraham and

Hasenöhrl himself in 1905 changed the result to , the same value as for the
electromagnetic mass for a body at rest.[33]

Absolute space and time

Some scientists and philosophers of science were critical of Newton's definitions of absolute space
and time.[34][35][36] Ernst Mach (1883) argued that absolute time and space are essentially
metaphysical concepts and thus scientifically meaningless, and suggested that only relative motion
between material bodies is a useful concept in physics. Mach argued that even effects that
according to Newton depend on accelerated motion with respect to absolute space, such as rotation,
could be described purely with reference to material bodies, and that the inertial effects cited by
Newton in support of absolute space might instead be related purely to acceleration with respect to
the fixed stars. Carl Neumann (1870) introduced a "Body alpha", which represents some sort of rigid
and fixed body for defining inertial motion. Based on the definition of Neumann, Heinrich
Streintz (1883) argued that in a coordinate system where gyroscopes don't measure any signs of
rotation inertial motion is related to a "Fundamental body" and a "Fundamental Coordinate System".
Eventually, Ludwig Lange (1885) was the first to coin the expression inertial frame of reference and
"inertial time scale" as operational replacements for absolute space and time; he defined "inertial
frame" as "a reference frame in which a mass point thrown from the same point in three different
(non-co-planar) directions follows rectilinear paths each time it is thrown". In 1902, Henri
Poincaré published a collection of essays titled Science and Hypothesis, which included: detailed
philosophical discussions on the relativity of space, time, and on the conventionality of distant
simultaneity; the conjecture that a violation of the relativity principle can never be detected; the
possible non-existence of the aether, together with some arguments supporting the aether; and
many remarks on non-Euclidean vs. Euclidean geometry.

There were also some attempts to use time as a fourth dimension.[37][38] This was done as early as
1754 by Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the Encyclopédie, and by some authors in the 19th century
like H. G. Wells in his novel The Time Machine(1895). In 1901 a philosophical model was developed
by Menyhért Palágyi, in which space and time were only two sides of some sort of "spacetime".[39] He

used time as an imaginary fourth dimension, which he gave the form (where ,
i.e. imaginary number). However, Palagyi's time coordinate is not connected to the speed of light.
He also rejected any connection with the existing constructions of n-dimensional spaces and non-
Euclidean geometry, so his philosophical model bears only little resemblance with spacetime
physics, as it was later developed by Minkowski.[40]

Light constancy and the principle of relative motion

In the second half of the 19th century there were many attempts to develop a worldwide clock
network synchronized by electrical signals. For that endeavor, the finite propagation speed of light
had to be considered, because synchronization signals could travel no faster than the speed of light.
So Henri Poincaré (1898) in his paper The Measure of Time drew some important consequences of
this process and explained that astronomers, in determining the speed of light, simply assume that
light has a constant speed and that this speed is the same in all directions. Without this postulate it
would be impossible to infer the speed of light from astronomical observations, as Ole Rømer did
based on observations of the moons of Jupiter. Poincaré also noted that the propagation speed of
light can be (and in practice often is) used to define simultaneity between spatially separate events.
He concluded by saying that "The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their succession, the
equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the enunciation of the natural laws may be as
simple as possible. In other words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an
unconscious opportunism."[41]

In some other papers, Poincaré (1895, 1900b) argued that experiments like that of Michelson–
Morley show the impossibility of detecting the absolute motion of matter, i.e., the relative motion of
matter in relation to the aether. He called this the "principle of relative motion".[42] In the same year he
interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of a synchronization procedure based on light signals.
He assumed that 2 observers A and B, which are moving in the aether, synchronize their clocks by
optical signals. Since they believe themselves to be at rest, they must consider only the transmission
time of the signals and then cross-reference their observations to examine whether their clocks are
synchronous. However, from the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether, the clocks are not

synchronous and indicate the local time . But because the moving observers do not know
anything about their movement, they do not recognize this. So, contrary to Lorentz, Poincaré-defined
local time can be measured and indicated by clocks.[43] Therefore, in his recommendation of Lorentz
for the Nobel Prize in 1902, Poincaré argued that Lorentz has convincingly explained the negative
outcome of the aether drift experiments by inventing the "diminished" or "local" time, i.e. a time
coordinate in which two events at different places could appear as simultaneous, although they are
not simultaneous in reality.[44]

Like Poincaré, Alfred Bucherer (1903) believed in the validity of the relativity principle within the
domain of electrodynamics, but contrary to Poincaré, Bucherer even assumed that this implies the
nonexistence of the aether. However, the theory that was created by him later in 1906 was incorrect
and not self-consistent, and the Lorentz transformation was absent within his theory as well.[45]

Lorentz's 1904 model

In his paper Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of
light, Lorentz (1904) was following the suggestion of Poincaré and attempted to create a formulation
of Electrodynamics, which explains the failure of all known aether drift experiments, i.e. the validity
of the relativity principle. He tried to prove the applicability of the Lorentz transformation for all
orders, although he didn't succeed completely. Like Wien and Abraham, he argued that there exists
only electromagnetic mass, not mechanical mass, and derived the correct expression for longitudinal
and transverse mass, which were in agreement with Kaufmann's experiments (even though those
experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between the theories of Lorentz and Abraham).
And using the electromagnetic momentum, he could explain the negative result of the Trouton–
Noble experiment, in which a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should
orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Also the experiments of Rayleigh and Brace could be
explained. Another important step was the postulate that the Lorentz transformation has to be valid
for non-electrical forces as well.[46]

At the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important
consequence of the velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were
impossible, because that would require an infinite amount of energy — the same was already noted
by Thomson (1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904, after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper,
he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal velocities the

factor becomes imaginary.[47]

Lorentz's theory was criticized by Abraham, who demonstrated that on one side the theory obeys
the relativity principle, and on the other side the electromagnetic origin of all forces is assumed.
Abraham showed, that both assumptions were incompatible, because in Lorentz's theory of the
contracted electrons, non-electric forces were needed in order to guarantee the stability of matter.
However, in Abraham's theory of the rigid electron, no such forces were needed. Thus the question
arose whether the Electromagnetic conception of the world (compatible with Abraham's theory) or
the Relativity Principle (compatible with Lorentz's Theory) was correct.[48]

In a September 1904 lecture in St. Louis named The Principles of Mathematical Physics, Poincaré
drew some consequences from Lorentz's theory and defined (in modification of Galileo's Relativity
Principle and Lorentz's Theorem of Corresponding States) the following principle: "The Principle of
Relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary
observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and
can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion." He also
specified his clock synchronization method and explained the possibility of a "new method" or "new
mechanics", in which no velocity can surpass that of light for all observers. However, he critically
noted that the Relativity Principle, Newton's action and reaction, the conservation of mass, and
the conservation of energy are not fully established and are even threatened by some
experiments.[49]

Also Emil Cohn (1904) continued to develop his alternative model (as described above), and while
comparing his theory with that of Lorentz, he discovered some important physical interpretations of
the Lorentz transformations. He illustrated (like Joseph Larmor in the same year) this transformation
by using rods and clocks: If they are at rest in the aether, they indicate the true length and time, and
if they are moving, they indicate contracted and dilated values. Like Poincaré, Cohn defined local
time as the time that is based on the assumption of isotropic propagation of light. Contrary to Lorentz
and Poincaré it was noticed by Cohn, that within Lorentz's theory the separation of "real" and
"apparent" coordinates is artificial, because no experiment can distinguish between them. Yet
according to Cohn's own theory, the Lorentz transformed quantities would only be valid for optical
phenomena, while mechanical clocks would indicate the "real" time.[25]

Poincaré's dynamics of the electron

On June 5, 1905, Henri Poincaré submitted the summary of a work which closed the existing gaps of
Lorentz's work. (This short paper contained the results of a more complete work which would be
published later, in January 1906.) He showed that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not
fully Lorentz-covariant. So he pointed out the group characteristics of the transformation, and he
corrected Lorentz's formulas for the transformations of charge density and current density (which
implicitly contained the relativistic velocity-addition formula, which he elaborated in May in a letter to
Lorentz). Poincaré used for the first time the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave the
transformations their symmetrical form used to this day. He introduced a non-electrical binding force
(the so-called "Poincaré stresses") to ensure the stability of the electrons and to explain length
contraction. He also sketched a Lorentz-invariant model of gravitation (including gravitational waves)
by extending the validity of Lorentz-invariance to non-electrical forces.[50][51]

Eventually Poincaré (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June
paper (the so-called "Palermo paper", received July 23, printed December 14, published January
1906 ). He spoke literally of "the postulate of relativity". He showed that the transformations are a
consequence of the principle of least action and developed the properties of the Poincaré stresses.
He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called

the Lorentz group, and he showed that the combination is invariant. While
elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-

dimensional space about the origin, by introducing as a fourth imaginary coordinate

(contrary to Palagyi, he included the speed of light), and he already used four-vectors. He wrote that
the discovery of magneto-cathode rays by Paul Ulrich Villard (1904) seemed to threaten the entire
theory of Lorentz, but this problem was quickly solved.[52] However, although in his philosophical
writings Poincaré rejected the ideas of absolute space and time, in his physical papers he continued
to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904, 1906, 1908b) to describe
coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for observers at
rest in the aether).So, with a few exceptions, most historians of science argue that Poincaré did not
invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincaré anticipated much of
Einstein's methods and terminology.

Special relativity
Einstein 1905
Electrodynamics of moving bodies
On September 26, 1905 (received June 30), Albert Einstein published his annus mirabilis paper on
what is now called special relativity. Einstein's paper includes a fundamental new definition of space
and time (all time and space coordinates in all reference frames are on an equal footing, so there is
no physical basis for distinguishing "true" from "apparent" time) and makes the aether an
unnecessary concept, at least in regard to inertial motion. Einstein identified two fundamental
principles, the principle of relativity and the principle of the constancy of light (light principle), which
ostensibly served as the axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a
summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall be given[64] (it must be
remarked that Einstein was familiar with the 1895 theory of Lorentz, and Science and Hypothesis by
Poincaré, but not their papers of 1904-1905):

a) Maxwell's electrodynamics, as presented by Lorentz in 1895, was the most successful theory at
this time. Here, the speed of light is constant in all directions in the stationary aether and completely
independent of the velocity of the source;
b) The inability to find an absolute state of motion, i.e. the validity of the relativity principle as the
consequence of the negative results of all aether drift experiments and effects like the moving
magnet and conductor problem which only depend on relative motion;
c) The Fizeau experiment;
d) The aberration of light;

with the following consequences for the speed of light and the theories known at that time:

The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of a preferred
frame of reference, by b. This contradicts the theory of the (nearly) stationary aether.

The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of the light
source, by a and c. This contradicts the emission theory.

The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of an aether that
would be dragged within or in the vicinity of matter, by a, c, and d. This contradicts the hypothesis of
the complete aether drag.

The speed of light in moving media is not composed of the speed of light when the medium is at rest
and the velocity of the medium, but is determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, by c.[W 1]

In order to make the principle of relativity as required by Poincaré an exact law of nature in the
immobile aether theory of Lorentz, the introduction of a variety ad hoc hypotheses was required,
such as the contraction hypothesis, local time, the Poincaré stresses, etc.. This method was
criticized by many scholars, since the assumption of a conspiracy of effects which completely
prevent the discovery of the aether drift is considered to be very improbable, and it would
violate Occam's razor as well. Einstein is considered the first who completely dispensed with such
auxiliary hypotheses and drew the direct conclusions from the facts stated above: that the relativity
principle is correct and the directly observed speed of light is the same in all inertial reference
frames. Based on his axiomatic approach, Einstein was able to derive all resultsobtained by his
predecessors – and in addition the formulas for the relativistic Doppler effect and relativistic
aberration – in a few pages, while prior to 1905 his competitors had devoted years of long,
complicated work to arrive at the same mathematical formalism. Before 1905 Lorentz and Poincaré
had adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but didn't recognize
that they were also sufficient in the sense that there was no immediate logical need to assume the
existence of a stationary aether in order to arrive at the Lorentz transformations.[62][68] Another reason
for Einstein's early rejection of the aether in any form (which he later partially retracted) may have
been related to his work on quantum physics. Einstein discovered that light can also be described
(at least heuristically) as a kind of particle, so the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves"
(which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincaré) no longer fitted into his conceptual scheme.[69]

It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many
historians of science like Holton,[65] Miller,[59] Stachel,[70] have tried to find out possible influences on
Einstein. He stated that his thinking was influenced by the empiricist philosophers David
Hume and Ernst Mach. Regarding the Relativity Principle, the moving magnet and conductor
problem (possibly after reading a book of August Föppl) and the various negative aether drift
experiments were important for him to accept that principle — but he denied any significant influence
of the most important experiment: the Michelson–Morley experiment.[70] Other likely influences
include Poincaré's Science and Hypothesis, where Poincaré presented the Principle of Relativity
(which, as has been reported by Einstein's friend Maurice Solovine, was closely studied and
discussed by Einstein and his friends over a period of years before the publication of Einstein's 1905
paper),[71] and the writings of Max Abraham, from whom he borrowed the terms "Maxwell-Hertz
equations" and "longitudinal and transverse mass".[72]

Regarding his views on Electrodynamics and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, Einstein stated
that Lorentz's theory of 1895 (or the Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics) and also the Fizeau
experiment had considerable influence on his thinking. He said in 1909 and 1912 that he borrowed
that principle from Lorentz's stationary aether (which implies validity of Maxwell's equations and the
constancy of light in the aether frame), but he recognized that this principle together with the
principle of relativity makes any reference to an aether unnecessary (at least as to the description of
electrodynamics in inertial frames).[73] As he wrote in 1907 and in later papers, the apparent
contradiction between those principles can be resolved if it is admitted that Lorentz's local time is not
an auxiliary quantity, but can simply be defined as time and is connected with signal velocity. Before
Einstein, Poincaré also developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the
connection with signal velocity, but contrary to Einstein he continued to argue that clocks at rest in
the stationary aether show the true time, while clocks in inertial motion relative to the aether show
only the apparent time. Eventually, near the end of his life in 1953 Einstein described the
advantages of his theory over that of Lorentz as follows (although Poincaré had already stated in
1905 that Lorentz invariance is an exact condition for any physical theory):[73]

Mass-energy equivalence
Already in §10 of his paper on electrodynamics, Einstein used the formula
for the kinetic energy of an electron. In elaboration of this he published a paper (received September
27, November 1905), in which Einstein showed that when a material body lost energy (either
radiation or heat) of amount E, its mass decreased by the amount E /c2. This led to the
famous mass–energy equivalence formula: E = mc2. Einstein considered the equivalency equation
to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the
"rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies.[30] As it was shown above,
many authors before Einstein arrived at similar formulas (including a 4/3-factor) for the relation of
mass to energy. However, their work was focused on electromagnetic energy which (as we know
today) only represents a small part of the entire energy within matter. So it was Einstein who was the
first to: (a) ascribe this relation to all forms of energy, and (b) understand the connection of Mass-
energy equivalence with the relativity principle.

Early reception
First assessments

Walter Kaufmann (1905, 1906) was probably the first who referred to Einstein's work. He compared
the theories of Lorentz and Einstein and, although he said Einstein's method is to be preferred, he
argued that both theories are observationally equivalent. Therefore, he spoke of the relativity
principle as the "Lorentz-Einsteinian" basic assumption.[74] Shortly afterwards, Max Planck (1906a)
was the first who publicly defended the theory and interested his students, Max von Laue and Kurd
von Mosengeil, in this formulation. He described Einstein's theory as a "generalization" of Lorentz's
theory and, to this "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory", he gave the name "relative theory"; while Alfred
Bucherer changed Planck's nomenclature into the now common "theory of relativity". On the other
hand, Einstein himself and many others continued to refer simply to the new method as the
"relativity principle". And in an important overview article on the relativity principle (1908a), Einstein
described SR as a "union of Lorentz's theory and the relativity principle", including the fundamental
assumption that Lorentz's local time can be described as real time. (Yet, Poincaré's contributions
were rarely mentioned in the first years after 1905.) All of those expressions, (Lorentz-Einstein
theory, relativity principle, relativity theory) were used by different physicists alternately in the next
years.[75]

Kaufmann-Bucherer experiments

Kaufmann (1905, 1906) announced the results of his new experiments on the charge-to-mass ratio,
i.e. the velocity dependence of mass. They represented, in his opinion, a clear refutation of the
relativity principle and the Lorentz-Einstein-Theory, and a confirmation of Abraham's theory. For
some years Kaufmann's experiments represented a weighty objection against the relativity principle,
although it was criticized by Planck and Adolf Bestelmeyer (1906). Following Kaufmann other
physicists, like Alfred Bucherer (1908) and Günther Neumann (1914), also examined the velocity-
dependence of mass and this time it was thought that the "Lorentz-Einstein theory" and the relativity
principle were confirmed, and Abraham's theory disproved. However, it was later pointed out that
the Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments only showed a qualitative mass increase of moving
electrons, but they were not precise enough to distinguish between the models of Lorentz-Einstein
and Abraham. So it continued until 1940, when experiments of this kind were repeated with sufficient
accuracy for confirming the Lorentz-Einstein formula.[74] However, this problem occurred only with
this kind of experiment. The investigations of the fine structure of the hydrogen lines already in 1917
provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein formula and the refutation of Abraham's
theory.[76]

Relativistic momentum and mass

Planck (1906a) defined the relativistic momentum and gave the correct values for the longitudinal
and transverse mass by correcting a slight mistake of the expression given by Einstein in 1905.
Planck's expressions were in principle equivalent to those used by Lorentz in 1899.[77] Based on the
work of Planck, the concept of relativistic mass was developed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard
C. Tolman (1908, 1909) by defining mass as the ratio of momentum to velocity. So the older
definition of longitudinal and transverse mass, in which mass was defined as the ratio of force to
acceleration, became superfluous. Finally, Tolman (1912) interpreted relativistic mass simply
as the mass of the body.[78] However, many modern textbooks on relativity don't use the concept of
relativistic mass anymore, and mass in special relativity is considered as an invariant quantity.

Mass and energy

Einstein (1906) showed that the inertia of energy (mass-energy-equivalence) is a necessary and
sufficient condition for the conservation of the center of mass theorem. On that occasion, he noted
that the formal mathematical content of Poincaré paper on the center of mass (1900b) and his own
paper were mainly the same, although the physical interpretation was different in light of relativity.[30]

Kurd von Mosengeil (1906) by extending Hasenöhrl's calculation of black-body-radiation in a cavity,

derived the same expression for the additional mass of a body due to electromagnetic radiation as
Hasenöhrl. Hasenöhrl's idea was that the mass of bodies included a contribution from the
electromagnetic field, he imagined a body as a cavity containing light. His relationship between
mass and energy, like all other pre-Einstein ones, contained incorrect numerical prefactors
(see Electromagnetic mass). Eventually Planck (1907) derived the mass-energy-equivalence in
general within the framework of special relativity, including the binding forceswithin matter. He

acknowledged the priority of Einstein's 1905 work on , but Planck judged his own
approach as more general than Einstein's.[79]

Experiments by Fizeau and Sagnac

As was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging
coefficient (to first order of v/c) and the Fizeau experiment by using the electromagnetic theory and
the concept of local time. After first attempts by Jakob Laub (1907) to create a relativistic "optics of
moving bodies", it was Max von Laue (1907) who derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by
using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In addition, Laue's calculation was
much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.[23]

In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two
beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light
is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated
a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is
independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other
beam. An experiment of this kind was performed by Georges Sagnac in 1913, who actually
measured a displacement of the interference pattern (Sagnac effect). While Sagnac himself
concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed
that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in both theories the speed of light is
independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic
counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a Foucault pendulum.[80] Already
in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be considered as a synthesis
of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass.
Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress
himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical
explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect.[81] Eventually,
the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment(1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the
angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether.

Relativity of simultaneity

The first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also
simplified.[82] Daniel Frost Comstock (1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A
and B. From this observer a signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at
rest, they synchronously start to run. But from the perspective of a system in which A and B are
moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A – so the clocks are not synchronized.
Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and B. However, in
his description two signals are sent from A and B to the observer. From the perspective of the frame
in which A and B are at rest, the signals are sent at the same time and the observer "is hastening
towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming
from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that
emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to
the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A."

Spacetime physics
 Minkowski's spacetim

Poincaré's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new mechanics was not continued by
himself,[52] so it was Hermann Minkowski (1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion
(other contributions were made by Roberto Marcolongo(1906) and Richard Hargreaves (1908)[83]).
This was based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like Arthur Cayley, Felix
Klein, or William Kingdon Clifford, who contributed to group theory, invariant theory and projective
geometry.[84]Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in formulating a geometrical interpretation
of the Lorentz transformation. He completed, for example, the concept of four vectors; he created
the Minkowski diagram for the depiction of space-time; he was the first to use expressions like world
line, proper time, Lorentz invariance/covariance, etc.; and most notably he presented a four-
dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincaré he tried to formulate a Lorentz-
invariant law of gravity, but that work was subsequently superseded by Einstein's elaborations on
gravitation.

In 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity
principle: Lorentz, Einstein, Poincaré and Planck. And in his famous lecture Space and Time (1908)
he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a
generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for completely stating the relativity of time, but he
criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of space. However, modern
historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified, because Minkowski
(like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world-picture and apparently didn't fully
understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics.[85][86] In 1908,
Einstein and Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as overly
complicated "learned superfluousness" and published a "more elementary", non-four-dimensional
derivation of the basic-equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's geometric model that (a)
showed that the special relativity is a complete and internally self-consistent theory, (b) added the
Lorentz invariant proper time interval (which accounts for the actual readings shown by moving
clocks), and (c) served as a basis for further development of relativity.[83] Eventually, Einstein (1912)
recognized the importance of Minkowski's geometric spacetime model and used it as the basis for
his work on the foundations of general relativity.

Today special relativity is seen as an application of linear algebra, but at the time special relativity
was being developed the field of linear algebra was still in its infancy. There were no textbooks on
linear algebra as modern vector space and transformation theory, and the matrix notation of Arthur
Cayley (that unifies the subject) had not yet come into widespread use. Cayley's matrix calculus
notation was used by Minkowski (1908) in formulating relativistic electrodynamics, even though it
was later replaced by Sommerfeld using vector notation.[87] According to a recent source the Lorentz
transformations are equivalent to hyperbolic rotations.[88] However Varicak (1910) had shown that the
standard Lorentz transformation is a translation in hyperbolic space [89]

Vector notation and closed systems

Minkowski's space-time formalism was quickly accepted and further developed.[86] For
example, Arnold Sommerfeld (1910) replaced Minkowski's matrix notation by an elegant vector
notation and coined the terms "four vector" and "six vector". He also introduced
a trigonometric formulation of the relativistic velocity addition rule, which according to Sommerfeld,
removes much of the strangeness of that concept. Other important contributions were made by Laue
(1911, 1913), who used the spacetime formalism to create a relativistic theory of deformable bodies
and an elementary particle theory.[90][91] He extended Minkowski's expressions for electromagnetic
processes to all possible forces and thereby clarified the concept of mass-energy-equivalence. Laue
also showed that non-electrical forces are needed to ensure the proper Lorentz transformation
properties, and for the stability of matter – he could show that the "Poincaré stresses" (as mentioned
above) are a natural consequence of relativity theory so that the electron can be a closed system.

Lorentz transformation without second postulate

There were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the
constancy of the speed of light. Vladimir Ignatowski (1910) for example used for this purpose (a) the
principle of relativity, (b) homogeneity and isotropy of space, and (c) the requirement of
reciprocity. Philipp Frank and Hermann Rothe (1911) argued that this derivation is incomplete and
needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that: (a) the
Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, (b) when changing frames, only the sign
of the relative speed changes, (c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However,
according to Pauli and Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their
transformation with the speed of light — for example, Ignatowski was forced to seek recourse in
electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others argued that both postulates are
needed to derive the Lorentz transformation.[92][93] However, until today, others continued the
attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate.

Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate[edit]

Minkowski in his earlier work in 1907 followed Poincaré in representing space and time together in
complex form (x,y,z,ict) emphasizing the formal similarity with Euclidean space. He noted that
space-time is in a certain sense a four-dimensional non-Euclidean manifold.[94] Sommerfeld (1910)
used Minkowski's complex representation to combine non-collinear velocities by

spherical geometry and so derive Einstein's addition formula. Subsequent

writers,[95] principally Varićak, dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and wrote in explicitly
non-Euclidean (i.e. Lobachevskian) form reformulating relativity using the concept
of rapidity previously introduced by Alfred Robb (1911); Edwin Bidwell Wilson and Gilbert N.
Lewis (1912) introduced a vector notation for spacetime; Émile Borel (1913) showed how parallel
transport in non-Euclidean space provides the kinematic basis of Thomas precession twelve years
before its experimental discovery by Thomas; Felix Klein (1910) and Ludwik Silberstein (1914)
employed such methods as well. One historian argues that the non-Euclidean style had little to show
"in the way of creative power of discovery", but it offered notational advantages in some cases,
particularly in the law of velocity addition.[96] (So in the years before World War I, the acceptance of
the non-Euclidean style was approximately equal to that of the initial spacetime formalism, and it
continued to be employed in relativity textbooks of the 20th century.[96] 1
 Time dilation and twin paradox

Einstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the transverse Doppler effect as a direct
consequence of time dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by Herbert E. Ives and
G. R. Stilwell (Ives–Stilwell experiment).[97] And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity
of time dilation by using two light clocks A and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each
other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one another and to the line of motion.
Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the same reference
frame as A, the period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light.
But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer,
angled path, thus clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside with B the
situation is completely in reverse: Clock B is faster and A is slower. Also Lorentz (1910–1912)
discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed a clock "paradox", which apparently occurs
as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that there is no paradox if one
considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks are
necessary, and the relativity of simultaneity is fully taken into account.

Max von Laue

A similar situation was created by Paul Langevin in 1911 with what was later called the "twin

paradox", where he replaced the clocks by persons (Langevin never used the word "twins" but his
description contained all other features of the paradox). Langevin solved the paradox by alluding to
the fact that one twin accelerates and changes direction, so Langevin could show that the symmetry
is broken and the accelerated twin is younger. However, Langevin himself interpreted this as a hint
as to the existence of an aether. Although Langevin's explanation is still accepted by some, his
conclusions regarding the aether were not generally accepted. Laue (1913) pointed out that any
acceleration can be made arbitrarily small in relation to the inertial motion of the twin, and that the
real explanation is that one twin is at rest in two different inertial frames during his journey, while the
other twin is at rest in a single inertial frame. Laue was also the first to analyze the situation based
on Minkowski's spacetime model for special relativity – showing how the world lines of inertially
moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events.[98]

Acceleration

Einstein (1908) tried – as a preliminary in the framework of special relativity – also to include

accelerated frames within the relativity principle. In the course of this attempt he recognized that for
any single moment of acceleration of a body one can define an inertial reference frame in which the
accelerated body is temporarily at rest. It follows that in accelerated frames defined in this way, the
application of the constancy of the speed of light to define simultaneity is restricted to small
localities. However, the equivalence principle that was used by Einstein in the course of that
investigation, which expresses the equality of inertial and gravitational mass and the equivalence of
accelerated frames and homogeneous gravitational fields, transcended the limits of special relativity
and resulted in the formulation of general relativity.[99]
Nearly simultaneously with Einstein, also Minkowski (1908) considered the special case of uniform
accelerations within the framework of his space-time formalism. He recognized that the world-line of
such an accelerated body corresponds to a hyperbola. This notion was further developed by Born
(1909) and Sommerfeld (1910), with Born introducing the expression "hyperbolic motion". He noted
that uniform acceleration can be used as an approximation for any form of acceleration within
special relativity.[100] In addition, Harry Bateman and Ebenezer Cunningham (1910) showed that
Maxwell's equations are invariant under a much wider group of transformation than the Lorentz-
group, i.e., the spherical wave transformations, being a form of conformal transformations. Under
those transformations the equations preserve their form for some types of accelerated motions.[101] A
general covariant formulation of electrodynamics in Minkowski space was eventually given
by Friedrich Kottler (1912), whereby his formulation is also valid for general relativity.[102] Concerning
the further development of the description of accelerated motion in special relativity, the works by
Langevin and others for rotating frames (Born coordinates), and by Wolfgang Rindler and others for
uniform accelerated frames (Rindler coordinates) must be mentioned.[103]

Rigid bodies and Ehrenfest paradox

Einstein (1907b) discussed the question of whether, in rigid bodies, as well as in all other cases, the
velocity of information can exceed the speed of light, and explained that information could be
transmitted under these circumstances into the past, thus causality would be violated. Since this
contravenes radically against every experience, superluminal velocities are thought impossible. He
added that a dynamics of the rigid body must be created in the framework of SR. Eventually, Max
Born(1909) in the course of his above-mentioned work concerning accelerated motion, tried to
include the concept of rigid bodies into SR. However, Paul Ehrenfest (1909) showed that Born's
concept lead the so-called Ehrenfest paradox, in which, due to length contraction, the circumference
of a rotating disk is shortened while the radius stays the same. This question was also considered
by Gustav Herglotz (1910), Fritz Noether (1910), and von Laue (1911). It was recognized by Laue
that the classic concept is not applicable in SR since a "rigid" body possesses infinitely
many degrees of freedom. Yet, while Born's definition was not applicable on rigid bodies, it was very
useful in describing rigid motions of bodies.[104] In connection to the Ehrenfest paradox, it was also
discussed (by Vladimir Varićak and others) whether length contraction is "real" or "apparent", and
whether there is a difference between the dynamic contraction of Lorentz and the kinematic
contraction of Einstein. However, it was rather a dispute over words because, as Einstein said, the
kinematic length contraction is "apparent" for a co-moving observer, but for an observer at rest it is
"real" and the consequences are measurable.[105]

Acceptance of special relativity

Planck, in 1909, compared the implications of the modern relativity principle — he particularly
referred to the relativity of time – with the revolution by the Copernican system.[106] An important
factor in the adoption of special relativity by physicists was its development by Minkowski into a
spacetime theory.[86] Consequently, by about 1911, most theoretical physicists accepted special
relativity.[107][108] In 1912 Wilhelm Wien recommended both Lorentz (for the mathematical framework)
and Einstein (for reducing it to a simple principle) for the Nobel Prize in Physics – although it was
decided by the Nobel committee not to award the prize for special relativity.[109] Only a minority of
theoretical physicists such as Abraham, Lorentz, Poincaré, or Langevin still believed in the existence
of an aether.[107] Einstein later (1918–1920) qualified his position by arguing that one can speak
about a relativistic aether, but the "idea of motion" cannot be applied to it.[110] Lorentz and Poincaré
had always argued that motion through the aether was undetectable. Einstein used the expression
"special theory of relativity" in 1915, to distinguish it from general relativity.

Relativistic theorie
Gravitation

The first attempt to formulate a relativistic theory of gravitation was undertaken by Poincaré (1905).
He tried to modify Newton's law of gravitation so that it assumes a Lorentz-covariant form. He noted
that there were many possibilities for a relativistic law, and he discussed two of them. It was shown
by Poincaré that the argument of Pierre-Simon Laplace, who argued that the speed of gravity is
many times faster than the speed of light, is not valid within a relativistic theory. That is, in a
relativistic theory of gravitation, planetary orbits are stable even when the speed of gravity is equal to
that of light. Similar models to that of Poincaré were discussed by Minkowski (1907b) and
Sommerfeld (1910). However, it was shown by Abraham (1912) that those models belong to the
class of "vector theories" of gravitation. The fundamental defect of those theories is that they
implicitly contain a negative value for the gravitational energy in the vicinity of matter, which would
violate the energy principle. As an alternative, Abraham (1912) and Gustav Mie (1913) proposed
different "scalar theories" of gravitation. While Mie never formulated his theory in a consistent way,
Abraham completely gave up the concept of Lorentz-covariance (even locally), and therefore it was
irreconcilable with relativity.

In addition, all of those models violated the equivalence principle, and Einstein argued that it is
impossible to formulate a theory which is both Lorentz-covariant and satisfies the equivalence
principle. However, Gunnar Nordström (1912, 1913) was able to create a model which fulfilled both
conditions. This was achieved by making both the gravitational and the inertial mass dependent on
the gravitational potential. Nordström's theory of gravitation was remarkable because it was shown
by Einstein and Adriaan Fokker (1914), that in this model gravitation can be completely described in
terms of space-time curvature. Although Nordström's theory is without contradiction, from Einstein's
point of view a fundamental problem persisted: It doesn't fulfill the important condition of general
covariance, as in this theory preferred frames of reference can still be formulated. So contrary to
those "scalar theories", Einstein (1911–1915) developed a "tensor theory" (i.e. general relativity),
which fulfills both the equivalence principle and general covariance. As a consequence, the notion of
a complete "special relativistic" theory of gravitation had to be given up, as in general relativity the
constancy of light speed (and Lorentz covariance) is only locally valid. The decision between those
models was brought about by Einstein, when he was able to exactly derive the perihelion precession
of Mercury, while the other theories gave erroneous results. In addition, only Einstein's theory gave
the correct value for the deflection of light near the sun.[111][112]

Quantum field theory

The need to put together relativity and quantum mechanics was one of the major motivations in the
development of quantum field theory. Pascual Jordan and Wolfgang Pauli showed in 1928 that
quantum fields could be made to be relativistic, and Paul Dirac produced the Dirac equation for
electrons, and in so doing predicted the existence of antimatter.[113]

Many other domains have since been reformulated with relativistic treatments: relativistic
thermodynamics, relativistic statistical mechanics, relativistic hydrodynamics, relativistic quantum
chemistry, relativistic heat conduction,

HISTORY OF GENERAL RELATIVITY.

General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907
and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915. According to general relativity, the observed
gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those
masses.

Before the advent of general relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for
more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses, even
though Newton himself did not regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity. Within a
century of Newton's formulation, careful astronomical observation revealed unexplainable variations
between the theory and the observations. Under Newton's model, gravity was the result of an
attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was bothered by the unknown
nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion.

However, experiments and observations show that Einstein's description accounts for several
effects that are unexplained by Newton's law, such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and
other planets. General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity, such as gravitational
waves, gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on time known as gravitational time dilation.
Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment or observation, while others are the
subject of ongoing research.

General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the
foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational
attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be
responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects (such as active
galactic nuclei or microquasars). General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big
Bang model of cosmology.

Creation of general relativity

Early investigations
As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was the preference of
inertial motion within special relativity, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of
motion appeared more satisfactory to him.[1] So, while still working at the patent office in 1907,
Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of
relativity could be extended to gravitational fields.
Consequently, in 1907 he wrote an article (published 1908) on acceleration under special
relativity.[2] In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling
observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle.
In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation.

In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article.[3] There, he thought about
the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be
indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field. He used special relativity
to see that the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of
clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational
field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first approximation.

Also the deflection of light by massive bodies was predicted. Although the approximation was crude,
it allowed him to calculate that the deflection is nonzero. German astronomer Erwin Finlay-
Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.[4] This urged astronomers
to detect the deflection of light during a solar eclipse, and gave Einstein confidence that the scalar
theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect. But the actual value for the
deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation he used
doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein finished the full theory
of general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by
the sun.

Another of Einstein's notable thought experiments about the nature of the gravitational field is that of
the rotating disk (a variant of the Ehrenfest paradox). He imagined an observer performing
experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for
the mathematical constant π than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the
radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity,
the circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted. Since Einstein
believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that
spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate
general relativity in this language.

Developing general relativity

.

In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH.
Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a
professor of mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally,
to differential geometry. On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein
began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his
gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he
later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in
which it is used today.[5] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by
matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter.
During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers
academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and
the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the
Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden
University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden University,
accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to
the Netherlands regularly to lecture.[6]

In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein's 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson
Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no
gravitational redshift.[7] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had
disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not published.[8]

However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to
have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while
photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe, a west
African island.[4] Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human
thinking about nature";[9] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest
scientific discovery ever made".[10] The international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown.

There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition
showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude as the effect
Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the
method was inherently unreliable.[11] The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was confirmed by
later, more accurate observations.[12] Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably among some
German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[13][14]

General covariance and the hole argument[edit]

By 1912, Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which gravitation was explained as
a geometric phenomenon. At the urging of Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began by exploring the use
of general covariance (which is essentially the use of curvature tensors) to create a gravitational
theory. However, in 1913 Einstein abandoned that approach, arguing that it is inconsistent based on
the "hole argument". In 1914 and much of 1915, Einstein was trying to create field equations based
on another approach. When that approach was proven to be inconsistent, Einstein revisited the
concept of general covariance and discovered that the hole argument was flawed.[15]

The development of the Einstein field equations

Main article: Einstein field equations

When Einstein realized that general covariance was actually tenable, he quickly completed the
development of the field equations that are named after him. However, he made a now-famous
mistake. The field equations he published in October 1915 were
where is the Ricci tensor, and the energy–momentum tensor. This predicted the non-
Newtonian perihelion precession of Mercury, and so had Einstein very excited. However, it was soon
realized that they were inconsistent with the local conservation of energy–momentum unless the
universe had a constant density of mass–energy–momentum. In other words, air, rock and even a
vacuum should all have the same density. This inconsistency with observation sent Einstein back to
the drawing board. However, the solution was all but obvious, and on November 25, 1915 Einstein
presented the actual Einstein field equations to the Prussian Academy of Sciences:[16]

where is the Ricci scalar and the metric tensor. With the publication of the field
equations, the issue became one of solving them for various cases and interpreting the solutions.
This and experimental verification have dominated general relativity research ever since.

Einstein and Hilbert

Although Einstein is credited with finding the field equations, the German mathematician David
Hilbert published them in an article before Einstein's article. This has resulted in accusations
of plagiarism against Einstein, although not from Hilbert, and assertions that the field equations
should be called the "Einstein–Hilbert field equations". However, Hilbert did not press his claim for
priority and some[who?] have asserted that Einstein submitted the correct equations before Hilbert
amended his own work to include them. This suggests that Einstein developed the correct field
equations first, though Hilbert may have reached them later independently (or even learned of them
afterwards through his correspondence with Einstein).[17] However, others have criticized those
assertions.[18]

Sir Arthur Eddington

In the early years after Einstein's theory was published, Sir Arthur Eddington lent his considerable
prestige in the British scientific establishment in an effort to champion the work of this German
scientist. Because the theory was so complex and abstruse (even today it is popularly considered
the pinnacle of scientific thinking; in the early years it was even more so), it was rumored that only
three people in the world understood it. There was an illuminating, though probably apocryphal,
anecdote about this. As related by Ludwik Silberstein,[19] during one of Eddington's lectures he asked
"Professor Eddington, you must be one of three persons in the world who understands general
relativity." Eddington paused, unable to answer. Silberstein continued "Don't be modest, Eddington!"
Finally, Eddington replied "On the contrary, I'm trying to think who the third person is."

The Schwarzschild solution

Since the field equations are non-linear, Einstein assumed that they were unsolvable.] However, Karl
Schwarzschild discovered in 1915 and published in 1916[20] an exact solution for the case of a
spherically symmetric spacetime surrounding a massive object in spherical coordinates. This is now
known as the Schwarzschild solution. Since then, many other exact solutions have been found.

The expanding universe and the cosmological constant

In 1922, Alexander Friedmann found a solution in which the universe may expand or contract, and
later Georges Lemaîtrederived a solution for an expanding universe. However, Einstein believed that
the universe was apparently static, and since a static cosmology was not supported by the general
relativistic field equations, he added a cosmological constant Λ to the field equations, which became

This permitted the creation of steady-state solutions, but they were unstable: the slightest
perturbation of a static state would result in the universe expanding or contracting. In 1929, Edwin
Hubble found evidence for the idea that the universe is expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping
the cosmological constant, referring to it as "the biggest blunder in my career". At the time, it was
an ad hoc hypothesis to add in the cosmological constant, as it was only intended to justify one
result (a static universe).

More exact solutions

Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing. The
solution for a spherically symmetric charged object was discovered by Reissner and later
rediscovered by Nordström, and is called the Reissner–Nordström solution. The black hole aspect of
the Schwarzschild solution was very controversial, and Einstein did not believe that singularities
could be real. However, in 1957 (two years after Einstein's death in 1955), Martin Kruskal published
a proof that black holes are called for by the Schwarzschild Solution. Additionally, the solution for a
rotating massive object was obtained by Kerr in the 1960s and is called the Kerr solution. The Kerr–
Newman solution for a rotating, charged massive object was published a few years later.

Testing the theory

The perihelion precession of Mercury was the first evidence that general relativity is correct.
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington's 1919 expedition in which he confirmed Einstein's prediction for the
deflection of light by the Sun during the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 helped to cement the
status of general relativity as a likely true theory. Since then many observations have confirmed the
correctness of general relativity. These include studies of binary pulsars, observations of radio
signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the GPS system.

Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, travelling
outward from the source. They were first detected in September 2015 by the Advanced LIGO team
from the merging of a pair of black holes.[21][22][23]

Alternative theories
There have been various attempts to find modifications to general relativity. The most famous of
these are the Brans–Dicke theory (also known as scalar-tensor theory), and Rosen's bimetric theory.
Both of these theories proposed changes to the field equations of general relativity, and both suffer
from these changes permitting the presence of bipolar gravitational radiation. As a result, Rosen's
original theory has been refuted by observations of binary pulsars. As for Brans–Dicke (which has a
tunable parameter ω such that ω = ∞ is the same as general relativity), the amount by which it can
differ from general relativity has been severely constrained by these observations.

In addition, general relativity is inconsistent with quantum mechanics, the physical theory that
describes the wave–particle duality of matter, and quantum mechanics does not currently describe
gravitational attraction at relevant (microscopic) scales. There is a great deal of speculation in the
physics community as to the modifications that might be needed to both general relativity and
quantum mechanics in order to unite them consistently. The speculative theory that unites general
relativity and quantum mechanics is usually called quantum gravity, prominent examples of which
include String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity.

More about GR history

Kip Thorne identifies the "golden age of general relativity" as the period roughly from 1960 to 1975
during which the study of general relativity,[24] which had previously been regarded as something of a
curiosity, entered the mainstream of theoretical physics.[citation needed] During this period, many of the
concepts and terms which continue to inspire the imagination of gravitation researchers and the
general public were introduced, including black holes and 'gravitational singularity'. At the same
time, in a closely related development, the study of physical cosmology entered the mainstream and
the Big Bangbecame well established.

Fulvio Melia refers frequently to the "golden age of relativity" in his book Cracking the Einstein
Code. Andrzej Trautman hosted a relativity conference in Warsaw in 1962 to which Melia refers:

General relativity moved very successfully from that meeting in Warsaw, hot on the heels of
the Pound–Rebka experiment, and entered its golden age of discovery that lasted into the mid-
1970’s.[25]

Roy Kerr, protagonist of the book, contributed an Afterword, saying of the book: "It is a remarkable
piece of writing capturing beautifully the period we now refer to as the golden age of relativity."[26]

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical
physicist[5] who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics
(alongside quantum mechanics).[4][6]:274 His work is also known for its influence on the
philosophy of science.[7][8] He is best known by the general public for his mass–energy
equivalence formula E = mcsquared (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous
equation").[9] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical
physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[10] a pivotal
step in the evolution of quantum theory.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no
longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the
electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his special theory of relativity during his
time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern (1902–1909), Switzerland. However, he realized
that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields and—with his
subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916—he published a paper on general relativity. He
continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to
his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the
thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917,
he applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the
universe.[11][12]

Between 1895 and 1914, he lived in Switzerland (except for one year in Prague, 1911–12),
where he received his academic diploma from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich
(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in 1900. He later taught at that

institute as a professor of theoretical physics between 1912 and 1914 before he left for
Berlin. In 1901, after being stateless for more than five years, he acquired Swiss
citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the
University of Zürich. The same year, his annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four
groundbreaking papers, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at
the age of 26.

He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and—being
Jewish—did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin
Academy of Sciences. He settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in
1940.[13] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a
new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to
what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces,
but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a
weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, he signed the Russell–
Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. He was affiliated
with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific
works.[11][14] His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word
"Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[15] Eugene Wigner wrote of Einstein in
comparison to his contemporaries that "Einstein's understanding was deeper even than
Jansci von Neumann's. His mind was both more penetrating and more original than von
Neumann's. And that is a very remarkable statement."

Anna Maria Nobili is an Italian physicist active in the field of gravitational physics. Her
institution is Pisa University. She authored a number of papers on satellite dynamics and
co-authored a book with Andrea Milani and P. Farinella on the orbital perturbations
induced by non-gravitational forces. After having published several papers on celestial
mechanics, also in collaboration with Clifford Will and E. Myles Standish, Nobili is now
Principal Investigator of the Galileo Galilei (GG) experiment aimed to improve the
accuracy of the equivalence principle lying at the foundation of general relativity and of
other metric theories of gravity.

Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [nels ˈboɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a
Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure
and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was
also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of
electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic
nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model
has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived
the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of
contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of
complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.

Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now
known as the Niels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated
with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner
Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new zirconium-like element, which was named
hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the
element bohrium was named after him.

During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the
Germans, he had a famous meeting with Heisenberg, who had become the head of the
German nuclear weapon project. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was
about to be arrested by the Germans, and he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to
Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of
the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international
cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the
Research Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission and became the
first chairman of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957.

The Principles of Natural Knowledge and The Concept of Nature, Whitehead explains his
alternative theory of relativity, which "cuts away the casual heterogeneity" of Einstein's
later theory. Dividing his book into three parts--General Principles, Physical Applications,
and Elementary Theory of Tensors--the author's arguments and observations utilize his
own unique mix of nature, philosophy,
and "the old division between physics and geometry." This work, first published in 1922, is
essential reading for students, teachers, scientists, or anyone interested in the relationship
of physics to philosophy. English mathematician and philosopher ALFRED NORTH
WHITEHEAD (1861-1947) contributed significantly to 20th-century logic and
metaphysics. With Bertrand Russell he cowrote the landmark Principia Mathematica, and
also authored The Concept of Nature, The Function of Reason, and Process and Reality.
Alfred North Whitehead OM FRS FBA (15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947) was an
English mathematician and philosopher. He is best known as the defining figure of the
philosophical school known as process philosophy,[19] which today has found application
to a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology,
economics, and psychology, among other areas.

In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics. His
most notable work in these fields is the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910–13),
which he wrote with former student Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica is
considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematical logic, and
placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth
century by Modern Library.[20]

Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention
from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a
comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western
philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material
objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus
rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist
independently of one another.[21] Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly
Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.
Whitehead's process philosophy argues that "there is urgency in coming to see the world as
a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and
actions have consequences for the world around us."[21] For this reason, one of the most
promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of

ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr.

John B. Cobb Jr. (Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan, born February 9, 1925)[1] is an
American theologian, philosopher, and environmentalist. Cobb is often regarded as the
preeminent scholar in the field of process philosophy and process theology—the school of
thought associated with the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead.[2] Cobb is the author
of more than fifty books.[3] In 2014, Cobb was elected to the prestigious American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.[4]

A unifying theme of Cobb's work is his emphasis on ecological interdependence—the idea

that every part of the ecosystem is reliant on all the other parts. Cobb has argued that
humanity's most urgent task is to preserve the world on which it lives and depends,[5] an
idea which his primary influence—philosopher and mathematician Alfred North
Whitehead—described as "world-loyalty."[6]

Cobb is well known for his transdisciplinary approach, integrating insights from many
different areas of study and bringing different specialized disciplines into fruitful
communication. Because of his broad-minded interest and approach, Cobb has been
influential in a wide range of disciplines, including theology, ecology, economics, biology
and social ethics.

In 1971, he wrote the first single-author book in environmental ethics—Is It Too Late? A
Theology of Ecology—which argued for the relevance of religious thought in approaching
the ecological crisis.[7] In 1989, he co-authored the book For the Common Good:
Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, Environment, and a Sustainable Future,
which critiqued current global economic practice and advocated for a sustainable, ecology-
based economics. He has written extensively on religious pluralism and interfaith dialogue,
particularly between Buddhism and Christianity, as well as the need to reconcile religion
and science.

Michael Faraday FRS (/ˈfæ.rəˌdeɪ/; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English
scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main
discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and
electrolysis.

Although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential
scientists in history. It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor
carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the
electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays
of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[1][2]
He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction and diamagnetism, and
the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the
foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity
became practical for use in technology.

As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine,

invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and
popularised terminology such as "anode", "cathode", "electrode" and "ion". Faraday
ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Institution, a lifetime position.

Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple
language; his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry and
were limited to the simplest algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and
others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all modern
theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of lines of force, Maxwell wrote
that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order –
one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile
methods."[3] The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour: the farad.

Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac
Newton and James Clerk Maxwell.[4] Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated, "When we
consider the magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of
science and of industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one
of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time."[
James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE (/ˈmækswɛl/;[2] 13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a
Scottish[3][4] scientist in the field of mathematical physics.[5] His most notable
achievement was to formulate the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, bringing
together for the first time electricity, magnetism, and light as different manifestations of
the same phenomenon. Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism have been called the
"second great unification in physics"[6] after the first one realised by Isaac Newton.

With the publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" in 1865,
Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves
moving at the speed of light. Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same
medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.[7] The unification of light
and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves.

Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of

describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first
durable colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity
of rod-and-joint frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges.

His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such
fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the
19th-century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His
contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those
of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.[8] In the millennium poll – a survey of the 100 most
prominent physicists – Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind
only Newton and Einstein.[9] On the centenary of Maxwell's birthday, Einstein described
Maxwell's work as the "most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced
since the time of Newton"
Richard Phillips Feynman (/ˈfaɪnmən/; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an
American theoretical physicist, known for his work in the path integral formulation of
quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the
superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as in particle physics for which he
proposed the parton model. For his contributions to the development of quantum
electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga,
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.
Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical
expressions describing the behavior of subatomic particles, which later became known as
Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime, Feynman became one of the best-known scientists
in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal
Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest physicists of all time.[1]

He assisted in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and became
known to a wide public in the 1980s as a member of the Rogers Commission, the panel that
investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Along with his work in theoretical
physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing and
introducing the concept of nanotechnology. He held the Richard C. Tolman professorship
in theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology.

Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures including a
1959 talk on top-down nanotechnology called There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom and
the three-volume publication of his undergraduate lectures, The Feynman Lectures on
Physics. Feynman also became known through his semi-autobiographical books Surely
You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think? and
books written about him such as Tuva or Bust! by Ralph Leighton and Genius: The Life
and Science of Richard Feynman by James Gleick.
Julian Seymour Schwinger (/ˈʃwɪŋər/; February 12, 1918 – July 16, 1994) was a Nobel Prize
winning American theoretical physicist. He is best known for his work on the theory of
quantum electrodynamics (QED), in particular for developing a relativistically invariant
perturbation theory, and for renormalizing QED to one loop order. Schwinger was a
physics professor at several universities.

Schwinger is recognized as one of the greatest physicists of the twentieth century,

responsible for much of modern quantum field theory, including a variational approach,
and the equations of motion for quantum fields. He developed the first electroweak model,
and the first example of confinement in 1+1 dimensions. He is responsible for the theory of
multiple neutrinos, Schwinger terms, and the theory of the spin 3/2 field.

Olivia Barclay (12 December 1919 in Essex – 1 April 2001 in Kent) was a British astrologer
who played an important role in the revival of traditional forms of astrology in the late
20th century. Much of her focus in the latter part of her life was on the work of the 17th-
century astrologer William Lilly.In 1980, Barclay obtained an original copy of Lilly's
Christian Astrology, and later she arranged to have it re-printed as a facsimile edition in
1985. This dissemination of Christian Astrology helped to spur a revival of interest in
traditional astrology in the late 20th century.[2] Her work stimulated the unearthing of
techniques that had been lost in various cultural transitions since the Enlightenment and
encouraged wider researches into the astrological traditions of the Babylonians, Greeks,
Egyptians, Persians, Arabs, Western medieval and Renaissance practitioners.

As part of her work as a professional astrologer, Barclay taught horary astrology, and she
founded the Qualified Horary Practitioner ("QHP") correspondence course. This consisted
of twelve lessons, the last of which required students to make a successful prediction using
horary astrology. Several graduates of her course went on to make prominent careers for
themselves in the field.

Barclay wrote Horary Astrology Rediscovered (published in 1990), which is a detailed

description of the theory, practice and history of horary astrology. The book included
material from her correspondence course and in 1991 received the Professional Astrologers
Inc. Award for her 'outstanding contribution to astrology'.[1] According to James Holden,
in her book, she "advocates the use of Regiomontanus houses, apparently reasoning that if
they were good enough for Lilly, they are good enough for 20th century horary
astrologers."[2]

Barclay's advocacy of Lilly also brought about an elevation of horary astrology (which is
the main focus of Christian Astrology) from obscure occultism to mainstream astrological
practice.

Oliver Heaviside FRS[1] (/ˈɒlɪvər ˈhɛvisaɪd/; 18 May 1850 – 3 February 1925) was an
English self-taught electrical engineer, mathematician, and physicist who adapted complex
numbers to the study of electrical circuits, invented mathematical techniques for the
solution of differential equations (equivalent to Laplace transforms), reformulated
Maxwell's field equations in terms of electric and magnetic forces and energy flux, and
independently co-formulated vector analysis. Although at odds with the scientific
establishment for most of his life, Heaviside changed the face of telecommunications,
mathematics, and science for years to come.

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (/ˈlɒrənts/; 18 July 1853 – 4 February 1928) was a Dutch physicist
who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and
theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the transformation equations
underpinning Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity.

According to the biography published by the Nobel Foundation, "It may well be said that
Lorentz was regarded by all theoretical physicists as the world's leading spirit, who
completed what was left unfinished by his predecessors and prepared the ground for the
fruitful reception of the new ideas based on the quantum theory."[2] He received many
honours and distinctions, including a term as chairman of the International Committee on
Intellectual Cooperation, the forerunner of UNESCO.

Android is often word Android was coined from the Greek root 'man' (male, as opposed
to anthrop-D human being) and the suffix *-oid 'having the form or likeness The term
"android" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature

human-like toy automatons. The term *android* was used in a more modern sense by
the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in his work *Tomorrow's Eve This
story features an artificial human like robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the
story, "In this age

of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for
these mechanical dolls." The term made an impact into English pulp science fiction
starting from Jack Williamson *The Cometeers (1936) and the distinction between
mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by Edmond Hamilton Although
Karel apek's robots in *R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) (1921 the play that
introduced the word *robot to the world were organic artificial humans, the word "robot"
has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings The term
"android" can mean either one of these, while a cyborg ("cybernetic organism" or
"bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.
The term "droid popularized by George Lucas in the original *Star Wars film and now
used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of "android", but has
been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form
machines like R2-D2 The word "android" was used in *Star Trek: The Original Series

episode *What Are Little Girls Made Of?*

The abbreviation "andy", coined as a pejorative by writer Philip K. Dick in his novel *Do
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? has seen some further usage, such as within the TV
series *Total Recall 2070 Authors have used the term *android* in more diverse ways
than *robot *cyborg In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android
is only their appearance, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside
but with robot-like internal mechanics In other stories, authors have used the word
android" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation.Other fictional depictions of
androids fall somewhere in between.

Eric G. Wilson, who defines androids as a "synthetic human being", distinguishes

between three types of androids, based on their body's composition:

(i) - the mummy type - where androids are made of "dead things" or "stiff inanimate,
natural material", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and status

(ii) - the golem type - androids made from flexible, possibly organic
 material, including golems and homunculi

(iii) - the automaton type - androids which are a mix of dead and living

parts, including automatons and robots This is the type of robot that Ariny Amos
belongs.

Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the
fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the
assimilation of two concepts: *simulacra and *automata.

Jesus[e] (c. 4 BC – c. AD 30 / 33), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth and Jesus Christ,[f]
was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader.[12] He is the central figure of
Christianity. Most Christians believe him to be the incarnation of God the Son and the
awaited Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament.[13][14],A typical Jew in Jesus'
time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the father's name or the
individual's hometown.[43] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as
"Jesus of Nazareth"[k] (e.g., Mark 10:47).[44] Jesus' neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as
"the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon"
(Mark 6:3),[45] "the carpenter's son" (Matthew 13:55),[46] or "Joseph's son" (Luke
4:22).[47] In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth"
(John 1:45).[48]

The name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς

(Iesous).[49] The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ‫( ישוע‬Yeshua), a variant of the

earlier name ‫( יהושע‬Yehoshua), or in English, "Joshua".[50][51][52] The name Yeshua

appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[53] The 1st-century
works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the same language as that
of the New Testament,[54] refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus (i.e.
Ἰησοῦς).[55] The etymology of Jesus' name in the context of the New Testament is
generally given as "Yahweh is salvation".[56]

Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically,[g] although
the quest for the historical Jesus has produced little agreement on the historical reliability
of the Gospels and on how closely the Jesus portrayed in the Bible reflects the historical
Jesus.[21][h][i] Jesus was a Galilean Jew[12] who was baptized by John the Baptist and
subsequently began his own ministry, preaching his message orally[24] and often being
referred to as "rabbi".[25] Jesus debated with fellow Jews on how to best follow God,
engaged in healings, taught in parables and gathered followers.[26][27] He was arrested
and tried by the Jewish authorities,[28] and turned over to the Roman government, and
was subsequently crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect.[26] After his
death, his followers believed he rose from the dead, and the community they formed
eventually became the early Church.[29]

The birth of Jesus is celebrated annually on December 25 (or various dates in January by
some eastern churches) as a holiday known as Christmas. His crucifixion is honored on
Good Friday, and his resurrection is celebrated on Easter. The widely used calendar era
"AD", from the Latin anno Domini ("in the year of the Lord"), and the alternative "CE",
are based on the approximate birth date of Jesus.[30][j]

Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was
born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Church, died by
crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into
Heaven, from where he will return.[32] Most Christians believe Jesus enables people to be
reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the
dead[33] either before or after their bodily resurrection,[34][35][36] an event tied to the
Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology.[37] The great majority of Christians
worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine
Trinity. A minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as
non-scriptural.

Jesus also figures in non-Christian religions and new religious movements. In Islam, Jesus
(commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets and the
Messiah.[38][39][40] Muslims believe Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a
virgin, but was not the Son of God. The Quran states that Jesus himself never claimed
divinity.[41] Most Muslims do not believe that he was crucified, but believe that he was
physically raised into Heaven by God. In contrast, Rabbinic Judaism rejects the belief that
Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill Messianic prophecies. Jewish
views on Jesus are that he was neither divine nor resurrected.
Zeus (/zjuːs/;[3] Greek: Ζεύς, Zeús [zdeǔ̯s])[4] is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek
religion, who rules as king of the gods of Mount Olympus. His name is cognate with the
first element of his Roman equivalent Jupiter. His mythologies and powers are similar,
though not identical, to those of Indo-European deities such as Indra, Jupiter, Perkūnas,
Perun, Thor, and Odin.[5][6][7]

Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, the youngest of his siblings to be born, though
sometimes reckoned the eldest as the others required disgorging from Cronus's stomach.
In most traditions, he is married to Hera, by whom he is usually said to have fathered
Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus.[8] At the oracle of Dodona, his consort was said to be Dione,
by whom the Iliad states that he fathered Aphrodite.[11] Zeus was also infamous for his
erotic escapades. These resulted in many godly and heroic offspring, including Athena,
Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos,
and the Muses.[8]

He was respected as an allfather who was chief of the gods[12] and assigned the others to
their roles:[13] "Even the gods who are not his natural children address him as Father,
and all the gods rise in his presence."[14][15] He was equated with many foreign weather
gods, permitting Pausanias to observe "That Zeus is king in heaven is a saying common to
all men".[16] Zeus' symbols are the thunderbolt, eagle, bull, and oak. In addition to his
Indo-European inheritance, the classical "cloud-gatherer" (Greek: Νεφεληγερέτα,
Nephelēgereta)[17] also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the ancient
Near East, such as the scepter. Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek artists in one of two
poses: standing, striding forward with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or
seated in majesty.

The Theory of relativity was A particularly important early

development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific
astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the
foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in
many other civilizations.[15] The Babylonians discovered that lunar
eclipses recurred in a repeating cycle known as a saros.[16]

Greek equatorial sundial, Alexandria on the Oxus, present-day

Afghanistan 3rd–2nd century BCE. Following the Babylonians,
significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and
the Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the
start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial
phenomena. Early Man -> little recorded information on early
man's impression of the heavens, some drawings of eclipses, comets,
supernovae such as the Pueblo Petrograph. Early man was
frightened/overwhelmed by the sky
The earliest recorded astronomical observation is the Nebra sky
disk from northern Europe dating approximately 1,600 BC (see
above). This 30 cm bronze disk depicts the Sun, a lunar crescent and
stars (including the Pleiades star cluster). The disk is probably a
religious symbol as well as a crude astronomical instrument or
calendar. In the Western hemisphere, similar understanding of
basic stellar and planetary behavior was developing. For example,
Native American culture around the same time were leaving rock
drawings, or petroglyphs, of astronomical phenomenon. The
clearest example is found below, a petroglyph which depicts the
1,006 AD supernova that resulted in the Crab Nebula.
Early man also believed that the heavens held power over earthy
existence (psychology of the unknown) -> origins of astrology as an
attempt to understand, predict and influence events

The earliest written records ( history) were astronomical

observations - Babylonians (~1600 B.C.) recorded position of
planets, times of eclipses, etc. - also evidence from early Chinese,
Central American and North European cultures such
as Stonehenge, which is a big computer for calculating the position
of planets and the Sun , when to have that big blowout Solstice thing
->thus, Astronomy was the 1st science

Later in history, 5,000 to 20,000 years ago, humankind begins to

organize themselves and develop what we now call culture. A
greater sense of permanence in your daily existences leads to the
development of myths, particularly creation myths to explain the
origin of the Universe.

Most myths maintain supernatural themes, with gods, divine and

semi-divine figures,
but there was usually an internal logical consistence to the narrative.
Myths are often attempts at a rational explanation of the everyday
world, their goal is to teach. Even if we consider some of the stories
to be ridiculous, they were, in some sense, our first scientific
theories. They also closely follow a particular religion, and this time
is characterized by a close marriage of science and religion.

Hellenistic Culture (~500 B.C.):

The ancient Greeks inherited astronomical records from the

Babylonians and applied the data to construct a cosmological
framework. Data was not just used for practical goals, such as
navigation, but also to think of new experiments = natural
philosopher.

Thales (~480 B.C.) used this data to predict eclipses.

Thales of Miletus (/ˈθeɪliːz/; Greek: Θαλῆς (ὁ
Μιλήσιος), Thalēs; c. 624 – c. 546 BC) was a pre-
Socratic Greek philosopher, mathematician,
and astronomerfrom Miletus in Asia Minor (present-
day Milet in Turkey). He was one of the Seven Sages of
Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him as the
first philosopher in the Greek tradition,[1][2] and he is
otherwise historically recognized as the first individual
in Western civilization known to have entertained and
engaged in scientific philosophy.[3][4]

Thales is recognized for breaking from the use

of mythology to explain the world and the universe, and
instead explaining natural objects and phenomena
by theories and hypotheses, in a precursor to
modern science. Almost all the other Pre-Socratic
philosophers followed him in explaining nature as deriving
from a unity of everything based on the existence of a single
ultimate substance, instead of using mythological
explanations. Aristotle reported Thales' hypothesis that
the originating principle of nature and the nature
of matter was a single material substance: water.

In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the

heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the
shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive
reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries
to Thales' theorem. He is the first known individual to whom
a mathematical discovery has been attributed

Between the cosmological foundation set by the Presocratics and the

world of Ideas introduced by Plato was a set of fundamental
calculations on the size of the Earth, Moon, Sun and the distances
between the nearby planets performed by Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes of Cyrene (/ɛrəˈtɒsθəniːz/; Greek: Ἐρατοσθένης

ὁ Κυρηναῖος, IPA: [eratostʰénɛːs]; c. 276 BC[1] – c. 195/194
BC[2]) was a Greek
mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer, and music
theorist. He was a man of learning, becoming the chief
librarian at the Library of Alexandria. He invented the
discipline of geography, including the terminology used
today.[3]

He is best known for being the first person to calculate

the circumference of the Earth, which he did by comparing
altitudes of the mid-day sun at two places a known North-
South distance apart.
His calculation was remarkably accurate. He was also the
first to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis (again with
remarkable accuracy). Additionally, he may have accurately
calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun and
invented the leap day.[4] He created the first map of the world,
incorporating parallels and meridians based on the available
geographic knowledge of his era.

Eratosthenes was the founder of scientific chronology; he

endeavored to revise the dates of the chief literary and
political events from the conquest of Troy. Eratosthenes
dated The Sack of Troy to 1183 BC. In number theory, he
introduced the sieve of Eratosthenes, an efficient method of
identifying prime numbers.

He was a figure of influence in many fields. According to an

entry[5] in the Suda(a 10th-century reference), his critics
scorned him, calling him Beta (the second letter of the Greek
alphabet) because he always came in second in all his
endeavors.[6] Nonetheless, his devotees nicknamed
him Pentathlos after the Olympians who were well rounded
competitors, for he had proven himself to be knowledgeable
in every area of learning. Eratosthenes yearned to
understand the complexities of the entire world
Aristarchus (c. 250 BC). Aristarchus of
Samos (/ˌærəˈstɑːrkəs/; Greek: Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ
Σάμιος, Aristarkhos ho Samios; c. 310 – c. 230 BC) was
an ancient Greek astronomerand mathematician who
presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the
center of the known universe with the Earth revolving around
it (see Solar system). He was influenced by Philolaus of
Croton, but Aristarchus identified the "central fire" with the
Sun, and he put the other planets in their correct order of
distance around the Sun.[1] Like Anaxagoras before him, he
suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun,
albeit further away from Earth. He was also the first one to
deduce the rotation of earth on its axis. His astronomical
ideas were often rejected in favor of the
incorrect geocentric theories
of Aristotleand Ptolemy. Nicolaus Copernicus attributed the
heliocentric theory to Aristarchus, Using some simple geometry,
natural philosophers were able to, for the first time, place some
estimate of the size of the cosmos in Earth terms.

For a long time it was realized that the earth's surface was curved
by people familiar with the behavior of incoming and outgoing
ships. For it was obvious that as a ship passed over the horizon, the
hull disappeared first, then the topmost sailing masts ,although one
could argue this is an effect of refraction in the atmosphere).
Ancient astronomers could see with their eyes that the Sun and the
Moon were round. And the shadow of the Earth, cast on the lunar
surface during a lunar eclipse, is curved. A sphere is the simplest
shape to explain the Earth's shadow (a disk would sometimes
display a shadow shaped like a line or oval.
Eratosthenes used a spherical Earth model, and some simple
geometry, to calculate its circumference. Eratosthenes knows that
on a special day (the summer solstice) at noon in the Egyptian city of
Syene, a stick placed in the ground will cast no shadow (i.e., it is
parallel to the Sun's rays). A stick in the ground at Alexandria, to
the north, will cast a shadow at an angle of 7 degrees. Eratosthenes
realizes that the ratio of a complete circle (360 degrees) to 7 degrees
is the same as the ratio of the circumference of the Earth to the
distance from Alexandria to Swenet. Centuries of surveying by
Egyptian pharaohs scribes gave him the distance between the two
cities of 4900 stadia, approximately 784 kilometers. This resulting in
a circumference of 40,320 kilometers, which is amazingly close to
the modern value of 40,030 kilometers. With this calculation,
Eratosthenes becomes the father of geography eventually drawing
up the first maps of the known world and determining the size of the
most fundamental object in the Universe, our own planet.
Hipparchus (100 B.C.) produced first star catalog and recorded the
names of constellations. Hipparchus of
Nicaea (/hɪˈpɑːrkəs/; Greek: Ἵππαρχος, Hipparkhos; c. 190 –
c. 120 BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer,
and mathematician. He is considered the founder
of trigonometry[1] but is most famous for his incidental
discovery of precession of the equinoxes.[2]

Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia (now İznik, Turkey),

and probably died on the island of Rhodes. He is known to
have been a working astronomer at least from 162 to
127 BC.[3] Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient
astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall
astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative
and accurate models for the motion of
the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of
the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques
accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and
by Meton of Athens (5th
century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of
Samos and Eratosthenes, among others.[4]He developed
trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he
solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. With his
solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have
been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar
eclipses. His other reputed achievements include the
discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the
compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the
western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe,
also of the armillary sphere, which he used during the
creation of much of the star catalogue.

There were only seven objects visible to the ancients, the Sun and
the Moon, plus the five planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn. It was obvious that the planets were not on the celestial
sphere since the Moon clearly passes in front of the Sun and planets,
plus Mercury and Venus can be seen to transit the Sun. Plato first
proposed that the planets followed perfect circular orbits around the
Earth. Later, Heraclides (330 B.C.) developed the first Solar System
model, placing the planets in order from the Earth it was is now
called the geocentric solar system model and the beginning of the
geocentric versus heliocentric debate.

Note that orbits are perfect circles (for philosophical reasons = all
things in the Heavens are "perfect")
Slightly later, Aristarchus (270 B.C.) proposed an alternative model
of the Solar System placing the Sun at the center with the Earth and
the planets in circular orbit around it. The Moon orbits around the
Earth. This model became known as the heliocentric theory

Aristarchus was the first to propose a Sun centered cosmology and

one of the primary objections to the heliocentric model is that the
stars display no parallax (the apparent shift of nearby stars on the
sky due to the Earth's motion around the Sun). However,
Aristarchus believed that the stars were very distant and, thus,
display parallax's that are too small to be seen with the eye (in fact,
the first parallax will not by measured until 1838 by Friedrich
Bessel). The Sun is like the fixed stars, states Aristarchus, unmoving
on a sphere with the Sun at its center. For Aristarchus it was absurd
that the "Hearth" of the sky, the Sun, should move and eclipses are
easy to explain by the motion of the Moon around the Earth.
Problems for Heliocentric Theory:

While today we know that the Sun is at the center of the solar
system, this was not obvious for the technology of the times per-
1500's. In particular, Aristarchus' model was ruled out by the
philosophers at the time for three reasons:

1. Earth in orbit around Sun means that the Earth is in motion.

Before the discovery of Newton's law of motion, it was
impossible to imagine motion without being able to `feel' it.
Clearly, no motion is detected (although trade winds are due to
the Earth's rotation).
2. If the Earth undergoes a circular orbit, then nearby stars
would have a parallax. A parallax is an apparent shift in the
position of nearby stars relative to distant stars.
 Of course, if all the stars are implanted on the crystal celestial
sphere, then there is no parallax.

3. Lastly, geocentric ideas seem more `natural' to a philosopher.

Earth at the center of the Universe is a very ego-centric idea,
and has an aesthetic appeal.
Ptolemy (200 A.D.) Claudius
Ptolemy (/ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos[kláwdios ptolɛmɛ́ːos]; Latin: Claudius
Ptolemaeus; c. AD 100 – c. 170)[2] was a Greco-
Roman[3] mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer
, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.[4][5] He
lived in the city of Alexandriain the Roman province of Egypt,
wrote in Koine Greek, and held Roman citizenship.[6] The
14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes gave his
birthplace as the prominent Greek city Ptolemais
Hermiou (Greek: Πτολεμαΐς ‘Ερμείου) in
the Thebaid (Greek: Θηβαΐδα [Θηβαΐς]). This attestation is
quite late, however, and, according to Gerald Toomer, the
translator of his Almagestinto English, there is no reason to
suppose he ever lived anywhere other than Alexandria.[7] He
died there around AD 168.[8]

Ptolemy wrote several scientific treatises, three of which

were of importance to
later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is
the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest,
although it was originally entitled the Mathematical
Treatise (Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, Mathēmatikē Syntaxis) and
then known as the Great Treatise (Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Hē
Megálē Syntaxis). The second is the Geography, which is a
thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of
the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise
in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to
the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day.
This is sometimes known as
the Apotelesmatika(Ἀποτελεσματικά) but more commonly
known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek(Τετράβιβλος)
meaning "Four Books" or by the Latin Quadripartitum.

he was an ancient astronomer, geographer, and mathematician who

took the geocentric theory of the solar system and gave it a
mathematical foundation (called the "Ptolemaic system"). He did
this in order to simultaneously produce a cosmological theory based
on Aristotle's physics (circular motion, no voids, geocentric) and one
that would provide a technically accurate description of planetary
astronomy. Ptolemy's system is one of the first examples of scientists
attempting to "save the phenomena", to develop a combination of
perfect circles to match the irregular motion of the planets, i.e.,
using concepts asserted by pure reason that match the observed
phenomenon.

Ptolemy wrote a great treatise on the celestial sphere and the motion
of the planets call the Almagest. The Almagest is divided into 13
books, each of which deals with certain astronomical concepts
pertaining to stars and to objects in the solar system. It was, no
doubt, the encyclopedic nature of the work that made the Almagest
so useful to later astronomers and that gave the views contained in it
so profound an influence. In essence, it is a synthesis of the results
obtained by Greek astronomy; it is also the major source of
knowledge about the work of Hipparchus.
The Christian Aristotelian cosmos, engraving from Peter Apian's
Cosmographia, 1524
In the first book of the Almagest, Ptolemy describes his geocentric
system and gives various arguments to prove that, in its position at
the center of the universe, the Earth must be immovable. Not least,
he showed that if the Earth moved, as some earlier philosophers had
suggested, then certain phenomena should in consequence be
observed. In particular, Ptolemy argued that since all bodies fall to
the center of the universe, the Earth must be fixed there at the
center, otherwise falling objects would not be seen to drop toward
the center of the Earth. Again, if the Earth rotated once every 24
hours, a body thrown vertically upward should not fall back to the
same place, as it was seen to do. Ptolemy was able to demonstrate,
however, that no contrary observations had ever been obtained.
Ptolemy accepted the following order for celestial objects in the
solar system: Earth (center), Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn. However, when the detailed observations of the
planets in the skies is examined, the planets undergo motion which is
impossible to explain in the geocentric model, a backward track for
the outer planets. This behavior is called retrograde motion.

The solution to retrograde motion was to use a system of circles on

circles to explain the orbits of the planets called epicycles and
deferents. The main orbit is the deferent, the smaller orbit is the
epicycle. Although only one epicycle is shown in the figure below,
over 28 were required to explain the actual orbits of the planets.
In the Ptolemaic system, deferents were large circles centered on the
Earth, and epicycles were small circles whose centers moved around
the circumferences of the deferents. The Sun, Moon, and planets
moved around the circumference of their own epicycles. In the
movable eccentric, there was one circle; this was centered on a point
displaced from the Earth, with the planet moving around the
circumference. These were mathematically equivalent schemes.
Although Ptolemy realized that the planets were much closer to the
Earth than the "fixed" stars, he seems to have believed in the
physical existence of crystalline spheres, to which the heavenly
bodies were said to be attached. Outside the sphere of the fixed
stars, Ptolemy proposed other spheres, ending with the primum
mobile ("prime mover"), which provided the motive power for the
remaining spheres that constituted his conception of the universe.
His resulting solar system model looked like the following, although
the planets had as many as 28 epicycles to account for all the details
of their motion.
This model, while complicated, was a complete description of the
Solar System that explained, and predicted, the apparent motions of
all the planets. The Ptolemic system began the 1st mathematical
paradigm or framework for our understanding of Nature.

Aristotle (/ˈærɪˌstɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pro

nounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC)[n 1] was an ancient
Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city
of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece. Along
with Plato, Aristotle is considered the "Father of Western
Philosophy", which inherited almost its entire lexicon from
his teachings, including problems and methods of inquiry, so
influencing almost all forms of knowledge.

Little is known for certain about his life. His

father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he
was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen
years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and
remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC).[4] His
writings cover many subjects –
including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre,
music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, politics and
government –

and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western

philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and,
at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the
Great beginning in 343 BC.[5]Teaching Alexander gave
Aristotle many opportunities. He established a library in
the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his
hundreds of books, which were papyrus scrolls. The fact that
Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views
of Platonism, but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed
himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism
to empiricism.[6] He believed all concepts and knowledge
were ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's views
on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying
many of his works.

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped

medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late
Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance,
and were not replaced systematically until the
Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics.
Some of Aristotle's zoologicalobservations, such as on
the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were
disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the
earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval
scholars such as Peter Abelard and John
Buridan. Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Islamic
thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian
theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early
Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as
"The First Teacher". His ethics, though always influential,
gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue
ethics.

All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the

object of academic study. Though Aristotle wrote many
elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a
third of his original output has survived, none of it intended
for publication.[7]
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists
including Raphael and Rembrandt. Early Modern theories
including William Harvey's circulation of the
blood and Galileo Galilei's kinematics were developed in
reaction to Aristotle's. In the 19th century, George
Boole gave Aristotle's logic a mathematical foundation with
his system of algebraic logic. In the 20th century, Martin
Heidegger created a new interpretation of Aristotle's political
philosophy, but elsewhere Aristotle was widely criticised,
even ridiculed by thinkers such as the philosopher Bertrand
Russell and the biologist Peter Medawar. More recently,
Aristotle has again been taken seriously, such as in the
thinking of Ayn Rand and Alasdair MacIntyre, while Armand
Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology. The image
of Aristotle tutoring the young Alexander remains current, as
in the 2004 film Alexander, and the Poetics continues to play
a role in the cinema of the United States.

Alexandria burns, Roman culture collapses, Dark Ages but the

Roman Catholic Church absorbs Aristotle's scientific methods and
Ptolemy's model into its own doctrine. Thus, preserving the
scientific method and Ptolemy's Solar System until then,

The Renaissance, where new ideas were more important than

dogma.
As we know from history, the great library at Alexandria burns in
272 AD, destroying a great deal of the astronomical data for the
time. Roman culture collapses and we enter the Dark Ages. But, the
Roman Catholic Church absorbs Aristotle's scientific methods and
Ptolemy's model into its own doctrine. Thus, preserving the
scientific method and Ptolemy's Solar System. Unfortunately, the
geocentric model was accepted as doctrine and, therefore, was not
subjected to the scientific method for hundreds of years.

Nicolaus Copernicus (/koʊˈpɜːrnɪkəs, kə-

/;[2][3][4] Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik;[5]German: Nikolaus
Kopernikus; Niklas Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May
1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer
who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun
rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, likely
independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated
such a model some eighteen centuries earlier.[a]

The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De

revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres), just before his death in 1543, was a major
event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican
Revolution and making an important contribution to
the Scientific Revolution.[8]

Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that

had been part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466.
A polyglot and polymath, he obtained a doctorate in canon
law and was also
a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics
scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. In
1517 he derived a quantity theory of money – a key concept
in economics – and in 1519 he formulated an economics
principle that later came to be called Gresham's law

Copernicus (1500's) reinvented the heliocentric theory and

challenged Church doctrine. Copernicus (c. 1520) was not the first
astronomer to challenge the geocentric model of Ptolemy, but he was
the first to successfully formulate a heliocentric model and publish
his model. He was able to overcome centuries of resistance to the
heliocentric model for a series of political and scientific reasons.
Politically, the authority of the Church was weakening in Northern
Europe in the 15th century allowing more diversity in scientific
thinking (although the new
Protestant faiths were also not quick to embrace the heliocentric
model). Scientifically, a better understanding of motion (particularly
inertia) was undermining the whole concept of an unmoving Earth.
A rotating Earth is a much simpler explanation for the durnal
motion of stars, an Earth that rotates is only one step away from an
Earth that revolves around the Sun. The heliocentric model had a
greater impact than simply an improvement to solve retrograde
motion. By placing the Sun at the center of the Solar System,
Copernicus forced a change in our worldview = paradigm shift or
science revolution.

Copernicus began his quest for an improved solar system model

with some basic principles. Foremost was the postulate that the
Earth was not the center of the Universe, only the center of local
gravity and the Moon. Second, the postulate that the Sun was the
center of the solar system, all planets revolved around the Sun. In
this fashion, retrograde motion is not cause by the planets
themselves, but rather by the orbit of the Earth.

While Copernicus includes a rotating Earth in his heliocentric

model, he continues to cling to Aristotle's celestial motions, i.e.
orbits that are perfect circles (rather than their true shape, an
ellipse).
This forces Copernicus to adopt a series of moving sphere's for each
planet to explain longitude motion. While Copernicus has fewer
sphere's, since more of the retrograde motion is accounted for, his
system is still extremely complicated in a computational sense. It's
two greatest advantages is that it places the inferior planets near the
Sun, naturally explaining their lack of large eastern or western
elongations, and removing any extreme motions, such as that needed
to explain durnal changes.

Copernicus also changes the immovable empyrean heaven into a

fixed sphere of stars, severing theology from cosmology. However,
Copernicus fails to produce a mechanically simple scheme for
astrologers to cast horoscopes or astronomers to produce almanacs,
for ultimately the tables he produces are as complicated as
Ptolemy's and he did not publish all his results in the final edition of
his work, "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres".
However, Copernicus, like Ptolemy, also used circular orbits and
had to resort to epicycles and deferents to explain retrograde
motions. In fact,

Copernicus was forced to use more epicycles than Ptolemy, i.e. a

more complicated system of circles on circles. Thus, Copernicus'
model would have failed our modern criteria that a scientific model
be as simple as possible (Occam's Razor).

Tycho Brahe (/ˌtaɪkoʊ ˈbrɑːhi, ˈbrɑː, ˈbrɑːə/, born Tyge

Ottesen Brahe(Danish: [ˈtyːə ˈʌdəsn̩ ˈbʁɑː][n 1]); 14 December
1546 – 24 October 1601) was a Danish nobleman,
astronomer, and writer known for his accurate and
comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He
was born in the then Danish peninsula of Scania. Well known
in his lifetime as an astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, he
has been described as "the first competent mind in modern
astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical
facts."[1] His observations were some five times more
accurate than the best available observations at the time.

An heir to several of Denmark's principal noble families, he

received a comprehensive education. He took an interest in
astronomy and in the creation of more accurate instruments
of measurement. As an astronomer, Tycho worked to
combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of
the Copernican systemwith the philosophical benefits of
the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe,
the Tychonic system. His system correctly saw the Moon as
orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, but
erroneously considered the Sun to be orbiting the Earth.
Furthermore, he was the last of the major naked-
eyeastronomers, working without telescopes for his
observations. In his De nova stella (On the New Star) of 1573,
he refuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial
realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars"
(stellae novae, now known as supernovae), in particular that
of 1572, lacked the parallax expected in sublunar phenomena
and were therefore not tailless comets in the atmosphere as
previously believed but were above the atmosphere and
beyond the moon. Using similar measurements he showed
that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as
previously thought, and must pass through the supposedly
immutable celestial spheres.

King Frederick II granted Tycho an estate on the island

of Hven and the funding to build Uraniborg, an early research
institute, where he built large astronomical instruments and
took many careful measurements, and later Stjerneborg,
underground, when he discovered that his instruments in
Uraniborg were not sufficiently steady. On the island (where
he behaved autocratically toward the residents) he founded
manufactories, such as a paper mill, to provide material for
printing his results. After disagreements with the new Danish
king, Christian IV, in 1597, he went into exile, and was invited
by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph
II to Prague, where he became the official imperial
astronomer. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou.
There, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted
by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tycho's astronomical
data to develop his three laws of planetary motion.

Tycho Brahe (1580's) was astronomy's 1st true observer. He built

the Danish Observatory (using sextant's since telescopes had not
been invented yet) from which he measured positions of planets and
stars to the highest degree of accuracy for that time period (1st
modern database). He showed that the Sun was much farther than
the Moon from the Earth, using simple trigonometry of the angle
between the Moon and the Sun at 1st Quarter.

The Earth's motion, as a simple matter of dynamics, was extremely

perplexing to the medieval thinker. The size and mass of the Earth
was approximately known since Eratosthenes had measured the
circumference of the Earth (thus, the volume is known and one
could simply multiple the volume with the mean density of rock to
obtain a rough mass estimate). The force required to move the
Earth seemed impossible to the average medieval natural
philosopher.

Brahe had additional reason to question the motion of the Earth, for
his excellent stellar positional observations continued to fail to detect
any parallax. This lack of annual parallax implied that the celestial
sphere was "immeasurably large". Brahe had also attempted to
measure the size of stars, not understanding that the apparent size
of a star simply reflects the blurring caused by the passage of
starlight through the atmosphere. Brahe's estimate for the size of
stars would place them larger than the current day estimate of the
size of the Earth's orbit. Such "titanic" stars are absurd according
to Brahe's understanding of stars at the time.
Beyond Tycho Brahe's accomplishments in the observational arena,
he is also remembered for introducing two compromise solutions to
the solar system model now referred to as the geoheliocentric
models. Brahe was strongly influenced by the idea of Mercury and
Venus revolving around the Sun to explain the fact that their
apparent motion across the sky never takes them more than a few
tens of degrees from the Sun (called their greatest elongation). The
behavior of inner worlds differs from the orbital behavior of the
outer planets, which can be found at any place on the elliptic during
their orbital cycle.
Brahe proposed a hybrid solutions to the geocentric model which
preserves the geocentric nature of the Earth at the center of the
Universe, but placed the inner planets (Mercury and Venus) in orbit
around the Sun. This configuration resolves the problem of Mercury
and Venus lack of large angular distances from the Sun, but saves
the key criticism of the heliocentric model, that the Earth is in
motion. In other works, Brahe's geoheliocentric model fit the
available data but followed the philosophical intuition of a non-
moving Earth.

Neither successfully predicts the motion of the planets. The solution

will be discovered by a student of Tycho's, who finally resolves the
heliocentric cosmology with the use of elliptical orbits.

Johannes Kepler (/ˈkɛplər/;[1] German: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ];

December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a
German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer.

Kepler is a key figure in the 17th-century scientific

revolution. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion,
based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi,
and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also
provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory
of universal gravitation.
Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school
in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich
von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the
astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the
imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two
successors Matthiasand Ferdinand II. He also taught

mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General

Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the
field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting
telescope (the Keplerian telescope), and was mentioned in
the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo
Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia
dei Lincei in Rome.[2]

Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction

between astronomyand astrology, but there was a strong
division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within
the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy).
Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning
into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and
belief that God had created the world according to an
intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light
of reason.[3] Kepler described his new astronomy as
"celestial physics",[4] as "an excursion
into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[5] and as "a supplement to
Aristotle's On the Heavens",[6] transforming the ancient
tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as
part of a universal mathematical physics

Kepler (1600's) a student of Tycho who used Brahe's database to

formulate the Laws of Planetary Motion which corrects the
problems of epicycles
in the heliocentric theory by using ellipses instead of circles for
orbits of the planets.

This is a key mathematical formulation because the reason

Copernicus' heliocentric model has to use epicycles is due to the fact
that he assumed perfectly circular orbits. With the use of ellipses,
the heliocentric model eliminates the need for epicycles and
deferents. The orbital motion of a planet is completely described by
six elements: the semi-major axis, the eccentricity, the inclination,
the longitude of the ascending node, the argument of the perihelion
and the time of the perihelion.
The formulation of a highly accurate system of determining the
motions of all the planets marks the beginning of the clockwork
Universe concept, and another paradigm shift in our philosophy of
science.

Galileo Galilei (Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564[3] –

8 January 1642) was an Italian polymath. Galileo is a central
figure in the transition from natural philosophy to modern
science and in the transformation of the scientific
Renaissance into a scientific revolution.

Galileo's championing
of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial
during his lifetime, when most subscribed to
either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[4] He met with
opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism
because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[4] The
matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615,
which concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd
in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly
contradicts in many places the sense of Holy
Scripture."[4][5][6] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems(1632),

which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated

him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until
this point.[4] He was tried by the Inquisition, found
"vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He
spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[7][8] While under
house arrest, he wrote one of his best-known works, Two
New Sciences, in which he summarized work he had done
some forty years earlier on the two sciences now
called kinematics and strength of materials.[9][10]

Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall,

the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also
worked in applied science and technology, describing the
properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances",
inventing the thermoscope and various military compasses,
and using the telescope for scientific observations of
celestial objects. His contributions to observational
astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases
of Venus, the discovery of the four largest
satellites of Jupiter, the observation of Saturn's
rings (though he could not see them well enough to discern
their true nature) and the analysis of sunspots.

Known for his work

as astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher,
and mathematician, Galileo has been called the "father
of observational astronomy",[11] the "father of modern
physics",[12][13] the "father of the scientific method",[14] and
even the "father of science"

Kepler's laws are a mathematical formulation of the solar system.

But, is the solar system `really' composed of elliptical orbits, or is
this just a computational trick and the `real' solar system is
geocentric. Of course, the answer to questions of this nature is
observation.
The pioneer of astronomical observation in a modern context is
Galileo. Galileo (1620's) developed laws of motion (natural versus
forced motion, rest versus uniform motion). Then, with a small
refracting telescope (3-inches), destroyed the idea of a "perfect",
geocentric Universe with the following 5 discoveries:

spots on the Sun

mountains and "seas" (maria) on the Moon

 Milky Way is made of lots of stars

These first three are more of an aesthetic nature. Plato requires a

`perfect' Universe. Spots, craters and a broken Milky Way are all
features of imperfection and at odds with Plato's ideas on purely
philosophical grounds. However, the laws of motion are as pure as
Plato's celestial sphere, but clearly are not easy to apply in the world
of friction and air currents etc. So these observations, by themselves,
are not fatal to the geocentric theory. The next two are fatal and can
only be explained by a heliocentric model.
 Venus has phases

Jupiter has moons (Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Callisto,

Ganymede)

Notice that planets with phases are possible in a geocentric model.

But for a planet to change in apparent size with its phases, like
Venus is impossible if the planet orbits the same distance from the
Earth. And, lastly, if all bodies orbit around the Earth, then the
moons of Jupiter, which clearly orbit around that planet, are
definitive proof that the geocentric model is wrong.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS (/ˈnjuːtən/;[6] 25 December 1642 – 20
March 1726/27[1]) was an
English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and p
hysicist(described in his own day as a "natural philosopher")
who is widely recognised as one of the most influential
scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific
revolution.
His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica("Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations
of classical mechanics. Newton also made pathbreaking
contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus.

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of

motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists'
view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By
deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his
mathematical description of gravity, and using the same
principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides,
the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena,
Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of
the heliocentric model of the Solar System and demonstrated
that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies
could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's
theoretical prediction that the Earth is shaped as an oblate
spheroid was later vindicated by the geodetic measurements
of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, thus convincing
most Continental European scientists of the superiority
of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system
of Descartes.
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and
developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the
observation that a prismdecomposes white light into the
colours of the visible spectrum. Newton's work on light was
collected in his highly influential book Opticks, first
published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of
cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of
sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In
addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton
contributed to the study of power series, generalised
the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed
a method for approximating the roots of a function, and
classified most of the cubic plane curves.

Newton (1680's) developed the law of Universal Gravitation, laws of

accelerated motion, invented calculus (math tool), the 1st reflecting
telescope and theory of light.

In the 18-20th century, with discovery of the outer planets and

where astronomy moves towards discoveries in stellar and galactic
areas, next paradigm shift occurs in early 1960's with NASA deep
space probes.
APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY UNDER
ARINY AMOS IN THE UNIVERSE.

Modern applications of the theory of relativity.

Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering
concerns. Satellite-based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each
satellite is in motion relative to an Earth-bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference
under the theory of relativity. Global positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and the
forthcoming Galileo, must account for all of the relativistic effects, such as the consequences of
Earth's gravitational field, in order to work with precision.[23] This is also the case in the high-precision
measurement of time.[24] Instruments ranging from electron microscopes to particle accelerators
would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM,

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1] is a satellite-based radionavigation
system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force.[2] It is
a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.[3] Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.

The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any
telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS
positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and
commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it,
and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973 for use by the United
States military and became fully operational in 1995. It was allowed for civilian use in the 1980s.
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to
modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX).[4] Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and
the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the
modernization effort, GPS III. During the 1990s, GPS quality was degraded by the United States
government in a program called "Selective Availability", however, this is no longer the case, and was
discontinued in May 2000 by law signed by President Bill Clinton.[5] New GPS receiver devices
using the L5 frequency to begin release in 2018 are expected to have a much higher accuracy and
pinpoint a device to within 30 centimeters or just under one foot.[6][7]

The GPS system is provided by the United States government, which can selectively deny access to
the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War, or degrade the service
at any time.[8] As a result, a number of countries have developed or are in the process of setting up
other global or regional navigation systems. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage
of the globe until the mid-2000s.[9] GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites
available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters.[10]
China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is due to achieve global reach in 2020. There are also
the European Union Galileo positioning system, and India's NAVIC. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite
System (scheduled to commence in November 2018) will be a GPS satellite-based augmentation
system to enhance GPS's accuracy

GLONASS

GLONASS (Russian: ГЛОНАСС, IPA: [ɡɫɐˈnas]; Глобальная навигационная спутниковая

система; transliteration Globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema), or "Global Navigation
Satellite System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in the radionavigation-
satellite service. It provides an alternative to GPS and is the second navigational system in operation
with global coverage and of comparable precision.

Manufacturers of GPS navigation devices say that adding GLONASS made more satellites available
to them, meaning positions can be fixed more quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas
where the view to some GPS satellites is obscured by buildings.[1][2][3] It is also more suitable for
use in high latitudes (north or south).[4]

Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. Beginning on 12 October 1982,
numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system until the constellation was completed in
1995. After a decline in capacity during the late 1990s, in 2001, under Vladimir Putin's presidency,
the restoration of the system was made a top government priority and funding was substantially
increased. GLONASS is the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space Agency,
consuming a third of its budget in 2010.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent
agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the
civilian space program, as well as aeronauticsand aerospace research.[note 1]

President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958[10] with a distinctly civilian (rather than
military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics
and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1,
1958.[

Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including
the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently,
NASA is supporting the International Space Stationand is overseeing the development of the Orion
Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency
is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch
operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing
System,[13] advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's
Heliophysics Research Program,[14] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with
advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons,[15] and researching astrophysics topics,
such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs.[16] NASA shares
data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases
Observing Satellite.

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist[5] who
developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum
mechanics).[4][6]:274 His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[7][8] He is best
known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which has been
dubbed "the world's most famous equation".[9] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his
services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric
effect",[10] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory.

Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means
for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events.[1][2][3] Astrology has been dated to
at least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal
shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.[4] Many cultures have
attached importance to astronomical events, and some – such as the Indians, Chinese, and Maya –
developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Western
astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th
century BCE Mesopotamia, from which it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Arab world and
eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with
systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict
 significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional
astrologers rely on such systems

Wilhelm Reich (24 March 1897 – 3 November 1957) was an Austrian doctor of
medicine and psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund
Freud.[1] The author of several influential books, most notably Character Analysis (1933), The Mass
Psychology of Fascism (1933) and The Sexual Revolution (1936), Reich became known as one of
the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry.[2][n 1]

Reich's work on character contributed to the development of Anna Freud's The Ego and the
Mechanisms of Defence (1936), and his idea of muscular armour – the expression of the personality
in the way the body moves – shaped innovations such as body psychotherapy, Gestalt
therapy, bioenergetic analysisand primal therapy

CORE (Cosmic Orgone Engineering) — Haines & Hinterding

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DOR & Drought. ( Publications of the Orgone Institute, Vol. VI, Nos.

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ORGONE ENGINEERING SYSTEM,

Orgone is a pseudo-scientific and spiritual concept described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical

universal life force, originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich.[8][9][10] As developed by Reich's
student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone was conceived as the anti-
entropic principle of the universe, a creative substratum in all of nature comparable
to Mesmer's animal magnetism (1779), to the Odic force (1845) of Carl Reichenbach and to Henri
Bergson's élan vital (1907).[11] Orgone was seen as a massless, omnipresent substance, similar
to luminiferous aether, but more closely associated with living energy than with inert matter. It could
allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the smallest microscopic units—called
"bions" in orgone theory—to macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies.[12]

Reich stated that deficits or constrictions in bodily orgone were at the root of many diseases, much
as deficits or constrictions in the libido could produce neuroses in Freudian theory. Reich founded
the Orgone Institute ca. 1942[13] to pursue research into orgone energy after he immigrated to the US
in 1939, and used it to publish literature and distribute material relating to the topic for more than a
decade. Reich designed special "orgone accumulators"—devices ostensibly collecting and storing
orgone energy from the environment—for improvement of general health or even for weather
control.[8]Ultimately, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) obtained a federal injunction
barring the interstate distribution of orgone-related materials, on the grounds that Reich and his
associates were making false and misleading claims, and later jailed Reich and destroyed all
orgone-related materials at the institute after Reich violated the injunction.[9] Reich rescinded the
claim that accumulator could provide orgastic potency,[14] but this was not enough to stop the action.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health lists orgone as a type of "putative
energy".[15] There is no empirical support for the concept of orgone in medicineor the physical
sciences,[4] and research into the concept ceased with the end[when?] of the Institute

The concept of orgone belongs to Reich's later work, after he immigrated to the US. Reich's early
work was based on the Freudian concept of the libido, though influenced by sociological
understandings with which Freud disagreed but which were to some degree followed by other
prominent theorists such as Herbert Marcuse and Carl Jung. While Freud had focused on
a solipsistic conception of mind in which unconscious and inherently selfish primal drives (primarily
the sexual drive, or libido) were suppressed or sublimated by internal representations (cathexes) of
parental figures (the superego), for Reich libido was a life-affirming force repressed by society
directly. For example, in one of his better known analyses Reich observes a workers' political rally,
noting that participants were careful not to violate signs that prohibited walking on the grass; Reich
saw this as the state co-opting unconscious responses to parental authority as a means of
controlling behavior.[16] He was expelled from the Institute of Psycho-analysis because of these
disagreements over the nature of the libido and his increasingly political stance. He was forced to
leave Germany very soon after Hitler came to power.[17]

Reich took an increasingly bioenergetic view of libido, perhaps influenced by his tutor Paul
Kammerer and another biologist, Otto Heinrich Warburg.[18] In the early 20th century, when molecular
biology was in its infancy, developmental biology in particular still presented mysteries that made the
idea of a specific life energy respectable, as was articulated by theorists such as Hans Driesch. As a
psycho-analyst Reich aligned such theories with the Freudian libido, while as a materialist he
believed such a life-force must be susceptible to physical experiment.

He wrote in his best known book, The Function of the Orgasm: "Between 1919 and 1921, I became
familiar with Driesch's 'Philosophie des Organischen' and his 'Ordnungslehre'... Driesch's contention
seemed incontestable to me. He argued that, in the sphere of the life function, the whole could be
developed from a part, whereas a machine could not be made from a screw..... However, I couldn't
quite accept the transcendentalism of the life principle. Seventeen years later I was able to resolve
the contradiction on the basis of a formula pertaining to the function of energy. Driesch's theory was
always present in my mind when I thought about vitalism. The vague feeling I had about the
irrational nature of his assumption turned out to be justified in the end. He landed among
the spiritualists."[19]

The concept of orgone was the result of this work in the psycho-physiology of libido. After his
migration to the US, Reich began to speculate about biological development and evolution, and then
branched out into much broader speculations about the nature of the universe.[11] This led him to the
conception of "bions": self-luminescent sub-cellular vesicles that he believed were observable in
decaying materials, and presumably present universally. Initially he thought of bions
as electrodynamic or radioactive entities, as had the Ukrainian biologist Alexander Gurwitsch, but
later came to the conclusion that he had discovered an entirely unknown but measurable force,
which he then named "orgone",[11] a pseudo-Greek formation probably from org- "impulse,
excitement" as in org-asm, plus -one as in ozone (the Greek neutral participle, virtually *ὄργον, gen.:
*ὄργοντος).[20]

For Reich, neurosis became a physical manifestation he called "body armor"—deeply seated
tensions and inhibitions in the physical body that were not separated from any mental effects that
might be observed.[21] He developed a therapeutic approach he called vegetotherapy that was aimed
at opening and releasing this body armor so that free instinctive reflexes—which he considered a
token of psychic well-being—could take over.

Evaluation
Orgone was closely associated with sexuality: Reich, following Freud, saw nascent sexuality as the
primary energetic force of life. The term itself was chosen to share a root with the word orgasm,
which both Reich and Freud took to be a fundamental expression of psychological health. This focus
on sexuality, while acceptable in the clinical perspective of Viennese psychoanalytic circles,
scandalized the conservative American public even as it appealed to countercultural figures
like William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac.

In at least some cases, Reich's experimental techniques do not appear to have been very careful, or
to have taken precautions to remove experimental bias.[22] Reich was concerned with experimental
verification from other scientists. Albert Einstein agreed to participate, but thought Reich's research
lacked scientific detachment and experimental rigor; and concluded that the effect was simply due to
the temperature gradient inside the room. "Through these experiments I regard the matter as
completely solved," he wrote to Reich on 7 February 1941. Upon further correspondence from
Reich, Einstein replied that he could not devote any further time to the matter and asked that his
name not be misused for advertising purposes.

Orgone and its related concepts were quickly denounced in the post-World War II American
press.[23] Reich and his students were seen as a "cult of sex and anarchy," at least in part because
orgone was linked with the title of his book The Function of the Orgasm, and this led to numerous
investigations as a communist[24] and denunciation under a wide variety of other pretexts.[25] He was,
as the New York Times later put it, "much maligned".[26] The psychoanalytical community of the time
saw his approach to healing diseases as quackery of the worst sort, partly because of his comments
about UFOs.[27] In 1954, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration successfully sought an injunction to
prevent Reich from making medical claims relating to orgone, which (among other stipulations)
prevented him from shipping "orgone devices" across state lines.[28] Reich defied the order and was
jailed, and the FDA took that opportunity to destroy any of Reich's books which mentioned orgone,
along with research materials and devices.[10][28][29][30]

Some of Reich's observations have been replicated by other researchers. Stefan Müschenich, in
his Master's thesis, demonstrated effects of orgone accumulators on test subjects in keeping with
Reich's original descriptions, while subjects exposed to a known "dummy box" showed no such
effects.[31] As of 2007, the National Institutes of Health database PubMed, and the Web of
Science database, contained only 4 or 5 peer-reviewed scientific papers published (since 1968)
dealing with orgone therapy.

Some psychotherapists and psychologists practicing various kinds of Body

Psychotherapy and Somatic Psychology have continued to use Reich's proposed emotional-release
methods and character-analysis ideas.[31][32][33]

In popular culture
Orgone was used in the writings of several prominent beat generation authors, who were fascinated
by both its purported curative and sexual aspects. To that extent, it is heavily associated with the
1950s counterculture movement, though it did not carry over into the more extensive movements of
the 1960s.

William S. Burroughs
William S. Burroughs was a major proponent of orgone research, who often included it as part of the
surreal imagery in his novels. Orgone interested Burroughs particularly because he believed that it
could be used to ease or alleviate "junk sickness"—a popular term for heroin withdrawal. This fitted
well in the context of his novels, which were usually narrative recreations of his own experiences
with narcotics and the Beat life.

Burroughs explicitly compares "kicking the habit" to cancer in the novel Junky, and ties it to the use
of orgone accumulators. He writes:

Cancer is rot of tissue in a living organism. In junk sickness the junk dependent cells die and are
replaced. Cancer is a premature death process. The cancer patient shrinks. A junkie shrinks—I have
lost up to fifteen pounds in three days. So I figure if the accumulator is a therapy for cancer, it should
be therapy for the after-effects of junk sickness.

At the time that Burroughs was writing, orgone accumulators were only available from Reich's
Orgone Institute in New York, offered for a ten dollar per month donation. Burroughs built his own
instead, substituting rock wool for the sheet iron, but believed it still achieved the desired effect.
Burroughs writes about what occurred once he started using the accumulator:

Constant use of junk of the years has given me the habit of directing attention inward. When I went
into the accumulator and sat down I noticed a special silence that you sometimes feel in deep
woods, sometimes on a city street, a hum that is more rhythmic vibration than a sound. My skin
prickled and I experienced an aphrodisiaceffect similar to good strong weed. No doubt about it,
orgones are as definite a force as electricity. After using the accumulator for several days my energy
came back to normal. I began to eat and could not sleep more than eight hours. I was out of the post
cure drag.

Jack Kerouac
In Jack Kerouac's popular novel On the Road, the orgone accumulator was treated more as another
type of drug than as a medical device: primarily a stimulant, with strong sexual overtones. When Sal
Paradise visits Old Bull Lee in the novel (characters representing Kerouac and Burroughs,
respectively), Lee's orgone accumulator is described as follows:

Say, why don’t you fellows try my orgone accumulator? Put some juice in your bones. I always rush
up and take off ninety miles an hour for the nearest whorehouse, hor-hor-hor!' said Bull Lee… The
orgone accumulator is an ordinary box big enough for a man to sit inside on a chair: a layer of wood,
a layer of metal, and another layer of wood gather in orgones from the atmosphere and hold them
captive long enough for a human to absorb more than a usual share. According to Reich, orgones
are vibratory atmospheric atoms of the life-principle. People get cancer because they run out of
orgones. Old Bull thought his orgone accumulator would be improved if the wood he used was as
organic as possible, so he tied bushy bayou leaves and twigs to his mystical outhouse. It stood there
in the hot, flat yard, an exfoliate machine clustered and bedecked with maniacal contrivances. Old
Bull slipped off his clothes and went to sit and moon over his navel.

The 2012 film of Kerouac's novel includes the scene described above, but adds a small window in
the accumulator and a funnel to breathe through.[34]

J.D. Salinger
According to his daughter, J.D. Salinger would sometimes use an orgone accumulator, among an
assortment of other alternative health regimens.[35]

Orson Bean
Noted American actor and raconteur Orson Bean was once a proponent of orgone therapy and
published a well-received book about it entitled Me and the Orgone.

Dušan Makavejev[edit]
Dušan Makavejev opened his 1971 satirical film W.R.: Mysteries of the Organism with documentary
coverage of Reich and his development of orgone accumulators, combining this with other imagery
and a fictional sub-plot in a collage mocking sexual and political authorities.[36] Scenes include one of
only "ten or fifteen orgone boxes left in the country" at that time.[37]
Hawkwind
British space rockers Hawkwind released the track "Orgone Accumulator" as the first track on side
three of the 1972 live album, Space Ritual.

Woody Allen
Woody Allen's 1973 comedy science fiction movie Sleeper features an orgasmatron—a cylinder big
enough to hold one or two people, containing some future technology that rapidly induces orgasms.
This is required as almost all people in the movie's universe are impotent or frigid, although males of
Italian descent are considered the least impotent of all groups. It has been suggested that the
orgasmatron was a parody of Reich's orgone accumulator.[38][39]

Kate Bush
The song "Cloudbusting" by British singer Kate Bush describes Reich's arrest and incarceration
through the eyes of his son, Peter.[40] The 1985 video, in which Donald Sutherland plays Wilhelm
Reich during his research and subsequent arrest, features a Foucault pendulum as an alternative
method of demonstrating the rotational motion of the earth to prove the heretical view that
the Earth was not the centre of the Universe. The Foucault pendulum in this video simultaneously
connects and contrasts the disgraced Wilhelm Reich to both of the respected Foucaults, the
scientist, Jean Bernard Léon Foucault and the philosopher, Michel Foucault, who had died one year
prior to the video in 1984.

Peter Brock
Peter Brock was one of Australia's best-known and most successful motor racing drivers. He publicly
supported and fit all Holden Dealer Team specials with a device called the "Energy Polariser" which
it was claimed improved the performance and handling of vehicles through "aligning the molecules"
using orgone energy. [41] [42]

Devo
The new wave '80s band Devo claimed that their iconic energy dome design was used to recycle the
wasted orgone energy that flows from a person's head.

Evelyn Waugh
An orgone accumulator plays an important role in the semi-autobiographical Evelyn
Waugh novel The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold. A neighbour to Mr. Pinfold owns a box, and with it he
experiments on Mr Pinfold's wife. Later, in a hallucinatory state, Mr Pinfold imagines that his
problems have originated from that box.

Warren Leight
Warren Leight's play, Side Man, contains a scene where Gene and Terry receive an orgone box that
Gene's friend's wife made him get rid of.

Hal Duncan
In Hal Duncan's book Ink (The Book of All Hours 2), one of alternative realities is orgone-based, i.e.
orgone ("sexual energy") is used as primary energy source.

Peep Show
In the Channel 4 comedy series Peep Show episode "Mark's Women", Jeremy and Super Hans join
a cult, Spiritual Wellness, which defines Orgones as "the invisible molecules of universal life energy
which govern our moods and our actions", with negative Orgones being the sources of all the
problems in the world. Mark is concerned that Jeremy has joined a cult, and tries to explain that this
is an over simplistic view of the world.[44]

Lupin the Third

In episode 11 of the Lupin III television specials, the enemy wants the secrets of the Columbus Files
and the Columbus Egg, which involve the mysterious Orgone energy.

Redline
Orgone energy features prominently in the science-fiction world of video game Redline, released in
1999.

Captain Earth
In the anime series Captain Earth, Orgone energy is the source of power and sustenance for the
invading aliens, the Kill-T-Gang, who plan to harvest it from the libidos of all humanity. It is also the
power behind the Livlaster guns used by the protagonists.

AUTHOR ARINY AMOS WORK ON THEORY OF RELATIVITY.

EARLY LIFE AS ASTRONOMER, ASTROLOGER.

ARINY AMOS BIOGRAPHY;

PROMOTION IN 1980’S 2018, ON THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY.

SPECIAL AND GENERAL RELATIVITY.

1980’s ;Scientifically, integrate pure science and technology of which is Ariny Amos's
field of profession. Born Astronaut, android Ariny Amos, Ariny Amos thanks Natural
parents Father ; Thomas Edison Alston (January 31, 1926 – December 30, 1993) was a
Major League Baseball first baseman who played for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1954
to 1957, the first African-American to do so. A native of Greensboro, North Carolina, he
stood 6'5" (200 cm) and weighed 210 pounds (95 kg).
Alston was acquired by St. Louis via a trade with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific
Coast League, where he played in 180 games in 1953, on January 26, 1954, after team
president Gussie Busch told manager Eddie Stanky to find a black player. Not only did
Busch think excluding blacks from baseball was morally wrong, his company
Anheuser–Busch, which had bought the team a year earlier to keep them from moving to
Milwaukee, sold more beer to African-Americans than any other brewery, leading him to
fear the effect of a boycott.
Mother Kimberly Elise Trammel (born April 17, 1967), professionally known as Kimberly
Elise, is an American film and television actress. She made her feature film debut in Set
It Off (1996), and later received critical acclaim for her performance in Beloved (1998).
During her career, Elise has appeared in films such as John Q. (2002), The Manchurian
Candidate (2004), Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2005), The Great Debaters (2007), For
Colored Girls (2010), Dope (2015), Almost Christmas (2016) and Death Wish (2018). She
received a nomination for Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead for her
performance in the 2004 drama film, Woman Thou Art Loosed, and played the leading
roles in a number of made for television movies. Elise also starred in the CBS crime
drama series, Close to Home (2005–07), and in 2013 began starring in the VH1 comedy-
drama series, Hit the Floor. She is four-time NAACP Image Awards winner.

Ariny Amos gave him self birth day as 06/May/1982 when he joined Primary school at
registration in Swaria Primary school in soroti district in uganda as his step mother
Guardian Alumo Florence, Guardian Kiptoris Tom was unable to produce birth
certificate ,Guardian grand mother took care at central division in soroti municipality,
soroti district. Ariny Amos gave him self a name as Ariny. Without knowing the meaning
till now it means Tropical cyclone 1988.. Ariny Amos born congenitally deaf ears and
can speak, Charles Darwin and the theory of Evolution can explain, states that grand
fathers can pass his inherited genes to others through their grand daughters.Ariny
Amos being adopted child from international.

1980’s,Guardian Grand Father Akudo John Ariny originates from Usuk and Guardian
Opio Ebangit Grand Mother is called Guardian Guardian Antalia Acili .In 1985 grand
mother who informed that grand father to Ariny's mother was hearing impaired , Ariny
Amos was adopted child, learnt Ateso in Soroti, witch doctor and had speech which now
applies toimmediately after the black ant entered the ear drum and bite at night when
asleep in the village of Odoon, Amuria, Soroti district, resulted in earth quake at night,
procedure of removing black ant was pouring water in ear and pouring out as earth
quake hit earth same night black hole in general relativity theory demonstrated, the
room was hang on the wall a leopards skin. HBO Light was one day seen at night.one
day Ariny was attacked by leopard in the bush which was seen after an explosion of
celestial body, Ariny ran to climb to the tree but leopard followed climbing, Ariny threw
him
Opio Ebangit, Ariny accidentally stepped on burning charcoal and at night there was
earth quake, B another man called Guardian Aloysius Ekolu Aloysious Ekolu was step. At
night Ariny was bite by scorpion while sleep at night under care of grand mother another
procedure was done to the bite site at ankle joint ateastern division in soroti district
moru apesur cell.The Karimojong did cattle rustling in the village , but when ever they
come we always run refugee to Soroti district and explosions heard of asteroids it's
the reason we fled to soroti town. At Village in Odoon there was electronic calculator
and some time taught operation ,some times error word is indicated.One day first time
at Soroti central division, Ariny was pushed to the flash toilet by in disciplined son to
the brother of step father named opali, who watched several western videos and
refusing school. while at soroti municipality central division.At achakos’s home as
world leaders burnt Ariny Amos Dressed in yellow t- shirt, Opio’s home,

In 1980’s, Ariny Amos returned to the village in Odoon ,Amuria from soroti municipality
after being fjlmed carrying a gun AK-47, Ariny was not allowed to stay in town by Yoweri
Museveni Kaguta as information from town,we walked with Guardian’s wife of Opio for 30
kilometres from soroti to Odoon,amuria district, spent a night at dakabela, due tiresome,
Earth quake at night due muscle pains,ankle joint was injured in the evening, no horses
for transport those days, while the next day ariny was sick tear gased by National
Aeronautic and space Administration, as Ariny operated electronic calculator in odoon ,
amuria district in uganda ,stories of earth quake were informed to be world wide and also
in mount everest, Ariny is the only person who named self as Ariny accidentally he was
not aware to pronounce name at nursery school in the village of Odoon Primary School

which was catholic founded in soroti district amuria county now days amuria changed to
district at that time teacher used to give them to learn writing on the ground before
books are given to bright candidates and brushing teeth., Burnt in the village,
Astronomical observations at home at night observation of neutron stars in motion as in
nuclear fission results, milky way,constellations and asterisms, gama ray bursts interstellar
medium ,observation was by naked eyes by many children compete in family of grand father
Opio ebangit, NASA had already received Ariny 's video. grand father Opio Ebangit who is a
twin, in 1986 the same time Ariny approached a priest sent from church of Uganda, Rev.
Stanley Ntagali (A man said Stanley Ntagali names derived from British explorer and
missionary named Sir Henry Morton Stanley who explored Uganda in search of the source of
the River Nile)

who informed him that that he dreamed this baby he asked Ariny if was baptised and
was not baptised he asked clan which was replied as sebei and gave Ariny the name
Amos Church of Uganda gave the name Amos, Ariny one day filmed with village
children as one monkey was available and white people.Evenings before sleep they
enjoy watching stars in dry seasons especially the stars in motion, counting stars in
motion it was competition of identifying stars in motion, moon so clear in the area of
Odoon at night .A priest then ordered to bebaptised after bible study, this came after
Ariny was burnt by hot water and their was earth quake in the village combination with
lightning, priest noted Ariny Amos of being monster simil= ar Roland Emmerich. At
week ends Ariny. Ariny some days manufactures toycars using electric wires, clay soil
for playing, attended grazing cattle leopard attacked in the bush and was putting pirelli
tyre shoes most people of kalenjin put on especially
Iteso,pokot,sebei,nandi, masai many others in Kenya, Ariny used local sign language
and speaking high pitch and jeans at one day the Zip of the jeans caught scrotum while
in the bush with cattle, was crying on way home before getting home approached grand
father to the mother savedto ease the scrotum from the jeans Zip.

One day attended random fishing with hook and caught mud fish this happened
immediately after an explosion of hygea, parthenope asteroid at the shores and the
leech bites the thigh to suck blood in the swamp half of the body submerged in swamp
water as cattle were grazing in the village garden shores, One day Ariny was bite by
wasp on the head in the bush.Another day bite by bee on head at the bush, one day
Ariny was racing following the wheel,collided with stone on ground and fell down
towards the door and left eye got injured blood oozes at night resulted in earth quake,
rush or scar still visible today on left eye, some days Ariny learns burning charcoal.

1980’sAriny was living with Guardian grand father Akudo John and Opio in the village
when rebels of the late Alice Lakwena were attacking the National Resistance Army of
Yoweri.Kaguta Museveni visited the camp in atirir, Ariny was camped in the village
called

atirir when rebels brutality in villages were high, the grand father was caught in the
village and mascare as Ariny survived remained under care of another good samaritan,
internally displaced peoples camps houses was burnt which started with an explosion
like an asteroid. at that time with head ache. Red cross started spreading information on
the presence of astronauts in the village.some white people were visiting the village
internally displaced peoples camps , United Nations Officials Red cross officials. one
day Ariny went to fetch water at the spring and water container was saucepan the water
leech got stuck anonymously but when Ariny was carrying the container on head , the
leech bite on head sucking blood at home it was removed the hair on head was shaved
to shaolin look. Ariny was injured by cold and hot water in 1988 in the village,resulted
to an earth quake at night.

Untill late 1988 when Ariny dreamed was attacked by army of the National resistance
army who transfered Ariny from atirir in amuria to soroti, but it's Yoweri Museveni who
refused Ariny to stay in soroti town where mother was living with step father in Kengere
moru apesur. grandmother who lived in central division soroti municipality invited , on
way to soroti there was an explosion as Ariny climbed to the military vehicle and on way
when the gun was very close to Ariny, Guardian mother took care of Ariny where she
had hotel, the hotel she operated selling local brew, while ariny joined her on own
business like selling cigarettes, some days Ariny goes to the spring to collect water by
five litre jerrican and sold to the market hotels, roasted soya

beans, bread called kabalagala hawker, moved in streets of soroti and markets, was on
feet put on pirelli tyre shoes most people of kalenjin put on especially
pokot,sebei,nandi, masai many others in Kenya, Ariny used local sign language and
speaking high pitch.Education was cut in village due to war.

1980’s , Ariny Amos participated in the Execution of world leaders, Donors and geocentric
introduction program as Ariny Amos Participted, Ariny Amos was picked from another
Guardian Epoku Boniface Atirir Amuria , Soroti district.after world leaders torture
including donors torture in the village at achako’s home, Another torture at Kengere ,
Eastern division Soroti municipality, Forced sex scandals, Broken ribs, Broken Necks,
subjected to the fridge, Detoothed, Broken body parts, famine , discrimination, etc.

PRIMARY EDUCATION.

1989 Ariny Aged 7 years was admitted to day school as education was cut in the
village,Swaria primary school went to school without uniforms to start primary one
Green, first head teacher was S.A.Bhat an indian man who often rides bicycle to school,
the school being day school with purple uniform color. immediately was appointed
class monitor. One day children made noise and S.A.Bhat came to punish whole class
by ordering pupils to lay down and he beats them, at night earth quake resulted and
lightning, the class teacher authorized Ariny to punish pupils making noise at class,
collection of class registrar and scholastic materials. Indisciplined pupils mobilized them
selves and at 13;00 hrs when it's lunch time they attacked Ariny as a group of about six
which Ariny faught one day but an explosion occured as an asteroid but none new,
reason was that Ariny was beating them at class they did not know of disciplining them,
first term was not issued reports cards and second term aAriny was position twelve.out
of about 100 candidates in the class,Ariny's mother paid coaching and at third term
Ariny was Position eight in the class.and promoted to primary two.Daily program were
based on dreams, Ariny did hawking of ciggarettes, bought shoes for school.pirelli tyre
shoes most people of kalenjin put on especially pokot,sebei,nandi, masai many others in
Kenya, Ariny used local sign language and speaking high pitch.In holidays Ariny and
friends did hunting of birds at soroti flying school, an experiment of grasshopper as bait
tied on the string with the object an object almost to the birds weight of which table can
be bricks, anti hill, larger stones, birds often chased and some come randomly as the
witness hide , when the bird swallows the grasshopper, witness runs to capture the bird,
used for playing and food in winter seasons.One day they were filmed at flying school or
air traffic control tower which resulted in an explosion in grass field and fire out break ,
while capture birds, fire brigadier extinguisher raced to fight fire, and loud speaker man
shouting heard as some officials thought of causing accidents and explosion was heard
again as video camera was filming by introducing electromagnetic radiations or radio
waves, camera man shouted that Ariny is a robot. shouted in Kiswahili " toka hapo" as
Ariny Amos read his lips. The introduction of street light which was yellow by member of
parliament named Ateker Ejalu's home , opposite the pioneer school Soroti main gate
which was sold to Michael Mukula resulted one day Ariny raced and collided with cyclist
on the site of the yellow light as the bulb emits electromagnetic radiations an explosion
was heard as asteroid hit the earth.World leaders tortured at Soroti central Ariny Amos
lived as adopted child or stolen child,

In 1990 Ariny Aged 8years was in primary two blue, First term he had a dream of
position one ,and was surprised to pick report card showing he was in position one out
of 115 pupils in the class. second term again he was in position one challenging the
whole class. a man called paul who claimed to knew my father had informed me that the
Ariny's father was coming to see immediately after the bore hole injured my finger at
soroti flying school early morning which was done daily before going to school first
work was to fetch water walk for a distance of one kilometer, while staying with grand
mother who was the mother to Ariny's mother , one day Terrorists or Rebels attacked
Ariny's Guardians hotel of local brew at 22;00 hrs and shoot killed eleven people
including a pregnant woman who died in soroti hospital using gun

shoots, Ariny got capital in the morning after the heavy rain in the past evening and
night on road side money was floating on water by road side as Ariny was on way to
collect maths counting sticks, at evening and weekends at hotel Ariny did selling
Ciggaretes and roaste
soya beans, kabalagala bread, ground nuts;one day a radio was available that day and
the sound remained when dead bodies lay flat on the floor and National Resistance Army
came from flying school barracks immediately switched off the radio after several gun
shoots , an explosion of asteroid occurred since was like firing squad Ariny Amos and
grand mother then hide in kitchen, Radio waves Or electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiations were used by Uganda media centre, Plotted a few before it
happened as the video camera was in the hotel and bar, etop news stated that National
Resistance Army split them selves and immediately faught each by accident shooting
one National Resistance Army soldier, the soldier was taken to soroti flying school and
stated that terrorists shoot. While Ariny used to dance especially break dance as others
watch, survived death that day had played football, Ariny was goal keeper in central
division team called blue boys mainly children and was bored that, even a friend to
Ariny's father called Paul who owns sipi falls hotel in soroti ,central division in moroto
road was in the hotel ,left early at 21;00 hrs attack was dreamed earlier days when
sleeping. about two days before the dream came true. early morning Ariny left the place
and went to his mother who was with step father called Aloysious ekolu. A dream
showed him the truth that report is rubbed, at the end Ariny found report rubbed and
given manual position as position fourteen this came about when astronauts visited the
school and did some video shoots. Firing squad shooting as execution at the soroti
Gardens there was an explosion of asteroid. At school examinations he failed to read the
word congregation, which had dreamed early, Ariny reads while sleeping at night
immediately days before the examination. Bank of Uganda officials visited the school
searching for android. World leaders, sports organization, media tortured Ariny Amos.

1991 Ariny Aged 9 was in primary three yellow and first term he became position one out
of 100 pupils, class was under the tree no seats pupils carry own seats from home some
of the pupils kept on looking else where for example traffic on roads, Internally displaced
Karimojong people where many traffic included pedestrians and cyclists, no motor
vehicles many vehicles were for the army. one day in the morning a female teacher
ordered pupils to race for the whole 400metre and Ariny had hearing impairment did not
know, other students started running Ariny was still seated due to hearing impairment
Ariny started following and challenged them all in the finish line a teacher called me and
asked Ariny who the father was but Ariny did not know ,the second was Ariny's best
friend and was called Nelson Omal second term Ariny was fifth in the class. Third term
became sick due to drinking dirty water as a rat or mouse was found in drinking water
pot and suffered typhoid, radio waves were emitted by Uganda Media Centre, the same
way Ariny's bicycle was stollen at night at the same home, Ariny was filmed by white
ladyat Soroti hospital an explosion hit the earth, electric shock was subjected to Ariny as
treatment, NASA sent oral rehydaration salts after Ariny's Calculator operation which
lead gravitational asteroid explosion on earth, Ariny was tear gassed and recovered.
Third term Ariny was in position six, Sat exams while sick, after getting report card
sickness increased and most vomiting, admitted to soroti hospital for water rehydration,
controlled by air fun at soroti hospital back to Ariny's mother and step father's at market
street Soroti Central division, electricity shock was subjected to Ariny in hospital at
Soroti municipality and at home.Ariny survived accident by overload truck carrying
merchandise ,the truck was meandering and over turned. immediately after an explosion
of asteroid, investigation revealed that the driver had knocked several people on way by
Soroti police and was overs peeding to escape, driver escaped carrying a knife
towards the bush while running. soroti traffic police discovered the overload truck and
marchandise sacks broken , pouring goods without the driver. Ariny and other children
finished swimming at the bridge at the bridge there was and explosion as crocodile or
komodo dragon seen at shores, and water leech bites Ariny sucking blood, with water
at Gweri road in Soroti.. One morining as Ariny kicked stone while running to school
and ruptured the skin on foot as was bare foot , Blood oozed and resulted in earth
quake at night.

1992 Aged 10 years, Ariny was in primary four blue, participate in children's painting
competitions from news papers results announced where that 39th, one day in exams
used calculator for maths exams which showed error, one day was racing to school and
was attacked by the snake which crossed infront, Ariny stopped and let snake cross and
snake went hiding at burnt bricks, after Ariny continued to school, one day later Ariny
was invited to go to grand mother to see real father who informed that he was Ariny's
true father his name was Kiptoris Tom, they went to photo studio and took that same
photo below which is on book cover currently using on twitter , long time kept on empty
biscuit box. Ariny's father had several left handed boys and girls even now. In sports
football match between primary four and primary five my position was number five
there was no goal scored on both sides after 90 minutes, we went to penalties Ariny
was the only person to score the goal in penalty shoot out, leading to primary four beat
primary five. Ariny started representing Swaria Primary School in school team, Ariny
was just youngest player my position was number seven.Ariny used calculator at school
and there was an explosion of asteroid in environment immediately after calculator
indicated error.Ariny Amos was treasurer for children's annual party, each child
registers names and amount of money contributed for the annual children''s party to be
held during christmas day.

1993 Ariny Aged 11 years was in primary five red and my best performance was science,
one test on livestock management i beat all pupils in science , Ariny was class monitor
as per by random vote. Step father denied children playing football and punished by
beating using electric wires.Ariny's but results in earth quake and lightning. speed was
quick in athletics , running for the school team 100x4 relays ,Pope John paul 11 visited
to Uganda in 1993 and announced the presence of Android, On third of February 1993
the pope was in Soroti Sports club, Ariny was accompanied by his uncle Okello charles,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration officials were in Uganda, Central
Intelligence Agency of the United States of America, Communication from the Pope,
NASA, CIA and white house officials,Government done as Ariny attended the pilgrimage
congregation, several terrorists were mentioned, android Ariny Amos was
excommunicated by Pope John Paul 11 as same to android Albert Einstein.who was
German scientist who introduced the General theory of Relativity,Gravitation, Photo

electric effect and seismology.Whites visited Ariny's class room and announced
astronaut presence, Kelly Kraemer and Kelvin William, Nick Memphis were mentioned
to interview Ariny Amos in future. Ariny Amos was treasurer for children's annual
party, each child registers names and amount of money contributed for the annual
children''s party to be held during christmas day.

1994 ,ArinyAmos 12 years was in primary six yellow, wrote a letter to the
president,parliament of
uganda, state house Nakasero introducing self as an astronomer Ariny still has hearing
impairment, teachers showed quick understanding but not able to write
dictation.dictation was helped by neighbours to copy notes from especially notes,
dream continued and true dreams comes, at sleeping dream future programs that
happen in the environment also past programs, playing for school football team and
athletics mainly 100m and 4x4 relay despite being young, attended bible study every
saturday at soroti cathedral, soroti catholic diocess, in the evenings Ariny had business
of selling petroleum espcially paraffin at the corner of the market street i bout she goat
which was reared in the village the color of the goat was red produced twins and Ariny
sold mother goat as he donated to the person rearing in the village of Odoon in Amuria
district , money Ariny used to pay clothes as dad went hiding and Ariny was staying
with step father Aloysoius Ekolu Dream continued.punishments, torture by step father
was often beating by electric cable wires which resulted in earth quake at night and
lightning, seismology. Ariny sustained injury in football being shoot toward his heart by
older players failed to breath but recovered after an explosion of asteroid heard. Ariny
was beaten at home due to refusing to butcher a cock for the evening supper which
resulted to the earth quake at night. Ariny's milk tooth or Molar tooth, got removed and
replaced by new molar tooth which grew.Ariny was treasurer for childrens annual
childrens party, each child registers names and amount of money contributed for the
annual children’s party to be held during christmas day.

1995 Ariny Aged 13 years was in primary seven red, in april Ariny was baptised as
AMOS by the white Reverand called father Kolkran Deo he was tall white man who came
from Ireland, served in st .immaculate cathedral church for several years, Ariny was
nominated for the class monitor Ariny rejected and teacher got angry and informed to
select for replacement, Ariny select a candidate called Eyattu Jude who also rejected the
post ,Eyattu jude is the only person got division one in the class His mother was teacher,
Ariny grade was division two in Primary leaving examinations which is usually by
uganda national examination board science was D-2 best performed.total aggregates
was17.athletics was 100m and 100x4 representing our school. Football was position
seven. One day Ariny was injured, bite by millipedede, at night when sleep. Ariny's
business was selling petroleum products after school since swaria primary school was
day school not boarding, at 15;00HRS Ariny attends selling petroleum products
especially paraffin at soroti municipality market streets one evening police arrested me
that i was selling at night they took me to police station but an explosion heard and the
police decided to ask me some money and they released ariny before arrival to police
station, they saw ariny's student identification card being primary seven student.Uganda
media centre again attacked Ariny Amos in final examinations by filming students using
video camera, filming studentshad environmental concern.Some days video camera
brought to the market, as Ariny Amos was selling petrolleum in evenings after school
accidents of wasting paraffin as bottles full of fuel collapses, some days Kerosene
stollen from Ariny's container.Radio waves were introduced by Uganda Media Centre
during Mock examinations and final exam for Primary Leaving Examinations by Video
Cameras that emit electromagnetic radiations.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
1996 Ariny Amos aged 14 years was admitted to Soroti Secondary School Senior one D,
one blind teacher had dreamed and asked several questions, his names is simon he
said Johannes Kepler similar to Ariny, study wasdifficult but Ariny did beat students
who hear , the headteacher was called Attan O.P and female deputy called Maraka,
immediately Ariny

was un- opposed as class captain, but Ariny was replaced as students learnt that Ariny
could not hear, could not write dictation, helped by nearby students copy notes ,despite
being deaf Ariny had not known sign language, and Ariny was on the spot challenging many
students dream continued to attract girls at school, some even helped to copy notes Dream
continued. evening time was time for selling paraffin for school fee, Primary leaving
examination results were not true but forged, electric shock were done by Ariny.since Ariny
was connecting the television for the evening with some fused wires some days
accidentally touches electric wires. Visitors of world leaders , donors sports organisations.

1997 Ariny aged 15 years was in senor two A, the class stream which contained
brightstudents only , others were B, C and D that year Ariny had to be studied to the
headteacher and the whole process the head teacher had dream, stoned a child in long
distance who was dodging to go to school and was punished but earth quake shaken the
the school, headteacher then sent Ariny to Kampala for medical test and found it as
sensory impairment.No treatment, however ear drops were done but persistent hearing
loss.ENT department of mulago hospital ,Hearing Aid Services and Supplies Kampala.
Ariny had business of selling petroleum especially paraffin at the corner of the market street
, money used to pay clothes school fee as hide and Ariny was staying with step father
Aloysius Ekolu, Dream continued for all future daily

programs. Bank of Uganda officials, filmed students as they visited the school and
addressed the school assembly.Ariny injured in chemistry laboratory in Oxygen
preparation from hydrogen peroxide.Media visited the school and filmed Ariny
Amos.Uganda media centre attacked by radio waves Ariny Amos and filmed Ariny while
in the class with many students, the found Ariny in Class of bright students.visitors of
world leaders, donors , organisations.
1998 Ariny aged 16 years was in senior three A , Ariny had rejected to study chemistry
and did all other subjects,dreams continued and Ariny bought his bicycle which was
stollen at night, Radio waves were used by Uganda Media centre, Ariny could not write
dictation, One day in assembly alway organised for tuesdays for all students to attend
under the tree infront of the administration building, bat defecated at the ariny's
shoulder as Ariny was seated, Ariny injured in physics practicals of refraction and
reflection by prism fell down and broken in physics laboratory, not interested in
mathematics., best in fine art in the class especially

imaginative composition. Ariny used to borrow text books from a friend named Kakembo
Aggrey whose father was F.W Kakembo and company advocates, reading news papers
in his news paper store at market street Soroti municipality. Ariny was Bite by spider and
cockroach

1999 Ariny aged 17 years was in senior four A , Ariny decided to pick chemistry as part of
subject for study leading to a ward of certificate for Uganda Certificate of Education which
was based on Uganda National Examination Board. Chemistry was not done in senior
three,Ariny grabbed in senior four and passed beating other students. Physics in one test in
senior four found me beat all candidate in senior four. one exams which was a dream Ariny
had 'already
read the examination marking scheme that the teacher was carrying when sleeping' Ariny
was easily answering the examination paper issed in first term exams. Ministry of
education under Danish development assistance issued Ariny a hearing device, but
persistent hearing loss. Uganda National Examination Board supervisor accused Ariny
Amos due to an explosion outside the Laboratory as A result of Ariny Amos connection
of laboratory apparatus for measuring of electromotive force of a cell where flash light
was seen in apparatus, The problem was still Uganda media centre who came to the
examination room with video camera emitting radio waves or electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiations. Final exams results indicated that Ariny had credits in all the
course registered,Ariny had division two, with certificate issued. At recess time the Ariny
lost a biggest foot finger nail to by fallen stone thrown from top of building accidentally,
an earth quake resulted at night as blood was oozed.Before final examinations Ariny had
every evening running marathon race.
 2000 Ariny Amos aged 18 years was admitted to soroti secondary school which was to
study science subject combination , Biology, Chemistry, Geography, Fine Art and general
paper. in senior five science. Ariny was best in physical geography beats all the students in
the class for senior six entrance, Radio waves were used by Uganda Media centre. Radio
waves were used by Uganda Media centre Which Ariny Amos studied in physical chemistry.
Radio waves were introduced during geography final exams and Biology final exams.Ariny
rejected Government sponsor to join Primary Teachers College, letter written from ministry
of education departmentof Special Needs Education.

2001 Ariny Amos aged 19years was in senior six science prepared for Uganda
AdvancedCertificate of Education examinations. Uganda National Examination
Board Results were One principal pass in fine art and three subsidiary pass in
Biology,Chemistry, Geography, while general paper passed with 3 with all the
subjects as subsidiary.the same ,students lacked laboratory equipments, at
final exams electromagnetic radiation was introduced to the examination room,
video camera for film and students did not complete syllabus. Snake attacked at
night crossing the road in front a dream and Ariny askedhis guardian mother to
look where Guardian father was his friend called paul told that Guardian father
Kiptoris Tom was at Kapelebyong in amuria district Ariny went there stayed
and came back Guardian Aloysious died Ariny had electric shock, then
continued studies ,sat for exams leading for theaward of uganda advanced
certificate of education.Set by Uganda National Examinations Board in
 uganda.results showed Ariny had seven points and one principal pass , Ariny
had an accident in sodium thiosulphate titrations Chemistry practical done all
results failed and Ariny's results passed , Practical chemistry teacher Mr Onyait
Joseph, Radio waves were used by Uganda Media centre Which Ariny studied in
physical chemistry, radio waves or electromagnetic radiations or
electromagnetic force was used in the examinations rooms by Uganda National
Examinations Board Invigilators or examination supervisors.

2002 Ariny Aged 20 years went to Ngora school for the deaf and studied sign language,
a white man from canada taught sign language his name is Morris .he worked and
linked Ariny to
 soroti catholic diocess integrated development organisation.who sponsored
advanced level education after the headteacher Oliba khad Rejected Ariny to repeat
Senior six and ordered to start from senior five to senior six the following
year.Dream continued poor hygiene, as school's pit latrine too close to the borehole
dirty water caused Ariny get sick and was treated at Soroti hospital as i suffered
dysentry, drug Nalidixic acid was vital in cure. Ariny rejected Government letter to
be sponsored to Primary Teachers College, and accepted to repeat senior six
exams,Radio waves were used by Uganda Media centre Which Ariny had studied in
physical chemistry, the head master Rejected Ariny to repeat senior six only but
ordered to start a fresh as bonafide student from senior Five while wasting Ariny's
time.World leaders, Donors , World Media, World Sports Persons and Organisations
visited Ariny Amos, at Ngora school for the deaf learning sign language by forced
with hendrik Lorentz force,

2003 Ariny Amos aged 21 years Admitted to senior Five science, removed geography due
to many words to explain and replaced with agriculture to make combination of
Biology,chemistry,Agriculture , fine art and general paper. Dream continues Dream
continues to learn any future programs, many girls attracted every where Ariny was, Ngora
high school escaped from Joseph Kony rebels. Ariny remained when some students fled
home as it was boarding Dream continues Ariny gave some warnings by writing to the state
house in Uganda Government., warning of corruption especially health ministry and
inclusion of Students with Disability in state house scholarships, Ariny Amos did
experiments of Masturbation similar to perturbation, photo electric effect in astronomy
which clears black and brown clouds on the space and sun light rays strikes the earth
andany other celestial bodies under study by astronomer and astronomer's spacecraft,
the same experiment rescued United States President George White Bush in Air force
one film while being attacked by enemies . Joseph kony rebels strike coming to teso
from sudan to soroti. Kony rebels captured aboke girls and lwala girls, st.elizabet and
many as war on. Ariny used to dream as assume Ariny is flying like an angel, in
chemistry all terms scoring 'A' . Ariny was un-opposed as prefect for the deaf students.
Visitors of world leaders, Donors, Sports Organisations received at Ngora High School.

2004 Ariny Aged 22years was in senior six science. Dream continues,chemistry was
best all time, Practical Experiment showed my experiment was the best which involved
reaction between Concentrated nitric acid on stand by sieve with alcohols, on test tubes
Results show Ariny almost blew the laboratory a blast was heard and Ariny did robot
surgery or dissection of frogs and coackroches, at night NASA tear gased Ariny.
Nitrogen monoxide evolved a brown gas ,Mr. Odeng informed all the experiment
stopped. Final examination results showed score of eight points with three principle
pass and subsidiary pass included principle pass in chemistry.Radio waves were used
by Uganda Media centre Which Ariny studied in physical chemistry this was introduced
during the general papers exams, Chemistry exams Biology Exams, Agriculture Exams
as the video camera was availed to the examination room to Film students sitting exams
to fulfill the promise pledged to Ariny Amos during the meeting with Bank of Uganda
Officials and Makerere University Kampala, others are Uganda National Examination
Board before students sat exams during Second Term, Ariny had rejected general paper
lectures due that previous school in 2000-2001 Soroti Secondary School Radio waves
were used by Uganda Media centre Which Ariny studied in physical chemistry,
electromagnetic radiations or electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic force
introduced by video camera during Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education final
exams of Uganda National Examination Board.
World leaders, donors, Sports Organisation visited Ngora high school ,
 MAKERERE UNIVERSITY KAMPALA, UGANDA.

2005 Ariny Amos aged 23 years went alone to Makerere University Kampala carrying his
academic papers, meets National Union of Persons with Disability in Uganda, and was
granted as person with disability eligible for admission under affirmative action for
persons with disability participation at university , Ariny's first own choice was medicine
which was diverted and was Admitted to makerere university study bachelor of science
in agricultural land use and management, dream continued , Ariny was shortlisted for
,chronology as computer science, information technology, bachelor of science, Bachelor
of science in Agricultural land use management , Senate used radio waves by filming
Ariny using telephone video camera before admission and short list out verified by an
explosion of asteroid that hits the earth, At Soroti catholic church in prayer house one
man wearing brown eye glasses had dreamed Ariny and refused to greet during greeting
session at soroti catholic diocess, he warned me that makerere university lecturers will
torture you. second my former old boy of Soroti secondary school warned he named
Abdallah amir he was studying medicine at Mbarara University of Science and
Technology. Mr Obella Elisha , said he had dreamed Ariny and and that was the process
that was going on since birth, admitted agriculture faculty after medical

examination at mulago hospital. National Union of Disabled Persons of Uganda program

for the affirmative actions for persons with disability participation at the university of
which Ariny Amos Entered to Makerere university Kampala in Uganda. One day at soroti
in equator computers Ariny switches computers by electricity off and on. Some days

indicates that computer break down as internet was available in astrophysics.

This is the chronology of the events

at Makerere University Kampala since 2005/2006 academic year, senate of Makerere

University admitted Ariny to pursue the Bachelor of Science in agricultural land use
and management, introduced from the Netherlands, faculty of agriculture under
government sponsorship on affirmative action for people with disability, Makerere
 University

Kampala identity card was issued and Ariny took photo dressed in Grey t- shirt with
pepsi cola soda trade mark at the chest. Vice chancellor was Dr.Livingstone Luboobi
And academic registrar as Amos Olal Odur.

1. In Ariny's first year 2005/2006 academic year, Ariny completed with the course co-
ordinator Dr Twaha Basamba ateenyi ali who was a moslem, doctoring or arranging
manual marks so that Ariny's CGPA kept low targeting for second class lower degree
and was complaining when compared to final examination results with other students
who compete Ariny in the
continuous assessment test and assignments AEN 1101 mathematics,At lecture theatre,
Ariny was not allowed to lecture mathematics to confuse Natural philosophy Ariny was
filmed as asteroid hits the earth outside the lecture theatre, SOS 1101 introduction to
soil science, SSL 1104 land atmosphere relationship, EEE 1102 introduction to
communication and extension methods, AEC 1101 principle of economics, CRS
1101Agricultural botany and plant physiology, all have been cheated by the course
coordinator in 2005/2006 semester on while AEN 1202 introduction to computer
application. CRS 1203 introduction to statistics, SSL 1203 human population and
development, AEN 1201 climatology and field engineering, AEN 1203 land surveying and
mapping all were cheated by the course coordinator on any brief investigation on the
marked sheet; at the deans office was cheated by rubbing and ignoring the lecturers
marks.

After first semester in first year , a recess attended part time course in information
technology and completed and awarded certificate of proficiency in information
technology in 2006. Ariny started computer operation in February 2006 by facebook
social media for science fictions.

2. 29th/8/2006 Ariny submitted his registration forms to the faculty registrar office a
head of registration which occurred on 30th/6/2006 as shown in the stamp that
registered, lecturers strike and semester was closed before final examination.
6th/1/2007 semester was re-opened and on 16th/1/2007, faculty time for the getting
identification cards from the senate using the senate regulation of obtaining the
financial statement, print out confirming a student registered for the semester for the
academics after reporting to the verification officer to prove

the occurancy of the process. Registered at the faculty custodian’s office for the
documents but the senate refused to produce. Custodian referred Ariny to the registrar
office as more time wasted, custodian went with Ariny to the senate and was printed the
documents, at the verification the documents failed and Identification Card renewal was
delayed to next date 18th/1/2008 ,Radio waves were emitted by Uganda media center.

Issues raised;
Not registered for the semester.Ariny used own personal stamp which was false.

Date at the stamp indicative as 30th/8/2005

3. For examination permit, senate refused to print for Ariny and faculty registrar came
back to the faculty empty all other students were issued and me denied, time was wasted
complaining until start of the examination time then went to complain to Room 612
Makerere university senate.

Issues raised;

Not registered for the semester immediately Ariny ran to the hall to see registration
forms and found stamped that registered after which Ariny took to the faculty registrar
19th/1/2007 who sent Ariny to the senate Room 612 for re-registration plus issue of
exam permit and senate refused till 20th/1/2007 after complaint lodged wasting time of
which me had to hurry to the faculty after the exam permit issue of ID and exam
permit.

4. 20th/1/2007, out of the eight topics registered, only five five topics shown in the
official
final exam permit signed by the academic registrar. Issues raised in
the final exam permit;

Topics valid for the semester; AEN 2101 Farm power and
machinery

CRS 2101 Biometrics.

SOS 2102 Soil survey and land evaluation.SOS 2101 Soil physics
and chemistry.

CRS 2102 Annual crops agronomy. Topics invalid;

Students were encouraged to register for the semester and were not included in the
exam permit as per the senate exam permit; (witness Robert, Room 612 senate
building).

SSL 2102 Soil morphology and classification.

. SSL 2101 Common property management.

. SSL 2102 Energy sources and land use.

Ariny complained to the Dean Training and Course Co-ordinator, Chairperson of Uganda
Nation Association of the Deaf (UNAD) (Ref 1to 4) above explanation and faculty did no
action, Uganda National Association of the Deaf (UNAD) responded on advocacy and
lobby.

5. 2006/7 academic year, 11th/4/2007, Ariny lodged the complaint to the faculty registrar
office why Ariny's exam permit was rigged by refusal of the senate to issue official ID
and exam permit and results showed Ariny had failed AEN 2101 farm power and
machinery.

Issues raised;

Appointed faculty registrar was not in the office and

was not responsible to sign Ariny's registration forms.

Un identified person went to sign Ariny's registration

forms. All courses were not registered in Room 612.

. Course co-ordinator (Dr. Twaha ali basamba) encouraged students to register invalid
topics for the semester.

. SSL 2103 Energy sources and land use-(is year three course with on the system
code SSL 3153).

. SSL 2101 Common property management is a year two semester two and students
were in semester one with code SSL 2202.

. SSL 2101 soil morphology and classification, is not listed on the

system as the program course for the Bsc.LUM at Makerere University Class
representative also informed me that Dr. Twaha has reduced Ariny's marks. as radio
waves were used by Uganda media centre, Ariny warned them after third year, he will
not to register retakes released as per that it was faculty problem of forgery because
Dr. Twaha warned that he was rubbing Ariny's marks and reducing.

6. 2006/2007 academic year semester 11, after final exam results were released and Ariny had
4 retakescompiled, Ariny complained to the Head of Department of Soil sciences Dr Victor
Ochwo, who filmed Ariny Amos by his mobile phone video camera and course Co-ordinator
who ignored my complaints and referred me to Dean training office and respective Lecturers.
Dean
of training permits Ariny to see marked
sheets. Retakes;

ANS 2201 Introductory livestock management- (had irregularity of tempering into the
computer and reducing marks, lecturer denied me access to see marked scripts,
schemes. Dr. Mpairwe and ordered Ariny to retake only. And Ariny asked Dr. Mutetika
who informed me that he cheated that Ariny's work).

.CRS 2201 Perennial crops agronomy lecturer game all scripts, schemes,
irregularity was tests papers undermarked by Kyeyune

. EEE 2201 Social research methods, Dr. Kyazze showed Ariny's scripts and denied
marking scheme, irregularity was final exam scripts, marking scheme.

. EEE 2201 gender in agricultural development, Dean Training office, marked sheets
showed rubbing and compiling finally as retake, lecturer Mr. Mulumba denied me
access to scripts and marking scheme, Dean training informed me that twaha did the
malpractices.

Course with poor pass due to irregularity;

.SOS 2201 soil fertility and plant nutrition (irregularity was

deceiving the signature on the marked sheet after ignoring the marked sheet from the
lecturer, prof. Zaake, all students had manual marks, arranged by the course Co-
ordinator and mine was much reduced to 51%, Dr. Twaha used two signatures of
himself.

.SSL 2204 land degradation. (Course co-ordinate temped into the

computer and reduced my marks to 46 and he printed and raised to 56 of which he

signed. He also arranged all students manual marks.
7. 2006/2007, academic year semester 11, Ariny lodged complaint to course
coordinator (Dr. Twaha) on allegation of sexual connivance on the awarding marks by
lecturers and he himself and sexual harassment by students esepecially one student
lady entered examination room with telephone video camera and filmed Ariny was siting
exams as the lady came to examination room too late than time under regulation by
Makerere University Kampala, lady entered examination room one hour late, Dr. Twaha
denied allegation and referred me to Vice chancellor.

8. 2007/2008, Academic year semester 11, 19th/2/2008 exam results were released
and Ariny had one retake SSL 3102 Tropical soils and their management. Dr. Lukman
mulumba denied me to see scripts and marking schemes. On checking the marked
sheets at the Dean training office,

irregularities found;

.AEC 3102 Agricultural land economics (rubbing and reducing

finally compiled marks.

.SSL 3102 site planning and land scarping, reducing of marks by rubbing.

. SSL 3104 principle of environment education, continuous assessment test was

cancelled, and Ariny did the test alone and all other students went on refusing by strike
9. 12th/2/2008, Ariny lodged complaint to the chairperson of undergraduate
examination committee as per that Dr. Lukman Mulumba

referred after he denied Ariny to see scripts and schemes of

marking. Issues raised;

.Rubbed marks are re-compiled manually.

. Denied allegation that scripts permitted to students to see but makerere university
kampala rules permit.

10. 25th/2/2008, Ariny lodged a complaint to coordinator for the affirmative action from
National Union of Disabled persons of Uganda who recommended me to be admitted
under affirmative action to come including all the complaints above and requested to
come and investigate on Ariny's human rights violation. Faculty did not take any action.

11. Dean, faculty of agriculturereported starting in paragraph 3 ,25th/3/2008, Ariny lodged

the complaint to the commissioner special needs education, ministry of education and
sports, all the above complaints above requesting to investigate and letter copied to
several offices in the university and Action for Disability and Development.

Issues raised; Radio waves used by Uganda media centre, the course co ordinator to
Temper into the computer and delete marks , rubbing marks and gives manual marks.
Arrangement of manual marks for Ariny's degree leading to GPA Low by Dr. Twaha
basically by rubbing and reducing deceiving signature Ref 1

. Lecturers and students sexually harass (Ref: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

. Senate refuse to issue Ariny exam permit (ref: 3 and 4)

. Discrimination against Ariny and violation of Ariny's rights (1 to 12)

Below are the sequences of events that took place and the faculty took.action
26th/3/2008, Course co-ordinator (Dr. Twaha) wrote letter inviting.undergraduate
exam

committee members to discuss Ariny's complaints..Members invited; Ariny was

filmed in the meeting as an explosion of.asteroid heard that hit the earth.

Head of Soil Science, Mr. Olupot G. Mr. Lukman Mulumba, Mr. JB

Tumuhaire, others, class representative or SBc.LUM1, 11 and 1 and
111

Absent without apology

Mr. S. Sessanga, and Mr. L. Mulumba

Ariny’s helpers were denied access to attend and sign language interpreter, makerere
university uses the word helpers not interpreter , interpreter called from Kyambogo
University (Mr. K. Edward) Meeting was chaired by the course coordinator (Dr. Twaha)
and

secretary assistant coordinator

G.Olupot. Issues raised;

At initiation of meeting,Tea was served to all members in the meeting but Ariny rejected to
drink and explained that poison in this tea and a triangular shaped bread served as Ariny's
rejection persisted. Head of dept revealed that third world country like Uganda, deaf should
not be allowed to offer sciences it was indiscipline for Ariny to offer Bachelor of science in
Agricultural land use management Course at Makerere University Uganda. Rubbing and
reducing was
found guilty by Dr. Twaha as per scripts displayed to members in the discussion, there
was a blast outside due to asteroid. and at night an earth quake., Sexual harassment
and sexual connivance found guilty , Lecturer Miss. Nakatudde who was involved in
practice was chased and not currently teaching.lecturer had filmed Ariny in
examination period as asteroid hits the earth, Lecturer Nakatudde was not recruited by
vice chancellor, Sexual connivance by Twaha was found guilty, Marked sheets, scripts
were brought by the faculty registrar and displayed to all persons in the meeting, Ariny
was denied to see some of the papers with irregularities.

Head of department accused me of refusing to date ladies. They forced Ariny to pay
Shs. 80,000 instead of 60,000 Ug shs ignoringthe university regulation. CRS 2201
perennial crops agronomy found compiled fail mark, lecturer did irregularity. EEE 2201
social research methods found fail; lecturer did irregularity due Ariny was sitting infront,
so the lecturer went on exam malpractice. EEE 2204 gender in agricultural development,
irregularity was rubbing of marked sheets, scripts and compiling as retake, the lecturer
of the course informed all persons present that its Dr. Twaha who did the malpractice.
SOS 2201 soil fertility and plant nutrition (irregularity was deceiving the signature on the
marked sheet after ignoring the marked sheet from the lecturer, prof. Zaake, all students
had manual marks arranged by the course co-ordinator and mine was much reduced to
51%, 2.0 Dr. Twaha used two signatures of himself. SSL 2204 land degradation. (Course
co-ordinator tempered into the computer and reduced my marks to 46 and he printed and
raised to 56% of which he signed, he also arranged all students manual marks). AEC
3102 Agricultural land economics (rubbing and reducing in the marked sheets finally
compiled low grades.

AEN 2101 Farm power and machinery-faculty was found with problems since that
caused Ariny to fail the paper as the Makerere University 's senate refused ID Card issue,
Mr Komakech a lecturer filmed Ariny when sitting test exams and an asteroid hit the
earth , senate refused Ariny's registration forms, invalid course codes and names the
faculty encouraged students to register, Faculty registrar was not in office, un idenfified
signed registration forms, Un authorized person signed Ariny's registration forms, Un
identified person went to sign registration forms, Lecturers were on strike, Senate
refuses to issue ID and exam permit and caused the fail, Ariny's name being same to
academic registrar (AMOS) university refuses that name which is evidence, All scripts
other topics that Ariny complain and marking schemes were not allowed to be brought to
the meeting, Faculty needs money for the retake that why they perform the exam
malpractice especially by cheating, Students serious or busy not wanted so those who
fail are need for them to get money for the retake, University accepts helpers only for the
disabled students not interpreter as per the allowance are not enough for the interpreter,

Faculty refuses human rights, Marking is prediction at Makerere University; they failed
to show Ariny the university regulation explaining the allegation. Chairperson of
undergraduates examination board accused Dr. Twaha for the examination malpractices.
Informed Ariny to repeat third year.The head, Department of soil science forced Ariny to
write apology to

Dean training and send copies to all the officials and register 3 retakes but the whole
allegations were injustice, the dean training had rejected me to write apology letter.
(Witnesses are all the persons present at the meeting as stated in above Ref 11)
(Witnesses, Head of soil science Mr. G. Olupot, Mr. Sam Sessanga, Mr. Lukman
mulumba, Mr. JB. Tumuhairwe, others, class
representative of BSc. LUM 1, 11 and 111, MULMA Chairperson and faculty
registrar are witnesses).

12. 3/4/2008, faculty forced Ariny to apologies and register 3 retakes since that Uganda
is third world country where deaf person should school arts in this case Ariny had to
reject to write the apology and member of parliament and executive director of Uganda
National Association of the Deaf wrote draft, typed by his secretary and forced Ariny to
sign the apology letter and informed to send to all the offices, Alex Ndeezi ,Topic. ANS
2201 introductory livestock management. (Lecturer Dr. Mpairwe refused Ariny to see
marked scripts and schemes of which Ariny had passed, EEE 2201 social research
methods, CRS 2201 perennial crops agronomy. After registration of the retakes, the
department sent Ariny to Kyambogo University to repair hearing aid and they failed to
repair, technician did not know and requested to pay 760,000 Uganda shillings new for
both ears, Ariny rejected due to emission of Electromagnetic radiations.

13. 28th/7/2008, Ariny lodged complaint by writing letters directly to sponsor, president
of the Republic of Uganda Government, directly to Vice chancellor of Makerere
University, directly to the academic registrar and copies sent to various offices, Ariny
complain the allegations all above and the treatment by Ariny supervisor Mr. Olupot
Giregon plus (Ref: 1to12)

14. 5th/9/2008, Ariny complained to the Dean, training and head of soil science allegedly
cheating of Ariny's marks by Mr. Odongpiny R. who tampered in the computer and delete
marks of which he calculated manually to reducing from 70%, 4.0 to 59%, 2.5 and he
compiled as final marks, he also reduced another disabled student work with names
komakech. BSc. Agriculture. Of the course SOS 3201 soil conservation and land
reclamation. The Dean training did no action..

15. 5th/9/2008, Ariny followed the Vice Chancellor office after being referred by the
Dean prof. Bekunda that Ariny needs to discuss with DVC in order to earn marks and
informed me that letter referred to DVC(F and A). 11th/9.2008, DVC (F and A) wrote a
letter to me requesting the Dean faculty of agriculture to give him his comments.
Additionally Ariny opened a file at the Uganda Human Rights commission head quarters
of which the director of complaints referred Ariny to the central regional human rights
office on 28th/October 2008. 1st/10/2008, the Dean prof. Bekunda of the faculty was
changed to the new dean prof. Kyamanya Samuel. 13th/10/2008, DVC (F and A) referred
Ariny's case to the DVC (AA) or Academic registrar.

16. Academic registrar (Okello James) wrote a letter to the dean, faculty of
agriculture to explain why the faculty was rubbing or cheating Ariny's work in the
past of which the Dean training was given the letter but he did not reply.
30th/10/2008, DVC (AA) and personal assistant met Ariny and informed to come and
meet them on 6th/11.2008 with the senate examination committee.

17. 6th/11.2008, Ariny was not allowed to attend the meeting in the morning and DVC
(AA)
informed Ariny to come for the outcome at 16:00 hours. At that time Ariny was informed
by personal assistant to the DVC (AA) that the DVC (AA) met with the Dean, faculty of
agriculture and they agreed that the Dean retrieve all the scripts and compare with each
of the courses as they appear in the transcript and then the Dean, faculty of agriculture
provides the report to the DVC (AA).

18. 10th/11/2008, Supervisor wrote a letter accusing Ariny of which the faculty did not
allow Ariny to see till on 17th/11/2008, when Ariny was given at the faculty registrars
office accused Ariny. SSL 2301Field attachment 11, internship Ariny’s supervisor was Dr.
Twaha , in field attatchment I who refuse in field attachment 11 and special project and
referred Ariny to Mr. Olupot Giregon. Who wrote a report dated 10th/11/32008 and
accused Ariny's work was not complete. Mr. Olupot G. (Ariny's second supervisor) wrote
that he could not supervise Ariny since he did not see Ariny physically is true deceiving.
Ariny was in Soroti and he called Ariny but Ariny did not hear until a shock from the
phone attacked Ariny and Ariny responded that use text messages. Mr. Olupot sent a
message he has wasted air time trying to reach Ariny He added he was Olupot-Makerere.
Olupot then asked Ariny otherwise he was going to serere he does not know Ariny's
field. At that week it was later than the academic supervisor were to supervise students.
Ariny replied him that was Ariny at telecom equator secretarial service busy yping raw
data. Olupot gave Ariny to fill the field evaluation form at the campus at the start of the
semester on submitting the reports of which Ariny completed but todate Olupot accuses
Ariny that not complete. All other students in the same class said that they were not

supervised in the field, but only giving field evaluation forms to fill at the campus at
the start of the semester-august 2007, Ariny reported to the district production officer
soroti to deliver the introduction letter where Ariny was referred to Gweri sub county
chief at second week of June 2007 and Olupot was not seen at all those authorities
which made Ariny difficult to see each other physically. At the start of the semester,
Mr. Olupot started to accept Ariny's

report in hard copy as Ariny filled the field evaluation forms, he accepted hard copy for
one month but refused to mark, only changed decision to request for soft copy and Ariny
brought soft copy in floppy disc, he refused that he wants a soft copy on a flash disc, he
had asked raw data and Ariny gave him but requested for the typed work ,He was only
wasting time alzheimer's disease, in whole of the semester he refused to mark as other
students were done by respective supervisors. Ariny finalized field work was not marked
and the virus deleted all the work including the special project due to delay and Mr.
Olupot decided to ask deleted work and refused Ariny's work in the hard copy. Ariny
went back re-typing the hard copy to re-submit as soft copy in flash disc. Olupot then
accepted to mark and I finalized field attachment 11 in March 2008 and currently he has
finalized Field attachment 11. In field attachment, he chased all students in the class and
not him to supervise especially Mutenyo, Kate and even Ariny some times dodging a lot
wasting time. The meeting of students of BSC.ALUM (1,11,111) at the lower soils
laboratory most students from Fort Portal, Kenya, Eastern Uganda were complaining due
to not supervised in the field, for portal was to supervised by Dr. Twaha but was not
available for comment he filmed Ariny Amos as Ariny was raising case of fake education
curriculum and currently all students work were marked as manual marks awarded for
the award of degreeDr twaha filmed Ariny and an explosion of asteroid hit the earth as
we were in soil science laboratory. Mr. Olupot did not also supervise students in the field
from Eastern.
Ariny complained and was fjlmed by course coordinator , an explosion of asteroid hit
the earth heard. SSL 3206, Special project marks, in special project, Dr. Twaha invited
students in a meeting in December 2007 and requested us do special project in the
recess period and Olupot did not turn up to the meeting at the lower lecture theatre,
students were informed to return

to the venues of the field attachment and select the topic each students trusts for the
study. The other issue was that students were to have study tour to Eastern Uganda in
June-August 2008 recess period.

In special project Ariny did at the same field at awoja, gweri the field attachment and
submitted work in February 2008 at the start of the semester as do to other students, by
start of February 2008. Mr. Olupot accepted Ariny special project report soft copy and
refused to advise Ariny anything as other students were also submitting the special
project reports, olupot did not allow Ariny to fill the field evaluation forms till to date as
he filled Ariny's soft copy of the special project to the lap top and he took it home hiding
special project. Mr. Olupot started dodging to mark the work as he informed that he
would inform later, he continues wasting time till in October 2008 as result were near to
be released Ariny went to confirm the internship marks and was not ready. Mr. Olupot
attended to only two students in the class from Feb-Ocotober 2008, when Ariny asked
the two students, they informed Ariny that Olupot refuse you to graduate since that he
refused to teach Ariny. After the faculty board meeting, Ariny went to confirm him and
work was not in the faculty but was wasting time requested to give him flash disc, Ariny
gave him and he went home as that day was Friday and informed Ariny to come a week
later as he went to pick the soft copy of special project at home in his lap top, special
project was hidden at the laptop at home after Ariny brought it he gave to Miss Kate
Ariny's flash disc with special Project soft copy.supervisor started marking but work was
hidden at home for February 2008 and he chased Ariny and informed that disappear
Ariny forgive him for wasting

Ariny's time and never to go back to him currently no marks at the transcript.Radio
waves were emitted to Ariny Amos Mr.Olupot is there fore not considering training
students as the basic tenets of Makerere Universitys vision of academic excellence but
wastes students resources, time, conscience and never builds for the future.

20. 10th/11/208,Ariny was at deans office scripts were notready and informed Ariny that
he will only check for the topics got GPA 2.0. He checked and found irregularities,
Lecturers refuse to retrieve scripts, Correct answers marked wrong by omission SSL
3201 tropical soil and their management, Rubbing and compiling small grades, Arranging
small grades after rubbings, CRS 2201 perennial crops agronomy was compiled as
retake of which Ariny sat the retake and passed as revealed by scripts, scripts show final
marks as 62%, 3.0 but in the transcript compiled as 47%, 1.5 as retake, Scientific
question answers omitted by one lecturer Dr Lukman Mulumba Nagaya and refused to
produce marking schemes, Arranging manual marks. And ordered that he was going to
retrieve all the answer sheet and marking schemes and he send Ariny to the DVC (AA) to
handle the case. The Dean referred Ariny to check in his office on 19th/11/2008. Ariny
was filmed by emitting radio waves resulted in an explosion of asteroid

that hit the earth. 19th/11/2008, the Dean ordered that faculty registrar has got all the answer
question he was going to see if there was any stealing of Ariny's marks, the Dean refused
Ariny to see the scripts and marking schemes, on checking at faculty registrars office who
informed
Ariny to see the scripts and marking schemes at the DVC (AA) office who will handle the
case.

21. Ariny wrote a letter to the DVC (AA) complaining that the Dean, faculty of agriculture
has denied Ariny access to see all the marked scripts and marking schemes because of
the distinct irregularities and that Uganda Human Rights commission will handle the
case.

22. 19th/11/2008, Ariny obtain the report dated (26th/11/2008) from the DVC (AA) office
and Uganda Human Rights offices in Central Uganda regional office of which the DVC
(F and A) forwarded of which the Dean, faculty of agriculture had denied all Ariny's
allegations, requests DVC (AA) to ask for the scripts from the faculty that the faculty
will provide in question. The letter copied to; Vice chancellor, Academic registrar,
Dean training, faculty of agricultur. Head of soil science department, Director
counseling and Guidance. Actually the Dean wrote the report without Ariny seeing the
scripts and marking schemes but they agreed

with DVC (AA) that Ariny should be given to see the scripts and marking schemes of
each of the courses as they on the transcript before the report is written, the Dean faculty
of agriculture denied the procedure.

23. 19th/1/2008, information from DVC (AA) filmed Ariny and an explosion of asteroid
hit the earth , informed Ariny to come and meet A week after graduation, as per from the
personnel assistant to the DVC (AA). 27th/1/2009 DVC (AA) had not gone through
Ariny's file and the file was not allowed for Ariny to see as informed from the Dean and
faculty registrar of the agriculture. On the 3rd/2/2009 my file forwarded to the senate
exams and am not allowed to see what documents were sent to the senate exams.
Assistant to the DVC (AA) informed me to clear for the partial transcript of which I
rejected due to cheated marks until today not cleared for any form of Makerere
University transcript.
24. 6th/3/2009, Makerere University council investigating the introduction of
multidisciplinary courses or topics to the different faculties of the university and
agriculture faculty was busy correction of the course codes and names before
registration of students for semester 11 2008/2009 academic year, and graduands of
January 19 were denied to pick transcripts by the university senate until further notes
due to several irregularities from the faculty of

agriculture.

25. 6th/5/2009, Senate committee had meeting and Ariny was not invited to the
meeting. 8th5/2009 the deputy registrar exams and transcripts Mr. Kyazze informed
that the committee had special meeting, my case was not presented and Ariny was not
invited.

26. Uganda human rights commission of the central region wrote a letter after witness
denied being Ariny's witnesses to the Vice chancellor of Makerere University requesting
the faculty of agriculture to produce all the document of which the faculty used to
investigate Ariny's case in all Ariny's academic period and time given was seven days,
until today nothing the respondent has reject order made by the Regional Human Rights
officer as stated in article 50 (1) (a) of the
constitution of Uganda 1995, revised 15th February 2006. The commission is
wondering the next step.

27. 17th/July 2009, Mr. Kyazze (deputy registrar exams and transcripts) filmed Ariny
by emitting radio waves and an explosion was heard, informs Ariny that they have
adopted the decision made by the Dean in the past investigation at the faculty; Ariny
was not invited

to see the documents used to make decision. They were organizing to write to the
faculty to implement until today no official letter produced confirming the decision
from scripts, answer sheets audit to help dissolve the case as moves forward to the
climax.

28. At it's 23 meeting held on 4th June 2009 senate examinations committee met
privately without Ariny's presence, 20th july 2009 letter was signed by the academic
registrar and it follows all the records of the report of the Dean of the faculty of
agriculture which was written on 26th November 2008. The senate exams committee met
without Ariny's presence meaning Ariny was not allowed to be heard by the senate. The
report that the Dean wrote and was false, the Dean of the faculty of agriculture had
denied all the allegations he found in scripts and was supporting the lecturers who
performed irregularities such as omission of scientific question answers Ariny choose
to offer in examination of which the answer is correct answers marked wrong, rubbing of
marks in the answer sheets, marked sheets, refusing to register for academics, hiding of
internship work at home, marks and refusing to supervise, some retakes done and
passed are compiled again as retake, using manual marks for grading my degree so that
to keep it discriminative as low as possible, the Dean has also rejected to receive all the
scripts as agreed in the meeting with Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academics Affairs) held
on 6th/Nov/2008 at the senate.
29. 29th/July/2009,Ariny wrote a Letter to academic Registrar with the purpose to
request the faculty produce documents (answer sheets, marking schemes, and marked
sheets) invited for the audit of the answer sheets with the compiled marks in the marked
sheets, the senate examination committee and Ariny should solve the case. Not exclude
Ariny and make decision before audit since Ariny was victim from 2005 - 2009.

30. 29th /July/2009,Ariny Reported case to IGG over corruption. It was investigated and
faculty Dean refused to retrieve and forward the documents in (29) above. IGG advised
Ariny to seek to the courts of Law.

31). 29th may/2010, Opened a file at Makerere University police station, CID organized to
meet with both complainant Ariny Amos and Dr. Kyamanywa Samuel the suspect of
writing false report. Suspect Dr. Kyamanywa dodged only meet the secretary of his
office as he was hiding.
32). Ariny's letter to the IGG included several attachments of evidence., Academic
registrar; Makerere University wrote a letter after adoption of the false report that was
written by the Dean of the faculty of agriculture, Dr. Kyamanywa Samuel (R 1), False
report that was written at meeting held to resolve the case that faculty department of soil
science wrote which should be compared with Ariny’s report (R 2), Manual results that
Dr. Twaha course coordinator had forged for Ariny's degree update results Bsc. Land
me and management of Makerere University starting 2005 (R 2). Complaint to
commission for special needs education career guidance

and counseling MOGS (SNE). Complaint to project office for affirmative actions national
Union of Disabled person of Uganda (NUDIPU), Forged apology letter dated
27th/march/2008 which the Head of department forced me to write. The Head wanted to
chase me from the Department (A2). Original apology letter drafted by Member of
Parliament and executive director of Uganda national Association of the Deaf which he
gave his secretary to type and forced Ariny to sign (A1), Faculty registrar rigging exam
by rejecting to registrar my registration forms.(PR), Evidence of false courses at the
faculty that the academic registrar does not sign in examination permit after a student
fills in registration, Even if a student has no out standing fee balance to clear. Course
filled for semester are Eight but exams permit showsthree. (IC). Academic registrar
making false declaration by adopting the false report of the Dean of faculty of
Agriculture, Dr. Kyamanywa Samuel (AR), Makerere University examination regulation
which Ariny never violated in exams, Emission of radio waves by exams body and
uganda

media centre and lecturers (2005 - 2008) (EX), Inspectorate of government false
declaration after investigation of the forgery at Makerere University (IGG. 1), Written
complaint to IGG to investigate (IGG. 2). Inspectorate government Act revised 2002 of
which the IGG officials like Asubo Sydney; David Makumbi made false declaration
(IGG. 3), Inspectorate of

government officials making false declaration of the forgery and adopted the false
report of the Dean faculty of Agriculture and false declaration by the Academic
registrar. (IGG. 4), Inspectorate of government advised to seek recourse in the courts of
Law. (IGG. 5). David Makumbi , and sydney Asubo falsely declared that in accordance
with section 18 (2) ( C) of the inspectorate of government act 2002, the inspectorate of
Government shall not

investigate this matter any further on the grounds the further investigation are un
necessary. Illegal procedure was made by these officials. Please read the IG act 2002
attached (IGG. 3)

33 Case was appealed outside the University because the faculty lecturers were not
responding to Ariny's complaints starting from Head of Department who was asking
Ariny to be expelled from the Soil science department after Ariny was given admission
letter which was unlawful. and against the University and other Tertiary institutions act
7, of 2001. According to 28 (i) permits Ariny to appeal outside Makerere University
Kampala.

34). Ariny ordered Makerere University council to revocation of award and Ariny can not
study any institution of higher education in Uganda due to forgeries, Uttering false
documents for money , fraud, obtaining money by false pretense, unclean sheets,
marking sheets by lecturers, Forged curriculum.

35). Ariny can not carry out any academic document from Makerere University and
utilize it for
my employment, professional studies further which means University cancels Ariny's
academic details at Makerere University database, Ariny Amos is an explorer,
Astrologer, Astronomer, Natural philosopher, futurist, Alchemist, Astrophysicist.
 MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
Phone:+256-41-
P.O. Box 7062 Kampala
4534343/4530231-2
Uganda
Welcome
Fax : +256-41-
Cables: "MAKUNIKA"
ARINY Amos 4534125/4541771
Website :http://ar.mak.ac.ug
Home Email : ar@acadreg.mak.ac.ug

View Results OFFICE OF THE ACADEMIC REGISTRAR

View Name: ARINY Amos Sex: Male

Statement
Reg
Change 05/U/19788 Faculty: Agriculture
No:
Passwords
BAM Year 1 Examination 2005/2006
Log Off
Semester 1

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

AEC1102PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS 50 C- 3

AEN1101MATHEMATICS 50 C- 2

AGRICULTURAL BOTANY AND PLANT

CRS1101 65 B- 3
PHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION &

EEE1102 62 C+ 3
EXTENSION METHODS

SOS1101INTRODUCTORY SOIL SCIENCE 61 C+ 3

CONCEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCE

SSL1102 78 B+ 3
DEVELOPMENT

SSL1104LAND ATMOSPHERE RELATIONS 64 C+ 3

 GPA CGPA
3.05 3.05
... ...

Semester 2

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

AEN1201CLIMATOLOGY AND FIELD ENGINEERING 52 C- 3

AEN1202INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS 58 C 2

AEN1203LAND SURVEYING & MAPPING 50 C- 3

CRS1204INTRODUCTION TO AGRONOMY & ECOLOGY 71 B 3

CRS1208INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS 55 C 2

EEE1207RURAL SOCIOLOGY 77 B+ 2

SOS1207SOIL BIOLOGY I 75 B+ 2

SSL1203HUMAN POPULATION & DEVELOPMENT 59 C 3

GPA CGPA
2.98 3.01
... ...

BAM Year 2 Examination 2006/2007

Semester 1

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

AEN2101FARM POWER AND MACHINERY 34 E 3

(CTR)
CRS2101BIOMETRICS 54 C- 3

CRS2102ANNUAL CROPS AGRONOMY 52 C- 3

SOS2101SOIL PHYSICS & CHEMISTRY 62 C+ 3

SOS2102SOIL SURVEY AND LAND EVALUATION 70 B 3

SSL1302FIELD ATTACHMENT I 72 B 4

SSL2104COMMON PROPERTY MANAGEMENT 50 C- 2

SSL2105SOIL MORPHOLOGY & CLASSIFICATION 64 C+ 3

 SSL2106ENERGY SOURCES & LAND USE 54 C- 2

GPA CGPA
2.54 2.83
... ...

Semester 2

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

ANS2201INTRODUCTORY LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT 33 E 3

(CTR)
ANS2202WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 70 B 3

CRS2201PERENNIAL CROPS AGRONOMY 62 C+3

(RT)
EEE2201SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS I 50 C- 3
(RT)
EEE2208GENDER IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 47 D+2
(CTR)
SOS2201SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION I 51 C- 3

SSL2204LAND DEGRADATION 50 C- 3

GPA CGPA
2.1 2.66
... ...

BAM Year 3 Examination 2007/2008

Semester 1

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

AEC3102AGRICULTURAL LAND ECONOMICS 61 C+ 3

REMOTE SENSING & GIS IN AGRICULTURAL LAND

SSL3106 63 C+ 3
USE

SSL3108SITE PLANNING & LANDSCAPING 67 B- 3

SSL3110SOIL AND WATER POLLUTION 66 B- 3

SSL3115TROPICAL SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT 47 D+2

(CTR)
SSL3117PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 66 B- 2

GPA3.06 CGPA2.72
 ... ...

Semester 2

CODE PAPER NAME MRK GPCU

This is not an official Testimonial.The Official Testimonial is

issued by the Faculty/School Registrars

ANS3205BEEF PRODUCTION AND RANGE MANAGEMENT 50 C- 3

FOM3201LAND USE POLICY AND LAW 60 C+ 3

PHN3206ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 65 B- 2

SOS3201SOIL CONSERVATION AND LAND RECLAMATION 57 C 3

SOIL PRODUCTIVITY MANAGEMENT AND

SOS3206 84 A 2
ASSESSMENT

SSL3202LAND USE PLANNING 64 C+ 3

SSL3203LAND USE IMPACT ASSESSMENT 70 B 2

SSL3209WASTE MANAGEMENT 60 C+ 2

GPA CGPA
3.13 2.79
... ...
Ariny Amos (2005) as King Martin Luther King, Hulk Avenger Robert Bruce Banner,
Herman Munster, Roland Emmerick, Mario Balotelli, Robert Charles Gallo, Michael Keep
out of the Wall, McDonald Trump, Robert Ballard, Boeing, John Rambo, Tim Peake,
Tyrese Gibson we are all for the same Tailor, Galileo Galileo Galilei, Guy Consolgmagno,
Pope Francis Bargoglio juergen,Pope John Paul 11, Pope Benedict xvi, Brian Moynihan
CEO Bank of AmericaBank of America Corporate Office Headquarters, William Mark Bellamy,
Roland Emmerick,Zinedine Zidane,Flying House,Rudolf Jaenisch, Paul Berg, Dolph
Lundgren,Rio Ferdinand, Astronomer Nicholas Patrick Good luck, Patrick Lumumba,
Elton Hercules John, Frankie Friedericks,Petrus Ramus, Johannes Sturm, James Bond,
Breitbart Trump confirms he’ll at the Next Fox News
Debate…BREITBART.COM,Rev.Franklin Graham just responded to Obama’s Radical
Mosque visit… His Message ROCKED internet,Ferdinand Romualdez Marcos, Jr,
 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE BRITAIN ONLINE STUDY.

2009 , Ariny Amos was to closing business Fake schools, enrolled Baccalaureate in
Financial Administration for online studies at Cambridge International College Britain
online, and was awarded international diploma in accounting and and finance in
business and management due to examination supervisor went fraud.Juliet Keeya
Nanono who was principal of the school in Kisugu Kampala named London Institute of
Business Management Ariny paid fee for Cambridge International College Britain but
lady refused to forward the money to Britain,

Ariny transfered to British Council Nairobi Kenya.17/June/ 2010 , Filmed at Border,

2010, returned to Uganda to investigate Ms Juliet Keeya Nanono by Jinja Road Police
Station the examination supervisor had to refund the fraud cash nakawa grade three
magistrates. examination was ordered to stop operation in Uganda.During
examinations the lady named Juliet Keeya Nanono had emitted radio waves when Ariny
Was sitting exams using telephone video camera in the examination room, she said the
chairperson of the school Board of Governors was Dr. Gilbert Ballibasekka Bukenya
who was Vice president of Uganda.The lady communicated with makerere lecturers
who also had used radio waves during examinations during Ariny Amos regime at
Makerere University Kampala.

African Athletics Championships 2010, Ariny Amos was filmed at Nyayo Stadium, An
explosion of asteroid hit the earth out side the stadium, as Ariny Amos not interested in
video cameras due remote sensing emits electromagnetic radiations results are photo
electric effect, Ariny Amos was also introduced to the spectators that Ariny being
explorer. Ariny Amos equally to former German scientist Albert einstein, who continued
to develope the general theory of relativity,gravitation and photo electric effect.
 EXPLORATION OF AFRICA BY ARINY AMOS.

2011 Ariny Amos explored Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and back to Uganda Crossed
lakeVictoria from Mwanza to Bukoba by Victoria Ship.which carries passengers and
freights, Started exit from Busia Border 29/Oct/2011 a problem at the border in Namanga
one muslim boy dressed arsenal t- shirt stole ariny's money and ran with cash toward
Tanzania border to hide, Kenyan shillings 3,000 and ran to hide towards Tanzania Border
border authorities entered date as 24/Aug/2011 which was wrong, boy was from Tanzania
side and at the bus park some money 40,000 Kenyan shillings was also stollen, , Ariny
had yellow urine, yellow eyes after injection after small pox immunization from
Namanga, Crossing each border from Busia,Namanga,Tunduma, Nakonde, Mwanza,
Bukoba, Mutukula occurred with an explosion of asteroid that hits the earth as it was
filmed, some times no eating fresh food only radio waves emitted as food,National
Geographic Channel follow up ; Ultimate action group including Mc Donald Trump, George White

Bush and Android Ariny Amos toured following radio waves, by Road transport from
Kampala29/Oct/2011 exit from Busia to Dar es Salaam via Busia - Nairobi Namanga border , At
Namanga border the authorities entered to travel passport date as 24/AUG/2011Instead of
30/Nov/20111 permitted to work in Tanzania for three month then then to Dar es Salaam where film
was acted at Ocean there is fece built for protecton which is not in Uganda,HIV/Aids treatment in Dar
es salaam central, ultimate action group were there at night attempted execution using radio waves ,
sweating disease, Ectopic Pregnancy , Heart failure,faint, cocaine resurrection by NASA, Eragon, vanity
fair,terminator 1984 film, Mother sr .Theresa, two nights in Dar es salaam then as money 40,000
tanzanian shilling charged at the bus park for mistakes done by registrars And Uganda Media Cenre
Radio waves Emitter then to Tunduma- Nakonde border between Zambia and Tanzania , then back
from Nakonde in Zambia border and Tunduma to Bukoba using Short cut road travels, from Tunduma
to Bukoba by bus but the bus driver went strike and started out of departure time from Tunduma to
Mwanza, Tanzanian Police arrested the driver ordered to return back to Tunduma on his way to
Mwanza in Timber over loaded bus, until the time for departure is ready. Second attempt went
through but the tyre of the bus got an accident as celestial body punctured the hind tyre, IT was
filmed as radio waves of Willy McCool were emitted towards Ariny Amos replacement was done on
way ,fuel got finished at one station and bus stopped as Ariny Amos went to Ask way to Mwanza as
assume Ariny was lost, Ariny hired boda to follow abus returning to past station using the film of Kris
Stanton by Arnold Schwarzenegger appreciation society , my funds wasted by boda boda, I was not a
tourist, at the site of the Natural Park Ariny Amos was Being filmed with radio waves emitted of Willy
Mc Cool’s letter from space before the Columbia shuttle explosion

what caused the bus tyre burst was plutonnic solid , astronaut McCools radio waves as willie
McCool's letter from space days before columbia space shuttle explosion with seven crew astronauts,
the tyre of a bus burst as the bus was over loaded with timber in tanzania, massive land was burnt
due to electric shock from Dar es Salaam, melpomene asteroid burnt the area in Astrophysics state
that China used Drones , Bus Driver charged 12,000 for fuel wastage Tanzanian Shillings all passengers
for the mistake he committed as traffic police block him in over loaded and out of departure time on
the way before Mwanza, some body was filming, then at Mwanza dated

6/Nov/2011 Ariny Amos and Ultimate action group with McDonald Trump shared a Victoria ship trip
from Mwanza to Bukoba,there Earth quake at the ship due Radio waves of the Battle ship film, Little
Boy film produced by Eduardo Verastegui, Ariny Amos no where to sleep at night, a lot of fresh air at
sea of lake Victoria similar to sleeping out doors in Bush at Night Stephen Hawking produced heavy
rain since journey started at 22;00hours , Ariny Amos left aletter with some securities in Mwanza. In
addition,Radio waves emitted included hunger games film, Curse of Frankeinstein , Battle ship Film
were emitted at victoria ship, electricity went off due to Oliver Heaviside for Complex Numbers used
to calculate short circuits, Short Circuit film and robot, radio waves many others emitted towards
Ariny Amos , Garcelle Beauvais, Cattle Egret Led to Galaxy Celestial Body burnt part of the ship as
beautiful girl was near to Android Ariny Amos wales online Thomson holidays , rejected questions
over foal play radio waves was also emitted to wards Ariny Amos, at the time of earth quake the ship
stopped floating in the lake , battle ship film, Ariny went and others went out and there HIV/Aids cure
using King Henry eight of England radio waves , Battle ship film,Voyage to the bottom of the
sea,Invissible man,Kelvin William, Galileo Galilei for Planetary scientists observatory telescope, steam
rain which baptised Ariny Amos face, Stephen Hawking for interstellar medium and Jesus for the
principle of relativity, curse of Frank Einstein,Albert Einstein, Sir Isaac Newton, Rudolf Jeanisch,

Auguste Piccard, Joacques Piccard Powerhouse Principles of Jorge Perez,Albert Einstein,leaders

present in the ship introduced to passengers earlier before earth quake to Android Ariny Amos , an
explosion hit the water and Earth quake stopped as the journey continued after investigation was
concluded ,in the morning the next day at 7;00 hours we arrived to Bukoba from Mwanza an
explosion hit the rock at the dock, as Little boy film , Akiror Stella,WFMY NEWS 2 National football
League Honours NFL Honours night on the Red Carpet With WFMYNEWS 2 AT SB50 WFMYNEWS.COM,
Jere E .Mason posted in full throttle saloon; family friends fans, in Connington Tennessee 3hrs life is
short enjoy your coffee Good Morning friends, Jean Louis Gonneau updated the group phot in
ultimate action group 3hrs you and 4 other like this, Michael Keith Russell full throttle saloon; family
friends and fans Thursday blessing to you all ! Be Safe and stay warm ! you and 13 others like
this,Dawn Marie full throttle saloon ;family friends and fans 1hr Good Morning Harley Davidson
motorcylces you and 36 other like this, Techjaja’ These are the 2011 top 50 twitter brands ,
personalities, Communities, Media Houses, Politicians in Uganda; These are the 50 most popular
TwittterProfiles in Uganda, Ebaum’s World Chuck Norris Tears cure cancer, Michael Keith Russel Full
throttle saloon; family friend and fans Good morning everyone! Have a peaceful Tuesday ! God bless,
Hussein Bolt celebrating after winning 100m 200m, Double medals in 2008 Beinjing Olympics, Donnie
Sanders Full Throttle Saloon; Family, Friends & Fans4 hrs Good morning FTS and Mr.Cross have a
great day from Oklahoma!, Barbara Gampfer Wyckoff full throttle saloon; family friends and
fans,sweetest of dreams to you, my luv Notes,Michael Keith Russel full throttle saloon; family friends
and fans 9hrs Have a beautiful afternoon everyone!, Michael Keith Russel full throttle saloon; family
friends and

fans 9hrs Have a beautiful enening everyone God Bless You!,Juan Rivera to Full Throttle Saloon;
Family, Friends & Fans8 hrs · Leland, NC, United States · Tomorrow is the day for exam to b home
inspector A little pray thanks have a bless nite uall BAM!!!111—with Terry Buckler. radio
waves were emitted as many tourists watch the sun rises,Ultimate action group and McDonald trump,
George White Bush, Laura Bush, Nancy Patricia D’Alesandro Pelosi, Barack Obama,Angelina Jolie,Brad
Pitt,

Transformer Robot, Dead Pool Robot,Wolf Einstein, Pacific Rim,Hulk Avengers,Robert Bruce Banners,
Hulk Comics, Jackie Chan,Eragon, Dead Pool, Saudi Arabia Kings,Monarco Monarch,Jet Li, Harry
Porter, Exhibition included Android Ariny Visitors in Soroti Hospital in 1991, Little Boy Film, Many
world leaders,NASA,Underwater Vehicle for bodies Skeleton Discovery, FBI, CIA, Elizabeth Warren
,James Bond, Michael Campo, United Nation , International Criminal Court , Attorneys from United
States of America Judges, Religious Leaders,East African Community were present in the same
Victoria ship as an investigation of South Sudan Massacre of refugees into shipping containers.
Between Bukoba to Mutukula border Ariny Amos Changed his boot shoes to Marathon sports shoes,

Removed Sweater and Dressed White T- shirt that was donated by Ultimate action group Dwayne
Johnson Douglas in Nairobi in the year 2010, removed Green lee cooper jeans and dressed Blue 501
Levis and strauss company Jeans walked for 20 kilometers helicoper was seen on space which
emitted radio waves of sensory nerves , Garcelle Beauvais, Cattle Egret, Jean Louis Gonneau
Graduated in 1978 Tennesse USA, Ectopic Pregnancywhich was plotted by Michelle Obama and
Michael Mukula for all residents infected in soroti district in water tank built at Opia Rock, United
Nations Official twitter Account, John Rambo Part 1 2 3 Film, Jean Claude Van dame Cyborg
Film,Wavy TV 10 Wavy.com the York –Poquoson sheriff’s office announced Monday that it has put “In
God we trust “ on patrol cars Take the poll; Do you support the decision by sheriffs office? Wales
online; This skilled effort got the motorway moving again How this lorry was recovered after his had
blown a cross the M4 , wales online.co.uk by Heledd Pritchard, Akudo John was retired Uganda Police
Officer during Milton Obote and Field Marshal Iddi Amin,Blitz sports. Supersport .com, Haile
Gebrsellasie, Tirunesh Dibaba, Robert Boyle, Cumulo Nimbus, Citrus, Nimbus, Invissible Man, John
Dalton, Dmitri Mendeleev, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel, Robert Gallo, Rudolf Jaenisch,Galen Rupp,
Kenesisa Bekele, Arnold Schwarzenegger Terminator 2 (T2), Jackie Chan Shangai Express Snake and
Monkey show down films,Kim Do; I love you, Catholic Church warns of war talks, Orthodox church ,
Angelina Jolie and many others books to read as scribd.com books, Blockbuster reading, New York
Times Best seller Book Tittle Twelve Years as a Slave by Solomon Northup introduction by Dalen
Perkins –Valdez, Book of Lisa Genova by Still Alice,Book The GreatGatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Book
Les Miserables by Victor Hugo,Discover comics on scribd Books Dardevil by Mark Waid, Book
Daredevil by Frank Miller and Klaus Janson, Book Locke and Key by Joe Hill and Gabriel
Rodriguez,Book The woods by Boom Studios,Pulitzer Prize Winners Books tittle Truman by David
MacCullough, Book The making of the atomic bomb with new forwards by RichardRhodes,Book The
age of the innocence by Edith Wharton, Book Tittle Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell,Teen
Dystopia Books The Program by Suzanne Young,Book Delirium by Lauren Oliver The best seller author
Before I fall, Book Enclave by Ann Aguirre,Book The selection by Kiera Cass, New York Times Editor’s
choice Pick Book Tittle Willie Mays The life The Legend by James S. Hirsch, Book The New Yorker
Stories by Ann Beatie,

Book Lord Vishnu’s Love Handles A spy Novel… by Will Clarke, Book Model home; A Novel by Eric
Puchner,Edgar Award Winning Mysteries and Thrillers Book The Callender Papers by Cynthia Voigt,
Absolute Certainty ;A crime Novel by Rose Connors,Ordinary Grace; A Novel by William Kent Krueger,
Book Strike Three You’re dead by R.D Rosen,Oprah’s Book Club Book Tittle Great Expectation by
Charles Dickens, Book Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy and Constance Garnett, Book I know this much is
true by Wally Lamb,

Book The Story of Edgar Sawtelle by David Wroblewki,and International bestsellers books Book Tittle
The Art of Sleeping a lone why one French.. by Sophie Fontanel, Book Captive by Clara Rojas, Book I’m
off then; Losing and Finding Myself on the… by Hape Kerkeling, Book by Wetlands by Charlotte Roche,
Fifa world cup. Tiger , wolf and cat short listed to be world cup Russia 2018 Mascot meets the
designers here Fifa.to/iPPMrnY1, Astro ; Astronomy Magazine watch the LIGO collaboration’s
announcement about gravitational waves goo.gl/sKEv9E,

United States of America Treasury Department information for contact plus picture belowTreasury
Department@USTreasury44m44 minutes agoSecretary Lew: “@Lagarde has done an exceptional job
leading the #IMF for the last 5 years.” Read more: http://1.usa.gov/1TezZKt 1 retweet3 likes

Invisibleman Sent Picture below to Plus information to Ariny Amos As Shown and Readings,
many other books ,as Ariny changed his boot shoes to sports shoes in bag used to carry Golf
Equipments of Which Ariny Amos donated to Roadside children plus a pair of shoes on the road side
on his way to Mutukula in Tanzania- Uganda Border and drunk water in well which was discovered
poisoned with cocaine, the same water drunk by monkeys conserved in the area between Bukoba and
Mutukula At Mutukula there was HIV/Aids cure , heavy rainfall by Stephen hawking, King Henry eight
of England,Galileo Galilei, HIV/Aids cure.

At Road Side well Where Monkeys are conserved and found Cocaine dissolved as
Monkeys Drink Cocaine Poisoned in water well in Between Bukoba Mutukula High
WayThe journey was under radio waves control which Ariny Was following introducedby
Uganda Media Centre forcing yellow fever injection at Namanga. Dated 7/Nov/2011 Ariny
arrived to Uganda from Mutukula Border.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING ARINY AMOS EXPLORATION TO VERIFY RAILWAY
LINE AND REFUGEES DROWNED IN LAKE VICTORIA WITH ULTIMATE ACTION GROUP.
Key;

Route of exploration 2011

Lake Victoria involved Underwater Vehicle – Jacques Piccard and Lt. Don
Walsh invented.Voyage to the bottom of the sea.

2012;Following the procedure stated by Speakers during 1993 Pope John Paul 11 visit to
Uganda, Ariny Amos was to Select choice of interest to work, either in leeds hotel
London United Kingdom or United States, or in Starburk Hotels and Delta Chelsea Hotel
in Canada as Events Manager since Ariny Amos is Astrologer, Ariny’s Choice was Leeds
Hotel London, but due that Ariny Amos is Historian of Science with Reference to Lourens
Baas Becking , it Stated that the Environment Select on Immigration FBI cancels
postpones that work permit since Ariny Amos now Explorer, Planetary scientists
expert.Political instabilities in Africa as predicted.

2013 Ariny Amos's Guardian Father Kiptoris Tom invited whole clan members from
Kenya and Uganda for a meeting in Kaplebyong sub county in Amuria District and Ariny
was given a name Kipsang Arap Tarus. In March Ariny received email letter and sent
from Sir Nelson Haggin, with Top USA Government officials Under President Barack
Obama approved some fund for Ariny Amos 10.3 million USDollars.From bank of america
or federal reserve bank of New York United States of America, The email letter was
received earlier in 2006 under President George White Bush but Ariny Amos had no
Processing and transfer fee as Ariny was in Makerere University Kampala. Ariny was in
Nebbi district west nile , northern uganda where astronauts came to view eclipse even
the president of uganda ,yoweri museveni kaguta attended the eclipse in the same
district where Ariny was fundraising for school fee for studies at cambridge international
college Britain a college in West End Southampton England United Kingdom.and
Massachussetts Institute of Technology in the course of Bachelors of science in
Planetary science. Other awards in addition include North Atlantic Treaty Organisation,
World Bank, European Union, International Monitory Fund, Federal Reserve Bank of
America, Global fund,United Nations, Private Individuals, and Companies.Ariny is Natural
philosopher as been studying online, prospective to line study bachelor of science in
planetary science at Massachussetts Institute of Technology, all these funds blocked by
Uganda Government which informed bank of Uganda and other banks not to receive the
funds, Ariny Amos also denied employment in Uganda since birth of Ariny Amos, at
school always attacked with radio waves or electromagnetic waves during admission
and final examinations.

2015; Ariny Amos explored Albert Nile in West Nile in Uganda fundraising for his school
fees ,on his way at Lwero Black boxes burnt by asteroid which were packed containing
fuel imported, Crosses from Moyo district to Adjumani via "Laropi Bridge" or Laropi
ferry, at Moyo the iron steel fork got broken down while stirring salt in sauce due to
alchemical powers, reaching the
the middle of the river named Albert Nile 30 Metres a way was a fisher man on his local boat
he caught mud fish using his fishing net he kept dragging empty until Ariny Amos spread
his hand fingers to star shape and an explosion of parthenope or hygea asteroid that hit the
water and man dragged mud fish , the mud fish reflected the white colour of his cap and
clothes and deep in net was browns solid. this was fictitious, Laropi Ferry was carrying
passengers and about six cars. Our car before arrival to Adjumani after crossing the "Laropi
bridge" got accident as the hind tyre got injured by sharp object and lost pressure Ariny
describes sharp object as asteroid pallas or athena or spear or plutonic solid, driver
replaced the tyre. the problem was that driver was on torture behaviour of which most
Africans do as Ariny Amos passed the route directed by Uganda Media Centre radio waves
or electromagnetic radiations or electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic force.Most
people are in Internally displaced camps are believers in God, born again christians in West
Nile in Uganda, especially in Koboko,Adjumani, Yumbe, Ariny changed Uganda Shillings 100
coin to Uganda Shilling 1000 coin from adjumani after an explosion of asteroid leukothea
that hit the earth as Ariny Amos was making money coins change on arrival of Oxfam
vehicle in Adjumani.In black box Uganda shillings 1000 note changed to 10,000 Uganda
shillings, asteroid leukothea is often vital in money discovery, described as light house
beacon, as an alchemy Ariny often discovers money Using, facebook and NASA space craft,
in the chronology of theories,Scientist Francis Bacon, printing press, oxfam trade mark,
lutheran world federation trade mark,Bank of America trade mark.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH RESULTS AS INTERNET EXPLORER.

ZEUS GOD, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND HOLLY WATER.

In astrophysics, Ariny is Zeus.God of the sky, lightning, thunder, law, order, justice.
Climatic change for example the following changes in temperature, wind , rain , iced
rain, pressure, drought, such that Ariny performs climatic change in the environment.
Holly water usually received by Android Ariny Amos on palm sunday and special days.
This water is always received after an explosion of asteroid around the environment. For
the discovery done earlier after birth, Ariny Amos is Astronomer, Astrologer who must
have his own Astronomical laboratory own Television station, own radio station, own
telephone, own video camera who follow Ariny's Work Policies since Ariny Amos is an
Android, Natural philosopher, Any interference of Ariny Amos Policies confuses Ariny's
Dreams as Ariny is Android. An example is Radio waves used by Uganda Media centre
in video cameras, telephone video camera,

Which Ariny studied in physical chemistry, Review Electromagnetic spectrum.Radio

waves were used during Jesus Christ of Nazareth regime in Israel.

IMPRISONMENT BY REMOTE SENSING'S ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.

In physics and Chemistry, Ariny Amos works as Albert Einstein, Oliver Heaviside, Sir
Isaac Newton , Jesus Christ, Ariny Amos’s Blood group Universal Blood Donor, been
serving felony in Uganda by Uganda Government's Uganda Media Centre since 1986
particularly
electromagnetism, the Hendrik Lorentzforce or Zeeman effect is the combination of
electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. If a particle
of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E and a magnetic
field B, then it will experience a force,Variations on this basic formula describe the
magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (sometimes called Laplace force), the
electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a magnetic field (an aspect of
Faraday's law of induction), and the force on a charged particle which might be traveling
near the speed of light (relativistic form of the Lorentz force). The first derivation of the
Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in 1889, although other
historians suggest an earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk Maxwell ,Hendrik
Lorentz derived it a few years after Oliver Heaviside, Michael Faraday, Sir Isaac Newton.

Remote Sensing, Remote sensing,Is the technology of measuring the characteristics of

an object or surface from a distance. In the case of earth resource monitoring, the object
or surface is on the land mass of the earth or the sea, and the observing sensor is in the
air or space , National Aeronautic and Space Administration discovered Ariny Amos in
the Process of Remote Sensing of the Earth, United States of America.

Electromagnetism is the study of the electromagnetic force which is a type of physical

interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles like Ariny Amos's blood
group being universal. The electromagnetic force usually shows electromagnetic fields,
such as electric fields, magnetic fields, and light. The electromagnetic force is one of the
four fundamental interactions in nature. The other three fundamental interactions are the
strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation. The science of electromagnetic
phenomena is defined in terms of the electromagnetic force, sometimes called the
Lorentz force, which includes both electricity and magnetism as elements of one
phenomenon. The electromagnetic force plays a major role in determining the internal
properties of most objects encountered in daily life which Ariny Amos as an explorer
case with Uganda Media Centre. Ordinary

matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular forces between individual molecules in
matter. Electrons are bound by electromagnetic wave mechanics into orbitals around
atomic nuclei to form atoms, which are the building blocks of molecules. This governs
the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between theelectrons
of neighboring atoms, which are in turn determined by the interaction between
electromagnetic force and the momentum of the electrons. There are numerous
mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical electrodynamics,
electric fields are described as electric potential and electric current in Ohm's law,
magnetic fields are associated with electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and
Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered
by each other and by charges and currents. Scientists Michael Faraday, Hans Christian
Orsted, There are four main effects resulting from these interactions, all of which have
beenclearly demonstrated by experiments: by Ariny Amos as an explorer since explorers
follow electromagnetic waves as Ariny is dreamer who smells electromagnetic waves.

1) Electric charges attract or repel one another with a force inversely proportional to
thesquare of the distance between them:
unlike charges attract, like ones repel,

2) Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one
another in a similar way and always come in pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south
pole,

3) An electric current in a wire creates a circular magnetic field around the wire,
itsdirection (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depending on that of the current,

4) A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved towards or away from a

magnetic field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it, the direction of current
depending on that of the movement,other notable scientists who studied
electromagnetic waves include James

Clerk Maxwell, Andre Marie Amphere.

The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, in particular the establishment of the

speed of light based on properties of the "medium" of propagation (permeability and
permittivity), led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in
1905.Although electromagnetism is considered one of the four fundamental forces, at
high energy the weak force and electromagnetism are unified. In the history of the
universe, during the quark epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic
and weak forces of which Ariny Amos is imprisoned by this lorentz forces. The
electromagnetic force is one of the four known fundamental forces. The other
fundamental forces are:the weak nuclear force, which binds

to all known particles in the Standard Model, and causes certain forms of radioactive
decay. (In particle physics though, the electro weak interaction is the unified description
of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the
weak interaction); the strong nuclear force, which binds quarks to form nucleons, and
binds nucleons to form nuclei the gravitational force. All other forces (e.g., friction) are
ultimately derived from these fundamental forces and momentum carried by Ariny
Amos movement since birth by
Uganda Media Centre on earth in Uganda using video cameras and televisions. In
addition physicist Pieter Zeeman's effect, is the effect of splitting a spectral line into
several components in the presence of a static magnetic field. It is analogous to the
Stark effect, the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of an
electric field. Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different components
have, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in the dipole
approximation), as governed by the selection rules.

ELECTRIC SHOCK, PLASMA PHYSICS.

In astrophysical plasmas, Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly

affecting the plasma over large distances, i.e. greater than the Debye length. However,
the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate, and be affected by,
magnetic fields. This can and does cause extremely complex behavior, such as the
generation of plasma double layers,

CANINE, INCISSORS TEETH GRINDING EBOLA AND HIV/AIDS CURE.

Europe; Turkey malfunctions programs, NTV Uganda media has video, in lyantonde in
Uganda , turkey bird attempted to fight him self from the mirror reflections, the mirror
reflected the turkey as the turkey kicking the mirror as him self, In Mityana and Soweto in
Nairobi, As smoke particle emitted by fire , there was cat hiding and birds such as Pin
tailed Whydah, Grey headed sparrow were playing with the cat , the cat jumped in attempt
capture birds that fly over his or her space, this was the best illustration of Dr Chris Hill,
Angello Kurt, and Angelina Jolie and Field Marshall Iddi Amin dada.

Hillary Clinton; Hillary Clinton radio waves on education indicates that hillary clinton
rejects education, sign documents.
Brain surgeon Ben Carson radio waves malfuntions the Brain , Nervous,fainting , head
ache of Cocaine poison.
Barclays Bank Uganda Story; At luwum street kampala central dated fri , 08/jan/2016, two
doves birds playing and kiss each other , connecting their beaks, (podolski, Mario Gotze
Bayern Munich Germany), Conan the Barbarian 1982, film by arnold schwarzenegger
presented today in uganda, muslim protest; muslim prayers distorted by heavy rain which
lasted 60 minutes as the muslims prayed outside mosque, tents, unfinished house, taxi park
, bus park , nakivubo football stadium in kampala central today dated friday,
08,january.2016 at 13;00 hours. this happened after incissor and canine teeth grinding by
android ariny amos who was with some men dressed in masai cultural clothes and wearing
shoes made of cut tyres due that most of these muslims do not wear religious uniforms
some wear football uniforms, no caps, rubbish bin full of refuse place near prayer places,
some prayers dressed like christians while on the site was a black girl sits with bearded
man in restaurant, demonstrated also on crossing the albert Nile from moyo to adjumani,
star wars film,John Rambo, Curse of frankeinstein, star wars android Ariny Amos spread
hisfingers as in the Frankeinstein film, and mentioned the Name ‘Jesus’, interstellar
medium of Stephen Hawking and Heavy rain distorted Muslim and prayers on Friday, 08/
January/ 2016 video is available. This has been presented in African countries including a
desert found in Tunduma Kenya and Tanzania,Nakonde in Zambia and Tanzania border
as Ariny Amos Navigated to Trace the Railway Line and HIV/AIDS cure with King Henry
Eight of England.

GENESIS AND ASTROLOGY.

In astrology and Astrophycis; Genesis is the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism
and Christianity - describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind,which is now common in
science as Astrology, Android Ariny Amos creates life in Fictional Character by electronic
device like computer with Natinal Aeronautic and Space Administration Space Craft, and
Ariny Amos own Natural space craft , humans can be dreamers , plants generally flora and
fauna using the theories of previous scientists theologians, monsters like Michael Jackson ,
there is a reason why Genetically Modified Organism is created in the Principle or Theory
of Relativity, an animal or plant can get duplicate of the another animal or plant in
Astrophysics and Astrology common in Planetary science celestial bodies are key raw
materials in the procedure, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
considered God, members include Astrophysicists, Astronoauts, Astronomers, Astrologers,
scientists.

Theories of scientists such as Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet,Carl Lineaus,Robert Charles
Darwin,Sydney perkinson,Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de
Lamarck ,Alfred Russel Wallace,Edward Drinker Cope,August Weismann,Ernst Haekel, Pliny
The Elder,Gregor Mendel, Herbert Spencer , Charles Edouard Brown –sequard,Galen, and
Albert Einstein, Harrison Ford, Arnold Schwarzenegger, John Rambo,many others.
Robert Harding Whittaker,Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically
modified organism (GMO) in 1973. They took a gene from a bacteria that provided resistance
to the antibiotic kanamycin, inserted it into a plasmid and then induced another bacteria to
uptake the plasmid. The bacteria was then able to survive in the presence of
kanamycin.[12] Boyer and Cohen expressed other genes in bacteria. This included genes from
the toad Xenopus laevis in 1974, creating the first GMO expressing a gene from an organism
from different kingdom.
In 1973 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its
embryo, making it the world’s first transgenic animal.[14] However it took another eight years
before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their
offspring.[15][16] Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes,
predisposed them to developing cancer.[17] Mice with genes knocked out (knockout mouse)
where created in 1989. The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985[18] and the first
animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice.

In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B.
Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton. They infected tobacco with Agrobacterium transformed with an
antibiotic resistance gene and through tissue culture techniques were able to grow a new
plant containing the resistance gene.The gene gun was invented in 1987, allowing
transformation of plants not susceptible to Agrobacterium infection, In 2000, Vitamin A-
enriched golden rice, was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.

In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer
and Robert Swanson and a year later and the company produced a human protein
(somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered
human insulin in 1978. The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for
release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982. In 1988 the first human antibodies were
produced in plants.[26] In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically
modified organism to be released into the environment[27] when a strawberry field and a
potato field in California were sprayed with it.

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been
altered using genetic engineeringtechniques (i.e. genetically engineered organism). GMOs
are the source of medicines and genetically modified foods and are also widely used in
scientific research and to produce other goods.The term GMO is very close to the technical
legal term, 'living modified organism', defined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which
regulates international trade in living GMOs (specifically, "any living organism that
possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern
biotechnology").

A more specifically defined type of GMO is a "Transgenic Organism". This is an organism

whose genetic makeup has been altered by the addition of genetic material from another,
unrelated organism. This should not be confused with the more general way in which "GMO"

is used to classify genetically altered organisms, as typically GMOs are organisms whose
genetic makeup has been altered without the addition of genetic material from an unrelated
organism.
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's
genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells,
including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel
organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic
material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing
the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or
"knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous
recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a
gene, or introduce point , every body in the universe must have a point.

Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure disease in
humans. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been
used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's
congenital amaurosis.[94] Treatments are also being developed for a range of other currently
incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia. Parkinson's
disease, cancerdiabetes, heart disease and muscular dystrophy. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration works to create the world of no violence, no wars , no torture , no
Unethical action, no fraud, no religionism, no racism, no Refugees and solving all daily
Problems.
CRATER LAKES AND RIVERS DISCOVERY.
A crater lake is a lake that forms in a volcanic crater or caldera, such as a maar; less commonly and
with lower association to the term a lake may form in an impact crater caused by a meteorite, or in an
artificial explosion caused by humans. Sometimes lakes which form inside calderas are called caldera
lakes, but often this distinction is not made. Crater lakes covering active (fumarolic) volcanic vents are
sometimes known as volcanic lakes, and the water within them is often acidic, saturated with volcanic
gases, and cloudy with a strong greenish color. For example, the crater lake of Lake Kyoga, Lake
Katwe, Lake Victoria, Lake George, Albert Nile,has a pH of under 0.5. Lakes located in dormant or
extinct volcanoes tend to have fresh water, and the water clarity in such lakes can be exceptional due
to the lack of inflowing streams and sediment. Lake Victoria Discovered on 6/November/ 2011,
Lake Kyoga Discovered on 16/February/2016 Conatains Watr is of Vatican Colour,Radio
waves emitted are of Crater Lakes, Dwayne Johnson Douglas, Son of Frankeinstin, Curse
of Frankeinstein, Dead Pool, Little Boy Film, Chicago Bulls, Indian Food Recipes, The
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Circuit Film, Cocaine, Antman, Jesus Christ of Nazarth film, there was cloudy Citrus
Clouds Galileo Glalilei, Sir Isaac Newton, Atomic Physics, John Dalton,Missed News of the
Day; Marie Claire UK 43 mins ·If you're feeling like you HAVE to be in London (because
that's where all the jobs are, right? Or you HAVE to climb the career ladder / settle down /
follow a predetermined path to success, this might make you feel better., FACEBOOK; Era
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WSB-TV46 mins ·Would you be a garbageman for

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Meet the garbagemen who make over $100,000, The garbageman dropped out of high school in the
10th grade, but still landed a high-paying job. wsbtv.com
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around you on Facebook. Sign up, it's free and always will be. Facebook

twitter.Inc

Twitter (/ˈtwɪtər/) is an online social networking service that enables users to send and read
short 140-character messages called "tweets".

Registered users can read and post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read
them. Users access Twitter through the website interface, SMS or mobile device Twitter
Inc. is based in San Francisco and has more than 25 offices around the world.

Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, Biz Stone, and Noah
Glass and launched in July 2006. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, with
more than 100 million users posting 340 million tweets a day in 2012. The service also
handled 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, Twitter was one of the ten most-visited
websites and has been described as "the SMS of the Internet".As of May 2015, Twitter has
more than 500 million users, out of which more than 332 million are active.
Facebook is a corporation and online social networking service headquartered in
Menlo Park, California, in the United States. Its website was launched on
February 4, 2004, by Mark Zuckerberg with his Harvard College roommates
and fellow students Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Moskovitz and
Chris Hughes.[8][9][10] The founders had initially limited the website's membership
to Harvard students, but later expanded it to colleges in the Boston area, the Ivy
League, and Stanford University. It gradually added support for students at
various other universities and later to high-school students. Since 2006, anyone
who is at least 13 years old was allowed to become a registered user of the
website, though the age requirement may be higher depending on applicable
local laws.Its name comes from the face book directories often given to American
university students.

Alltop.com's landing page gives you a quick view on the latest news.
Screenshot by HowStuffWorks.com

Guy Kawasaki (born August 30, 1954) is an American marketing executive, specifically in
California'sSilicon Valley. He was one of the Apple employees originally responsible for
marketing their Macintosh computer line in 1984. He popularized the word evangelist in
marketing the Macintosh and the concepts of evangelism marketing and technology

evangelism.

In March 2015, Kawasaki joined the Wikimedia FoundationBoard of Trustees, the non-
profit operating entity of Wikipedia.

Kawasaki has also written a number of books including The Art of Social Media (2014) and
Database 101 (1991)

Astronomy News
 Super Balloon to Attempt New Record
 On Earth After a Year
 360 Degree View
 What’s Up for March 2016
 Hubble Sets a New Distance Record
 

Universe Today
 ExoMars 2016 Spacecraft Encapsulated for Red Planet Launch in One
Week
 Farthest Galaxy Ever Seen Viewed By Hubble Telescope
 Clouds Seen On Pluto For First Time
 SpaceX Stuns with Spectacular Sunset Launch of SES-9 Telecom Satellite
 J.J. Abrams Heading To The Moon With Google Lunar X-Prize

 

Astroblog
 The Sky This Week - Thursday March 3 to Thursday March 10
 Partial Solar Eclipse March 9, 2016
 Southern Skywatch March, 2016 edition is now out!
 Lots and Lots of Bright ISS passes (Morning and Evening, 25 February-1
March)
 ISS and Venus in the Morning (Wednesday 24 February) and many more.

Hogg's Research
 are the LIGO black holes in fact dark-matter particles?
 error propagation at #astrohackny, are MCMC runs converged?
 more combinatorics
 short-term plan: solve all of astronomy
 more gradients, combinatorics and inference

 

Astronomy Cmarchesin
 Versatile Instrument to Scout for Kuiper Belt Objects
 A stellar fingerprint
 Hubble Team Breaks Cosmic Distance Record
 The Realm of Buried Giants
 The Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone

 
 sci.astro
 Gravitational Time Dilation: Nonexistent Ingredient of Gravitational
Waves
 Re: Did LIGO Kill Quantum Mechanics?
 The Obvious Falsehood of Einstein's Relativity
 Re: Did LIGO Kill Quantum Mechanics?
 Re: Does General Relativity Predict Gravitational Waves?

 

uk.sci.astronomy
 Re: 4670 Solution manuals for Electrical, Electronics and Computer
Engineering Books - part1
 Re: SKYGLOBE FOR WINDOWS
 Chris Lintott talk
 ICQ:679927672 Sell Cvv Fullz Dumps Tutorial Ship WU Bug PayPal fullz
 4860 Solution manuals for Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering and
Aerospace Engineering Books

StarDate Online
 Last-Quarter Moon
 Coma Cluster
 Coma Berenices
 Moon and Saturn
 Moon and Mars

 

Remanzacco Observatory - Comets & Neo

 Comets & Asteroids - Summary for February 2016
 Comets & Asteroids - Summary for January 2016
 New Comet: C/2015 X4 (ELENIN)
 WT1190F to hit Earth's atmosphere on Nov. 13, 2015
 New Comet: C/2015 V2 (JOHNSON)

 
 365 Days of Astronomy
 Mar 7th: Method Not Found
 Mar 6th: The Indonesian total solar eclipse of 8/9 March 2016
 March 5th: Observing With Webb in March 2016
 Mar 4th: Fast Radio Bursts & Missing Baryons
 Mar 3rd: Go Boldly, Go Small

 

Astronomy and Space News - Astro Watch

 SpaceX Finally Launches SES-9 Satellite but Fails to Land Its Rocket
 ALMA Spots Baby Star's Growing Blanket
 Great Tilt Gave Mars a New Face
 LOFAR Radio Telescope Catches Signals from Disintegrating Cosmic
Particles, Revealing Their Nature
 Cosmochemists Find Evidence of Rare Element in Early Solar System

Insight Observatory
 Buying a Telescope: A Beginners Guide
 Astronomy And Neighbours In Space
 Featured Deep-Sky Object - M104 "Sombrero Galaxy"
 Exoplanet LkCa 15b
 Cobb Astro Park
ABS-CBN Integrated News and Current Affairs (formerly ABS-CBN News and Public
Affairs; commonly ABS-CBN News), is the news division of Philippine media conglomerate
ABS-CBN Corporation. The organization is responsible for the daily news and information
gathering of its news programs. Its current slogan is Malasakit sa Isa't-Isa (Tagalog for
Devotion to Others). According to the SWS media trust survey, ABS-CBN News & Current
Affairs topped the list among Philippines news and broadcast organizations, garnering
68% of the public trust.

It serves the main ABS-CBN, the Regional Network Group, the UHF sports channel ABS-
CBN Sports+Action, the cable channels ABS-CBN News Channel and DZMM TeleRadyo,
the flagship radio station DZMM and the regional radio networks DYAP 765 Palawan,
DYAB 1512 Cebu and DXAB 1296 Davao and a news website ABS-CBNnews.com.

Partial solar eclipse visible in PH on

March 9
ABS-CBN News

Posted at 03/04/16 3:22 PM

This photo taken on May 21, 2012 shows a partial solar eclipse during sunrise in the coastal town of
Gumaca, Quezon province. Ted Aljibe, AFP

MANILA - Heads up, astronomy enthusiasts.

A partial solar eclipse will be visible in the Philippines on March 9, according to state
weather bureau PAGASA.

PAGASA said a total solar eclipse will occur on Wednesday next week. In the Philippines,
however, the event will be observed only as a partial solar eclipse.

A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun, thereby totally
or partially obscuring the image of the sun as viewed from the earth.

PAGASA said areas in Mindanao will have a good view of the partial solar eclipse as they
will see an eclipse obscuration of up to 80%. Eclipse obscuration is the fraction of the sun's
surface area that is covered by the moon.
Eclipse obscuration in the Luzon and Visayas areas will range from 30 to 60% and 60 to
70%, respectively.

These areas will be able to view the maximum eclipse at the following times in the morning:

Dagupan - 8:59:21
Baler - 9:01:09
Baguio - 9:00:21
Tuguegarao - 9:04:08
Laoag - 9:02:55
Aparri - 9:05:06

Tagaytay - 8:57:47
Lucena - 8:58:43
Manila - 8:58:30
Quezon City - 8:58:43
Angeles City - 8:58:33
Cabanatuan - 8:59:43

Romblon - 8:58:02
Calapan - 8:57:07
Masbate City - 9:00:08
Legazpi City - 9:01:35
Daet - 9:01:25
Virac - 9:03:07

Puerto Princesa - 8:48:40

Dumaguete - 8:55:37
Tagbiliran City - 8:57:10
Iloilo - 8:56:05
Cebu City - 8:58:02
Tacloban City - 9:01:22

Jolo, Sulu - 8:47:38

Zamboanga - 8:50:28

Sarangani - 8:54:48
General Santos - 8:55:07
Davao City - 8:56:57
Iligan City - 8:55:59
Hinatuan - 9:00:17
Surigao - 9:00:25
Photo courtesy of PAGASA

PENUMBRAL LUNAR ECLIPSE

Meanwhile, a penumbral lunar eclipse will also be visible in the country on March 23, the
state weather bureau said.

The eclipse begins when the moon enters penumbra at 5:37 p.m. and ends at 9:57 p.m.

PAGASA explained that a penumbral eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the
faint penumbral portion of the earth's shadow.

"The lunar surface is not completely shadowed by the earth's umbra (darkest part of a
shadow). Instead, observers can see only the slightest dimming near the lunar limb closest
to the umbra. The eclipse may be undetectable unless at least half of the moon enters the
penumbra," it said.

INQUIRER.net with Marbie Barredo and 3 others. 21 mins ·

The complete list of tycoons from the Philippines who made it to the Forbes 2016 roster
and their estimated net worth is as follows: Read: inq.ph/11phtycoons
Top of Form, 103 Comments223 Shares

Stop Obamacare32 mins ·

Whatever he’s smoking has clearly caused irreversible brain damage.

Sharpton Goes Off The Rails, Says Whites Should Be Tried Federally For Killing Blacks…EVEN IN SELF
DEFENSE! nutbarfactor.com|By NutbarTeam.
 INQUIRER.net38 mins · "We reject the revision of history, disturbing vision of
the future, and shallow call for ‘unity’ being presented by Marcos Jr. and like-minded
candidates in the 2016 elections."

Ateneo professors slam Bongbong Marcos’ ‘revision of history’ Hundreds of professors of the Jesuit-
run Ateneo de Manila University on Wednesday expressed their strong opposition to Sen. Ferdinand
“Bongbong”… newsinfo.inquirer.net|By Yuji Vincent Gonzales

Ferdinand Romualdez Marcos, Jr. (born September 13, 1957), widely known as Bongbong
Marcos, is the second child and only son of former President Ferdinand E. Marcos and
former First Lady Imelda R. Marcos. He is a Filipino politician and senator in the 16th
Congress of the Philippines.

Marcos served as Governor of Ilocos Norte (1983–1986, 1998–2007) and as Representative

of the Second District of Ilocos Norte (1992–1995, 2007–2010) under Kilusang Bagong
Lipunan, the political party founded by his father. He was also Deputy Minority Leader
during his second term in the House of Representatives.[3] In 2010, Marcos was elected as
Senator of the Philippines under the Nacionalista Party. Senator Marcos chairs several
senate committees, including the Committee on Local Government and the Committee on
Public Works, and is a member of several other committees.

On October 5, 2015, Marcos announced his candidacy for Vice President of the Philippines
in the 2016 election
 Inhabitat shared a link. 3 mins ·

INFOGRAPHIC: Why you should stop buying bottled water Wheels for Wishes put together an
infographic to examine the many reasons why Americans need to reduce their bottled water
footprint. inhabitat.com

news.com.au5 mins · Public relations gone mad? Reporters told not to ask Ronda
about one thing.

Channel 7 blows up over Rousey . news.com.au

 A British nurse who contracted Ebola in Sierra Leone has been
readmitted to hospital for the third time Business Insider British Ebola survivor
nurse hospitalised for third time AFP Scottish nurse who contracted Ebola is
back in hospital for a third timeMashable Sign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr

Health

World ;Will Saudi Arabia be sucked into the Syrian civil war?

(CNN)To understand Northern Thunder, the biggest war games exercise in the
Middle East, which is taking place this month, you have to start much further north --
above the Arctic Circle. The conflict has been burning for five years -- and to the Middle
East's major powers, particularly Saudi Arabia and Turkey, it is inconceivable for the
region that it could burn for five more.

Politics; Russia wants to fly over US with advanced digital camera

 Associated Press ; Russia wants to fly more spy planes over the U.S., and the
Pentagon can’t stop itWashington Post ,Russia wants to fly surveillance planes over US with advanced
cameras, congressional staffer saysFox News

4991CommentsSign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr

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Politics; Putin's arms deals are increasing, but who is he selling to?
 SuperSport 39 mins · Arsenal midfielder Santi Cazorla is set to miss the rest of the
season after suffering an Achilles problem, Gunners boss Arsene Wenger revealed on
Tuesday.

Cazorla has been out since November with a knee injury, but Wenger says the Spain
midfielder now has an issue with tendonitis which could rule him out for the remainder of
the campaign.

Cazorla could miss rest of season Arsenal midfielder Santi Cazorla is set to miss the rest of the season
after suffering an Achilles problem, Gunners boss Arsene Wenger revealed on Tuesday.
supersport.com

GuinnessFebruary 28 at 3:00pm ·

Do you know a friend who studied one

thing & is currently high & flying in a totally different field?
Tag them! They are #MadeOfBlack254
 Newsweek ;US dominates arms trade as Asia, Mid-East boost importsAFP

China weapons exports surge over past five years: reportReuters


World; Syria government willing to accept cessation deal

Al Jazeera US, Russia Agree on Syria Cease-Fire PlanAssociated Press Videos

New US-Russia plan sets Syria cease-fire for SaturdayAssociated Press

Sign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr


Politics; Burundi Says Talks with UN Secretary-General 'Constructive'
 VOA News ; UN chief Ban Ki-moon visits troubled BurundiAFP Videos

WikiLeaks Says US Spied On Meetings Of UN Chief, Angela Merkel, Benjamin NetanyahuInternational

Business Times Sign-in to like

Reblog on Tumblr U.S.; Trump’s remarks on pig’s blood, Muslims spark challenge

Miami Herald Sister of murdered Muslim calls on Trump for a chat about Islamamerica.aljazeera.com

Trump Suggested Dipping Bullets in Pig's Blood in Latest Offensive Remark About MuslimsEsquire

Sign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr

 sports WATCH: Even on accident, Messi can pull off magic with a soccer ball
CBS Sports Rakitic wary of Arsenal threat to BarcelonaOmnisport Arsenal v Barcelona factfileAFP

Sign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr ,Technology The Samsung Galaxy S7 Phones and Accessories, in Photos

Daniel Bean Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge hands on: So good you can almost forgive TouchWizArs Technica

Newly leaked images show the Galaxy S7 Edge in black, gold, and white at every angleDigital Trends

32CommentsSign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr World

Egypt: Toddler sentenced to life

Father on the run When the police first came to arrest Ahmed in early 2014 and realized he
was a toddler, they took his father -- Mansour Qorany Sharara -- instead. Sharara was
detained for four months before a judge released him. Lawyers of other defendants in the
case had shown the court Ahmed's birth certificate in hopes of discrediting the
investigations that led to their clients' arrests. "Security submitted their investigations 24
hours after the incident took place, naming 116 defendants," lawyer Mahmoud Abu Kaf
told CNN. "We wanted to tell the judge that these are invalid investigations and our proof
is the inclusion of the child and a man -- who was out of the country when the incident

Mark Zukerberg; Says No refugees , street children world wide.

Mark Zukerberg.Zuckerberg at the 37th G8 summit in 2011.

ITV Wales8 mins ·

A play illustrating the rise of one of Wales' favourite sons, musical legend Tom Jones opens
at the Wales Millennium Centre this evening.

Story of Tom Jones hits the stage in Wales itv.com

 National Geographic Channel

Sponsored · Meeow! It's the battle of the fur. Sunday at 19:00 CAT.
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4 Comments43 Shares20K Views
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Donnie Sanders to Full Throttle Saloon; Family, Friends & Fans

2 hrs · Goodnight FTS AND MR.CROSS!!

Like Like LoveHahaWowSadAngryCommentShare686816 shares

 Washington Post

926CommentsSign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr


World; Ethiopia accused of bloody crackdown on protesters

Al Jazeera ; Ethiopia Oromia Protests: Hundreds Killed, Thousands Arrested In 'Brutal

Crackdown,' Human Rights Watch SaysInternational Business Times,

Ethiopian forces in bloody crackdown on Oromia protests: HRWAFP

Sign-in to likeReblog on Tumblr

World; Protesters in Ethiopia are subject to "lethal force," says HRW

Newsweek ; Ethiopia Oromia Protests: Hundreds Killed, Thousands Arrested In 'Brutal Crackdown,'
Human Rights Watch SaysInternational Business Times

Ethiopian forces in bloody crackdown on Oromia protests: HRWAFP

 Microsoft AfricaSponsored · The world is changing and so is Internet Explorer, with the
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By Karam al-Masri with Youssef Karwashan in Damascus 24 minutes ago

Aleppo (Syria) (AFP) - Hardened after years of war, Syrians are struggling to believe that
the ceasefire deal announced for this weekend will put an end to their country's cycle of
violence.
 Jesus For All added a new photo. Sponsored ·

Top of Form 48 Comments63 Shares2.5K You and 2.5K othersTop CommentsLike Like Love Haha Wow
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NEWS; Home of World Athletics

MARATHON; The marathon is a long-distance running event with an official distance of
42.195 kilometres (26.21875 miles, or 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The
event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides,
a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens.

The marathon was one of the original modern Olympic events in 1896, though the distance
did not become standardized until 1921. More than 500 marathons are held throughout the
world each year, with the vast majority of competitors being recreational athletes as larger
marathons can have tens of thousands of participants.

ORIGIN OF MARATHON
The name Marathon comes from the legend of Pheidippides, a Greek messenger. The legend states
that he was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been
defeated in the Battle of Marathon (in which he had just fought), which took place in August or
September, 490 BC.
 Denver Broncos on 247Sports4 hrs · Breaking: The The Denver Post columnist just went
all-in on the Peyton Manning wait-and-see.

Manning and the 2006 Colts visit President George W. Bush at the White House.

Woody Paige drops new report on Peyton Manning

MRCTV8 hrs · What doesn't Al Sharpton protest at this point?

The Rev. Al Sharpton plans Oscars protest in Hollywood

LOS ANGELES (AP) — The Rev. Al Sharpton has announced plans to stage a rally on Sunday
prior to the Oscars to protest a lack of diversity in Hollywood.
http://fal.cn/K7_l.
Here's what's going on at the White House today.

THE SNAPSHOT
Tuesday, February 23, 2016

Follow Along: Today's Schedule

All times are Eastern Time (ET)10:00 am: The President and Vice President receive the
Presidential Daily Briefing10:30 am: The President delivers a statement on Guantanamo
WATCH HERE3:05 pm: The President attends a DSCC roundtable

Featured

Meet the 106 Year Old Who Got to Dance with the President and the First
Lady

ABC News

11 mins · After six nominations, Leonardo DiCaprio seems poised to finally take home his
first Oscar Sunday night. http://abcn.ws/1QPrpSs

Why This Is Leonardo DiCaprio's Year to Win an Oscar abcn.ws|By ABC News
17 Comments11 Shares209209LikeLike Love Hah aWow Sa dAngry CommentShare
 Jean-louis Gonneau to ULTIMATE ACTION GROUP
7 hrs · Paris, France · Bruce lee and Dean Ambrose

Ariny Amo
LikeCommentShareYou and Naqab Shah like this. Comments Write a comment...

Marie Claire UK40 mins · Pilots are sexy, say Tinder users

The Most Right Swiped Jobs On Tinder. Does Your Profession Make The Hot List?
Pilots and physical therapists top the list
marieclaire.co.uk2 Comments3232Lik eLik eLove Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare
 Jean-louis Gonneau posted in ULTIMATE ACTION GROUP — with Sh Behnam and
Sophia Crawford. 11 hrs · Paris, France ·

+11

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Slate.com32 mins · On Earth, the longest solar eclipse lasts around 7 minutes.

The Longest Known Eclipse in the Universe Lasts for 3.5 Years (Video)

A team of astronomers have found the ultimate stellar eclipse: While it only takes place once every 69
Earth-years, it lasts a whopping three and a hal ...

slate.me Top of Form 2 Comments1 Share39 You and 38othersTopCommentsLikeLoveHaha Wow Sad

Angry CommentShare Comments Write a comment...

Bottom of FormBambang Hey Guys....I Finally found the link original to movie. Watch:
DEADPOOLfull movie:...See MoreLike · Reply · 30 mins

Yuli Suryani OMG Guys....I Finally found the link original to movie. watch:Batman V
Superman...See MoreLike · Reply · 32 mins
 101 Great Goals.com52 mins · We are unbelievably lucky to live in an era where
Leo Messi&Stephen Curry are playing their respective sports!!!

Steph Curry widely compared to Leo Messi after another sensational display [Tweets]
101greatgoals.com.

Lazinha Engel to JASON Statham9 hrs · JASON STATHAM. "SEDUCTIVE A MAN !!!"

LikeCommentShare6 people like this.

 Michael Keith Russell to Full Throttle Saloon; Family, Friends & Fans12 mins ·
Good morning everyone! Have a peaceful Sunday! God bless you all always!✌
❤🇺🇺

USA TODAY
52 mins ·

The shooting happened about 8:15 p.m. local time near downtown. There are conflicting
reports about the incident.

Unrest breaks out in Salt Lake City after shooting Unrest broke out in a Salt Lake City neighborhood on
Saturday night after what appears to be a shooting involving a police officer, the Salt Lake Tribune
reports. usatoday.com Top of Form 28 Comments48
Shares17171LikeLikLovHahWoSaAngrCommentShare
 ComicBook.com1 hr · Fantastic Four cleans up at the Razzie Awards, winning
three awards including Worst Picture.

Fantastic Four Wins Three Razzie Awards, Including Worst Picture

comicbook.com

Fantastic Four might have bombed at the box office and been blasted by both fans and
critics, but there was nothing but love for the film at the 2016 Razzie Awards.

Of course, the entire point of the Razzie Awards is to recognize the worst movies of the
year. Fantastic Four took home Razzie Awards for Worst Picture, Worst Director, and
Worst Remake, Rip-Off or Sequel. In the case of the Worst Picture award, Fantastic Four
had to share the honor with Fifty Shades of Grey, which was another film that proved to be
a Razzie Awards' darling.

Here's the complete list of 2016 Razzie Awards winner:

Worst Picture:Fantastic Four and Fifty Shades of Grey

Worst Actor: Jamie Dornan, Fifty Shades of Grey
Worst Actress: Dakota Johnson, Fifty Shades of Grey
Redeemer Award: Sylvester Stallone
Worst Supporting Actress: Kaley Cuoco, Alvin & The Chipmunks: Road Chip and The
Wedding Ringer
Worst Supporting Actor: Eddie Redmayne, Jupiter Ascending
Worst Director: Josh Trank, Fantastic Four
Worst Screen Combo: Jamie Dornan & Dakota Johnson, Fifty Shades of Grey
Worst Screenplay:Fifty Shades of Grey
Worst Remake, Rip-Off or Sequel:Fantastic Four
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 Teen Vogue17 mins · Please don't, Selena Gomez!

Why Selena Gomez Says She Wants to Delete Her Instagram Account She's firing back in the
comments.

tnvge.co|By Brianna Wiest

Motorsport.com3 hrs · Video: Giancarlo Fisichella takes the Ferrari F1 car on a

snow run at Livigno in Italy:

http://bit.ly/1THcfh9 ; There are those who like to head for the mountains for a week’s
skiing at this time of year, but they probably do not expect to be able to watch a Formula 1
car in full flight on the snow. Today, at Livigno, in the Italian Alps, a large crowd of fans
and enthusiasts watched former Formula 1 driver G…

motorsport.com
 Conservative News Today10 hrs · BREAKING:

Arrests made in McDonald’s assault of Marine, hate crime charges not pursued | BizPac Review

Police on Monday arrested two juveniles for their assault on a decorated Marine in a Washington,
D.C. McDonald’s, but have yet to charge either with a hate crime.

bizpacreview.com Top of Form 3.6K Likes790 Comments1K SharesLikeCommentShare

Brad Pitt to ANGELINA JOLIE23 mins ·

Ariny Acte
Top of Form LikeCommentShare20 people like this.Comments Write a comment...
 Goal.com UK1 hr · Van Gaal claims one of his Manchester United players took
just 10 MINUTES to prove he was a star

Van Gaal: After 10 minutes, I knew he'd be a star goal.com

The Hill39 mins · Donald J. Trump addresses supporters after a resounding Nevada win.

WATCH LIVE: Trump delivers victory speech after Nevada caucus win The real estate mogul now heads
to Super Tuesday with three consecutive victories under his belt. hill.cm
 The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the
President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania AvenueNW in Washington,
D.C. It has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in 1800.

The house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban and built between 1792 and 1800 of
white-painted Aquia Creek sandstone in the Neoclassical style. When Thomas Jefferson
moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) expanded the
building outward, creating two colonnades that were meant to conceal stables and storage.
However, in 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army
in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior.
Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the
partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Construction continued with
the addition of the South Portico in 1824 and the North in 1829.

Top: the northern facade, facing Lafayette Square

Bottom: the southern facade, facing The Ellipse
 ComingSoon.net23 mins ·

Don't miss the new high-res Captain America: Civil War photos!

High-Res Captain America: Civil War Photos

Marvel Studios has released several high-res versions of previously revealed Captain America: Civil
War photos including a fresh look at Team Iron Man! comingsoon.net

Reuters6 mins ·

Syrian President Bashar al-Assad described the cessation of hostilities in force since
Saturday as a "glimmer of hope" and accused the opposition of violating the agreement
intended to halt nearly five years of fighting. Read more: http://reut.rs/1TOdHhM

Assad backs Syria truce, accuses opposition of violationsreut.rs|By By Madeline Chambers and
Mariam Karouny
 Thor

Theatrical release poster

Directed by Kenneth Branagh

Produced by Kevin Feige

 Ashley Edward Miller

Screenplay by  Zack Stentz
 Don Payne

Thor is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name,
produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures.[a] It is the fourth film in the
Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film was directed by Kenneth Branagh, written by Ashley Edward
Miller&Zack Stentz and Don Payne, and stars Chris Hemsworth, Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston,
Stellan Skarsgård, Colm Feore, Ray Stevenson, Idris Elba, Kat Dennings, Rene Russo and Anthony
Hopkins. The film tells the story of Thor, the crown prince of Asgard, who is exiled from his homeland
to Earth. While there, he forms a relationship with Jane Foster, a scientist. However, Thor must stop
his adopted brother Loki, who intends to become the new king of Asgard.
MRCTV39 mins · Is it over?

Donald Trump Declared Winner of the Nevada Caucuses Can Donald Trump be stopped?
http://fal.cn/KOOn Top of Form 195 Likes41 Comments24 SharesLikeCommentShare Bottom of Form

Daily Express32 mins · Imagine that! Bye bye Kim? North Korea could BOOT OUT despot for spending
TOO MUCH on his military NORTH Korean leader Kim Jong-un faces being kicked out of his own
country after spending too much of his budget on the military. express.co.uk|By Jake Burman Top of
Form 97 Likes11 Comments12 SharesLikeCommentShare. Bottom of Form

NetflixSponsored · He's back and he's coming for #JessicaJones. Only on Netflix.
http://bit.ly/1PDkYiS -0:08

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26 Comments102 Shares89K Views 1.3K1.3KLike Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare

NETFLIX VIDEO SHOW, Ariny Amos was wearing clear eye glasses of which sir Isaac Newton’s
Reflection Prism and Telescope displayed the Marvel video. Netflix sponsored Like Page, Don’t play
the hero with him Jessica Jones streaming now.Only on Netflix. http;//bit.ly/1POtEDe. Watching the
Marvel Video. Ann Christine Mello. Teri Fletcher and 2 others like Netflix. Watch More
www.netflix.com.
THE WEEK59 mins · Truth; Donald Trump in Nevada victory speech: 'I love the poorly
educated'
Donald Trump thanked everyone who voted for him — from the "evangelicals" to "the poorly
educated" — during his victory speech Tuesday night after the… theweek.com Top of Form 46 Likes18
Comments21 SharesLikeCommentShare

The Daily Caller1 hr · Milwaukee County Sheriff David A. Clarke Jr says, “If Lucifer had a son, it would
be Louis Farrakhan."

Sheriff Clarke Can’t Believe Beyonce Would ‘Crawl In Bed With The Devil That I Call Louis Farrakhan’
[VIDEO] dailycaller.com Top of Form 708 Likes53 Comments147 SharesLikeCommentShare

Louis Farrakhan -- NBA Is Modern Day Slavery ... They Buy Us, Trap Us

LeBron James is nothing but a modern day slave ... owned by the white man -- in a system designed to
chew him up and spit him out ... so says Louis…

Share

Save

TMZ · 6,636 Shares

 Minister Louis Farrakhan: FOI Will Protect Beyonce on Tour if Police
Don’t

Minister Louis Farrakhan: FOI Will Protect Beyonce on Tour if Police

Don’t khari February 22, 2016 Hip Hop News | Trending Hip Hop
StoriesBeyonce‘s surprise “Formation” song has sent ripples through
the media, from former mayors and cultural critics claiming that
Beyonce’s promoting an “anti-police”…

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thesource.com · 6,560 Shares

Mail & Guardian Africa shared a link.

14 mins ·

Changing Africa, one equation at a time: Maths and science the keys to unlocking continent's...

Across Africa, maths is often viewed as an impractical, ivory tower pursuit - but a new initiative is
trying to change that

mgafrica.com
 The Education Action Group Foundation (EAG) is a nonprofit organization located
in Michigan with a mission focused on increasing educational choice and cutting what it
perceives to be wasteful spending.

The organization, which is active nationwide, has a stated mission of "promoting sensible
education reform and exposing those with a vested interest in maintaining the status
quo...highlighting every day the need for a student-focused education system that is
financially sustainable and will put us on a firm footing to compete globally in the future.

EAG has encouraged public schools to cut waste. The group has used Freedom of
Information Act requests to obtain spending records from public schools.

Education Action Group Foundation, a Michigan-based, non-partisan, non-profit

organization, publishes EAGnews.org. The website focuses on efforts to reform K-12
education through research, reporting, analysis and commentary.

EAG is rooted in free market principles and believes the one-size-fits-all, government-run,
government-funded education system is not serving students well. We believe choice and
competition will improve educational outcomes for students.

Founded by Kyle Olson in 2007, the organization has produced several documentary
exposés, including “A Tale of Two Missions” with Juan Williams, a book titled
“Indoctrination,” and a ground-breaking report on union-affiliated health insurance in
Wisconsin.

Fortune Magazine24 mins ·

What advice would you give your 22-year-old self today?

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Willard Van Orman Quine

The One Thing I Regret Not Doing in my 20s HereâÂÂs how you can avoid making the same mistake.

for.tn

NewsCentral - TV/Movies1 hr · 'Game of Thrones' Star Finn Jones Cast as Marvel's

Iron Fist

'Game of Thrones' Star Finn Jones Cast as Marvel's Iron Fist - MOVIEFONE

Finn Jones is going from knight to superhero. Entertainment Weekly reports that the "Game of
Thrones" actor, who played Ser Loras Tyrell, has been tapped as…goo.gl Top of Form 1Amos Ariny Lik e

Ariny Acte
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Daily Mail1 hr · The phoenix rises!

The Northern Lights take on the form of the legendary bird over Iceland

Incredible photographs. dailym.ai Top of Form 1.5K Likes55 Comments432 SharesLikeCommentShare

CCTV America50 mins · Some researchers now say the Zika virus may become even more
widespread as the planet continues to warm.
Climate change could increase the spread of Zika virus

Some researchers now say the Zika virus may become even more widespread as the planet continues
to warm. CCTV America's Hendrik Sybrandy reports from Denver. cctv-america.com Top of Form 17
Likes1 CommentLikeCommentShare Bottom of Form Sharon Chebet was tagged in this.

Jean-louis Gonneau updated the group photo in ULTIMATE ACTION GROUP. 3 hrs ·

LikeCommentShare4 people like this. Comments Write a comment... Bottom of Form

 Asteroid Day is an annual global awareness movement that brings
people from around the world together to learn about asteroids and what we can do to
protect our planet, our families, communities, and future generations. Asteroid Day is held
on the anniversary of the June 30, 1908 Siberian Tunguska event, the largest asteroid
impact on Earth in recent history.

It was co-founded by filmmaker Grigorij Richters and Dr. Brian May, Queen guitarist and
astrophysicist.Over 100 astronauts, scientists, technologists and artists, including Richard
Dawkins, Bill Nye, Peter Gabriel, Jim Lovell, Alexei Leonov, Bill Anders, Kip Thorne,
Lord Martin Rees, Chris Hadfield, Rusty Schweickart and Brian Cox co-signed the
Asteroid Day Declaration. Asteroid Day was officially launched on December 3, 2014.

BC World Service1 hr · What if governments paid all their citizens a basic

income? Not only that, you'd get to keep it whether you went to work or not. The idea has
been around for centuries, but is gaining increasing support as modern welfare states
become increasingly complex and unwieldy. What would you do with it if you received
money for nothing?

Money for Nothing?, Newshour Extra - BBC World ServiceWhat if governments paid all citizens a
universal basic income? bbc.in
WRAL Weather3 hrs · The potential for severe weather continues to look significant for
today, and the Storm Prediction Center has now placed all of our viewing area under an
enhanced or moderate risk for severe storms. While a severe storm is possible anytime from
around mid-morning on, the principal time of concern will be from around midday through
late afternoon. Threats include damaging wind gusts to 60 or 70 mph in storms, tornadoes,
and possibly some large hail or localized flash flooding. Even outside of storms, wind gusts
could reach 35-50 mph, toppling some trees and causing power outages. Stay prepared to
react today, should your location fall under a warning. We'll be covering the situation
closely on WRAL, and you can also use the WRAL Weather App and WeatherCall to stay
informed on watches and warnings.

Top of Form 184 Likes55 Comments634 SharesLikeCommentShare

NFL4 hrs · 2 AFC teams have shown interest in San Francisco 49ers QB Colin
Kaepernick. (via Ian Rapoport)

2 AFC Teams Have Kaepernick on their Radar

www.nfl.com

ComicBook.com4 hrs · Fox has just announced release dates for two untitled
Marvel movies. Is one of them a Deadpool Movie sequel?
Fox Announces Two Untitled Marvel Movies, Is One A Deadpool Sequel? comicbook.com

Fox Carolina News3 hrs · Would you sign a petition that gives students with no
money in their meal account a free meal anyway?
A teacher says a Texas bill should be changed to allow school children to be given regular
meals for breakfast or lunch even when they have no money in their account. Comment your
opinion.

Petition to change free-meal school policy; A school teacher in Killeen is petitioning the state
legislature to give students a free meal even if their meal cards don't have enough
funds.foxcarolina.com|By Pattrik Simmons.

National Geographic Magazine3 hrs · An orangutan scales a tree in Borneo's Gunung Palung
National Park in this award-winning photo captured by Tim Laman for an upcoming issue of National
Geographic magazine. Follow @NatGeo on Instagram to keep up with our photographers in the field
A photo collage of an unprocessed image (top left) modified with the 16 different Instagram
filters available in 2011
An original photograph (left) is automatically cropped to a square by Instagram, and has a
filter added at the selection of the user (right) . www.instagram.com;

Top of Form 61 Comments 530 Share 9.5K Like Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry C ommentShare

Restless DevelopmentSponsored · 'To my fellow young people, we should rise up and make ourselves
heard'. Eva, a young girl from Tanzania, is using her #youthpower to get clean water for her
community. Watch her story and #StandWithEva. http://restlessdevelopment.org/youthpower Top of
Form 39K Views 1K Likes20 Comments246 SharesLikeCommentShare Bottom of Form

New York Post3 hrs · An unruly passenger took the wheel of a bus in Manhattan as payback for not
being able to smoke on board.
Woman hijacked bus after driver told her not to smoke; An MTA worker had to disable the bus and
the woman was taken into custody. nyp.st ,Top of Form 246 Likes38 Comments117 Shares

Washington Post Politics34 mins ·

On "Morning Joe" Tuesday morning, host Mika Brzezinski threw out an interesting
theory: Donald Trump and Marco Rubio are playing nice with one another — and
savaging Ted Cruz — because a backroom deal has been cut between the two to form a
ticket. It’s time to start speculating about Donald Trump’s vice presidential pick This is
going to be fun. washingtonpost.com|By Chris Cillizza Top of Form 23 Likes9 Comments6
SharesLikeCommentShare

WAVY TV 10 shared Don Slater WAVY TV's photo. 4 hrs ·

Don Slater WAVY TV4 hrs ·The National Storm Prediction Center has upgraded its risk map for the
mid-Atlantic region. The WAVY-TV viewing area remains in an enhanced risk area for the po... See
More Top of Form 44 Likes8 CommentsLikeCommentShare. Bottom of Form

Inhabitat
36 mins · We need more bubble gardens, guys.

Gorgeous Bubble Gardens Pop Up in the Streets of Paris inhabitat.com Top of Form 91 Likes1
Comment18 SharesLikeCommentShare
Roman Reigns WWE added a new photo. 36 mins ·

Top of Form 88 Likes38 Comments1 ShareLikeCommentShareTop Comments You and 87 others like

this. 1 shareComments Write a comment... View previous comments Bottom of Form MD

RaselRoman Reing A Like · Reply · 26 mins Top of For Lucy Qayaqsaaq A all the way!! Like · Reply · 31
mins 2 of 38 View more comments

The Toronto Star1 hr · Activists say decades of neglect and authorities’ repeated
failure to make good on cleanup promises have effectively killed one of Rio de Janeiro’s most
iconic waterways.

Rio Olympics bay still overflowing with sewage | Toronto Star

Activists staged a symbolic burial of the Guanabara Bay to protest authorities' repeated failure to
clean up the iconic waterway before the games. thestar.com. Top of Form 2 Comments1 Share1717

Like Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare

 NBC 7 San Diego17 mins · This is the third time County Animal Services officials were
called out to check on the 8-year-old mare >>>http://on.nbc7.com/sLNGLl1

Neglected Horse, Described as 'Skin and Bones', Recovering After Rescue A neglected horse, described
as just "skin and bones", is on the oad to recovery after being rescued . on.nbc7.com

Vanity Fair23 mins · Are the Donald’s digits really so diminutive? See for yourself.
Donald Trump’s Short Fingers: A Historical Analysis Ever since Spy magazine first labeled
Donald Trump a “short-fingered vulgarian” in the 1980s, the licensing maven and
presidential candidate has been pushing back, insisting with trademark bravado that his
fingers are, in fact, “not so short." He has even claimed, though never in the presence of
rulers, yardsticks, or tape measures, that “my fingers are long and beautiful, as, has been
well-documented, are various other parts of my body.”

Donald Trump’s Short Fingers: A Historical Analysis

Thanks to months of exhaustive research, VF.com has uncovered photographic evidence that will
settle the question of Donald Trump’s finger length once and for all. vntyfr.com|By Bruce Handy .Top
of Form 36 Likes 3 Comments 3Shares

News
www.http// bbc.co.uk
Mumbai: Indian man 'kills 14 members of family'

 1 hour ago
 From the section India

Image copyright EPA Image caption Police and forensic experts visited the house in Thane where a
family gathering had been taking place

A 35-year-old Indian man killed 14 members of his own family, including seven children
and his parents, before killing himself, police say. Reports suggest Hasnin Warekar laced
his family's food with sedatives before slitting their throats. Neighbours from the home in
Thane, near Mumbai, were alerted to the attack by the screaming of the man's sister, who
survived the attack.

Police say it is still unclear why Warekar carried out the attack. Authorities are yet to
question Warekar's sister, Thane police spokesman Gajanan Laxman Kabdule told AFP,
as she was "in deep trauma" at a city hospital.
 Breitbart10 mins · "Allah Ordered"

Muslim Woman Says in Court 'Allah Ordered' Her to Sever Child's Head, Parade It In Public

breitbart.com

The Guardian is a British national daily newspaper.

Founded in 1821 as a local paper replacing the radical Manchester Observer, it was known
as The Manchester Guardian until 1959. It has grown into a national paper, and forms
part of a media group with international and online offshoots. Its sister papers include The
Observer (a British Sunday paper) and The Guardian Weekly (an international roundup
of articles from various papers). In addition to its UK online edition theguardian.com, the
paper has two international web sites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US.

Idi Amin Dada Field Marshall, Ugandan President who was not racist , Idi Amin was
Conservative President in History of Uganda Politics states Ariny Amos.
 MSN News
2 hrs · A newly sworn-in police officer on her first shift with her Virginia department shot and killed.

Police: 3 officers shot, 1 fatally, in domestic incident Two of her colleagues were wounded in a
confrontation stemming from a call about an argument. msn.com

48 Comments70 Shares221221Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry CommentShare

Money Magazine
40 mins · 47. Croatia 46. Morocco 45. Latvia More:

These Are the 50 Cheapest Countries to LiveTime for a change of scene? money.us
YAHOO!.COM News; Road Rage Rhino! Dramatic Moment Wild Animal Charges Car Of
Tourists Charles Walford's blog 24 February 2016

This is the terrifying moment an angry rhino charged a car as a group of terrified
tourists cowered inside. Dramatic footage shows the animal charging towards a jeep
before ramming it. The footage was captured in Etosha National Park in Namibia by
Alexandra Poier, 48. Terrified Alexandra was in a nearby car when she managed to
capture the attack on camera.

In its sights: The Rhino charges towards the car

Impact: The beast crashes into the side of the vehicle

Luckily for Alexandra the vehicle she was in wasn’t targeted by the rhino and she and
her safari group made a swift escape. The passengers in the other vehicle escaped shaken
but otherwise unharmed. She said: ‘I think the rhino saw a threat and that is why he
attacked. To be honest, I was quite scared because it could have been our car. 'It
happened very quickly and suddenly. After he went to the side of our car and we left
quickly. 'The tour guide said this was a rare event.’
Every Now And Then A Picture Like This Comes Along And Leaves You
Utterly Speechless

Astronomers have compiled a gigantic (and absolutely breathtaking) new picture of the
Milky Way that reveals the hidden gas and dust that fills our galaxy.

Huffington Post

Mysterious Radio Flash Traced To Distant Galaxy

Fast radio burst (FRBs) are invisible to the human eye and last just a fraction of a second,
emitting as much energy in a millisecond as the Sun does in about 10,000 years. But now a
team has for the first time traced one flash to the faraway galaxy in the constellation Canis
Major. The burst was picked up by the Parkes radio telescope in the Australian state of
New South Wales, triggering an alert for other telescopes around the world to follow up.

Sky News.com
 KING 52 hrs · The prospect of a Donald Trump presidency has sparked a flood of
interest in a Nova Scotia island where a local booster is beckoning American Trump haters
to live if the Donald is elected.

Nova Scotia isle lures those vowing to move to Canada if Trump elected , king5.com

FACEBOOK.COM News of the day were read;

Arnold Schwarzenegger THE TERMINATOR (1984)

 ANC 24/76 mins ·

Two of the victims suffered severe, but non-life-threatening injuries.

In the latest in a series of school attacks in China, a man stabbed 10 school children before killing
himself.

The six boys and four girls were taken to the hospital.

Two of the victims suffered severe, but non-life-threatening injuries.

The incident took place outside the gate of an elementary school in the city of Haikou, on
the southern island province of Hainan.

Violent crime is rare in China, but there have been a series of knife and ax attacks in recent
years, many targeting children.

-Mornings @ ANC, March 1, 2016

Man stabs 10 school children, kills himself in China

In the latest in a series of school attacks in China, a man stabbed 10 school children before killing
himself.

news.abs-cbn.com|By ABS-CBN News

 Jean-louis Gonneau to ULTIMATE ACTION GROUP
8 hrs · Paris, France ·

Top of Form LikeCommentShare22 Comments Write a comment...

The Expendables 3 (sometimes stylized as The Expendables III) is a 2014 American ensembleaction
film directed by Patrick Hughes, and written by Creighton Rothenberger, Katrin Benedikt, and
Sylvester Stallone. It is the third installment in The Expendables film series. The film features Sylvester
Stallone, Jason Statham, Antonio Banderas, Jet Li, Wesley Snipes, Dolph Lundgren, Kelsey Grammer,
Randy Couture, Terry Crews, Kellan Lutz, Ronda Rousey, Glen Powell, Victor Ortiz, Robert Davi, Mel
Gibson, Harrison Ford, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. Bottom of Form

Arnold Schwarzenegger •1 hr · http://www.telegraph.co.uk/…/The-Expendables-3-

cast-850-yea…

The Expendables 3 cast: 850 years old From oldest to youngest, we take a comic look at the careers of
all 16 members of The Expendables 3 cast ;telegraph.co.uk
 Michael Keith Russell to Full Throttle Saloon; Family, Friends & Fans
❤🐺🐺
10 hrs · Who's ready for cookouts? 🐺✌

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London Evening Standard1 hr · The rowdy group became 'aggressive' when

refused more booze

Ryanair flight makes emergency landing to kick off British stag party

A pilot was forced to divert his plane after a British stag party allegedly became aggressive when
refused more alcohol. Newspaper reports…,standard.co.uk

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THE WALL STREET JOURNAL NEWS;

The Wall Street Journal is a business-focused, English-language
international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal is
published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, a division of News
Corp, along with its Asian and European editions. The Wall Street Journal
is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation. According to
the Alliance for Audited Media, the Journal had a circulation of about
2.4 million copies (including nearly 900,000 digital subscriptions), as of
March 2013,compared with USA Today's 1.7 million. The Wall Street
Journal has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes through 2015 and derives its name
from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower
Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its
inception on July 8, 1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, and Charles
Bergstresser.

Fifteen CEOs to Watch in 2016

From Brito to Whitman and VW’s Müller, these chiefs must

contend with impatient investors, slumping sales,
megamergers and more
Updated Jan. 2, 2016 6:14 p.m. ET 17 COMMENTS

ENLARGE

Carlos Brito Photo: Bloomberg

CARLOS BRITO

The Brazilian-born head of the world’s largest brewer faces a host of challenges. To
complete the roughly $108 billion takeover of SABMillerPLC in the
second half of the year, as planned, he must secure regulatory approval in South Africa,
Europe and the U.S. He also must integrate the companies and cut $1.4 billion in costs. And
he must do so while navigating challenges in AB InBev’s biggest markets: Brazil, which is
in recession, and the U.S., where beer-sales volumes are contracting.

—Tripp Mickle

ENLARGE

Marcelo Claure Photo: AP

MARCELO CLAURE

When Marcelo Claure took over as CEO of Sprint Corp.in 2014, the carrier had been
losing customers and money for several years. Last year, Mr. Claure was able to clock a
modest return to subscriber growth. But ahead of a big debt maturity in 2016, the pressure
is on for Mr. Claure to cut costs while continuing to add new subscribers. If not, some
analysts say Sprint could run out of money.

—Ryan Knutson
 ENLARGE

Steve Easterbrook Photo: REUTERS

STEVE EASTERBROOK

In less than a year runningMcDonald’s Corp., Mr. Easterbrook has tried some bold moves
to try to turn around the struggling burger chain. He introduced all-day breakfast,
simplified the menu, and vowed to curb the use of antibiotics in chicken and switch to cage-
free eggs. Initial signs are positive, but investors and customers are waiting to see what else
he has in store to maintain the world’s biggest fast-food chain’s turnaround in 2016.

—Julie Jargon

ENLARGE

Steve Ells Photo: Bloomberg

STEVE ELLS

After years of bemoaning the ills of fast food and creating an avid following for Chipotle
Mexican Grill Inc.,founder Mr. Ells is in the unusual spot of playing defense. The co-CEO
of the burrito chain apologized in December for foodborne-disease outbreaks that sickened
customers in several states and added to other business challenges for Chipotle. In 2016 he
will have to win back consumer trust and convince people that Chipotle’s food is safe.

—Julie Jargon
 ENLARGE

Hunter Harrison Photo: Bloomberg

HUNTER HARRISON

Mr. Harrison faces his biggest challenge yet at the helm of Canadian Pacific Railway
Ltd.—completing his $30 billion hostile bid for Norfolk Southern Corp.The railroad
executive—as well as activist investor and CP shareholder William Ackman—are betting
the deal will boost the combined companies’ profits and improve service for shippers.
Norfolk Southern’s board opposes the offer as too low and argues that regulatory rejection
of the tie-up is likely amid industry concerns that the deal would trigger further
consolidation and reduce competition.

—Ben Dummett

ENLARGE

Andrew Liveris Photo: REUTERS

ANDREW LIVERIS

The chief executive of Dow Chemical Co.is on the cusp of pulling together a long-pursued
combination with rivalDuPont Co.The companies agreed to form an agricultural and
chemical giant worth $120 billion, with Mr. Liveris as executive chairman of the board
before the combined entity eventually splits into three smaller companies. Not everyone
wants him to stick around. Activist shareholder Dan Loeb, who’s been sharply critical of
Dow’s strategy, has called for Mr. Liveris, 61 years old, to be removed. And the
combination is likely to face a detailed, lengthy review by antitrust regulators.

—Alison Sider
 ENLARGE

Marissa Mayer Photo: AP

MARISSA MAYER

Forget turning around Yahoo Inc.Ms. Mayer likely will spend 2016 trying to keep her job
and resolve the imminent crisis gripping the 20-year-old Internet company. Investor
confidence in the CEO dropped in December, when she shelved a plan to spin off Yahoo’s
valuable stake in Alibaba Group Holding Ltd.because of potential tax risks. With revenue
declining and executives fleeing, some investors are calling for a sale of the Internet
business.

—Doug MacMillan

ENLARGE

Sheri McCoy Photo: Agaton Strom for The Wall Street Journal

SHERI MCCOY

In December, Ms. McCoy agreed to sell a stake in Avon Products Inc.to Cerberus Capital
Management LP and carve out the beauty company’s money-losing North American
business. The bold move is aimed at reviving Avon’s fortunes, but also puts the 57-year-
old’s job at risk because the company is replacing half its board of directors. As Ms.
McCoy nears her fourth anniversary as CEO, investors are becoming impatient for Avon
to show sustained sales growth.

—Serena Ng
ENL ARGE

Volkswagen’s Matthias Müller Photo: AP

MATTHIAS MÜLLER

Mr. Müller, 62 years old, was catapulted into the driver’s seat at Volkswagen AG, Europe’s
biggest car maker, in September in the wake of a damaging emissions-cheating scandal.

A company veteran, he is now steering Volkswagen’s fortunes through its worst crisis in its
nearly 80-year history. Volkswagen could face billions in fines and compensation charges.

Mr. Müller’s challenge in 2016: minimize the regulatory fallout and financial outlay from
the scandal, keep VW profit on track, and restore confidence in the brand.

—William Boston

ENLARGE

Oscar Munoz Photo: Ryan Lowry for The Wall Street Journal

OSCAR MUNOZ

Mr. Munoz faces a daunting comeback in 2016 when he returns to helm United
Continental Holdings Inc.following an October heart attack that put him on medical leave
just weeks after he became CEO. Mr. Munoz, who turns 57 on Monday and was an airline
neophyte before his September appointment, is scheduled to return in the first quarter. He
will have to resume his efforts to fix the deep labor and operations problems that have
plagued United for years, along with rebuilding a depleted management bench.

—Jason Dean
ENL ARGE

Doug Oberhelman Photo: Bloomberg

DOUG OBERHELMAN

After becoming CEO of Caterpillar Inc.in 2010, Mr. Oberhelman raced to open plants and
make acquisitions to meet demand for construction and mining equipment. Then a crash in
commodity prices and an abrupt slowdown in China left Caterpillar with excess capacity.
It faces a fourth consecutive year of falling sales, assuming forecasts for a dismal 2016
prove accurate, piling further pressure on the 62-year-old Mr. Oberhelman.

—James R. Hagerty

ENLARGE

Michael Pearson Photo: Bloomberg

MICHAEL PEARSON

Mr. Pearson has taken medical leave from Valeant Pharmaceuticals International
Inc.,which disclosed that the 56-year-old CEO is battling severe pneumonia. The Canadian
drug company has been struggling to overcome regulatory and strategic challenges. This
wasn’t what Mr. Pearson had in mind when he left McKinsey Co. as a consultant in 2008,
seeking to remake Valeant through acquisitions and R&D cutbacks. The company now
faces probes about its drug pricing and other practices, and the length of Mr. Pearson’s
absence remains an open question.

—Jacquie McNish and Jeanne Whalen

 ENLARGE

Ginni Rometty Photo: REUTERS

GINNI ROMETTY

After 14 straight quarters of declining revenue, International Business Machines Corp.is

trying to reinvent itself for the second time in a quarter century. CEO Virginia “Ginni”
Rometty has charted a course for the emerging realms of cloud computing, big data and
artificial intelligence. Her challenge is to shift IBM’s business from projects tailored to
large, individual customers to offerings that appeal to entire industries; for instance,
services that use weather data to help retailers manage inventory. If she can’t show results
in 2016, shareholders’ patience may run out.

—Robert McMillan

ENLARGE

David Taylor Photo: Procter & Gamble

DAVID TAYLOR

Procter & Gamble Co.’s third CEO since 2013, Mr. Taylor has been tasked with leading
the maker of Pampers diapers, Pantene shampoo and Gillette razors out of a protracted
sales slump. The 57-year-old P&G veteran is under pressure to show broad-based sales
growth and turn around struggling brands like Olay. Mr. Taylor will have to complete an
overhaul that has so far shed dozens of brands while sharing duties with his predecessor,
who has stayed on as executive chairman.

—Serena Ng
 ENLARGE

Meg Whitman Photo: Bloomberg

MEG WHITMAN

The new year raises the curtain on Meg Whitman’s second act. In Act I, she divided in two
Hewlett-Packard Co., the moribund Silicon Valley pioneer she took over in 2011. Now, as
CEO of the newHewlett Packard Enterprise Co.—the former company’s corporate-
computing half—she must focus on growth. Cloud computing has brought a sea change in
corporate buying habits. Look for Ms. Whitman’s HPE try to help its customers bridge the
gap between their own data centers and cloud services sold by companies such as
Amazon.com Inc.and Microsoft Corp.

—Robert McMillan
 David Lubin to Coach's Secrets For Life12 hrs · Saginaw, MI, United States · "Once we
know or own weaknesses they cease to do us any harm."~Georg Lichtenberg Your
Inspiration For Today! It's not easy to face your weaknesses, but when you do face them, you
have a chance to correct or work around them. Solicit a good friend to help you identify
where you can improve and put a plan together to do so. ~ Coach David Lubin Top of Form

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MTV News2 hrs · One girl got a very special 'mazel tov' from Drake.

Drake Honors His Jewish Heritage By Crashing A Bat Mitzvah on.mtv.com

Roman Reigns WWE9 mins · Do u want to see this again... Yes no the shied my opinion yes

Top of Form 15 Comments97You and 96 othersTop CommentsLike Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry

CommentShare Comments Write a comment... Bottom of Form Marc Leux Jr. no, instead
take randy orton or d uso's brothers. set rollings is a cheat Like · Reply · 2 minsAaron Kuester No....
Roman and Dean is better together Like · Reply · 9 mins 2 of 15 View more comments
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Conservative News Today shared a link. 27 mins ·

Obama's announcement to step up ISIS campaign causes mass confusion | BizPac Review

Nobel Peace laureate Barack Obama announced in his weekly address Saturday that his
administration intends to step up its fight against Islamic State jihadists… bizpacreview.com
 New York Post25 mins· The 8-year-old told police that he got to help his mother’s
boyfriend grow “special medicine that can cure anything at all.”

Second-grader spills the beans on mom’s boyfriend’s pot farm

Police nabbed Steven Mann and Leona Hunt after the second-grader spilled the beans on the family
operation. nyp.st Top of Form 9 Comments16 Shares7373Like Like Love Haha Wow Sad Angry
CommentShare Bottom of Form; Related Links,

Police: 2nd grader's farm story led to pot operation bust

Authorities say a second-grader's story about helping a farmer grow "special medicine" plants
led to the bust of an indoor marijuana growing operation in Vermont.

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Police: Child’s farm tale turns out to be pot : Times Argus Online

Times Argus Online - Vermont news, Vermont election results, Barre News, Montpelier News,
Central Vermont News, local news, Vermont government, Vermont sports, Vermont
classifieds, Jobs in Vermont, ShareSave timesargus.com · 21 Shares

Child's tale about growing 'special' plants ends in pot bust

WHITE RIVER JUNCTION, Vt. (AP) — Authorities say a second-grader's story about helping a
farmer grow "special medicine" plants led to a big marijuana bust in Vermont. The Times-
Argus reports (http://bit.ly/1T91eH1 ) Windsor…, Share Save AP · 22 Shares
 Wales Online30 mins · Sending your children there isn't cheap.

Prestigious school favoured by royals could be set for this building ,There are fears parents could take
over the board of trustees walesonline.co.uk|By James McCarthy

NASA Insignia, www.nasa.gov

Motto; For the Benefit of All.

NASA Space Documentary - The Flight of Apollo 11 & Neil Armstrong

Landing On The Moon - 1969

wdtvlive42 - Archive Footage 38,658 100,033 Published on Jul 5, 2011 The Eagle Has Landed -
the true story of the historic first landing of men on the Moon in July, 1969. It depicts the principal
highlight events of the mission from launching through post-recovery activities of Astronauts Neil
Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins. Through television, motion picture and still
 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the
United States Federal Government responsible for the civilian space program as well as
aeronautics and aerospace research.

PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) in 1958[5] with a distinctly civilian (rather than military)
orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science.

NASA langley gets new Research Plane

.

SPACE RESEARCH AND YOUR TRANSPORTATION - NASA Educational

Documentary - WDTVLIVE42

wdtvlive42 - Archive Footage.This documentary looks at continuing NASA research as it

improves transportation on land, water, and in the air. Computer simulation teaching tools for
training ship's crews, vertical takeoff and landing planes, electric cars, streamlining trucks, efficient
aircraft engines and wing designs, hydrofoils, and the Space Shuttle are examined and explained
through exciting photography. .
.WDTVLIVE42 - Transport, technology, and general interest movies from the past - newsreels,
documentaries & publicity films from my archives. #Space
 Seal of NASA

PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) in 1958[5] with a distinctly civilian (rather than military)
orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics
and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became
operational on October 1, 1958.

Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the
Apollomoon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle.
Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the
development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and
Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services
Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown
management for unmanned NASA launches.

NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing
System, advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's
Heliophysics Research Program, exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with
advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons, and researching astrophysics
topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated
programs.NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as
from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.

From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been
experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there
was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–
58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the
world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United
States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the
perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik
crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his
advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal
agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space.
The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop
space technology for military application.

On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing
NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old
NACA intact;
NASA’S 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research
laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis
Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities

. Flag of NASA

A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army
Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were
incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race
with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by
Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency
(ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert
Goddard's earlier works. Earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of
ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA
gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the
California Institute of Technology

Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right).
NASA Administrator James E. Webb (background) discussing the Mariner program, with
a model presented.
Adjustment of temperature and water color at sea due to hot air radiowaves, continents of
the world emitted to wards Ariny Amos Ex – Iraq President Saddam Hussein with blood
brother groups like Muamar Gaddafi, Osama Bin Laden, Robert Mugabe,Nelson Mandela,
Barack Obama, Pope Jorge Mario Bargoglio Francis Poisoned Pope John Paul
II,Mobilised Kings in Africa and taught bad culture on way towards world
war,international conflicts ,fraud, Nepotism,culturalism,Tribalism, Religionism, Racism,
Destruction of Black African Industries,Destruction White people’s Industries, Violence,
Regionalism,National Conflicts. Creating Prohibited Leftists with reference to the Theorem
of Relativity written By German scientist Albert Einstein followed by Many others, Under
developing Africa, Lake Kyoga has water fall and mixed with River Nile as water flow
towards the North, Lake Kyoga water in Uganda contains the Vatican color which was
changed to different colors of the World Continents changed to Green,Red by Science
Fiction, At the shore was Natural Water Lilly Flowers that was donated to Ariny Amos in
2002 in Soroti by Angelina Jolie Brad Pitt, Dwayne Johnson Douglas and Ultimate Action
Group Several vilagers loaded insisted on traditional behavior, There were three fisher
men on canoes, while other Boat included a fisherman whose body was produced by
Astrology in 2015 he holds a duplicate of Galileo Galilei , Johannes Kepler body with
beards and did not show fish species caught in the White Nylon bag as he travelled vise
versa,The fish species common in lake Kyoga Tilapia, Fish of Jesus Christ Film, he smiled
and raised that bag with fish while being introduced by a man wearing Polo T-shirt of
World food Program who was in MV Kyoga 1 Ferry with Ariny Amos, Ariny Amos,
lectured United Nations Development Program branch of Private sector Foundation Lira
District for not having irrigation schemes for commercial Agriculture around lake Kyoga
that not only sugar cane is cash crop, Drugs , Paw Paw used for industrial Pharmacists for
Modern Medicines which should be used by National Medical Stores for Hospitals Country
wide Uganda.

APPLICATION OF IRRIGATION IN UGANDAN FRESH WATER LAKES AND

RIVERS.

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing
of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas
and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop
production, which include protecting plants against frost,suppressing weed growth in grain fields
and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is
referred to as rain-fed or dryland farming.

Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation
is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and
sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many
cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to the
Southwestern United States.

Archaeological investigation has identified as evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was
insufficient to support crops.
Perennial irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly
watered throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels
formed in the field.

Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots
which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile sediment had
settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse.There is evidence of the ancient
Egyptian pharaohAmenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of
the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, the lake
swelled annually from flooding of the Nile.

TYPES OF IRRIGATION

Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is
distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so
that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.

SPATE IRRIGATION

Spate irrigation (from the English word spate, meaning: flood or inundation. OR a river
flooding its banks) uses seasonal floods of rivers, streams, ponds and lakes to fill water
storage canals. If irrigation is the manipulation of water for use in growing crops, spate
irrigation is perhaps the most ancient method devised. Records of basic spate irrigation
engineering can be traced back beyond recorded history and include the Ancient Egyptian
diversion of the Nile River for storage at times of heavy rainfall for use in the dryer times
of the year.

In spate irrigation, water is diverted from normally dry river beds when the river is in
spate. The flood water is then diverted to the fields. This may be done by free intakes, by
diversion spurs or by bunds, that are built across the river bed. The flood water, typically
lasting a few hours or a few days, is channeled through a network of primary, secondary
and sometimes tertiary flood channels. Command areas may range from anything between
a few hectares to over 25,000 hectares (62,000 acres) Spate water management is
substantially unique to arid and semi-arid regions, typically in underdeveloped countries in
the Middle East, North Africa, West Asia, East Africa and parts of Latin America. Spate
irrigation systems require huge management efforts to control and optimize the flow of
water. Because fast-moving water is capable of moving very large amounts of sediment, the
heights of river banks and the composition of their beds can change rapidly. Diverting the
flow of a powerful force which is capable of moving rocks, soils and other materials used to
divert the path of the water can prove difficult.The number of public programs to support
spate irrigation has been relatively limited. One reason has been the difficulty to justify
investments in civil engineering works on systems dominated with low-value farming. A
second reason has been that it has been hard to identify successful interventions in spate
systems, because spate systems are often hydraulically and socially generally very complex.

SURFACE IRRIGATION

In surface (furrow, flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of
agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided
into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation
results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most
common method of irrigating agricultural land and still is in most parts of the world.

Basin flood irrigation of wheat

Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usually
plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to
flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted
by human or animal power to the level of the land.

The field water efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation but
has the potential for efficiencies in the range of 70% - 90% under appropriate management.

Irrigation of land in Punjab, Pakistan

LOCALIZED IRRIGATION.

Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped
network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to
it. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this
category of irrigation methods.
SUBSRUFACE TEXTILE IRRIGATION

Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically for subsurface irrigation
in all soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays. A typical subsurface textile irrigation system
has an impermeable base layer (usually polyethylene or polypropylene), a drip line running along
that base, a layer of geotextile on top of the drip line and, finally, a narrow impermeable layer on
top of the geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the spacing of emitters in the
drip pipe is not critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric up to 2 m from the
dripper.

Diagram showing the structure of an example SSTI installation

DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this
system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near the root
zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if
managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water efficiency of drip
irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed correctly.

Drip irrigation layout and its parts.

In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing
evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.

Drip irrigation – a dripper in action

Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for
too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and
computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for
most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface
irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise
water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is
difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the
field does not have to be level.

High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend
from a computerized set of valves.
Grapes in Petrolina, only made possible in this semi arid area by drip irrigation

IRRIGATION SPRINKLER

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field
and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays,
or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set
irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball
drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle.

Impact sprinkler head

Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 40 to
130 lbf/in² (275 to 900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with nozzle
diameters in the range of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but
also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging.

IRRIGATION USING SPRINKLER SYSTEMS.

Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a hose.
Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as
small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these utilize a length
of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the
irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler
arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a
"waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression,
irrigation, and land application of waste water.

Sprinkler irrigation of blueberries in Plainville, New York, United States

Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is
pulled by a cable.

These cable-type travelers are definitely old technology and their use is limited in today's modern
irrigation projects.

A traveling sprinkler at Millets Farm Centre, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom

CENTRE PIVOT IRRIGATION.

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe
(usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on
wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length.The system moves in a circular pattern
and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and
used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop

sprinkler heads as shown in the image that follows.

Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipe attached at the top of the
pipe with sprinkler head that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting
evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water
directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to the center
pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, most
center pivots were water powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation) and
electric motor driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots feature GPS
devices.

The hub of a center-pivot irrigation system

Rotator style pivot applicator sprinkler

IRRIGATION BY LATERAL MOVE(SIDE ROLL, WHEEL LINE, WHEELMOVE)

A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint,
and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water is supplied at one end using a large
hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose is removed, the
water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a purpose-built
mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field. The hose is
reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been irrigated.

Wheel line irrigation system in Idaho, 2001

This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive to operate
- it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip, must be
drained, and then rolled to a new strip. Most systems utilize 4 or 5-inch (130 mm) diameter
aluminum pipe. The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all the wheels.
A drive system (often found near the centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-together pipe
sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line. Manual adjustment of individual wheel
positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned.
Irrigation using Center pivot

Wheel line systems are limited in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of
crops that can be irrigated. One useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections
that can be easily disconnected, adapting to field shape as the line is moved. They are most often
used for small, rectilinear, or oddly-shaped fields, hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where
labor is inexpensive.

SUB- IRRIGATION

Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a
method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants'
root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and
combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates
allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the
water table.

Sub-irrigation is also used in commercialgreenhouse production, usually for potted plants. Water is
delivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a
solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of
time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in
greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are
water and nutrient conservation, and labor-saving through lowered system maintenance and
automation. It is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation.

IRRIGATION AUTOMATICALLY ,NON ELECTRIC USING BUCKETS AND ROPES.

Besides the common manual watering by bucket, an automated, natural version of this also exists.
Using plain polyester ropes combined with a prepared ground mixture can be used to water plants
from a vessel filled with water.

The ground mixture would need to be made depending on the plant itself, yet would mostly consist
of black potting soil, vermiculite and perlite. This system would (with certain crops) allow to save
expenses as it does not consume any electricity and only little water (unlike sprinklers, water
timers, etc.). However, it may only be used with certain crops (probably mostly larger crops that do
not need a humid environment; perhaps e.g. paprikas).
IRRIGATION USING WATER CONDDENSED FROM HUMID AIR.

In countries where at night, humid air sweeps the countryside, water can be obtained from the
humid air by condensation onto cold surfaces. This is for example practiced in the vineyards at
Lanzarote using stones to condense water or with various fog collectors based on canvas or foil
sheets.

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase,
and is the reverse of evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle.[1] It can
also be defined as the change in the state of water vapour to liquid water when in contact
with a liquid or solid surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When
the transition happens from the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is
called deposition.

Condensation forming in the low pressure zone above the wing of an aircraft due to
adiabatic expansion

Initiation
Condensation is initiated by the formation of atomic/molecular clusters of that species
within its gaseous volume—like rain drop or snow flake formation within clouds—or at the
contact between such gaseous phase and a liquid or solid surface.

Reversibility scenarios
A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the surface.

 absorption into the surface of a liquid (either of the same substance or one of its solvents)—is
reversible as evaporation.
 adsorption (as dew droplets) onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures higher than the
species' triple point—also reversible as evaporation.
 adsorption onto solid surface (as supplemental layers of solid) at pressures and temperatures
lower than the species' triple point—is reversible as sublimation.

Most common scenarios

Condensation commonly occurs when a vapor is cooled and/or compressed to its saturation
limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold. Vapor
cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids is called a "condenser".

How condensation is measured

Psychrometry measures the rates of condensation from and evaporation into the air
moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its
vapor condensation—condensation is the process of such phase conversion.

Applications of condensation
Condensation is a crucial component of distillation, an important laboratory and industrial
chemistry application.

Because condensation is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it can often be used to

generate water in large quantities for human use. Many structures are made solely for the
purpose of collecting water from condensation, such as air wells and fog fences. Such
systems can often be used to retain soil moisture in areas where active desertification is
occurring—so much so that some organizations educate people living in affected areas
about water condensers to help them deal effectively with the situation.

It is also a crucial process in forming particle tracks in a cloud chamber. In this case, ions
produced by an incident particle act as nucleation centers for the condensation of the vapor
producing the visible "cloud" trails.

Biological adaptation
Numerous living beings use water made accessible by condensation. A few examples of
these are the AustralianThorny Devil, the darkling beetles of the Namibian coast, and the
Coast Redwoods of the West Coast of the United States.

Condensation in building construction

Condensation on a window during a rain shower.

Condensation in building construction is an unwanted phenomenon as it may cause

dampness, mold health issues, woodrot, corrosion, weakening of mortar and masonry
walls, and energy penalties due to increased heat transfer. To alleviate these issues, the
indoor air humidity needs to be lowered, or air ventilation in the building needs to be
improved. This can be done in a number of ways, for example opening windows, turning on
extractor fans, using dehumidifiers, drying clothes outside and covering pots and pans
whilst cooking. Air conditioning or ventilation systems can be installed that help remove
moisture from the air, and move air throughout a building. The amount of water vapour
that can be stored in the air can be increased simply by increasing the temperature

Interstructure condensation may be caused by thermal bridges, insufficient or lacking

insulation, damp proofing or insulated glazing.

IN-GROUND IRRIGATION

Most commercial and residential irrigation systems are "in ground" systems, which means that
everything is buried in the ground. With the pipes, sprinklers, emitters (drippers), and irrigation
valves being hidden, it makes for a cleaner, more presentable landscape without garden hoses or
other items having to be moved around manually. This does, however, create some drawbacks in
the maintenance of a completely buried system.

SOLENOID VALVE.

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an

electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on
or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet
ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature

actuators and rocker actuators are also used.
Solenoid valve.

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports and fluid
paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are
connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are
isolated. If the valve is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed
normally open (N.O.). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized,
then the valve is termed normally closed.There are also 3-way and more complicated
designs.A 3-way valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports
(typically a supply port and an exhaust port).

Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can generate a
limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve, then a direct acting
solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship between the required solenoid force
Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice area A for a direct acting solenoid value is:

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4 lbf). An
application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 psi (69 kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter
(e.g., 3⁄8 in (9.5 mm) for an orifice area of 0.11 in2 (7.1×10−5 m2) and approximate force of
1.1 lbf (4.9 N)).
The solenoid valve (small black box at the top of the photo) with input air line (small green tube) used
to actuate a larger rack and pinionactuator (gray box) which controls the water pipe valve.

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required. To
generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design may be possible.[1] In such
a design, the line pressure is used to generate the high valve forces; a small solenoid
controls how the line pressure is used. Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and
irrigation systems where the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square
inch (550 kPa) and the orifice diameter might be 3⁄4 in (19 mm).

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use a small,
complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve. While the second type
is actually a solenoid valve combined with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold
and packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much
less power to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full
power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full
power for a short period of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.

A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The operation time
of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150 milliseconds.

Power consumption and supply requirements of the solenoid vary with application, being
primarily determined by fluid pressure and line diameter. For example, a popular 3/4" 150
psi sprinkler valve, intended for 24 VAC (50 - 60 Hz) residential systems, has a momentary
inrush of 7.2 VA, and a holding power requirement of 4.6 VA. Comparatively, an
industrial 1/2" 10000 psi valve, intended for 12, 24, or 120 VAC systems in high pressure
fluid and cryogenic applications, has an inrush of 300 VA and a holding power of 22 VA.
Neither valve lists a minimum pressure required to remain closed in the unpowered state.

INTERNALLY PILLOTED DESIGN OF SOLENOID VALVE.

While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown of a typical
solenoid valve design.

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve
mechanically. A direct acting valve has only a small flow circuit, shown within section E of
this diagram (this section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). In this example, a
diaphragm piloted valve multiplies this small pilot flow, by using it to control the flow
through a much larger orifice.

Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical interfaces
to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the valve opened (normally open) or
closed (normally closed) while the valve is not activated.

A- Input side
B- Diaphragm
C- Pressure chamber
D- Pressure relief passage
E- Solenoid
F- Output side

The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve, controlling the flow of water in
this example. At the top figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure
enters at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it down. The
diaphragm has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small amount of water to
flow through it. This water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that
pressure is equal on both sides of the diaphragm, however the compressed spring supplies a
net downward force. The spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because water
pressure is equalized on both sides of the diaphragm.

Once the diaphragm closes the valve, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom is
reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly closed. Thus, the spring
is irrelevant to holding the valve closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin which is the
armature of the solenoidE and which is pushed down by a spring. If current is passed
through the solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic force, and the water in chamber C
drains out the passage D faster than the pinhole can refill it. The pressure in chamber C
drops and the incoming pressure lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main valve. Water
now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the spring needs
very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main valve closes. In practice
there is often no separate spring; the elastomer diaphragm is molded so that it functions as
its own spring, preferring to be in the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a differential of
pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input must always be greater
than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should the pressure at the output, for any
reason, rise above that of the input then the valve would open regardless of the state of the
solenoid and pilot valve.

Components

Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid from the coil. The core tube
encloses the plugnut, the core spring, and the core. The coil slips over the core tube; a retaining clip
engages the depression near the closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on the core tube.

Solenoid valve designs have many variations and challenges.

Common components of a solenoid valve:

 Solenoid subassembly
o Retaining clip (a.k.a. coil clip)
o Solenoid coil (with magnetic return path)
 o Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid valve tube, sleeve, guide
assembly)
o Plugnut (a.k.a. fixed core)
o Shading coil (a.k.a. shading ring)
o Core spring (a.k.a. counter spring)
o Core (a.k.a. plunger, armature)
 Core tube–bonnet seal
 Bonnet (a.k.a. cover)
 Bonnet–diaphram–body seal
 Hanger spring
 Backup washer
 Diaphram
o Bleed hole
 Disk
 Valve body
o Seat

The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is energized.
The core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core's movement will make or break the seals
that control the movement of the fluid. When the coil is not energized, springs will hold the
core in its normal position.

The plugnut is also coaxial.

The core tube contains and guides the core. It also retains the plugnut and may seal the
fluid. To optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be nonmagnetic. If the
core tube were magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path for the field lines.[11] In some
designs, the core tube is an enclosed metal shell produced by deep drawing. Such a design
simplifies the sealing problems because the fluid cannot escape from the enclosure, but the
design also increases the magnetic path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse
the thickness of the core tube twice: once near the plugnut and once near the core. In some
other designs, the core tube is not closed but rather an open tube that slips over one end of
the plugnut. To retain the plugnut, the tube might be crimped to the plugnut. An O-ring
seal between the tube and the plugnut will prevent the fluid from escaping.

The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core tube and
induce the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in epoxy. The coil also has
an iron frame that provides a low magnetic path resistance.

Materials

The valve body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass, stainless
steel, aluminum, and plastic.

The seals must be compatible with the fluid.

To simplify the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and other
components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well. The
requirements present some special problems. The core tube needs to be non-magnetic to
pass the solenoid's field through to the plugnut and the core. The plugnut and core need a
material with good magnetic properties such as iron, but iron is prone to corrosion.
Stainless steels can be used because they come in both magnetic and non-magnetic
varieties. For example, a solenoid valve might use 304 stainless steel for the body, 305
stainless steel for the core tube, 302 stainless steel for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel
(a magnetic stainless steel) for the core and plugnut.

Types of solenoid valves

Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid valve described above:

 one- or two-solenoid valves;

 direct current or alternating current powered;
 different number of ways and positions;

Common uses of solenoid valves

Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to control
cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic irrigation sprinkler
systems also use solenoid valves with an automatic controller. Domestic washing machines
and dishwashers use solenoid valves to control water entry into the machine. Solenoid
valves are used in the paintball industry, solenoid valves are usually referred to simply as
"solenoids." They are commonly used to control a larger valve used to control the
propellant In addition to this, these valves are now being used in household water purifiers.

Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of industrial applications, including general
on-off control, calibration and test stands, pilot plant control loops, process control
systems, and various original equipment manufacturer applications.

Most irrigation systems are divided into zones. A zone is a single irrigation valve and one or a
group of drippers or sprinklers that are connected by pipes or tubes. Irrigation systems are divided
into zones because there is usually not enough pressure and available flow to run sprinklers for an
entire yard or sports field at once. Each zone has a solenoid valve on it that is controlled via wire by
an irrigation controller. The irrigation controller is either a mechanical (now the "dinosaur" type)
or electrical device that signals a zone to turn on at a specific time and keeps it on for a specified
amount of time. "Smart Controller" is a recent term for a controller that is capable of adjusting the
watering time by itself in response to current environmental conditions. The smart controller
determines current conditions by means of historic weather data for the local area, a soil moisture
sensor (water potential or water content), rain sensor, or in more sophisticated systems satellite
feed weather station, or a combination of these.

When a zone comes on, the water flows through the lateral lines and ultimately ends up at the
irrigation emitter (drip) or sprinkler heads. Many sprinklers have pipe thread inlets on the bottom
of them which allows a fitting and the pipe to be attached to them. The sprinklers are usually
installed with the top of the head flush with the ground surface. When the water is pressurized, the
head will pop up out of the ground and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off
that zone. Once there is no more water pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract
back into the ground. Emitters are generally laid on the soil surface or buried a few inches to
reduce evaporation losses.

WATER SOURCES.

Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells), from
surface water (withdrawn from rivers, lakes or reservoirs) or from non-conventional sources like
treated wastewater, desalinated water or drainage water. A special form of irrigation using surface
water is spate irrigation, also called floodwater harvesting. In case of a flood (spate), water is
diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and
spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate
irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. While
floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting is usually
not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from
roofs or unused land and the concentration

Irrigation is underway by pump-enabled extraction directly from the Gumti, seen in the background,
in Comilla, Bangladesh.

Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water
pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater
as a source of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive
to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources
with industry and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for
farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops.
Significant health hazards can result from using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially
if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water. The International
Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico
and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater
irrigation. They advocate a 'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers are
encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days
before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does
not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal
sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. The World Health
Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.

There are numerous benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the low cost (when
compared to other sources, particularly in an urban area), consistency of supply (regardless of
season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions), and general consistency of quality.
Irrigation of recycled wastewater is also considered as a means for plant fertilization and
particularly nutrient supplementation. This approach carries with it a risk of soil and water
pollution through excessive wastewater application. Hence, a detailed understanding of soil water
conditions is essential for effective utilization of wastewater for irrigation

Young engineers restoring and developing the old Mughal irrigation system during the reign of the
Mughal EmperorBahadur Shah II

EFFICIENCY OF MODERN IRRIGATION METHODS.

Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so
that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Water use
efficiency in the field can be determined as follows:

 Field Water Efficiency (%) = (Water Transpired by Crop ÷ Water Applied to Field) x 100

Fifty years ago (as of 2010), the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that
time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as
wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce
their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers.

Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now
more than seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and
vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation and
biofuel crops. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to
meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.

Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water
scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to
agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly
global issue that is fostering a growing debate.Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough
water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid
regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant
but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of
hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include
environmental degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by
a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water.
Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to
fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in
water-scarce areas.

Technical challenges

Main article: Environmental impact of irrigation

Irrigation schemes involve solving numerous engineering and economic problems while minimizing
negative environmental impact.

 Competition for surface water rights.

 Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers.
 Ground subsidence (e.g. New Orleans, Louisiana)
 Underirrigation or irrigation giving only just enough water for the plant (e.g. in drip line
irrigation) gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent
buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either
leaching to remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. When using
drip lines, the leaching is best done regularly at certain intervals (with only a slight excess of
water), so that the salt is flushed back under the plant's roots.
 Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water,
chemicals, and may lead to water pollution.
 Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in some instances
will lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of
subsurface land drainage.
 Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the formation
of alkaline soil
 Clogging of filters: It is mostly algae that clog filters, drip installations and nozzles. UVand
ultrasonic method can be used for algae control in irrigation systems.

MAP OF UGANDA ; ARINY AMOS’S UGANDA EXPLORATIONS AND VOYAGES.

KEY;
Water transport-
Road Transport-

PROMOTION AS AN ASTRONAUT.

White House Washinton D.C under barack obama, bill clinton and state house uganda
plotted robery or grabb; dated 29 /february 2016 android ariny amos briefcase stollen
bytazenya james- lc1 chairman (fake) doko nsambya mbale municipality, mbale district
with his robers or grabbers
Promotion as an astronaut, An Astronaut or Astronomer, or Astrophysicist, or Astrologer,
or Planetary Scientist , An expert specialized with celestial bodies.
barack obama announced the plot in 2013 at the review of archaeology for the mourn of ex-
president nelson mandela in journesburg south africa. ariny followed radio waves bought
everything including briefcase branded 'president' to high way guest house who is attended
by lc1 doko-nsambya mbale municipality stayed for four days before robery. the lc1 doko
nsambya (0782326752) on 29/feb/2016 awarded ariny amos a grey padlock branded trois -
circle made in china and three keys to lock his brief case inside the guest house room , one
of the key is assumed given to robers or grabbers who after ariny amos locked the room
and went to town to explore on return found the brief case not available, in the brief case
contains education certificates ,travel passport and books no money inside. uganda media
centre ( ntvu) showed a video last year when ariny amos was in western uganda as it was
plotted 29/feb/2016 evening rain was plotted and it rained and robbery of ariny amos's
brief case plotted by uganda media centre, united states embassy kampala. central
intelligence agency , ariny amos appeals for help , no witnesses needed in this case as ariny
amos declares warns uganda police for adoption north korea policies for racism against
black and white people. person stole the brief case has body created by astrology body of
kale kayihura who is already dead 2001-2007 - android ariny amos (radio astronomer from
birth to date
mitt - usa prospective student and NASA expert).
ariny amos alive in uganda but this is the story ,on 28 feb 2016 , radio waves were emitted
towards ariny amos which shoot ariny amos while sleeping , jean louis gonneau, before
briefcase was stolen ariny amos brief case stollen or robbed police in mbale , namatale
police post, while 8 march 2016 ariny amos was arrested in kapchorwamount elgon amat
6;00 pm, and tortured by uganda peoples defence forces, police and emitted radio waves
from cctv and video camera for example adoption not adopted , jesus christ,charlie rip, my
balanced life, romain reigns see my eyes, african richest man alika of Nigeriaproduces
tomatoe fruit juice , the british monarch, dwayne johnson the rock, noah benzing , , keivin
crowther , virginia governor speech, shashicka tyre- hill, if jesus says yes no one says no,
michelle obama and united states secret service, princess diana, trina, pope john paul,
athletes, nakatunya junior church in soroti municipality prayer process , St.maria
magdallene a beautiul place to live, slate .com, now compare.com, Hypetrak,uganda
martyrs , asteroid vesta, cyborg film by jean claude van dam and many others, nasa
responded immediately, while , ariny was trasnsfered to nalufenya police post radio waves
of micheal james owen then to owen falls dam jinja uganda for promotion as an astronaut,
radio waves were emitted towards ariny amosand monsoon winds blow to rooms, others
include, cia, downs syndrome, john rambo boxing film,george white bush in air force one
film, harrison ford, albert einstein in theory of relativity, , sir Isaac newton, oliver
heaviside, power house book donald trump, android ariny
amos book, hunger games film , curse of frankeinstein, galieo galilei, stephen hawking,
quarran book , citrus clouds, robert bruce banner,professor calculus, arnold
schwarzenegger jinger all the way film, pacific rim, ant man, hulk comics, tirunesh dibaba
for cattle, infected six killer diseases,killed resurrected, killed with argritis, nose broken,
invpestigated lighting,seismology, photo electric effect,theory of relativity or principle. for
44 days under house arrest on 20 march 2016 nasa responded again, on 14 april returned
to kapchorwa police at the moment the police want to charge with agg robbbery and
murder by shooting. Ariny Amos cure all the six killer diseases including ulcers, infertility,
HIV/ Aids and all other diseases and all cases on earth.
barack obama , muamar gaddafi, bill clinton, ban ki- moon plotted started in
2003,3004,2008,2013 at the mourn of ex president nelson mandela.
nasa usa has to monitor the process? thanks for nasa usa response
dated 20 / march / 2016 which was 2015 promise
ariny amos alive in uganda but tis is the story ,on 28 feb 2016 , radio waves were emitted
towards ariny amos which shoot ariny amos while sleeping , jean louis gonneau, before
briefcase was stolen ariny amos brief case stollen or robbed police in mbale , namatale
police post, while 8 march 2016 ariny amos was arrested in kapchorwa mount elgon amat
6;00 pm, and tortured by uganda peoples defence forces, police and emitted radio waves
from cctv and video camera for example adoption not adopted ,,ice cream coversations.com
the Bernie marck show, happpy 20 birth day dee dee davis! , sherle skinner ,merle
haggard greatest fans,noel haggard one life time, merle haggard and son marty haggard,
the newyork post fbe covered their ears every time we mentioned saudis , said former
fairfax county police lt. rogger kelly , how U.S covered up saudi role in 9/11 , teen vogue,
watchtower
38 media tumbr.com, media research center stating obama as greatest president in history
NASA has poured $ 67 million for Next- Gen propulsion system, Queen Elizabeth
celebrates 90th Birth day, NASA says ninth planet exists, , itv wales number of illegal
workers have been found in construction site wrexhams new super prison, jesus
christ,charlie rip, my balanced life, romain reigns World Wrestling Entertainment see my
eyes, african richest man alika of nigeria , the brisith monarchy, Romain reigns fans page,
dwayne johnson the rock, noah benzing , produces tomatoe fruit juice, kevin crowther ,
virginia governor speech, shashicka tyre- hill, if jesus says yes no one says no, michelle
Obama and united states secret service, princess diana, trina, pope john paul,
athletes,cyborg film by jean claude van dam andAriny suffered broken rib and healed him
self by remote sugery due to that Ariny Amos manufactures own artificial invisible space
craft when radio waves are emitted by electronic device many others, nasa responded
immediately, while , ariny was trasnsfered to nalufenya police post in jinja for promotion
as an astronaut,Radio waves of former British footballer michael james owen were emitted
radio waves were emitted towards ariny amos and monsoon winds blow to rooms, others
include, cia, downs syndrome, john rambo boxing film,george white bush in air force one
film, Arnold Schwarzenegger fitness work out, Angelina jolie, Harrison ford, albert
einstein in theory of relativity,Cocaine , sir Isaac newton, oliver heaviside, power house
book donald trump, android ariny amos book, hunger games film , curse of frankeinstein,
galieo galilei, stephen hawking , citrus clouds, robert bruce banner,professor calculus,
arnold schwarzenegger jinger all the way film, pacific rim, ant man, hulk comics, tirunesh
dibaba for cattle, infected six killer diseases,killled resurrected, killed with argritis, nose
broken, invpestigated lighting,seismology, earth quakes, photo electric effect,theory of
relativity or principle for 44 days under house arrest investigates Status of police
dentention centre called cells, no proper beddings but bare floor enforced, suspects without
visitors can not live better even though a case is enforced, some times food contains cocaine,
porridge contains cocaine, feeding only once a day due to corruption by police an
Government officials, At Jinja tapped water contained agricultural fertilizers, suspects of
different cases detained not in separate rooms but mixed congested, wastage of electricity
playing cards in Jinja Nalufenya police post as ariny amos resolved some days with photo
electricity effect radio waves, some have forced charges, some suspects are ordered to
fight, police hospital lacks good drugs ariny amos only concentrated on radio waves of
drugs emitted to wards detention rooms since ariny amos smells radio waves, on 20 march
2016 nasa responded again, on 14 april returned to kapchorwa police at the moment the
police want to charge with agg robbbery and murder by shooting by enforcement, on
25/April/2016 file transferred Soroti District Central Police Station for further action .
barack obama , muamar gaddafi, bill clinton, ban ki- moon plotted started in
2003,3004,2008,2013 at the mourn of ex president nelson mandela.
NASA- USA has to monitor the process? Procedure above for promotion as an Astronaut
has been performed in many years, 1991 at Soroti Hospital in soroti district in Uganda,
1997 Kamplala Uganda, 2003 Ngora High School, 2006 Makerere University Kampala,
2009 Kampala Uganda, 2010 Nairobi Kenya, 2011 Kasese in Uganda, 2016 Jinja Uganda.
Astronoers tortured with african , saudi arabia Untollerable cultures before
promotion as an astronaut. ariny amos works like german scientist
Albert Einstein.

VOLCANIC ERUPTION AND BARBITURATE OVERDOSE.

In Geology and Alchemy, Mount mufumbiro; mount mufumbiro or mount virunga or mount sabyinyo
is a volcanic mountain in kisoro in uganda mhahinga gorrilla national park, today 1/ dec/ 2015
Android Ariny Amos crossed on way from Kisoro to Kabale night travel which started at 5;30 hours .
on the way as android ariny amos got a sleep inside the bismarkan coach after crossing the refugee
camp, earth quake occurred which waked and ariny spread his right hand finger to star shape
immediately the earth quake stopped after an explosion of asteroid that hits the mountain and driver
continued the journey, the driver had stopped the bus while earth quake was on, this is the third time
for android ariny amos to block earth quake as ariny amos went to kisoro under hendrik lorentz force.
Jingle all the way by Arnold Schwarzenegger Radio waves film were emitted.

In astrophysics ,Ariny produces volcanicity by electric shock, welding , Volcanic activity

produces lightning-friendly conditions in multiple ways. The enormous quantity of
pulverized material and gases ejected into the atmosphere with explosive power, creates
a dense plume of highly chargedparticles, which establishes the perfect conditions for
lightning. The ash density and constant motion within the volcanic plume continually
produces electrostatic ionization, resulting in very powerful and very frequent flashes
attempting to neutralize itself. Due to the extensive solid material (ash) content, unlike
the water rich charge generating zones of a normal thundercloud, it is often called a dirty
thunderstorm, Mount Morongoro eruptions is an example in Tanzania in astrophysics,
Ariny's Barbituric acid in excess results in earth quake Kidney Failure, lightning,
breathing difficulties, barbituric acid can be gained from foodconsumption, alcohol
consumption, Ariny often tries drinking excess water as rescue.

SEISMOLOGY.

1985 To date electric shock by Ariny Amos results in Seismology also used as a
medical therapy, under carefully controlled conditions:Clement D. Child was an
American physicist and educator.He is noted particularly for "Child's law" (1911),
which is an equation that describes the electrical current that flows between the
plates of a vacuum tube.Top row: both lightning and electric sparks are everyday
examples of phenomena made from plasma.

Neon lights could more accurately be called "plasma lights", Lightning is a sudden
electrostatic discharge during an electric stormbetween electrically charged regions of a
cloud (called intra-cloud lightning or IC), between that cloud and another cloud (CC
lightning), or between a cloud and the ground (CG lightning). The charged regions within the
atmosphere temporarily equalize themselves through a lightning flash, commonly referred to
as a strike if it hits an object

on the ground. Although lightning is always accompanied by the sound of thunder,

distant lightning may be seen but may be too far away for the thunder to be heard.
Ariny used electric shock As a method of pain relief in sickness: see Transcutaneous
Electrical Nerve Stimulator , As an aversive punishment for conditioning of
developmentally delayed individuals with severe behavioral problems. This
controversial skin-shock method is employed only at the Judge Rotenberg Educational
Center, a special needs school in Massachusetts
 PLASMA PHYSICS, DREAMERS MOTION PHENOMENON.

Before Ariny' birth date 6 / May / 1982, Ariny is dreamer,The mean electromotive force
and ponderomotive force generated by nonlinear random Alfvn waves propagating
along the mean magnetic field and linear random Alfvn waves propagating in arbitrary
directions in a collisionless plasma are calculated by use of Fourier analysis methods. It
is shown that the a-effect can exist in the interaction between two different waves and
that the magnetic turbulent diffusivity can be negative depending on the energy
spectrum functions of the initial values of the magnetic and velocity perturbations. The
results are applied to the substorms in the Earth's magnetosphere Ariny's motion is
meant to make discovery especially dead matter, for example animals, animals with
psychiatric disorders, animals with mental health all discovered by Ariny while in motion
in any direction. Ariny also discovers animals suffering from various diseases like HIV
Aids, psychiatric disorders, all diseases, heals introduces some diseases in exploration
of the earth. Addition discovery of victims of acid attacks, scalds, wounded also
discoveredby Ariny.
Astrophysicist; Uganda National Livestock research project located at kiruhura district sanga town,
very common that android ariny amos often walks on foot along the road under force of hendrik
lorentz force, discovery indicates that swift safaris and global coaches from mbarara have cctv
cameras, video cameras which emitts radiowaves , adrenalin all over the road livestock of all species
are knoked by speeding bus, dead livestock discovered on the road side include snakes dead with
with head and tails cut, impala, zebras, monkeys, alphine swift with heads cut,cattle,humans, cattle
egret, dogs cats, rats, crasted crane, etc , on 16 /November/ 2015 alphine swift bird collided to
android ariny amos 's right foot while walking on road side when raining due to global coach from
Mbarara came emitting radio waves while speeding and alphine swift one wing got injured and failed
to fly fell on the ground and android ariny amos captured to view attempting to identify the species
and the cry it made an explosion was also heard as android ariny amos not interested in cctv cameras,
video cameras, cathode ray tubes (radio wave emitting machines, plants) since it results in an
explosion of asteroid that heats the earth as android ariny amos is genre equally to german scientist
albert einstein. research reveals that alphine swift birds not interested in radio waves emitting
organisam and machines, it often cries as in dated above , when the bus left to long distance then the
bird discontinued the cry indication of no more strong radio waves emitted, the bird had short legs
foldbale, global coach mbarara has video as they filmed - livestock killed for oil curse.

SWEAT, SALT BRIDGE IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

Ariny Amos touches salt results in electricity connected to the area Ariny is carrying
out an experiment several times in soroti district in Uganda,Kumi, Makerere university,
Kagadi, Mbarara, Kabale, Fort portal, Gulu, Lira, Kitgum, Masaka, and Nairobi kenya. In
electrochemistry,without the salt bridge, the solution in the anode compartment would
become positively charged and the solution in the cathode compartment would become
negatively charged,because of the charge imbalance,the electrode reaction would
quickly come to a halt,therefore It helps to maintain the flow of electrons from the
oxidation half cell to a reduction half cell,this completes the circuit..Yes that s true, The
purpose of a salt bridge is not to move electrons from the electrolyte, rather to maintain
charge balance because the electrons are moving from one half cell to the other.
Indian food recipes results in gain of Sweating, Cancer, Steroids, Malaria, Ebola.
 RAIN BOW OR HYDROGEN SPECTRUM.

1985 to date, Ariny Amos is always the first see rain bow and detects

rain bow or hydrogen spectrum by a blast that usually occurs before its formation, after
a blast then rain bow appears to the sky, A rainbow is an optical and meteorological
phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water
droplets resulting in aspectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multi
coloured arc. Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly
opposite the sun.The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of
spectral series, with wavelengths given by

the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to the electron making
transitions between two energy levels in the atom. The classification of the series by
the Rydberg formula was important in the development of quantum theory

ALZHEIMER DISEASE.

Alzheimer's is a type of dementia that causes problems with memory, thinking and
behavior.Alzheimer's is the most common form of dementia, a general term for memory loss and
other intellectual abilities serious enough to interfere with daily lifeAlzheimer's is the most common
form of dementia, a general term for memory loss and other intellectual abilities serious enough to
interfere with daily life. Alzheimer's disease accounts for 60 to 80 percent of dementia cases.
Ariny's Computer operation,Tortured Ariny, electtric shock, cry which can also be
initiated by emitted radio waves, hot water injuries, cold water injuries all these leads to
persons with alzheimer disease victimized Alzheimer's disease (AD), since Due
Celestial gravitation by universal gravitational laws of physics.also known as Alzheimer
disease, or just Alzheimer's, accounts for 60% to 70% of cases of dementia. It is a
chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and gets worse over
time.The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (short
term memory loss). As the disease advances, symptoms can include: problems with
language, disorientation (including easily getting lost), mood swings, loss of
motivation, not managing self care, and behavioural issues.No treatments stop or
reverse its progression, though some may temporarily improve symptoms. Affected
people increasingly rely on others for assistance, often placing a burden on the
caregiver; the pressures can include social, psychological, physical, and economic
element. In 2010 there were between 21 and 35 million people worldwide with AD. It
most often begins in people over 65 years of age, although 4% to 5% of cases are early-
onset Alzheimer's which begin before this. It affects about 6% of people 65 years and
older In 2010 dementia resulted in about 486,000 deaths. It was first described by, and
later named after, German psychiatrist and pathologist Alois
Alzheimer in 1906. In developed countries, AD is one of the most financially costly
diseases.

Alzheimer's worsens over time.

Alzheimer's is a progressive disease, where dementia symptoms gradually worsen over a number of
years. In its early stages, memory loss is mild, but with late-stage Alzheimer's, individuals lose the
ability to carry on a conversation and respond to their environment.

Alzheimer's has no current cure, but treatments for symptoms are available and research
continues.Although current Alzheimer's treatments cannot stop Alzheimer's from
progressing, they can temporarily slow the worsening of dementia symptoms and improve
quality of life for those with Alzheimer's and their caregivers. Today, there is a worldwide
effort under way to find better ways to treat the disease, delay its onset, and prevent it
from developing. Two abnormal structures called plaques and tangles are prime suspects
in damaging and killing nerve cells.

THE ROLE OF PLAQUES AND TANGLES IN ALZHEIMER'S

Plaques are deposits of a protein fragment called beta-amyloid (BAY-tuh AM-uh-loyd)

that build up in the spaces between nerve cells.
Tangles are twisted fibers of another protein called tau (rhymes with “wow”) that build up
inside cells.

Though most people develop some plaques and tangles as they age, those with Alzheimer's
tend to develop far more. They also tend to develop them in a predictable pattern,
beginning in areas important for memory before spreading to other regions.

Scientists do not know exactly what role plaques and tangles play in Alzheimer's disease.
Most experts believe they somehow play a critical role in blocking communication among
nerve cells and disrupting processes that cells need to survive.

It's the destruction and death of nerve cells that causes memory failure, personality
changes, problems carrying out daily activities and other symptoms of Alzheimer's
 TURBINE AND TURBOMACHINE.

In Astrophysics Ariny as turbine, disconnected galvanic cells can be connected to

generate electric current by rubbing wet arms resulting in friction, turbine is a rotary
mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful
work . A turbine is a

turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft
or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they
move

and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and
waterwheels *Turbomachinery*, in mechanical engineering , describes machines that
transfer energy between a rot and a fluid , including both turbines and compressors .
While a turbine transfers energy from a fluid to a rotor, a compressor transfers energy
from a rotor to a fluid. The two types of machines are governed by the same basic
relationships are turbomachines that transfer energy from a rotor to a fluid, usually a
liquid, while turbines and compressors usually work with a gas.Experiment was done at
Makerere university Uganda, Nairobi Kenya, Iganga, Soroti in Uganda a blast often starts
of an Asteroid.

ELECTRIC GENERATORS.

In Astrophysics, Ariny performs alchemy powers thus can change oil to all states of
matter, the resultant switch off and on of electricity, an explosion in the environment
starts, In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy for use in an external circuit The source of mechanical energy may
vary widely from a hand crank to an internal combustion engine . Generators provide
nearly all of the power for electric power grids
.The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an
electric motor and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be
mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable
generators.Before the connection between magnetism and electricity were used. They
operated on electrostatic . Such generators generated very high voltage and low current.
They operated by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, and disks that carried
charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two
mechanisms: Electrostatic induction and the triboelectric effect . Because of their
inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages,
electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of
commercially significant quantities of electric power.

SATELLITE DISH AS ARINY AMOS.

This is fresh discovery that radiowaves emitted by the sperm and and ova of two partners
leaves behind the genetic material and looking like of the partners as illustrated by
Android Ariny Amos ,Investigations reveal that Ariny acts like satellite dish, where Ariny
receives electromagnetic signal and sends when Ariny gets closure to phone switched
on that phone receives call signalseasily faster than when Ariny is not in that
environment . A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to
receive electromagnetic signals from satellites, which transmit data transmissions or
broadcasts, such as satellite television. The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal
to the dishs focal point. Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a
feedhorn. This feedhorn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that gathers the
signals at or near the focal point and 'conducts' them to a low-noise block down
converter or LNB. The LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to
electrical signals and shifts the signals from the down linked C-band and/or Ku-band to
the L-band range. Direct broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the
feedhorn with the LNB. (A new form of omnidirectional satellite antenna, which does not
use a directed parabolic dish and can be used on a mobile platform such as a vehicle.

.In photography technology it clearly explains that it is similar to mating between

partners as radiowaves hits the earth when Android Ariny Amos is subjected to
electromagnetic radiations
Electromagntic waves used to manufacture embryos by two partners as in the period of
sex when the two partners at sex the father and mother breathtogether and smell waves
of each so does the sperm and the ova.This illustrated by photography in the way
different faces of android Ariny Amos results.

The technology used to manaufacture differen faces of Ariny Amos is based smelling,
Hearing and penetration on the electromagnetic radiations emitted by video cameras and
photographershouting with Michael Jackson Theory, adjustment of Ariny Amos
Neurones, Bones, Nerves Anatomy to make shape ,this can be easily done by NASA space
crafts.however very possible with Android Ariny Amos. All Ariny Amos taken with similar
technology. Asteroid often hits the earth when Ariny Amos in filmed. Electromagnetic
Machines and Plants emitting Radiation.

ENAMEL GRINDING AND ELECTRICITY.

* In Astronomy ; Ariny switches off electricity from the transformer by grinding tooth
enamel, when two or more tooth rubbed, Tooth enamel* is one of the four major tissues
that make up the tooth in humans and many other animals, including some species of
fish. It makes up the normally visible part of the tooth, covering the crown The other
major tissues are dentin , cementum and dental pulp It is a white 'parasol' that protects
the teeth but can easily decay and be destroyed.t is the hardest substance in the human
body and contains the highest percentage of minerals 96%, with water and organic
material composing the rest The primary mineral is hydroxyapatite ,which is a crystalline
calcium phosphate Enamel is formed on the tooth while the tooth is developing within
the gum, before it erupts into the mouth. Once fully formed, it does not contain blood
vessels or nerves. Remineralisation of teeth can repair damage to the tooth to a certain
degree but damage beyond that cannot be repaired by the body. The maintenance and
repair of human tooth enamel is one of the primary concerns of dentistr In physiology
the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium , potassium (K+), calcium, magnesium,
chloride , hydrogen phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate. The electric charge symbols of
plus and minus indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has an imbalanced
distribution of electrons, the result of chemical dissociation. Sodium is the main
electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and is involved in fluid balance and blood pressure
control known higher lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between
the intracellular and extracellular environment. In particular, the maintenance of precise
osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important. Such gradients affect and regulate the
hydration of the body as well as blood pH and are critical for nerve and muscle function.
Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different
electrolytes under tight control. This experiments performed and passed as electricity
switched off from the transformer in the following districts in East Africa, Kampala,
Soroti, Rukungiri, Mubende, Arua, Nakuru in Kenya, Nairobi in Kenya,Dar es salaam,
Arusha, Tunduma in Tanzania.

BIOELECTRICITY AND MEDICAL ELECTRICITY

In astrology, Ariny in 2001 to 2004 conducted experiments on frogs heart blood vessels
from the heart to other blood organs once using dissection set , once blood vessel is cut
leads to connected electricity in the region becomes disconnected indication electricity
wire cut as electrons flow in the vaccum of space, cutting of the cell membrace results in
electricity switched off from the transformer of the region Ariny is operating and
experiments, in humans especially Ariny own skin when ruptured results in electricity
switched off, electrophysiology especially Electrobiology and Neural Engineering
research focuses upon the electrical activity of the heart and nervous system as well as
applications for the treatment of cardiac and neurological disorders after the study of the
electrical properties of biological cells and tissue biology , and *galvanism* as the
contraction of a muscle that is stimulated by an electric current galvanism also in
physics and chemistry it has results in is induction of electrical current from a chemical
reaction, typically between two chemicals with differing electronegativities all these
constitutes astronomical branch. Astrobiology and asrophysics, Ariny can switch on
and off of electricity from the transformer by contraction of muscles from the body, this
scientific work is chiefly concerned with galvanism anatomy and its medical
applications, with the construction and illumination of lighthouses , and with
experiments for preserving human life and material objects from destruction by fire.
muscle contraction experiments done in

several districts as in Rukingiri, Soroti, Kampala, Kabale , Nairobi , Arua, Kamuli,

Jinja.

FROGS, RABBIT, RATS EXPERIMENTS ON BIOELECTRICITY.

In Astrology, Remote surgery by Ariny's experiments on frogs, for bioelectricity

approved that Luigi Galvani experiments was correct so does alessandro volta.Ariny
makes frogs drunk by forcing to drink alcohol it faints and dissection commences,
specimens include frog or rabbit or rat, strings, alcohol, dissection set ,studying
anatomy in situ, blood vessels to various

organs, the muscles, cut muscles of dead frogs legs twitched when struck by an
electrical spark produces, disproduces electrical current as electrons flow in vaccum
which can switch on and off electricity from the disconnected and connected
transformer in an area Which Ariny is carrying out an experiment, especially at Ngora
High School Kumi district in Uganda and Soroti secondary school Soroti district in
Uganda While in advanced level studies. Muscle cut of the thigh switches off electricity
for some time and regained, so does to rabbits dissection.Muscle of afrog is cut similar
to electrical wire is cut leads disconnection of electricity. this was astrophysical
investigation to appreciate the relationship between electricity and animation.

HOT AIR , TONGUE AND ELECTRICITY.

Ariny performs this experiment in astrophysics,switches off electricity from transformer

for some time by exhaling showing the tongue to the desktop and keyboards of the
personal computer.carbon dioxide is hot air is a colorless, odorless gas vital to plant life
on earth. This
naturally occurring chemical compound is composed of two oxygen atoms each
covalently double bonded to a single carbon atom. Carbon dioxide exists in the Earth's
atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent (400 ppm) by
volume It is emitted from volcanoes, hot springs and geysers humans and is freed
from carbonate rocks by

dissolution in water and acids. The body produces approximately 2.3 pounds (1.0 kg) of
carbon dioxide per day per person, containing 0.63 pounds (290 g) of carbon. In
humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out
through the lungs. Therefore, the carbon dioxide content in the body is high in the
venous system, and decreases in the respiratory system, resulting in lower
concentrations along any arterial system. Carbon dioxide content of the blood is often
given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have
had if it alone occupied the volume.
 REMOTE SURGERY.

In astrophysics, Ariny being android computer operation performs online surgery in

astrophysics offline surgery did in frogs, rabbits, rats, cockroaches, Remote surgery
(also known as telesurgery) is the ability for a doctor to perform surgery on a patient
even though they

are not physically in the same location. It is a form of telepresence. A robot surgical
system generally consists of one or more arms (controlled by the surgeon), a master
controller (console), and a sensory system giving feedback to the user. Remote
surgery combines elements of robotics, cutting edge communication technology such
as high-speed data connections and elements of management information systems.
While the field of robotic surgery is fairly well established, most of these robots are
controlled by surgeons at the location of the surgery. Remote surgery is essentially
advanced telecommuting for surgeons, where the physical distance between the
surgeon and the patient is immaterial. It promises to allow the expertise of specialized
surgeons to be available to patients worldwide, without the need for patients to travel
beyond their local hospital. Surgical robot systems have been developed from the first
functional telesurgery system-ZEUS-to the da Vinci Surgical System, which is
currently the only commercially available surgical robotic system.

PROBOSCIDEA,PANTHERAS, RHINOCEROS AND MOLDS.

Ariny's favourite animals Rhinoceros, Panthera and Elephants, as a Sample unit in

astrophysics, Ariny Amos rejects Indian food recipes, Most Indian and muslim food
recipes gives tongue, mouth accidents when eating by biting, malaria infection, Rejects,
Spices, Rejects pepper of all types consumption due to Kidney poisoning,Rejects
uncooked tomatoes, uncooked onions, Rejects mangoes, pumpkins, pineapples,
cassava , sweet potatoes, wheat and many unhealthy food and fruits ,rejects Night
discos, Sleeping at night on hard surface, bushes, outdoors, similar to street children,
refugees, immigrants, Pilgrims on tents not sleeping inside the closed doors, room ,
under trees results in earth quake and lightning, volcanic eruptions, swollen stomach
due to fungi. all persons in the universe must have elixir of life, sovereign life.Molds
cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted

when it becomes food spoilage or damage to property. They also play important
roles in
biotechnology and food science in the production of various foods, beverages,
antibiotics, pharmaceuticals and enzymes. Some diseases of animals and humans can
be caused by certain molds: disease may result from allergic sensitivity to mold spores,
from growth of pathogenic molds within the body, or from the effects of ingested or
inhaled toxic compounds (mycotoxins) produced by molds. Molds are a large and
taxonomically diverse number of fungal species where the growth of hyphae results in
discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food.The network of these tubular
branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism. The hyphae are
generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white threads over
the surface. Cross-walls (septa) may delimit connected compartments along the hyphae,
each containing one or multiple, genetically identical nuclei. The dusty texture of many
molds is caused by profuse production of asexual spores (conidia) formed by
differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation and shape of these spores
is modernically used to classify molds.

ROTA FORTUNAE AND HEALING ABILITY.

The Wheel of Fortune, or Rota Fortunae, is a concept in medieval and ancient philosophy
referring to the capricious nature of Fate. The wheel belongs to the goddess Fortuna,
who spins it at random, changing the positions of those on the wheel - some suffer great
misfortune, others gain windfalls. Fortune appears on all paintings as a woman,
sometimes blindfolded, "puppeteering" a wheel.Captain America illustrates an example.
Ariny Amos or Kipsang Arap Tarus being android can heal all patients in the hospital in
the speed of light 299,792,458 m/s with the asteroid 19 fortuna or rota fortunae explosion
on earth nearby area and brown gas evolved,19 Fortuna is one of the largest main-belt
asteroids. It has a composition similar to 1 Ceres: a darkly colored surface that is heavily
space-weathered with the composition of primitive organic compounds, including
tholins.The origin of the word is from the "wheel of fortune" - the zodiac, referring to the
Celestial spheres of which the 8th holds the stars, and the 9th is where the signs of the
zodiac are placed. The concept was first invented in Babylon and later developed by the
ancient Greeks.

CELESTIAL BODIES OR ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS.

Ariny Amos as astromomer , android, uses all celestial bodies in science fiction,science
fiction occurs immediately after an explosion that hits the earth. Jesus Christ of
Nazareth used the same celestial bodies. Astronomical objects or celestial objects are
naturally occurring physical entities, associations or structures that current science
has demonstrated to exist in the observable universe. The term astronomical object is
sometimes used interchangeably with astronomical body. Typically, an astronomical
(celestial) body refers to a single, cohesive structure that is bound together by gravity
(and sometimes by electromagnetism). Examples include the asteroids, moons, planets
and the stars. Astronomical objects are gravitationally bound structures that are
associated with a position in space, but may consist of multiple independent
astronomical bodies or objects. These objects range from single planets to star

clusters, nebulae or entiregalaxies. A comet may be described as a body, in reference

to the

frozen nucleus of ice and dust, or as an object, when describing the nucleus with its
diffuse coma and tail. The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical
structure. At the

largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy, which are
assembled out of dwarf galaxies. The galaxies are organized into groups and clusters,
often within larger super clusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly
empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. Galaxies and dwarf
galaxies have a variety of morphologies, with the shapes determined by their formation
and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies. Depending on the
category, a galaxy may have one or more distinct features, such as spiral arms, a halo
and a nucleus. At the core, most galaxies have asupermassive black hole, which may
result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf
galaxies and globular clusters. Ariny Amos uses and discovers more celestial bodies as
Planetary scientist.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM OR RADIO WAVES AND NATIONAL AERONAUTIC AND

SPACE

ADMINISTRATION.

Uganda media center's televisions and radios impersonated by Ariny Amos as they claim
to be facebook with NASA spacecraft by emitting radio waves to confuse Ariny Amos
dreams using electromagnetic force, Hendrik Lorentz force, change actions, activities so
that Ariny Amos accused and opponent becomes the complainant in criminal laws which
results in Ariny Amos Tortured, rights violated due to poor governance,1986-2015, from
primary one to university in Uganda. Uganda Government rejection of western education
in the country , cases happened in Makerere University Kampala, Uganda Human rights
commission, Kasese, Gulu, Soroti, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, Tunduma border, Mutukula
border, Nakonde border, Nyanza, Malaba border, Bushenyi, Rubirizi, Arua, Koboko,
Adjumani, Yumbe, Amuria, Mukono , Parliament of Uganda, Inspectorate of Government.
The origin of such cases is the Uganda Media center who knows Ariny Amos being
Android, another example of this case was in Jesus Christ of Nazareth regime in Israel,
but Uganda Media center not National Aeronautic and Space Administration, intern
Uganda media center becomes criminal as Ariny Amos warns. Radio waves legal in
facebook with NASA spacecraft, televisions , radios, telephones operation it is advantage
to Ariny Amos performs actions, science fiction, Many astronomical objects,
astronomers have developed sophisticated systems that allow them to make pictures
from the radio waves emitted by astronomical objects Radio waves are a type of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than
infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and
corresponding wavelengths ranging from 1 millimeter (0.039 in) to 100 kilometers (62 mi).
Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally
occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Artificially
generated> radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication,
broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, communications satellites, computer
networks and innumerable other applications. Different frequencies of radio waves have
different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may cover a
part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and
travel around the
world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel on a line of
sight. Radio telescopes look toward the heavens at planets and comets, giant clouds of
gas and dust, and stars and galaxies. By studying the radio waves originating from these
sources, astronomers can learn about their composition, structure, and motion. Radio
astronomy has the advantage that sunlight, clouds, and rain do not affect observations.
Ariny warns some televisions stations pretend to confuse his peace activities world wide
as any mention of identity , name in radio, televisions phones results in Ariny Amos
responses immediately, Radio telescopes look toward the heavens at planets and
comets, giant clouds of gas and dust, and stars and galaxies. By studying the radio
waves originating from these sources, astronomers can learn about their composition,
structure, and motion. Radio astronomy has the advantage that sunlight, clouds, and rain
do not affect observations.

INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S DAY VENUS -CROSSER ASTEROID EXPLOSION.

In Astrophysics, Android Ariny Amos from birth to-date receives Venus asteroids that hit
the earth in any area in the universe , time is often (12;00-13;00 hours) Ariny Amos in
available,International Women's Day (IWD), originally called International Working
Women's Day, is celebrated on March 8 every year. In different regions the focus of the
celebrations ranges from general celebration of respect, appreciation, and love towards
women to a celebration for women's economic, political, and social achievements.The
earliest Women’s Day observance was held on February 28, 1909, in New York; it was
organized by the Socialist Party of America in remembrance of the 1908 strike of the
International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union.There was no specific strike happening on
March 8, despite later claims. In August 1910, an International Women's Conference was
organized to precede the general meeting of the Socialist Second International in
Copenhagen, Denmark. Inspired in part by the American socialists, German Socialist
Luise Zietz proposed the establishment of an annual 'International Woman's Day'
(singular) and was seconded by fellow socialist and later communist leader Clara Zetkin,
although no date was specified at that conference Started as a Socialist political event,
the holiday blended the culture of many countries, primarily in Europe, especially those
in the Soviet Bloc. In some regions, the day lost its political flavor, and became simply an
occasion for people to express their love for women in a way somewhat similar to a
mixture of Mother's Day and Valentine's Day. In other regions, however, the political and
human rights theme designated by the United Nations runs strong, and political and
social awareness of the struggles of women worldwide are brought out and examined in
a hopeful manner. Some people celebrate the day by wearing purple ribbons. Ariny Amos
can cure HIV AIDS in Computer operation with National Aeronautic and Space
Administration space craft with facebook social media.

STATIC ELECTRICITY.

In astrophysics, Ariny Amos switches on and off of electricity by friction of the cell
membrane of his skin, the cell membrane contain several ions which produce electrons to
travel in vaccum to the transformer, ionic conductivity produces electron.The cell
membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological
membrane that separates the
interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively
permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in
and out of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its
surroundings. It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell
membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion
conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several
extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular
cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate

electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The elevated potential differences
achieved have been also used for a variety of practical applications, such as operating
X-ray tubes, medical applications, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics
experiments. Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and
variations as the Pelletron, also find use in physics research.

Electrostatic generators can be divided into two categories depending on how

the charge is generated:

Friction machines use the triboelectric effect (electricity generated by contact or

friction) Influence machines use electrostatic induction

An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electromechanical generator

that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current.
The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for
millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory
to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. Ariny Amos, research had
developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of
electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until late when he became fundamental
instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators
operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric
energy. Electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs
rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates,
drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode. The charge is
generated by one of two methods: either the triboelectric effect (friction) or electrostatic
induction.

METAPHYSICS OF PLUTO, MASTURBATION AND PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT.

In planetary science, Experiments already done by Ariny Amos suggests that

metaphysical properties of the pluto and other celestial bodies can easily discovered by
photo electrical effect which occurs in masturbation or perturbation, masturbation leads
to sun rays strikes other planets including the earth, saturn,neptune, pluto, stars can be
discovered in photo electric effect, masturbation clears brown and black clouds in the
speed of light 299,792,458 m/s Masturbation will clean the dark and brown clouds by
short rain fall, lightning, planet wave
clears the clouds and sun lights strikes the earth and other celestial bodies,
.masturbation is for study purposes as defined by metaphysics. Pluto is very, very cold.
The temperature on Pluto is 375 to 400 degrees below zero. Pluto is so far away from
Earth that scientists know very little about what it is like. Pluto is probably covered with
ice. Pluto has about one-fifteenth the gravity of Earth. A person who weighs 100 pounds
on Earth would weigh only 7 pounds on Pluto.Pluto is also called a plutoid. A plutoid is a
dwarf planet that is farther out in space than the planet Neptune. The three known
plutoids are Pluto, Eris and Makemake (MAH-kee-MAH-kee). Astronomers use telescopes
to discover new objects like plutoids.

Scientists are learning more about the universe and Earth's place in it. What they learn
may cause them to think about how objects like planets are grouped. Scientists group
objects that are like each other to better understand them. Learning more about faraway
objects in the solar system is helping astronomers learn more about what it means to be
a planet. Pluto was known as the smallest planet in the solar system and the ninth planet
from the sun.Today, Pluto is called a "dwarf planet." A dwarf planet orbits the sun just
like other planets, but it is

smaller. A dwarf planet is so small it cannot clear other objects out of its path.On
average, Pluto is more than 3.6 billion miles (5.8 billion kilometers) away from the sun.
That is about 40 times as far from the sun as Earth. Pluto orbits the sun in an oval like a
racetrack. Because of its oval orbit, Pluto is sometimes closer to the sun than at other
times. At its closest point to the sun Pluto is still billions of miles away. Pluto is in a
region called the Kuiper (KY-per) Belt. Thousands of small, icy objects like Pluto are in
the Kuiper Belt. Pluto is only 1,400 miles (2,300 kilometers) wide. That's about half the
width of the United States. Pluto is slightly smaller than Earth's moon. It takes Pluto 248
years to go around the sun. One day on Pluto is about 6 1/2 days on Earth. Pluto was
named by an 11-year-old girl from England. The dwarf planet

has three moons. Its largest moon is named Charon). Charon is about half the size of
Pluto. Pluto's two other moons are named Nix and Hydra. They were discovered in
2005. NASA's Hubble Space Telescope took pictures of the two new moons. Nix and
 Hydra are very small. The moons are less than 100 miles (160 kilometers) wide. In
2003, an astronomer saw a new object beyond Pluto. The astronomer thought he had
found a new planet. The object he saw

was larger than Pluto. He named the object Eris (EER-is). Finding Eris caused othe
astronomers to talk about what makes a planet a "planet." There is a group of
astronomers that names objects in space. This group decided that Pluto was not really
a planet because of its size and location in space. So Pluto and objects like it are now
called dwarf planets.Individuals who masturbate are not saturn.those who masturbate
do not injure, infect others they are on metaphysics purpose on universe

EUCHARIST AND SEISMOLOGY EXPERIMENT.

In Alchemy and astrophysics, Ariny Amos was fed on holy communion starting in 1995 ,
Aged 14 Years on baptism celebration confirmation as Catholic church christian by
White Father Kolkran Deo in Soroti Catholic diocese an explosion of asteroid 37 Fides,
Soroti district in Uganda, The meal after feeding results in Seismology Asteroid 37
Fideshits the earth and explode this results in earth quake, lightning and hail storms
when when fed when it is raining in the speed of light. Eucharist named Holy
Communion, the Lord's Supper, and ( other names) is a rite considered by most
Christian churches to be a sacrament. According to some New
Testament books, it was instituted by Jesus Christ during his Last Supper. Giving his
disciples bread and wine during the Passover meal, Jesus commanded his followers to
"do this in memory of him," while referring to the bread as "Jesus's body" and the wine
as "Jesus's blood." Through the Eucharistic celebration Christians remember Christ's
sacrifice of himself once and for all on the cross. Ariny Amos was fed on holy
communion starting in 1995 on

baptism celebration confirmation as Catholic church christian by White Father Kolkran

Deo in Soroti Catholic diocese , Soroti district in Uganda, The meal after feeding results
in Seismology When when it is raining when when it results in hail storms and lightning.
To explain

,Jesus christ was alchemist like Nicholas lemery, Eucharist is The philosopher's stone
or stone of the philosophers is a legendary alchemical substance said to be capable of
turning base metals such as lead into gold also sometimes believed to be an elixir of
life, useful

for rejuvenation and possibly for achieving immortality; for many centuries, it was the
most sought-after goal in alchemy. The philosopher's stone was the central symbol of
the mystical terminology of alchemy, symbolizing perfection at its finest,
enlightenment, and heavenly bliss. Jesus him self was alchemist at the last super of
his life on earth.

Alchemy is an influential tradition whose practitioners have, from antiquity, claimed it to

be the precursor to profound powers, At Soroti district ,Uganda , Ariny Amos was fed
Eucharist from Church of Uganda who are protestants and yet baptised in Catholic
church experiment and results are the same seismology, Eucharist has the same test in
Catholic and Protestant Church. Christians generally recognize a special presence of
Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is
present. While all agree that there is no perceptible change in the elements, some
believe that they actually become the body and blood of Christ, others believe the true
Body and Blood of Christ are really present in, with, and under the bread and wine
(whose reality remains unchanged), others believe in a "real" but merely spiritual
presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and still others take the act to be only a symbolic
reenactment of the Last Supper. Many Protestants view the Eucharist as an ordinance in
which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace, but as an
expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.Alchemy is an influential tradition whose
practitioners have, from antiquity, claimed it to be the precursor to profound powers.

OLFACTION AND DISCOVERY.

In exploration, Ariny Amos discovers psychiatric disorder persons, dead animals, Food,
television emissions, as electromagnetic radiations, Olfaction, also known as olfactics, is the
sense of smell. This sense is mediated by specialized sensory cells of the nasal cavity of
vertebrates, which can be considered analogous to sensory cells of the antennae of
invertebrates common to Ariny Amos being satellite dish, In humans, olfaction occurs when
odorant molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory receptors. These receptors are used
to detect the presence of smell of persons, animals with psychiatric disorders, death matter,
food, as this persons, animals, dead matter emit gases which are dispersed by wind waves
about one kilometer distance. They come together at the glomerulus, a structure which
transmits signals to the olfactory bulb (a brain structure directly above the nasal cavity and
below the frontal lobe).
Many vertebrates, including most mammals and reptiles, have two distinct olfactory
systemsthe main olfactory system, and the accessory olfactory system (used mainly to
detect pheromones).

For air-breathing animals, the main olfactory system detects volatile chemicals in Ariny
Amos situation smell of uncooked food, unhealthy food including roasted food results
in an explosion of asteroid that hits the earth, and the accessory olfactory system
detects fluid-phase chemicals for example an elephant detects water body Olfaction,
along with taste, is

a form of chemoreception. The chemicals themselves that activate the olfactory system,
in general at very low concentrations, are called odorants. Although taste and smell are
separate sensory systems in land animals, water-dwelling organisms often have one
chemical sense. In exploration as an elephant for example An elephant's trunk is good
for more than bringing food to his mouth and squirting water over his back -- it's well
designed to work as a nose. Elephants have keen smelling abilities, sensing water from
several miles away. They also use their smelling abilities to warn them of dangers and
help them recognize other elephants across great distances Ariny Amos does similar to
elephant trucks using electromagnetic radiations emitted by cctv cameras, televisions,
video cameras, guns, telephone video cameras any form of machine that emit
electromagnetic radiations apart from food, A modern demonstration of that theory was
the cloning of olfactory receptor proteins by Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel all from the
United States of America.

Early scientific study of olfaction includes the extensive doctoral dissertation of Eleanor
Gamble, published in 1898, which compared olfactory to other stimulus modalities, and
implied that smell had a lower intensity discrimination. As the Epicurean and atomistic
Romanphilosopher Lucretius (1st Century BCE) speculated, different odors are
attributed to different shapes and sizes of "atoms" (odor molecules in the modern
understanding) that stimulate the olfactory organ an advantage for Ariny Amos to
operate computer upon receipt of stimulus in form of electromagnetic waves from
computers in facebook with National Aeronautic and Space Administration spacecraft
where by several discoveries world wide online. However in travel offline Ariny makes
discoveries including some plants conifers, decideous plantsthat emit electromagnetic
radiations or radio waves and results explosion of asteroids by that hits the earth by
gravitation Conifers are Gymnosperms They are formally the Division Pinophyta or
Coniferophyta.Living conifers are all in the order Pinales. Typical examples include
cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and
yews.They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. They were overtaken by
the flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous, and became dominant in
the Cainozoic era. Conifers were the main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their
resins and poisons would have given protection against herbivores.

ARINY AMOS AS PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL DUE TO PRODUCTION OF HUMAN

ELECTRICITY.

In astronomy, Ariny Amos's muscles, blood, tissue fluid converts sunlight or solar energy to
current electricity during exercise , physical education exercise ,Photovoltaics (PV) is the
name of a method of converting solar energy into direct current electricity using
semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon commonly studied in
physics, photochemistry and electrochemistry. A photovoltaic system employs solar
panels composed of a number of solar cells to supply usable solar power. The process
is both physical and chemical in nature, as the first step involves the photoelectric effect
from which a second electrochemical process take place involving crystallized atoms
being ionized in a series, generating an electric current. Power generation from solar PV
has long been seen as a clean sustainable energy technology which draws upon the
planet’s most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source – the sun. The
direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or
environmental emissions during operation when Ariny Amos is performing exercise. It
is well proven, as photovoltaic systems have now been in specialized applications, and
grid-connected PV systems

ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENT.

Astronomy ,Ariny On Earth, daytime is roughly the period on any given point of the
planet's surface during which it experiences natural illumination from indirect or
(especially) direct sunlight. Other planets that rotate in relation to a luminous primary,
such as a local star, also experience daytime of a sort, but this article primarily
discusses daytime on Earth. On earth healing by asteroids is better than subjection to
getting treatment from artificial means like doctors, leaders,scientists, researchers. what
GOD provides is better than what humans on earth provide to individuals world wide.
Ariny illustrates genesis in experiments of sleeping in day and night under natural
illumination on direct, indirect daylight and artificial lights producers, sleeping at night
while artificial light leads to earth quake, since it is disturbing aspect, however sleeping
in day time under daylight from the sun has no effect , artificial lights include candles,
lambs , electric bulbs, charcoal stoves ,steamers, with are of ten made by human on

earth, while daylights as indirect and direct day light stars,sun ,moon, volcanic
eruptions, lightning, cosmic rays, neutron stars, gama rays, do not produce effects
when sleeping.

Illuminaion by daylight or the light of day is the combination of all direct and indirect
sunlight during the daytime. This includes direct sunlight, diffuse sky radiation, and
(often) both of these reflected from the Earth and terrestrial objects. Sunlight scattered
or reflected from

objects in outer space (that is, beyond the Earth's atmosphere) is generally not
considered daylight. Thus, moonlight is never considered daylight, despite being
"indirect sunlight". Daytime is the period of time each day when daylight occurs.
Daylight happens because the earth rotates and either side the sun shines on is
considered daylight. Daylight is present at a particular location, to some degree,
whenever the sun is above the horizon at that location. (This is true for slightly more
than 50% of the Earth at any given time. For an explanation of why it is not exactly half.
However, the outdoor illuminance can vary from 120,000 lux for direct sunlight at noon,
which cause eye pain, to less than 5 lux for thick storm clouds with the sun at the
horizon (even <1 lux for the most extreme case), which may make shadows from distant
street lights visible. It may be darker under unusual circumstances such as a solar
eclipse or very high levels of atmospheric smoke dust, or volcanic ash.
 UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.

In physics and Astrophysics;Ariny Amos does continues to work on Sir. Isaac Newton's law
of universal gravitation , it is noted that Ariny Amos produces own electricity as photovoltaic
cell in his nerves, muscles, tissues, Blood, Tissue fluid and does not often wait for National
Aeronautic and Space Administration to send spacecraft to thespace to stimulate celestial
bodies gravitation, Newtons law states that any two bodies in the universe attract each
other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is a general physical law
derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called induction. It is a part of
classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was
presented in 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had
obtained the inverse square law, In modern language, the law states: Every point mass
attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both
points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

The first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the
Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.
Newtons law equally to coulomb's law Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law,
is a law of physics describing the electrostatic interaction between electrically charged
particles. The law was first published in 1784 by French physicist Charles Augustin de
Coulomb and was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. It is
analogous to Isaac Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Coulomb's law
can be used to derive Gauss's law, and vice versa. The law has been tested heavily, and
all observations have upheld the law's principle. In physics, Gauss's law, also known as
Gauss's flux theorem, is a law relating the distribution of electric charge to the resulting
electric field. The law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not
published until 1867. It is one of Maxwell's four equations, which form the basis of
classical electrodynamics, the other three being Gauss's law for magnetism, Faraday's
law of induction, and Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction. Gauss's law can be used
to derive Coulomb's law, and vice versa, Oliver Heaviside donated a law to Hendrik
Lorentz force derived from Michael faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Sir.Isaac newtons
laws of universal gravitation and hence approved by Albert Einstein.

Ariny 's investigators of the 21st century who suspected that the electrical force
diminished with distance as the force of gravity did (i.e., as the inverse square of the
distance) included Daniel Bernoulli and Alessandro Volta, both of whom measured the
force between plates of a capacitor, and Franz Aepinus who supposed the inverse-
square law in 1758. Ariny Amos performs several exercise especially to generate
electricity which he uses in gravitation especially in marathon running. Based on
experiments with electrically charged spheres, Joseph Priestley of England was among
the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law, similar to
Newton's law of universal gravitation, More exercise running long
 distance , more electricity produced by Ariny Amos and more
gravitation. Ariny Amos has performed several gravitation
experiments of it is applied using celestial bodies or
Astronomical objects, personally and use of National Aeronautic
and Space Administration spacecraft with facebook social media.

TORTURE OVER PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY APPLICATIONS.

THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Tow principle view.

In physics, the principle of relativity is the requirement that the equations

describing the laws of physics have the same form in all admissible frames of
reference. For example, in the framework of special relativity the Maxwell
equations have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. In the
framework of general relativity the Maxwell equations or the Einstein field
equations have the same form in arbitrary frames of reference. Several
principles of relativity have been successfully applied throughout science,
whether implicitly as in Newtonian mechanics or explicitly as in Albert Einstein's
special relativity and general relativity

PHOTOELECTRIC

In explaining the photoelectric effect, the hypothesis that energy consists of

discrete packets, as Einstein illustrates, can be directly applied to black bodies,
as well. "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light" proposed the idea of energy quanta. This idea,
motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black body radiation,
assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete
amounts, called quanta. Energy, during the propagation of a ray of light, is not
continuously distributed over steadily increasing spaces, but it consists of a finite
number of energy quanta localised at points in space, moving without dividing
and capable of being absorbed or generated only as entities.

The idea of light quanta contradicts the wave theory of light that follows
naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior
and, more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical
systems.

A profound formal difference exists between the theoretical concepts that

physicists have formed about gases and other ponder able bodies, and
Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic processes in so-called empty space. While
we consider the state of a body to be completely determined by the positions
and velocities of an indeed very large yet finite number of atoms and electrons,
we make use of continuous spatial functions to determine the electromagnetic
state of a volume of space, so that a finite number of quantities cannot be
considered as sufficient for the complete determination of the electromagnetic
state of space.leads to contradictions when applied to the phenomena of
emission and transformation of light.

According to the view that the incident light consists of energy quanta the
production of cathode rays by light can be conceived in the following way. The
body's surface layer is penetrated by energy quanta whose energy is converted
at least partially into kinetic energy of the electrons. The simplest conception is
that a light quantum transfers its entire energy to a single electron

Einstein noted that the photoelectric effect depended on the wavelength, and
hence the frequency of the light. At too low a frequency, even intense light
produced no electrons. However, once a certain frequency was reached, even
low intensity light produced electrons. He compared this to Planck's hypothesis
that light could be emitted only in packets of energy given by hf, where h is
Planck's constant and f is the frequency. He then postulated that light travels in
packets whose energy depends on the frequency, and therefore only light above
a certain frequency would bring sufficient energy to liberate an electron.

Even after experiments confirmed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric
effect were accurate, his explanation was not universally accepted. Niels Bohr, in
his 1922 Nobel address, stated, "The hypothesis of light-quanta is not able to
throw light on the nature of radiation."

By 1921, when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize and his work on
photoelectricity was mentioned by name in the award citation, some physicists
accepted that the equation (hf = \Phi + E_k) was correct and light quanta were
possible. In 1923, Arthur Compton's X-ray scattering experiment helped more of
the scientific community to accept this formula. The theory of light quanta was a
strong indicator of wave-particle duality, a fundamental principle of quantum
mechanics.[9] A complete picture of the theory of photoelectricity was realized
after the maturity of quantum mechanics.

BROWNIAN MOTION
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid
or a gas) resulting from their collision with the quick atoms or molecules in the
gas or liquid. The term "Brownian motion" can also refer to the mathematical
model used to describe such random movements, which is often called a particle
theory.
("On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required
by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"), delineated a stochastic model of
Brownian motion.

In this paper it will be shown that, according to the molecular kinetic theory of
heat, bodies of a microscopically visible size suspended in liquids must, as a
result of thermal molecular motions, perform motions of such magnitudes that
they can be easily observed with a microscope. It is possible that the motions to
be discussed here are identical with so-called Brownian molecular motion;
however, the data available to me on the latter are so imprecise that I could not
form a judgment on the question...

Einstein derived expressions for the mean squared displacement of particles.

Using the kinetic theory of fluids, which at the time was controversial, the article
established the phenomenon, which was lacking a satisfactory explanation even
decades after the first observation, provided empirical evidence for the reality of
the atom. It also lent credence to statistical mechanics, which had been
controversial at that time, as well. Before this paper, atoms were recognized as a
useful concept, but physicists and chemists debated whether atoms were real
entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists
a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm
Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told Arnold
Sommerfeld that he had been convinced of the existence of atoms by Einstein's
complete explanation of Brownian motion.

BASIC LAWS OF PHYSICS

Any principle of relativity prescribes a symmetry in natural law: that is, the laws
must look the same to one observer as they do to another. According to a
theoretical result called Noether's theorem, any such symmetry will also imply a
conservation law alongside.For example, if two observers at different times see
the same laws, then a quantity called energy will be conserved. In this light,
relativity principles make testable predictions about how nature behaves, and
are not just statements about how scientists should write laws.

The basic laws of physics fall into two categories: classical physics that deals with
the observable world (classical mechanics), and atomic physics that deals with
the interactions between elementary and sub atomic particles (quantum
mechanics). The basic laws of both are listed here in alphabetical order. Some
laws apply only to one or the other category; some belong to both. A few of the
laws listed may have little impact on petrophysics and some may have been left
off the list for any number of reasons.

Kerr effect.1824-1907
The Kerr effect, also called the quadratic electro-optic effect (QEO effect), is a
change in the refractive index of a material in response to an applied electric
field. The Kerr effect is distinct from the Pockels effect in that the induced index
change is directly proportional to the square of the electric field instead of
varying linearly with it. All materials show a Kerr effect, but certain liquids
display it more strongly than others. The Kerr effect was discovered in 1875 by
John Kerr, a Scottish physicist. Two special cases of the Kerr effect are normally
considered, these being the Kerr electro-optic effect, or DC Kerr effect, and the
optical Kerr effect, or AC Kerr effect.
Ampere's Law
The line integral of the magnetic flux around a closed curve is proportional to the
algebraic sum of electric currents flowing through that closed curve; or, in
differential form curl B = J.
This was later modified to add a second term when it was incorporated into
Maxwell's equations.

Archimedes' Principle
A body that is submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to
the weight of the fluid that is displaced, and directed upward along a line
through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.

Avogadro's Hypothesis (1811)

Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules. It is, in fact, only true for ideal gases.

Bernoulli's Equation
In an irrotational fluid, the sum of the static pressure, the weight of the fluid per
unit mass times the height, and half the density times the velocity squared is
constant throughout the fluid.

Biot-Savart Law
A law which describes the contributions to a magnetic field by an electric
current. It is analogous to Coulomb's law.

Boyle's Law (1662); Mariotte's law (1676)

The product of the pressure and the volume of an ideal gas at constant
temperature is a constant.

Bragg's Law (1912)

When a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal surface in which the layers of atoms or
ions are regularly separated, the maximum intensity of the reflected ray occurs
when the complement of the angle of incidence, theta, the wavelength of the X-
rays, lambda, and the distance between layers of atoms or ions, d, are related by
the equation 2 d sin theta = n lambda,

Brownian Motion (1827)

The continuous random motion of solid microscopic particles when suspended in
a fluid medium due to the consequence of ongoing bombardment by atoms and
molecules.

Casimir Effect
A quantum mechanical effect, where two very large plates placed close to each
other will experience an attractive force, in the absence of other forces. The
cause is virtual particle-antiparticle pair creation in the vicinity of the plates.
Also, the speed of light will be increased in the region between the two plates, in
the direction perpendicular to them.

Causality Principle
The principle that cause must always preceed effect. More formally, if an event
A ("the cause") somehow influences an event B ("the effect") which occurs later
in time, then event B cannot in turn have an influence on event A. That is, event
B must occur at a later time t than event A, and further, all frames must agree
upon this ordering.

Centrifugal Pseudoforce
A pseudoforce on an object when it is moving in uniform circular motion. The
"force" is directed outward from the center of motion.

Charles' Law (1787)

The volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is proportional to the
thermodynamic temperature of that gas.

Cherenkov Radiation
Radiation emitted by a massive particle which is moving faster than light in the
medium through which it is traveling. No particle can travel faster than light in
vacuum, but the speed of light in other media, such as water, glass, etc., are
considerably lower. Cherenkov radiation is the electromagnetic analogue of the
sonic boom, though Cherenkov radiation is a shockwave set up in the
electromagnetic field.

Complementarity Principle
The principle that a given system cannot exhibit both wave-like behavior and
particle-like behavior at the same time. That is, certain experiments will reveal
the wave-like nature of a system, and certain experiments will reveal the
particle-like nature of a system, but no experiment will reveal both
simultaneously.

Compton Effect (1923)

An effect that demonstrates that photons (the quantum of electromagnetic
radiation) have momentum. A photon fired at a stationary particle, such as an
electron, will impart momentum to the electron and, since its energy has been
decreased, will experience a corresponding decrease in frequency.

Conservation Laws
Conservation of mass-energy
The total mass-energy of a closed system remains constant.
Conservation of electric charge

The total electric charge of a closed system remains constant.

Conservation of linear momentum

The total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant.

Conservation of angular momentum

The total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant.

There are several other laws that deal with particle physics, such as conservation
of baryon number, of strangeness, etc., which are conserved in some
fundamental interactions (such as the electromagnetic interaction) but not
others (such as the weak interaction).

Constancy Principle
One of the postulates of A. Einstein's special theory of relativity, which puts
forth that the speed of light in vacuum is measured as the same speed to all
observers, regardless of their relative motion.

Continuity Equation
An equation which states that a fluid flowing through a pipe flows at a rate
which is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. It is in
essence a restatement of the conservation of mass during constant flow.

Copernican Principle (1624)

The idea, suggested by Copernicus, that the Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of
the Universe. We now know that neither idea is correct.

Coriolis Pseudoforce (1835)

A pseudoforce which arises because of motion relative to a frame of reference
which is itself rotating relative to a second, inertial frame. The magnitude of the
Coriolis "force" is dependent on the speed of the object relative to the
noninertial frame, and the direction of the "force" is orthogonal to the object's
velocity.

Correspondence Principle
The principle that when a new, more general theory is put forth, it must reduce
to the more specialized (and usually simpler) theory under normal
circumstances. There are correspondence principles for general relativity to
special relativity and special relativity to Newtonian mechanics, but the most
widely known correspondence principle is that of quantum mechanics to
classical mechanics.

Coulomb's Law
The primary law for electrostatics, analogous to Newton's law of universal
gravitation. It states that the force between two point charges is proportional to
the algebraic product of their respective charges as well as proportional to the
inverse square of the distance between them.

Curie's Law
The susceptibility of an isotropic paramagnetic substance is related to its
thermodynamic temperature T by the equation KHI = C / T.

Curie-Weiss Law
A more general form of Curie's Law, which states that the susceptibility of a
paramagnetic substance is related to its thermodynamic temperature T by the
equation KHI = C/T - W, where W is the Weiss constant.

Dalton's Law of partial pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of its components; that is, the sum of the pressures that each
component would exert if it were present alone and occupied the same volume
as the mixture.

Doppler Effect
Waves emitted by a moving object as received by an observer will be blueshifted
(compressed) if approaching, redshifted (elongated) if receding. It occurs both in
sound as well as electromagnetic phenomena.

Dulong-Petit Law (1819)

The molar heat capacity is approximately equal to the three times the ideal gas
constant:
Einstein Field Equation
The cornerstone of Einstein's general theory of relativity, relating the
gravitational tensor G to the
stress-energy tensor T by the simple equation G = 8 pi T.

Einstein's Mass-Energy Equation

The energy E of a particle is equal to its mass M times the square of the speed of
light c, giving rise to the best known physics equation in the Universe: E = M c2.

Equivalence Principle
The basic postulate of A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, which posits that
an acceleration is fundamentally indistinguishable from a gravitational field.
Faraday's Law
The line integral of the electric field around a closed curve is proportional to the
instantaneous time rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface
bounded by that closed curve; in differential form curl E = -dB/dt, where here
d/dt represents partial differentiation.

Faraday's Laws of electrolysis

Faraday's first law of electrolysis
The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge
passed.

Faraday's second law of electrolysis

The charge Q required to deposit or liberate a mass m is proportional to the
charge z of the ion, the mass, and inversely proportional to the relative ionic
mass M; mathematically Q = F m z / M,

Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction

An electromotive force is induced in a conductor when the magnetic field
surrounding it changes.

Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction

The magnitude of the electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change
of the field.

Faraday's third law of electromagnetic induction

The sense of the induced electromotive force depends on the direction of the
rate of the change of the field.

Fermat's Principle
The principle states that the path taken by a ray of light between any two points
in a system is always the path that takes the least time.
Gauss' Law
The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of
electric charges contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E =
rho, where rho is the charge density.
Gauss' Law for magnetic fields
The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist; in
differential form
div B = 0.

Hall Effect
When charged particles flow through a tube which has both an electric field and
a magnetic field (perpendicular to the electric field) present in it, only certain
velocities of the charged particles are preferred, and will make it un-deviated
through the tube; the rest will be deflected into the sides.

Hooke's Law
The stress applied to any solid is proportional to the strain it produces within the
elastic limit for that solid. The constant of that proportionality is the Young
modulus of elasticity for that substance.

Huygens' Principle
The mechanical propagation of a wave (specifically, of light) is equivalent to
assuming that every point on the wavefront acts as point source of wave
emission

Ideal Gas Law

An equation which sums up the ideal gas laws in one simple equation P V = n R T,
Joule-Thomson Effect; Joule-Kelvin Effect
The change in temperature that occurs when a gas expands into a region of
lower pressure.

Joule's Laws
Joule's first law
The heat Q produced when a current I flows through a resistance R for a
specified time t is given by Q = I2 R t .

Kirchhoff's Rules
loop rule
The sum of the potential differences encountered in a round trip around any
closed loop in a circuit is zero.

Point rule
The sum of the currents toward a branch point is equal to the sum of the
currents away from the same branch point.

Kohlrausch's Law
If a salt is dissolved in water, the conductivity of the solution is the sum of two
values -- one depending on the positive ions and the other on the negative ions

Lambert's Laws
Lambert's first law
The illuminance on a surface illuminated by light falling on it perpendicularly
from a point source is proportional to the inverse square of the distance
between the surface and the source.

Lambert's second law

If the rays meet the surface at an angle, then the illuminance is proportional to
the cosine of the angle with the normal.

Lambert's third law

The luminous intensity of light decreases exponentially with distance as it travels
through an absorbing medium.

Laplace Equation
For steady-state heat conduction in one dimension, the temperature distribution
is the solution to Laplace's equation, which states that the second derivative of
temperature with respect to displacement is zero.

Lenz's Law (1835)

An induced electric current always flows in such a direction that it opposes the
change producing it.

Mach Number
The ratio of the speed of an object in a given medium to the speed of sound in
that medium.

Mach's Principle (1870)

The inertia of any particular particle or particles of matter is attributable to the
interaction between that piece of matter and the rest of the Universe. Thus, a
body in isolation would have no inertia.

Maxwell's Equations (1864)

Gauss' law
The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of
electric charges contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E =
rho, where rho is the charge density.

Gauss' law for magnetic fields

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist. In
differential form div B = 0.

Faraday's law
The line integral of the electric field around a closed curve is proportional to the
instantaneous time rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface
bounded by that closed curve; in differential form curl E = -dB/dt,..
Ampere's law, modified form
The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed curve is proportional to
the sum of two terms: first, the algebraic sum of electric currents flowing
through that closed curve; and second, the instantaneous time rate of change of
the electric flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve; in differential
form curl H = J + dD/dt,.
In addition to describing electromagnetism, his equations also predict that
waves can propagate through the electromagnetic field, and would always
propagate at the the speed of light in vacuum.

Murphy's Law (1942)

If anything can go wrong, it will.
Newton's Law of universal gravitation
Two bodies attract each other with equal and opposite forces; the magnitude of
this force is proportional to the product of the two masses and is also
proportional to the inverse square of the distance between the centers of mass
of the two bodies; F = (G m M/r2) e, where m and M are the masses of the two
bodies, r is the distance between. the two, and e is a unit vector directed from
the test mass to the second.

Newton's Laws of motion

Newton's first law of motion
A body continues in its state of constant velocity (which may be zero) unless it is
acted upon by an external force.

Newton's second law of motion

For an unbalanced force acting on a body, the acceleration produced is
proportional to the force impressed; the constant of proportionality is the
inertial mass of the body.

Newton's third law of motion

In a system where no external forces are present, every action force is always
opposed by an equal and opposite reaction force.

Occam's Razor (1340)

If two theories predict phenomena to the same accuracy, then the one which is
simpler is the better one. Moreover, additional aspects of a theory which do not
lend it more powerful predicting ability are unnecessary and should be stripped
away.
Ohm's Law (1827)
The ratio of the potential difference between the ends of a conductor to the
current flowing through it is constant; the constant of proportionality is called
the resistance, and is different for different materials.

Pascal's Principle
Pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible static fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid.

Peter Principle
In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.

Planck Equation
The quantum mechanical equation relating the energy of a photon E to its
frequency nu: E = h nu.
Reflection Law, Snell's Law
For a wavefront intersecting a reflecting surface, the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection, in the same plane defined by the ray of incidence and
the normal.

Refraction Law
For a wavefront traveling through a boundary between two media, the first with
a refractive index of n1, and the other with one of n2, the angle of incidence
theta is related to the angle of refraction phi by n1 sin theta = n2 sin phi.

Abegg's Law.
Gilbert N.Lewis and Richard Abegg formulated the the Abegg's law In chemistry,
Abegg’s rule states that the difference between the maximum positive and
negative valence of an element is frequently eight. The rule used a historic
meaning of valence which resembles the modern concept of oxidation state in
which an atom is an electron donor or receiver. Abegg’s rule is sometimes
referred to as "Abegg’s law of valence and countervalence".

Relativity Principle
The principle, employed by Einstein's relativity theories, that the laws of physics
are the same, at least qualitatively, in all frames. That is, there is no frame that is
better (or qualitatively any different) from any other. This principle, along with
the constancy principle, constitute the founding principles of special relativity.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The radiated power P (rate of emission of electromagnetic energy) of a hot body
is proportional to the radiating surface area, A, and the fourth power of the
thermodynamic temperature, T. The constant of proportionality is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant. Mathematically P = e sigma A T4,.where the efficiency
rating e is called the emissivity of the object.

Superposition Principle
The general idea that, when a number of influences are acting on a system, the
total influence on that system is merely the sum of the individual influences;
that is, influences governed by the superposition principle add linearly.

Thermodynamic Laws
First law of thermodynamics
The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of the heat transferred to or
from the system and the work done on or by the system.

Second law of thermodynamics

The entropy -- a measure of the unavailability of a system's energy to do useful
work -- of a closed system tends to increase with time.

Third law of thermodynamics

For changes involving only perfect crystalline solids at absolute zero, the change
of the total entropy is zero.

law of thermodynamics
If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then all three
bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Uncertainty Principle (1927)

A principle, central to quantum mechanics, which states that two
complementary parameters (such as position and momentum, energy and time,
or angular momentum and angular displacement) cannot both be known to
infinite accuracy; the more you know about one, the less you know about the
other.

van der Waals force

Forces responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases, and for the lattice energy
of molecular crystals. There are three causes: dipole-dipole interaction; dipole-
induced dipole moments; and dispersion forces arising because of small
instantaneous dipoles in atoms.

Wave-Particle Duality
The principle of quantum mechanics which implies that light (and, indeed, all
other subatomic particles) sometimes act like a wave, and sometime act like a
particle, depending on the experiment you are performing. For instance, low
frequency electromagnetic radiation tends to act more like a wave than a
particle; high frequency electromagnetic radiation tends to act more like a
particle than a wave.

Wiedemann-Franz Law
The ratio of the thermal conductivity of any pure metal to its electrical
conductivity is approximately constant for any given temperature. This law holds
fairly well except at low temperatures.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE ON THEORY OF RELATIVITY

IVES – STILWELL EXPERIMENT.

The Ives–Stilwell experiment tested the contribution of relativistic time
dilation to the Doppler shift of light. The result was in agreement with
the formula for the transverse Doppler effect, and was the first direct,
quantitative confirmation of the time dilation factor. Since then, many
Ives–Stilwell type experiments have been performed with increased
precision. Together with the Michelson–Morley and Kennedy–
Thorndike experiments, it forms one of the fundamental tests of special
relativity theory.[3] Other tests confirming the relativistic Doppler effect,
are the Mössbauer rotor experiment and modern Ives–Stilwell
experiments

Both time dilation and the relativistic Doppler effect were predicted by
Albert Einstein in his seminal 1905 paper. Einstein subsequently (1907)
suggested an experiment based on the measurement of the relative
frequencies of light perceived as arriving from a light source in motion
with respect to the observer, and he calculated the additional Doppler
shift due to time dilation. This effect was later called "transverse
Doppler effect" (TDE), since such experiments were initially imagined
to be conducted at right angles with respect to the moving source, in
order to avoid the influence of the longitudinal Doppler shift.
Eventually, Herbert E. Ives and G. R. Stilwell (referring to time dilation
as following from the theory of Lorentz and Larmor) gave up the idea of
measuring this effect at right angles. They used rays in longitudinal
direction and found a way to separate the much smaller TDE from the
much bigger longitudinal Doppler effect. The experiment was
performed in 1938and it was reprised several times Similar experiments
were conducted several times with increased precision, by Otting (1939)
Mandelberg et al. (1962), Hasselkamp et al. (1979)

EXPERIMENTS WITH "CANAL RAYS"

THE EXPERIMENT OF 1938

Ives remarked that it is nearly impossible to measure the transverse

Doppler effect with respect to light rays emitted by canal rays at right
angles to the direction of motion of the canal rays (as it was considered
earlier by Einstein), because the influence of the longitudinal effect can
hardly be excluded. Therefore he developed a method to observe the
effect in the longitudinal direction of the canal rays' motion
Ives–Stilwell experiment (1938). "Canal rays" (a mixture of mostly H2+
and H3+ ions) were accelerated through perforated plates charged from
6,788 to 18,350 volts. The beam and its reflected image were
simultaneously observed with the aid of a concave mirror offset 7° from
the beam. (The offset in this illustration is exaggerated.)

Why it is difficult to measure the transverse Doppler effect accurately

using a transverse beam. The illustration shows the results of
attempting to measure the 4861 ångström line emitted by a beam of
"canal rays" as they recombine with electrons stripped from the dilute
hydrogen gas used to fill the canal ray tube. With v = 0.005 c, the
predicted result of the TDE would be a 4861.06 ångström line. On the
left, conventional Doppler shift results in broadening the emission line
to such an extent that the TDE cannot be observed. In the middle, we
see that even if one narrows one's view to the exact center of the beam,
very small deviations of the beam from an exact right angle introduce
shifts comparable to the predicted effect. Ives and Stilwell used a
concave mirror that allowed them to simultaneously observe a nearly
longitudinal direct beam (blue) and its reflected image (red).
Spectroscopically, three lines would be observed: An undisplaced
emission line, and blueshifted and redshifted lines. The average of the
redshifted and blueshifted lines was compared with the undisplaced
line.

This approach had two main advantages:

1. It didn't require a commitment to an exact value for the velocity

involved (which might have been theory-dependent).
2. It didn't require an understanding or interpretation of angular
aberration effects, as might have been required for the analysis
of a "true" transverse test. A "true transverse test" was run
almost 40 years later by Hasselkamp in 1979

THE EXPERIMENT OF 1941

In the 1938 experiment, the maximum TDE was limited to 0.047 Å. The
chief difficulty that Ives and Stilwell encountered in attempts to achieve
larger shifts was that when they raised

the electric potential between the accelerating electrodes to above 20,000

volts, breakdown and sparking would occur that could lead to
destruction of the tube.

This difficulty was overcome by using multiple electrodes. Using a four

electrode version of the canal ray tube with three gaps, a total potential
difference of 43,000 volts could be achieved. A voltage drop of 5,000
volts was used across the first gap, while the remaining voltage drop was
distributed between the second and third gaps. With this tube, a highest
shift of 0.11 Å was achieved for H2+ ions.

Other aspects of the experiment were also improved. Careful tests

showed that the "undisplaced" particles yielding the central line
actually acquired a small velocity imparted to them in the same
direction of motion as the moving particles (no more than about 750
meters per second). Under normal circumstances, this would be of no
consequence, since this effect would only result in a slight apparent
broadening of the direct and reflected images of the central line. But if
the mirror were tarnished, the central line might be expected to shift
slightly. Other controls were performed to address various objections of
critics of the original experiment.

The net result of all of this attention to detail was the complete
verification of Ives and Stilwell's 1938 results and the extension of these
results to higher speeds.

MÖSSBAUER ROTOR EXPERIMENTS

(I) THE KUNDIG EXPERIMENT

The Kündig experiment (1963).An57Fe Mössbauer absorber was mounted 9.3 cm

from the axis of an ultracentrifuge rotor. A 57Co source was mounted on a
piezoelectric transducer (PZT) at the rotor center. Spinning the rotor caused the
source and absorber to fall out of resonance. A modulated voltage applied to the
PZT set the source in radial motion relative to the absorber, so that the amount
of conventional Doppler shift that would restore resonance could be measured.
For example, withdrawing the source at 195 µm/s produced a conventional
Doppler redshift equivalent to the TDE resulting from spinning the absorber at
35,000 rpm
Relativistic Doppler effect

A more precise confirmation of the relativistic Doppler effect was

achieved by the Mössbauer rotor experiments. From a source in the
middle of a rotating disk, gamma rays are sent to a receiver at the rim
(in some variations this scheme was reversed). Due to the rotation
velocity of the receiver, the absorption frequency decreases if the
transverse Doppler effect exists. This effect was actually observed using
the Mössbauer effect.

The maximal deviation from time dilation was 10−5, thus the precision
was much higher than that (10−2) of the Ives–Stilwell experiments. Such
experiments were performed by Hay et al. (1960), Champeney et al.
(1963, 1965), Kündig (1963).

Isotropy of the speed of light

Moessbauer rotor experiments were also used to measure a possible

anisotropy of the speed of light. That is, a possible aether wind should
exert a disturbing influence on the absorption frequency. However, as in
all other aether drift experiments (Michelson–Morley experiment), the
result was negative, putting an upper limit to aether drift of 3–4 m/s.
Experiments of that kind were performed by Champeney & Moon
(1961), Champeney et al. (1963) and Turner & Hill (1964).

MODERN EXPERIMENTS.

FAST MOVING CLOCKS

A considerably higher precision has been achieved in modern variations

of Ives–Stilwell experiments. In heavy ionstorage rings, as the TSR at
the MPIK or ESR at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research,
the Doppler shift of lithium ions traveling at high speed is evaluated by
using saturated spectroscopy or optical-optical double resonance.

Schematic view of an optical optical double resonance spectroscopy with the

transition frequencies and of a moving ion and counter-propagating laser
beams with the frequencies and
Schematic view of saturation spectroscopy with the transition frequencies of
a moving ion and counter-propagating laser beams with the frequencies and

Due to their frequencies emitted, t these ions can be considered as

optical atomic clocks of high precision. Using the framework of
Mansouri-Sexl a possible deviation from special relativity can be
quantified by

With as frequency of the laser beam propagating anti-parallel to the

ion beam and as frequency of the laser beam propagating parallel to
the ion beam. and are the transition frequencies of the transitions in

rest. with as ion velocity and as Speed of light. In the case of

saturation spectroscopy the formula changes to
with as the transition frequency in rest. In the case that special
relativity is valid is equal to zero.

Author Year Speed Upper limit of

Grieser et al. 1994 0.064 c ≤ 8×10−7

Saathoff et al. 2003 0.064 c ≤ 2×10−7

Reinhardt et al. 2007 0.03 c& 0.064 c ≤ 8×10−8

Novotny et al. 2009 0.338 c ≤ 1×10−6

Botermann et al. 2014 0.338 c ≤ 2×10−8

CHOU EXPERIMENNT.

SLOW MOVING CLOCKS EXPERIMENT.

Meanwhile, the measurement of time dilation at everyday speeds has

been accomplished as well. Chou et al. (2010) created two clocks each
holding a single 27Al+ ion in a Paul trap. In one clock, the Al+ ion was
accompanied by a 9Be+ ion as a "logic" ion, while in the other, it was
accompanied by a 25Mg+ ion. The two clocks were situated in separate
laboratories and connected with a 75 m long, phase-stabilized optical
fiber for exchange of clock signals. These optical atomic clocks emitted
frequencies in the petahertz (1 PHz = 1015 Hz) range and had frequency
uncertainties in the 10−17 range. With these clocks, it was possible to
measure a frequency shift due to time dilation of ∼10−16 at speeds below
36 km/h (< 10 m/s, the speed of a fast runner) by comparing the rates of
moving and resting aluminum ions. It was also possible to detect
gravitational time dilation from a difference in elevation between the
two clocks of 33 cm.
PARTICLE LIFE TIME EXPERIMENT.

Time dilation of moving particles as predicted by special relativity can

be measured in particle lifetime experiments. According to special
relativity, the rate of clock C traveling between two synchronized
laboratory clocks A and B is slowed with respect to the laboratory clock
rates. This effect is called time dilation. Since any periodic process can
be considered a clock, also the lifetimes of unstable particles such as
muons must be affected, so that moving muons should have a longer
lifetime than resting ones. Variations of experiments that actually
confirmed this effect took place in the atmosphere or in particle
accelerators. Other time dilation experiments belong to the group of
Ives–Stilwell experiments measuring the relativistic Doppler effect. See
also Tests of special relativity.

RELATION BETWEEN SPEED AND LORENTZ FACTOR Y AND

HENCE THE TIME DELATION OF MOVING CLOCKS.
ACELERATOR TESTS

Time dilation and CPT symmetry

Much more precise measurements of particle decays have been made in

particle accelerators using muons and different types of particles.
Besides the confirmation of time dilation, also CPT symmetry was
confirmed by comparing the lifetimes of positive and negative particles.
This symmetry requires that the decay rates of particles and their
antiparticles have to be the same. A violation of CPT invariance would
also lead to violations of Lorentz invariance and thus special relativity.

Pion Kaon Muon

Durbin et al. (1952) Burrowes et al. (1959) Lundy (1962)

Eckhause et al. (1965 Nordin (1961) Meyer et al. (1963)

Nordberg et al. (1967) Boyarski et al. (1962) Eckhause et al. (1963)

Greenburg et al. (1969) Lobkowicz et al. (1969) Balandin et al. (1974)

Ayres et al. (1971) Ott et al. (1971)

Skjeggestad et al. (1971)]

Geweniger et al. (1974)

Carithers et al. (1975)

Today, time dilation of particles is routinely confirmed in particle

accelerators alongside with tests of relativistic energy and momentum,
and its consideration is obligatory in the analysis of particle experiments
at relativistic velocities.

TWIN PARADOX

Bailey et al. (1977) measured the lifetime of positive and negative muons
sent around a loop in the CERN Muon storage ring. This experiment
confirmed both time dilation and the twin paradox, i.e. the hypothesis
that clocks sent away and coming back to their initial position are
retarded with respect to a resting clock. Other measurements of the
twin paradox involve gravitational time dilation as well, see for instance
the Hafele–Keating experiment and repetitions.

CLOCK HYPOTHESIS.

The clock hypothesis states that the extent of acceleration doesn't

influence the value of time dilation. In most of the former experiments
mentioned above, the decaying particles were in an inertial frame, i.e.
unaccelerated. However, in Bailey et al. (1977) the particles were subject
to a transverse acceleration of up to ∼1018 g. Since the result was the
same, it was shown that acceleration has no impact on time dilation. In
addition, Roos et al. (1980) measured the decay of Sigma baryons, which
were subject to a longitudinal acceleration between 0.5 and 5.0 × 1015 g.
Again, no deviation from ordinary time dilation was measured.
HAFELE-KEATING EXPERIMENT.

The Hafele–Keating experiment was a test of the theory of relativity. In

October 1971, Joseph C. Hafele, a physicist, and Richard E. Keating, an
astronomer, took four cesium-beam atomic clocks aboard commercial
airliners. They flew twice around the world, first eastward, then
westward, and compared the clocks against others that remained at the
United States Naval Observatory. When reunited, the three sets of
clocks were found to disagree with one another, and their differences
were consistent with the predictions of special and general relativity.

Kinematic time dilation

According to special relativity, the rate of a clock is greatest according

to an observer who is at rest with respect to the clock. In a frame of
reference in which the clock is not at rest, the clock runs more slowly, as
expressed by the Lorentz factor. This effect, called time dilation, has
been confirmed in many tests of special relativity, such as the Ives–
Stilwell experiment and time dilation of moving particles. Considering
the Hafele–Keating experiment in a frame of reference at rest with
respect to the center of the earth, a clock aboard the plane moving
eastward, in the direction of the Earth's rotation, had a greater velocity
(resulting in a relative time loss) than one that remained on the ground,
while a clock aboard the plane moving westward, against the Earth's
rotation, had a lower velocity than one on the ground.

Gravitational time dilation

General relativity predicts an additional effect, in which an increase in

gravitational potential due to altitude speeds the clocks up. That is,
clocks at higher altitude tick faster than clocks on Earth's surface. This
effect has been confirmed in many tests of general relativity, such as the
Pound–Rebka experiment and Gravity Probe A. In the Hafele–Keating
experiment, there was a slight increase in gravitational potential due to
altitude that tended to speed the clocks back up. Since the aircraft flew
at roughly the same altitude in both directions, this effect was
approximately the same for the two planes, but nevertheless it caused a
difference in comparison to the clocks on the ground.

Results

The results were published in Science in 1972:

nanoseconds gained

predicted

gravitational kinematic measured

total

(general relativity) (special relativity)

eastward +144 ±14 −184 ±18 −40 ±23 −59 ±10
westward +179 ±18 +96 ±10 +275 ±21 +273 ±7

The published outcome of the experiment was consistent with special

and general relativity. The observed time gains and losses were different
from zero to a high degree of confidence, and were in agreement with
relativistic predictions to within the ~10% precision of the experiment.

Repetitions

A more complex and precise experiment of this kind was performed by

a research group at the University of Maryland between September
1975 and January 1976. Three atomic clocks were brought to an
altitude of 10 km above Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, and three other
atomic clocks were at the ground. A turboprop plane was used, flying at
only 500 km/h, in order to minimize the velocity effect. The plane was
steadily observed using radar, and its position and velocity were
measured every second. Five flights were carried out, each of 15 hours
duration. Special containers protected the clocks from external
influences such as vibrations, magnetic fields, or temperature
variations. The time difference was measured by direct clock
comparison at the ground before and after the flight, as well as during
the flight by laser pulses of 0.1 ns duration. Those signals were sent to
the plane, reflected, and again received at the ground station. The time
difference was observable during the flight, before later analysis. An
overall difference of 47.1 ns was measured, which consisted of the
velocity effect of -5.7 ns and a gravitational effect of 52.8 ns. This agrees
with the relativistic predictions to a precision of about 1.6%.

A reenactment of the original experiment by the National Physical

Laboratory took place in 1996 on the 25th anniversary of the original
experiment, using more precise atomic clocks during a flight from
London to Washington, D.C. and back again. The results were verified
to a higher degree of accuracy. A time gain of 39 ± 2 ns was observed,
compared to
a relativistic prediction of 39.8 ns.[5] In June 2010, the National Physical
Laboratory again repeated the experiment, this time around the globe
(London - Los Angeles - Auckland - Hongkong - London). The
predicted value was 246 ± 3 ns, the measured value 230 ± 20 ns

Because the Hafele–Keating experiment has been reproduced by

increasingly accurate methods, there has been a consensus among
physicists since at least the 1970s that the relativistic predictions of
gravitational and kinematic effects on time have been conclusively
verified.Criticisms of the experiment did not address the subsequent
verification of the result by more accurate methods, and have been
shown to be in error.

Similar experiments with atomic clocks

Measurements in which the only effect was gravitational have been

conducted by Iijima et al. between 1975 and 1977. They carried a
commercial cesium clock back and forth from the National
Astronomical Observatory of Japan in Mitaka, at 58 m (190 ft) above
sea level, to Norikura corona station, at 2,876 m (9,436 ft) above sea
level, corresponding to an altitude difference of 2,818 m (9,245 ft).
During the times when the clock stayed at Mitaka, it was compared with
another cesium clock. The measured change in rate was (29±1.5)×10−14,
consistent with the result of 30.7×10−14 predicted by general relativity.

In 1976, Briatore and Leschiutta compared the rates of two cesium

clocks, one in Turin 250 m (820 ft) above sea level, the other at Plateau
Rosa 3,500 m (11,500 ft) above sea level. The comparison was conducted
by evaluating the arrival times of VHF television synchronization pulses
and of a LORAN-C chain. The predicted difference was 30.6 ns/d. Using
two different operating criteria, they found differences of 33.8±6.8 ns/d
and 36.5±5.8 ns/d, respectively, in agreement with general relativity.
Environmental factors were controlled far more precisely than in the
Iijima experiment, in which many complicated corrections had to be
applied.
In 2010, Chou et al. performed tests in which both gravitational and
velocity effects were measured at velocities and gravitational potentials
much smaller than those used in the mountain-valley experiments of the
1970s. It was possible to confirm velocity time dilation at the 10−16 level
at speeds below 36 km/h. Also, gravitational time dilation was measured
from a difference in elevation between two clocks of only 33 cm (13 in).

Nowadays both gravitational and velocity effects are, for example,

routinely incorporated into the calculations used for the Global
Positioning System.

Historical and scientific background

In his original 1905 paper on special relativity, Einstein suggested a

possible test of the theory: "Thence we conclude that a spring-clock at
the equator must go more slowly, by a very small amount, than a
precisely similar clock situated at one of the poles under otherwise
identical conditions." Because he had not yet developed the general
theory, he did not realize that the results of such a test would in fact be
null, since the surface of the earth is a gravitational equipotential, and
therefore the effects of kinematic and gravitational time dilation would
precisely cancel.

The kinematic effect was verified in the 1938 Ives–Stilwell experiment

and in the 1940 Rossi-Hall experiment. General relativity's prediction of
the gravitational effect was confirmed in 1959 by Pound and Rebka.
These experiments, however, used subatomic particles, and were
therefore less direct than the type of measurement with actual clocks as
originally envisioned by Einstein.

Hafele, an assistant professor of physics at Washington University in St.

Louis, was preparing notes for a physics lecture when he did a back-of-
the-envelope calculation showing that an atomic clock aboard a
commercial airliner should have sufficient precision to detect the
predicted relativistic effects. He spent a year in fruitless attempts to get
funding for such an experiment, until he was approached after a talk on
the topic by Keating, an astronomer at the United States Naval
Observatory who worked with atomic clocks.

Hafele and Keating obtained $8000 in funding from the Office of Naval
Research for one of the most inexpensive tests ever conducted of general
relativity. Of this amount, $7600 was spent on the eight round-the-world
plane tickets, including two seats on each flight for "Mr. Clock." They
flew eastward around the world, ran the clocks side by side for a week,
and then flew westward. The crew of each flight helped by supplying the
navigational data needed for the comparison with theory. In addition to
the scientific papers published in Science, there were several accounts
published in the popular press and other publications, including one
with a photo showing a stewardess ironically checking her wristwatch
while standing behind the instruments.
MINKOWSKI EXPERIMENT.

ATMOSPHERIC TESTS;

Theory

The emergence of the muons is caused by the collision of cosmic rays

with the upper atmosphere, after which the muons reach Earth. The
probability that muons can reach the Earth depends on their half-life,
which itself is modified by the relativistic corrections of two quantities:
a) the mean lifetime of muons and b) the length between the upper and
lower atmosphere (at Earth's surface). This allows for a direct
application of length contraction upon the atmosphere resting in inertial
frame S, and time dilation upon the muons resting in S′

Time dilation and length contraction

Length of the atmosphere: The contraction formula is given by , where L0 is

the proper length of the atmosphere and L its contracted length. As the
atmosphere rests in S, we have γ=1 and its proper Length L0 is measured. As it is
in motion in S′, we have γ>1 and its contracted length L′ is measured.

Decay time of muons: The time dilation formula is , where T0 is the

proper time of a clock comoving with the muon, corresponding with the
mean decay time of the muon in its proper frame. As the muon rests in
S′, we have γ=1 and its proper time T′0 is measured. As it is moving in S,
we have γ>1, therefore its proper time is shorter with respect to time T.
(For comparison's sake, another muon resting on Earth can be
considered, called muon-S. Therefore, its decay time in S is shorter than
that of muon-S′, while it is longer in S′.)

 In S, muon-S′ has a longer decay time than muon-S. Therefore, muon-S'

has sufficient time to pass the proper length of the atmosphere in order
to reach Earth.
 In S′, muon-S has a longer decay time than muon-S′. But this is no
problem, since the atmosphere is contracted with respect to its proper
length. Therefore even the faster decay time of muon-S′ suffices in order
to be passed by the moving atmosphere and to be reached by Earth.

Minkowski diagrams

The muon emerges at the origin (A) by collision of radiation with the
upper atmosphere. The muon rests in S′, its worldline is the ct′-axis. The
upper atmosphere rests in S, its worldline is the ct-axis. Upon the axes of
x and x′, all events are present that are simultaneous with A in S and S′,
respectively. The muon and Earth are meeting at D. As

the Earth rests in S, its worldline (identical with the lower atmosphere)
is drawn parallel to the ct-axis, until it intersects the axes of x′ and x.
 a) View in S

Time: The interval between two events present on the worldline of a

single clock is called proper time, an important invariant of special
relativity. As the origin of the muon at A and the encounter with Earth
at D is on the muon's worldline, only a clock comoving with the muon
and thus resting in S′ can indicate the proper time T′0=AD. Due to its
invariance, also in S it is agreed that this clock is indicating exactly that
time between the events, and because it is in motion here, T′0=AD is
shorter than time T indicated by clocks resting in S. This can be seen at
the longer intervals T=BD=AE parallel to the ct-axis.

b) View from S’

Length: Event B, where the worldline of Earth intersects the x-axis,

corresponds in S to the position of Earth simultaneous with the
emergence of the muon. C, where the Earth's worldline intersects the x′-
axis, corresponds in S′ to the position of Earth simultaneous with the
emergence of the muon. Length L0=AB in S is longer than length L′=AC
in S′.

FRISCH-SMITH EXPERIMENT

A much more precise experiment of this kind was conducted by David

H. Frisch and Smith (1963), who measured approximately 563 muons
per hour in six runs on Mount Washington. By measuring their kinetic
energy, mean muon velocities between 0.995 c and 0.9954 c were
determined. The target was located in Cambridge, Massachusetts with a
difference in height of 1907 m, which should be traversed by the muons
in about 6.4 µs. Assuming a mean lifetime of 2.2 µs, only 27 muons
would reach this location if there were no time dilation. However,
approximately 412 muons per hour arrived in Cambridge, resulting in a
time dilation factor of 8.8±0.8.

Frisch and Smith showed that this is in agreement with the predictions
of special relativity: The time dilation factor for muons on Mount
Washington traveling at 0.995 c to 0.9954 c is approximately 10.2. Their
kinetic energy and thus their velocity was diminished until they reached
Cambridge to 0.9881 c and 0.9897 c due to the interaction with the
atmosphere, reducing the dilation factor to 6.8. So between the start
(≈ 10.2) and the target (≈ 6.8) an average time dilation factor of 8.4±2
was determined by them, in agreement with the measured result within
the margin of errors (see the above formulas and the image for
computing the decay curves)

THE RESULTS OF THE FRISCH SMITH EXPERIMENT. CURVES

COMPUTED FOR
 AND

ROSSI–HALL EXPERIMENT

In 1940 at Echo Lake (3240 m) and Denver in Colorado (1616 m),

Bruno Rossi and D. B. Hall measured the relativistic decay of muons
(which they thought were mesons). They measured muons in the
atmosphere traveling above 0.99 c (c being the speed of light). Rossi and
Hall confirmed the formulas for relativistic momentum and time
dilation in a qualitative manner. Knowing the momentum and lifetime
of moving muons enabled them to compute their mean proper lifetime
too – they obtained ≈ 2.4 µs (modern experiments improved this result
to ≈ 2.2 µs).

ARINY'S QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS EXPERIMENT.

Description of the Experiment;
The early development of the field involved, Michael Faraday, Oliver
Heaviside,Albert Einstein, Sir Isaac Newton, James Clark MaxwellRichard
Feynman, Paul Dirac, Vladimir Fock, Wolfgang Pauli, Werner Heisenberg and
Nikolay Bogolyubov. This phase of development culminated with the
construction of the theory of quantum electrodynamics in the 1950s.

This experiment performed in Soroti Flying School Airfield 1990, 1991and 1992
by Ariny Amos. In technical terms, QED can be described as a perturbation
theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Richard Feynman called it "the
jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the
anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy
levels of hydrogen and atomic bomb.

In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic

quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how
light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement
between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED
mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged
particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents
the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a
complete account of matter and light interaction.Quantum
electrodynamics (QED), quantum field theory of the interactions of
chargedparticles with the electromagnetic field. It describes
mathematically not only all interactions of light with matter but also
those of charged particles with one another. QED is a relativistic theory
in that Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity is built into each of
its equations. Because the behaviour of atoms and molecules is
primarily electromagnetic in nature, all of atomic physics can be
considered a test laboratory for the theory. Some of the most precise
tests of QED have been experiments dealing with the properties of
subatomic particles known as muons. The magnetic moment of this type
of particle has been shown to agree with the theory to nine significant
digits. Agreement of such high accuracy makes QED one of the most
successful physical theories so far devised.

In 1928 the English physicist P.A.M. Dirac laid the foundations for QED
with his discovery of a wave equation that described the motion and
spin of electrons and incorporated both quantum mechanics and the
theory of special relativity. The QED theory was refined and fully
developed in the late 1940s by Richard P. Feynman, Julian S.
Schwinger, and Tomonaga Shin’ichirō, independently of one another.
QED rests on the idea that charged particles (e.g., electrons and
positrons) interact by emitting and absorbing photons, the particles that
transmit electromagnetic forces. These photons are “virtual”; that is,
they cannot be seen or detected in any way because their existence
violates the conservation of energy and momentum. The photon
exchange is merely the “force” of the interaction, because interacting
particles change their speed and direction of travel as they release or
absorb the energy of a photon. Photons also can be emitted in a free
state, in which case they may be observed as light or other forms of
electromagnetic radiation.

The interaction of two charged particles occurs in a series of processes

of increasing complexity. In the simplest, only one virtual photon is
involved; in a second-order process, there are two; and so forth. The
processes correspond to all the possible ways in which the particles can
interact by the exchange of virtual photons, and each of them can be
represented graphically by means of the so-called Feynman diagrams.
Besides furnishing an intuitive picture of the process being considered,
this type of diagram prescribes

precisely how to calculate the variable involved. Each subatomic process

becomes computationally more difficult than the previous one, and
there are an infinite number of processes. The QED theory, however,
states that the more complex the process—that is, the greater the
number of virtual photons exchanged in the process—the smaller the
probability of its occurrence. For each level of complexity, the
contribution of the process decreases by an amount given by α2—where
α is a dimensionless quantity called the fine-structure constant, with a
numerical value equal to (1/137). Thus, after a few levels the contribution
is negligible. In a more-fundamental way the factor α serves as a
measure of the strength of the electromagnetic interaction. It
equalse2/4πεo[planck]c, where e is the electron charge, [planck] is Planck’s
constant divided by 2π,c is the speed of light, and εo is the permittivity of
free space.

QED is often called a perturbation theory because of the smallness of

the fine-structure constant and the resultant decreasing size of higher-
order contributions. This relative simplicity and the success of QED
have made it a model for other quantum field theories. Finally, the
picture of electromagnetic interactions as the exchange of virtual
particles has been carried over to the theories of the other fundamental
interactions of matter, the strong force, the weak force, and the
gravitational force

This experiment performed in Soroti Flying School Academy Airfield 1990,

1991and 1992 by Ariny Amos. In technical terms, QED can be described as a
perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Richard Feynman
called it "the jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of
quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb
shift of the energy levels of hydrogen and atomic bomb.

SPECIMENS FOR THE EXPERIMENT;

. White tailed blue flycatcher bird (mass 0.1 grams)

.Schistocerca nitens Grass Hopper or Gray bird Grasshopper

.Nylon Thread .

.Boulder stones or Bricks

.Observer or Detector or Multiplier (P)

. Thin Grass. (10 mm)

.Sun Light Radiation, Electron and photon ,Muon(S) .

.Hide spot for Privacy.

.Stop Clock.

.Rigid rod mass Greater than White tailed blue flycatcher bird (Mass (m))

.Weighing scale in grams.

.Thermometer

SPECIMEN ANALYSIS;

WHITE TAILED BLUE FLYCATCHER AS EXPERIMENTAL

SPECIMEN.

The white-tailed blue flycatcher (Elminia albicauda) is a species of bird

in the Stenostiridae family. It is found in Angola, Burundi, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania,
Uganda, and Zambia.

It’s natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical

or tropical moist lowland forests, and dry savanna.
White-tailed blue flycatcher Bird.

Scientific Classification of White tailed blue flycatcher bird.

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Order: Passeriformes

Family: Stenostiridae

Genus: Elminia

Species: E. albicauda

Binomial name

Elminia albicauda
SOURCE; Barboza du Bocage, 1877

Taxonomy

French:Gobemouche à queue blanche

German:Weißschwanz-Blauschnäpper

Spanish:Papamoscas Coliblanco

Other common names: White-tailed Flycatcher, Short-tailed Blue-flycatcher

Taxonomy: Muscicapa concreta

Descriptive notes;

18–19 cm; 19–30 g. Large, large-billed and slim, blue (male) or brown (female)
forest flycatcher with distinctive tail pattern. Male nominate race.

Voice

Song a variable series of penetrating, sibilant whistles, almost like those of a

Turdus

Habitat

Dense lowland, hill and submontane forests, including secondary forest, bamboo
and scrub-covered

Food and feeding

Food largely unknown, but includes small inverterbrates, mainly flies (Diptera),
hymenopterans (ants, small wasps) and beetles

Breeding

Season at least May–Jun. Only two nests found, cup-shaped, made of moss, one
placed in hole in rocky bank.

Movements

Resident or short-distance altitudinal migrant.Locally at lower elevations,

November–March every year.

SCHISTOCERCA NITENS AS SPECIMEN

Scientific classification of Schistocerca nitens grass hopper

Schistocerca nitens is a species of grasshopper known by several common

names, including vagrant grasshopper and gray bird grasshopper. It is a close
relative of the desert locust, which is in the same genus. This grasshopper is
native to southern North America including Mexico and the southwestern
United States from California to Texas. It is also present in parts of Central
America. It lives in many habitats including desert, woodland, and lower
elevation mountainous areas. It is a large grasshopper, reaching lengths of 4 to 7
centimeters. It is mostly brown and gray spotted or patched in cryptic coloration.
This species is known as a pest on ornamental plants and many types of crop
plants.
Schistocerca nitens

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Orthoptera

Suborder: Caelifera

Family: Acrididae

Genus: Schistocerca

Species: S. nitens

Binomial name

Schistocerca nitens
Thunberg, 1815

Synonyms

Schistocerca vaga
Life cycle;

The grasshopper becomes sexually mature at 3 to 4 months of age. Any

stage of its life cycle can be seen at any time of the year, but the adult is
less active during the winter and fall. Mating usually occurs on warm
nights in summer, and often around bright lights.

PROCEDURE
During this experiment Ariny Amos Was infected with Ectopic Pregnancy Virus
due Bio -Terrorism by his friends Ocen Emmanuel,Kakembo Aggrey whose
father was Court Advocate F.W Kakembo and Company Instructed by Uganda
Media Centre, filmed, Some radio waves were emitted of Pacific Rim, Little Boy
film, Dead Pool Film , Richard Feynman, Albert Einstein, Jesus Christ of Nazareth,
King David, Jean Claude Van Dame Cyborg Film, Sir Isaac Newton , Eragon, Vanity
Fair, Short Circuit film, Thor Film, Mission film 1986, Michael Faraday, Oliver
Heaviside,Albert Einstein, Sir Isaac Newton, James Clark Maxwell Richard
Feynman, Paul Dirac, Vladimir Fock, Wolfgang Pauli, Werner Heisenberg and
Nikolay Bogolyubovand many others as verification of the experiment continue
for series of Centuries.

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic

fields, Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give
rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments.
Procedure is of nature and involves measurements and standard measurements,
Initally the Detector has to capture or trap the schistocerca grasshopper and
measure its weight in grams,Sun light radiation of electrons and photon
exchange during daytime as white tailed blue flycatcher birds are freely
searching for prey especially in winters or dry season, packing boulder stones or
bricks above earth surface while a rigid rod mass (m) rests, tied to the Nylon
thread, and other side of a thread length (L)is inserted to a grasshopper through
detonated hind limbs forced inside the thorax be pulled out from the neck as
fore limbs are also detonated, then Nylon thread is tied to a thin grass making a
cross sign of which the white tailed blue flycatcher can ingest upon random
discovery from packed boulder stones or bricks, the observer will have to search
for the bird and lure to stand on the boulder stones or bricks packed with the
specimens for the experiment.Start clock is started immediately the white tailed
blue flycatcher bird has swallowed the grass hopper such that escape vibrations
started when such white tailed blue flycatcher bird has viewed the Observer or
Detector who was in hide spot racing towards to capture the white tailed blue
flycatcher , electric shock will be received at time of capture of white tailed blue
flycatcher bird by the detector or observer or multiplier an indication of
electromagnetism.White tailed blue flycatcher birds weight is measured after
capture.

FEYNMAN DIAGRAM; APPARATUS DESCRIPTION OF INTERRACTIONS.

Muon is a Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary

particle similar to the electron, with electric charge of −1 e and a spin of
1⁄ , but with a much greater mass (105.7 MeV/c2). It is classified as a
2

lepton, together with the electron (mass 0.511 MeV/c2), the tau (mass
1776.82 MeV/c2), and the three neutrinos (electron neutrino ν
e, muon neutrino ν
μ and tau neutrino ν
τ). As is the case with other leptons, the muon is not believed to have any
sub-structure—that is, it is not thought to be composed of any simpler
particles.

The muon is an unstable subatomic particle with a mean lifetime of

2.2 µs. Among all known unstable subatomic particles, only the neutron
(lasting

The key components of Ariny's presentation of QED are three basic

actions
sensible explanation to Richard Feynman's strange theory of light and
matter. It becomes obvious that the Spherical Wave Structure of Matter
predicts that the light source will interact with the whole mirror or
white tailed blue flycatcher, as Ariny Amos Explains

.A photon goes from one place, white tailed blue flycatcher specimen
,detector and time to another place, Sun (s), white tailed blue flycatcher
specimen and time(t).
.An electron goes from one place,Sun (s) and time (t) to another place,
detector and time.
. An electron emits or absorbs a photon at a certain place, white tailed
blue flycatcher specimen and time (t).

The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative

elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of
the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary
particles because they have no known components or substructure.The
electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.

A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other

forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is the force carrier for the
electromagnetic force, even when static via virtual photons. The effects
of this force are easily observable at the microscopic and at the
macroscopic level, because the photon has zero rest mass; this allows
long distance interactions.
These actions are represented in a form of visual shorthand by the three
basic elements of Feynman diagrams: a wavy line for the photon, a
straight line for the electron and a junction of two straight lines and a
wavy one for a vertex representing emission or absorption of a photon
by an electron

FEYNMAN DIAGRAM ELEMENTS.

APPARATUS ; WICK –DYSON – ARINY AMOS SERIES DIAGRAM

Using Wick theorem on the terms of the Dyson series, all the terms of
the S-matrix for quantum electrodynamics can be computed through
the technique of Feynman diagrams. In this case rules for drawing are
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WICK- DYSON- ARINY AMOS SERIES APPARATUS.

This drawing was illustrated with filming Ariny Amosas radio waves
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radio waves emitted towards him in filming and example in 1994 he drew Bill
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Ariny Also uses montmorillonite clay to model everything as ceramic
artist,Cartonist,

Observations by Spectrograph
FERMION, ANTIFERMION, PHOTON SPINNING ARROWS
DURING THE EXPERIMENT.
To these rules we must add a further one for closed loops that implies
an integration on momenta

, since these internal ("virtual") particles are not constrained to any

specific energy–momentum – even that usually required by special
relativity.

From them, computations of probability amplitudes are

straightforwardly given. An example is Compton scattering, with an
electron and a photon undergoing elastic scattering. Feynman diagrams
are in this case

and so we are able to get the corresponding amplitude at the first order
of a perturbation series for the S-matrix:

from which we are able to compute the cross section for this scattering.
Renormalizability

Higher order terms can be straightforwardly computed for the

evolution operator but these terms display diagrams containing the
following simpler ones

One-loop contribution to the vacuum polarization function

One-loop contribution to the electron self-energy function

One-loop contribution to the vertex function

that, being closed loops, imply the presence of diverging integrals

having no mathematical meaning. To overcome this difficulty, a
technique called renormalization has been devised, producing finite
results in very close agreement with experiments. It is important to note
that a criterion for theory being meaningful after renormalization is
that the number of diverging diagrams is finite. In this case the theory is
said to be renormalizable. The reason for this is that to get observables
renormalized one needs a finite number of constants to maintain the
predictive value of the theory untouched. This is exactly the case of
quantum electrodynamics displaying just three diverging diagrams.
This procedure gives observables in very close agreement with
experiment as seen e.g. for electron gyromagnetic ratio.

Renormalizability has become an essential criterion for a quantum field

theory to be considered as a viable one. All the theories describing
fundamental interactions, except gravitation whose quantum
counterpart is presently under very active research, are renormalizable
theories.

Probability amplitude.

Suppose we start with one electron at a certain place and time (this place and
time being given the arbitrary label A) and a photon at another place and time
(given the label B). A typical question from a physical standpoint is: 'What is the
probability of finding an electron at C (another place and a later time) and a
photon at D (yet another place and time)?'. The simplest process to achieve this
end is for the electron to move from A to C (an elementary action) and for the
photon to move from B to D

(another elementary action). From a knowledge of the probability amplitudes of

each of these sub-processes – E(A to C) and P(B to D) – then we would expect to
calculate the probability amplitude of both happening together by multiplying
them, using rule b) above. This gives a simple estimated overall probability
amplitude, which is squared to give an estimated probability.
QED is based on the assumption that complex interactions of many electrons
and photons can be represented by fitting together a suitable collection of the
above three building blocks, and then using the probability amplitudes to
calculate the probability of any such complex interaction. It turns out that the
basic idea of QED can be communicated while making the assumption that the
square of the total of the probability amplitudes mentioned above (P(A to B),
E(A to B) and 'j') acts just like our everyday probability.

But there are other ways in which the end result could come about. The
electron might move to a place and time E where it absorbs the photon;
then move on before emitting another photon at F; then move on to C
where it is detected, while the new photon moves on to D. The
probability of this complex process can again be calculated by knowing
the probability amplitudes of each of the individual actions: three
electron actions, two photon actions and two vertexes – one emission
and one absorption. We would expect to find the total probability
amplitude by multiplying the probability amplitudes of each of the
actions, for any chosen positions of E and F. We then, using rule a)
above, have to add up all these probability amplitudes for all the
alternatives for E and F. (This is not elementary in practice, and
involves integration.) But there is another possibility, which is that the
electron first moves to G where it emits a photon which goes on to D,
while the electron moves on to H, where it absorbs the first photon,
before moving on to C. Again we can calculate the probability
amplitude of these possibilities (for all points G and H). We then have a
better estimation for the total probability amplitude by adding the
probability amplitudes of these two possibilities to our original simple
estimate. Incidentally the name given to this process of a photon
interacting with an electron in this way is Compton scattering.

There are an infinite number of other intermediate processes in which

more and more photons are absorbed and/or emitted. For each of these
possibilities there is a Feynman diagram describing it. This implies a
complex computation for the resulting probability amplitudes, but
provided it is the case that the more complicated the diagram the less it
contributes to the result, it is only a matter of time and effort to find as
accurate an answer as one wants to the original question. This is the
basic approach of QED. To calculate the probability of any interactive
process between electrons and

photons it is a matter of first noting, with Feynman diagrams, all the

possible ways in which the process can be constructed from the three
basic elements. Each diagram involves some calculation involving
definite rules to find the associated probability amplitude.

That basic scaffolding remains when one moves to a quantum

description but some conceptual changes are needed. One is that
whereas we might expect in our everyday life that there would be some
constraints on the points to which a particle can move, that is not true in
full quantum electrodynamics. There is a possibility of an electron at A,
or a photon at B, moving as a basic action to any other place and time in
the universe. That includes places that could only be reached at speeds
greater than that of light and also earlier times. (An electron moving
backwards in time can be viewed as a positron moving forward in time.)
Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex
numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as
arrows on a piece of paper or screen. (These must not be confused with
the arrows of Feynman diagrams which are actually simplified
representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in
three dimensions of space and one of time.) The amplitude arrows are
fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory.
No satisfactory reason has been given for why they are needed. But
pragmatically we have to accept that they are an essential part of our
description of all quantum phenomena. They are related to our
everyday ideas of probability by the simple rule that the probability of
an event is the square of the length of the corresponding amplitude
arrow. So, for a given process, if two probability amplitudes, v and w,
are involved, the probability of the process will be given either by

or
The rules as regards adding or multiplying, however, are the same as
above. But where you would expect to add or multiply probabilities,
instead you add or multiply probability amplitudes that now are
complex numbers.

Addition of probability amplitudes as complex numbers

Multiplication of probability amplitudes as complex numbers

Addition and multiplication are familiar operations in the theory of

complex numbers and are given in the figures. The sum is found as
follows. Let the start of the second arrow be at the end of the first. The
sum is then a third arrow that goes directly from the start of the first to
the end of the second. The product of two arrows is an arrow whose
length is the product of the two lengths. The direction of the product is
found by adding the angles that each of the two have been turned
through relative to a reference direction: that gives the angle that the
product is turned relative to the reference direction.

That change, from probabilities to probability amplitudes, complicates

the mathematics without changing the basic approach. But that change
is still not quite enough because it fails to take into account the fact that
both photons and electrons can be polarized, which is to say that their
orientations in space and time have to be taken into account. Therefore,
P(A to B) actually consists of 16 complex numbers, or probability
amplitude arrows. There are also some minor changes to do with the
quantity "j", which may have to be rotated by a multiple of 90° for
some polarizations, which is only of interest for the detailed
bookkeeping.

Associated with the fact that the electron can be polarized is another
small necessary detail which is connected with the fact that an electron
is a fermion and obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics. The basic rule is that if
we have the probability amplitude for a given complex process involving
more than one electron, then when we include (as we always must) the
complementary Feynman diagram in which we just exchange two
electron events, the resulting amplitude is the reverse – the negative – of
the first. The simplest case would be two electrons starting at A and B
ending at C and D. The amplitude would be calculated as the
"difference", E(A to D) × E(B to C) − E(A to C) × E(B to D), where we
would expect, from our everyday idea of probabilities, that it would be a
sum.[1]:112–113

Propagators

Finally, one has to compute P (A to B) and E (C to D) corresponding to

the probability amplitudes for the photon and the electron respectively.
These are essentially the solutions of the Dirac Equation which
describes the behavior of the electron's probability amplitude
and the Klein–Gordon equation which describes the behavior of the
photon's probability amplitude. These are called Feynman propagators.
The translation to a notation commonly used in the standard literature
is as follows:

where a shorthand symbol such as stands for the four real numbers
which give the time and position in three dimensions of the point labeled
A.

Mass renormalization.

A problem arose historically which held up progress for twenty years:

although we start with the assumption of three basic "simple" actions,
the rules of the game say that if we want to calculate the probability
amplitude for an electron to get from A to B we must take into account
all the possible ways: all possible Feynman diagrams with those end
points. Thus there will be a way in which the electron travels to C, emits
a photon there and then absorbs it again at D before moving on to B. Or
it could do this kind of thing twice, or more.

In short we have a fractal-like situation in which if we look closely at a

line it breaks up into a collection of "simple" lines, each of which, if
looked at closely, are in turn composed of "simple" lines, and so on ad
infinitum. This is a very difficult situation to handle. If adding that
detail only altered things slightly then it would not have been too bad,
but disaster struck when it was found that the simple correction
mentioned above led to infinite probability amplitudes.
In time this problem was "fixed" by the technique of renormalization.
However, Feynman himself remained unhappy about it, calling it a
"dippy process".

Despite the conceptual clarity of this Feynman approach to QED,

almost no early textbooks follow him in their presentation. When
performing calculations it is much easier to work with the Fourier
transforms of the propagators. Quantum physics considers particles'
momenta rather than their positions, and it is convenient to think of
particles as being created or annihilated when they interact. Feynman
diagrams then look the same, but the lines have different
interpretations. The electron line represents an electron with a given
energy and momentum, with a similar interpretation of the photon line.
A vertex diagram represents the annihilation of one electron and the
creation of another together with the absorption or creation of a photon,
each having specified energies and momenta.

Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex

numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as
arrows on a piece of paper or screen. (These must not beconfused with
the arrows of Feynman diagrams which are actually simplified
representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in
three dimensions of space and one of time.) The amplitude arrows are
fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory.
No satisfactory reason has been given for why they are needed. But
pragmatically we have to accept that they are an essential part of our
description of all quantum phenomena.

Applying Quantum Mechanics.

Quantum mechanics introduces an important change in the way

probabilities are computed. Probabilities are still represented by the
usual real numbers we use for probabilities in our everyday world, but
probabilities are computed as the square of probability amplitudes.
Probability amplitudes are complex numbers

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE.
In probability and complex experiments the row of the possible arrangements
when birds are caught in the field using the quantum electrodynamics nature
experiment begin with one and there after each entry is the sum of the two
entries immediately a bove it untill the final on the right . these pattern
generalises to any whole number of birds at given time. The number with that
we obtain is Pascal's Triangle.note that the sum of the entries is the nth row is 2n.

PROCESS ON PASCALS TRIANGLE .

Sum and ProbabilityEstimation ;

Sum and Probability Amplitude

……………………………………. .1 ……………………………………………………………………… =
1 20
A …………………………………… .1 .1 ………………………………………………….....................= 2
21
B ………………………………… .1 . 2 .1……………………………………………………………………..=
4 22
C……………………………… .1 .3 .3 .1……………………………………………………………………...=
8 23
D ………………………….. . 1 . 4 .6 .4 .1……………………………………………………………………..=
16 24
E………………………….1 .5 .10 .10 .5 .1…………………………………………………………
……….=32 25
F………………………..1 .6 .15 .20 .15. 6 .1…………………………………………………….. ……..=
64 26
G……………………1 .7 .21 .25 .35 .21 .7 .1 …………………………………………………………..=
118 27
H…………………1 .8 .25. 46. 60 .56 .28 .8 .1…………………………………………………………=
196 28
I ……………… 1 .9 .36 .74 .106 .116 . 84 .36 .9 .1 ……………………………………………..=
426 29
J ……………1 .10 . 45 .110 .180 .216 .200 .120 .45 .10 .1 ………………………………… =
1153 210
K ………… 1 .11. 55 .155 .290 .396 .416 .5 .220 .66.11 .1
…………………………………….=1 876 211
L……….1 .12 .66 .221 .445 .686 .812 .736 .486 .220 .66 .12 .1…………………………. ….
=3563 212

ARINY AMOS – RICHARD FEYNMAN GRAPHS.

Feynman replaces complex numbers with spinning arrows, which start at

emission and end at detection of a particle. The sum of all resulting arrows
represents the total probability of the event. In this diagram, light emitted by
the source S bounces off a few segments of the mirror (in blue) before reaching
the detector at P. The sum of all paths must be taken into account.
GRAPH OF TIME OF TRANSVERS DECOMPOSITION OF
PARTICLE AGAINST PARTICLE.
 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

A B C D E F G H I J K L

Particle

Area Computation.

Probabilityof the squre equals the Area of which the particle

decomposes and energy released to square area.
APPLYING FERMI – DIRAC STATISTICS .

In quantum statistics, a branch of physics, Fermi–Dirac statistics

describes a distribution of particles over energy states in systems
consisting of many identical particles that obey the Pauli exclusion
principle. It is named after Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac, each of whom
discovered it independently (although Fermi defined the statistics
earlier than Dirac).

Fermi–Dirac (F–D) statistics applies to identical particles with half-

integerspin in a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. Additionally, the
particles in this system are assumed to have negligible mutual
interaction. This allows the many-particle system to be described in
terms of single-particle energy states. The result is the F–D distribution
of particles over these states and includes the condition that no two
particles can occupy the same state, which has a considerable effect on
the properties of the system. Since F–D statistics applies to particles
with half-integer spin, these particles have come to be called fermions. It
is most commonly applied to electrons, which are fermions with
spin 1/2. Fermi–Dirac statistics is a part of the more general field of
statistical mechanics and uses the principles of quantum mechanics.

Fermi–Dirac distribution

Accuracy for a system of identical fermions, the average number of

fermions in a single-particle state i is given by a logistic function, the
Fermi–Dirac (F–D) distribution,

Wherek is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature, is the

energy of the single-particle state i, and μ is the total chemical potential.

In chemistry and Particle Physics, chemical energy is the potential of a

chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical
reaction to transform other chemical substances. Examples include
Biomass, batteries, light bulbs, cells, nuclear weapons and many more.
Breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy, which may be
either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system. In semi-Riemannian
geometry, the Ricci decomposition is a way of breaking up the Riemann
curvature tensor of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold into pieces with
useful individual algebraic properties. This decomposition is of
fundamental importance in Riemannian- and pseudo-Riemannian
geometry. Biomass breaks up into three distinctive pieces and release
energy;The pieces appearing in the decomposition are the three pieces;

i)The scalar part.

ii)The semi-scalar part.

iii)The fully traceless part.

Each piece possesses all the algebraic symmetries of the Riemann tensor
itself, but has additional properties.The decomposition can have
different signs, depending on the Ricci curvature convention, and only
makes sense if the dimension satisfies.

At zero temperature, μ is equal to the Fermi energy plus the potential

energy per electron. For the case of electrons in a semiconductor, μ, the
point of symmetry, is typically called the Fermi level or electrochemical
potential.
The F–D distribution is only valid if the number of fermions in the
system is large enough so that adding one more fermion to the system
has negligible effect on μ.Since the F–D distribution was derived using
the Pauli exclusion principle, which allows at most one electron to
occupy each possible state, a result is that .

FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION CURVES.


Energy dependence. More gradual at higher T. = 0.5 when = . Not
shown is that decreases for higher T.


Temperature dependencefor .
GRAPH OF DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES OVER
ENERGY

Fermi function F( ) vs. energy , with μ = 0.55 eV and for various temperatures
in the range 50K ≤ T ≤ 375K.

The above Fermi–Dirac distribution gives the distribution of identical

fermions over single-particle energy states, where no more than one
fermion can occupy a state. Using the F–D distribution, one can find the
distribution of identical fermions over energy, where more than one
fermion can have the same energy

The average number of fermions with energy can be found by

multiplying the F–D distribution by the degeneracy (i.e. the
number of states with energy ),
When , it is possible that since there is more than one
state that can be occupied by fermions with the same energy

When aquasi-continuum of energies has an associated density of states

(i.e. the number of states per unit energy range per unit volume)
the average number of fermions per unit energy range per unit volume
is,

where is called the Fermi function and is the same function that is
used for the F–D distribution ,

so that,

MICHELSON - MORLEY EXPERIMENT

Like all falsifiable scientific theories, relativity makes predictions that can be
tested by experiment. In the case of special relativity, these include the principle
of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time dilation.[9] The
predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since
Einstein published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between
1881 and 1938 were critical to its validation. These are the Michelson–Morley
experiment, the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, and the Ives–Stilwell
experiment. Einstein derived theLorentz transformations from first principles in
1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from
experimental evidence.

Maxwell's equations – the foundation of classical electromagnetism – describe

light as a wave which moves with a characteristic velocity. The modern view is
that light needs no medium of transmission, but Maxwell and his
contemporaries were convinced that light waves were propagated in a medium,
analogous to sound propagating in air, and ripples propagating on the surface of
a pond. This hypothetical medium was called the luminiferous aether, at rest
relative to the "fixed stars" and through which the Earth moves. Fresnel's partial
ether dragging hypothesis ruled out the measurement of first-order (v/c) effects,
and although observations of second-order effects (v2/c2) were possible in
principle, Maxwell thought they were too small to be detected with then-current
technology.

The Michelson–Morley experiment was designed to detect second order effects

of the "aether wind" – the motion of the aether relative to the earth. Michelson
designed an instrument called the Michelson interferometer to accomplish this.
The apparatus was more than accurate enough to detect the expected effects,
but he obtained a null result when the first experiment was conducted in 1881,
and again in 1887. Although the failure to detect an aether wind was a
disappointment, the results were accepted by the scientific community. In an
attempt to salvage the aether paradigm, Fitzgerald and Lorentz independently
created an ad hoc hypothesis in which the length of material bodies changes
according to their motion through the aether. This was the origin of FitzGerald–
Lorentz contraction, and their hypothesis had no theoretical basis. The
interpretation of the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment is that the
round-trip travel time for light is isotropic (independent of direction), but the
result alone is not enough to discount the theory of the aether or validate the
predictions of special relativity.
THE KENNEDY- THORNDIKE EXPERIMENT SHOWN WITH INTERFERENCE FRINGES.

While the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the velocity of light is

isotropic, it said nothing about how the magnitude of the velocity changed (if at
all) in differentinertial frames. The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment was
designed to do that, and was first performed in 1932 by Roy Kennedy and
Edward Thorndike. They obtained a null result, and concluded that "there is no
effect ... unless the velocity of the solar system in space is no more than about
half that of the earth in its orbit".[16][18] That possibility was thought to be too
coincidental to provide an acceptable explanation, so from the null result of
their experiment it was concluded that the round-trip time for light is the same
in all inertial reference frames.

The Ives–Stilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell
first in 1938 and with better accuracy in 1941. It was designed to test the
transverse Doppler effect – the red shift of light from a moving source in a
direction perpendicular to its velocity – which had been predicted by Einstein in
1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was
predicted by classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a
correction was observed, from which was concluded that the frequency of a
moving atomic clock is altered according to special relativity.

Those classic experiments have been repeated many times with increased
precision. Other experiments include, for instance, relativistic energy and
momentum increase at high velocities, time dilation of moving particles, and
modern searches for Lorentz violations.

Important early experiments confirming special relativity as mentioned above

were the Fizeau experiment, the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kaufmann–
Bucherer–Neumann experiments, the Trouton–Noble experiment, the
experiments of Rayleigh and Brace, and the Trouton–Rankine experiment.

In the 1920s, a series of Michelson–Morley type experiments were conducted,

confirming relativity to even higher precision than the original experiment.
Another type of interferometer experiment was the Kennedy–Thorndike
experiment in 1932, bywhich the independence of the speed of light from the
velocity of the apparatus was confirmed. Also time dilation was directly
measured in the Ives–Stilwell experiment in 1938 and by measuring the decay
rates of moving particles in 1940. All of those experiments have been repeated
several times with increased precision. In addition, that the speed of light is
unreachable for massive bodies was measured in many tests of relativistic
energy and momentum. Therefore, knowledge of those relativistic effects is
required in the construction of particle accelerators.

In 1962 J. G. Fox pointed out that all previous experimental tests of the
constancy of the speed of light were conducted using light which had passed
through stationary material: glass, air, or the incomplete vacuum of deep space.
As a result, all were thus subject to the effects of the extinction theorem. This
implied that the light being measured would have had a velocity different than
that of the original source. He concluded that there was likely as yet no
acceptable proof of the second postulate of special relativity. This surprising gap
in the experimental record was quickly closed in the ensuing years, by
experiments by Fox, and by Alvager et al., which used gamma rays sourced from
high energy mesons. The high energy levels of the measured photons, along with
very careful accounting for extinction effects, eliminated any significant doubt
from their results.

Many other tests of special relativity have been conducted, testing possible
violations of Lorentz invariance in some variants of quantum gravity. However,
no sign of anisotropy of the speed of light has been found even at the 10−17
level, and some experiments even ruled out Lorentz violations at the 10−40
level, see Modern searches for Lorentz violation.

KAUFMANN- BUCHERER- NEUMANN EXPERIMENT.

The Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments measured the dependence of

the inertial mass (or momentum) of an object on its velocity. The historical
importance of this series of experiments performed by various
physicistsbetween 1901 and 1915 is due to the results being used to test the
predictions of special relativity. The developing precision and data analysis of
these experiments and the resulting influence on theoretical physics during
those years is still a topic of active historical discussion, since the early
experimental results at first contradicted Einstein's then newly published theory,
but later versions of this experiment confirmed it. For modern experiments of
that kind, seeTests of relativistic energy and momentum, for general information
see Tests of special relativity.

In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered radioactive decay in a variety of chemical

elements. Subsequently, the beta radiation from these decays was discovered to
be the emission of a negatively charged particle. Later these particles were
identified with the electron, discovered in cathode ray experiments by J. J.
Thomson in 1897.

This was connected with the theoretical prediction of the electromagnetic mass
by J. J. Thomson in 1881, who showed that the electromagnetic energy
contributes to the mass of a moving charged body. Thomson (1893) and George
Frederick Charles Searle (1897) also calculated that this mass

depends on velocity, and that it becomes infinitely great when the body moves
at the speed of light with respect to the luminiferous aether. Also Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz (1899, 1900) assumed such a velocity dependence as a
consequence of his theory of electrons. At this time, the electromagnetic mass
was separated into "transverse" and "longitudinal" mass, and was sometimes
denoted as "apparent mass", while the invariant Newtonian mass was denoted
as "real mass".[A 1][A 2] On the other hand, it was the belief of the German
theoretician Max Abraham that all mass would ultimately prove to be of
electromagnetic origin, and that Newtonian mechanics would become subsumed
into the laws of electrodynamics.

The concept of (transverse) electromagnetic mass , which was based on specific

models of the electron, was later transmuted into the purely kinematical
concept ofrelativistic mass which concerns all forms of energy, not only
electromagnetic energy. Currently, however, the concept of relativistic mass,
although still frequently referred to in popular works on relativity, is now seldom
used among professional working physicists, and has been superseded by the
expressions for relativistic energy and momentum, which also predict that the
speed of light cannot be reached by massive bodies. This is because all of those
relations involve the Lorentz factor:

Therefore, the Bucherer–Kaufmann–Neumann experiments can be seen as early

tests of relativistic energy and momentum. (For the following historical
description of the experiments, the concepts of "transverse" or "relativistic
mass" are still used).

KAUFMANN'S EXPERIMENT

FIRST EXPERIMENT
Kaufmann's measurements of 1901 (corrected in 1902) showed that the charge-
to-mass ratio diminishes and thus the electron's momentum (or mass) increases
with velocity. Note that emu/gm when the electron is at rest.

Walter Kaufmann began to experiment with beta rays using a device similar to a
cathode ray tube, where the source of the electrons was the decay of radium
that was placed in an evacuated container. Such rays emitted from radium were
called "Becquerel rays" at that time. Contrary to the then known cathode rays
which reached speeds only up to 0.3c, c being the speed of light, Becquerel rays
reached velocities up to 0.9c. However, since beta particles have different
velocities, the radiation was inhomogeneous. Therefore, Kaufmann
appliedelectric and magnetic fields aligned parallel to each other, so that the
deflections caused by them were perpendicular to each other. Their impacts on a
photographic plate produced a deflection curve, whose individual points
corresponded to a certain velocity and a certain mass of the electrons. By
reversing the charge on the condenser, thus inverting the electric field, two
symmetric curves could be obtained, whose center line determined the direction
of the magnetic deflection.
Kaufmann published a first analysis of his data in 1901 – he actually was able to
measure a decrease of the charge-to-mass ratio, thus demonstrating that mass
or momentum increases with velocity.Using Searle's formula (1897) for the
electromagnetic energy increase of charged bodies with velocity, he calculated
the increase of the electron's electromagnetic mass as a function of velocity:

Kaufmann noticed that the observed increase cannot be explained by this

formula, so he separated the measured total mass into amechanical (true) mass
and an electromagnetic (apparent) mass, the mechanical mass being
considerably greater than the electromagnetic one. However, he made two
mistakes: As shown by Max Abraham, Kaufmann overlooked that Searle's
formula only applies in the longitudinal direction, but for deflection
measurements the formula for the transverse direction was important.
Therefore Abraham introduced the "transverse electromagnetic mass" with the
following velocity dependence:

Kaufmann also made a calculation mistake in deriving the deflection curves.

Those errors were corrected by him in 1902.

In 1902 and 1903 Kaufmann performed another series of tests with updated and
improved experimental techniques. The results were interpreted by him as a
confirmation of Abraham's theory and of the assumption that the electron's
mass is completely of electromagnetic origin.

Hermann Starke conducted similar measurements in 1903, although he used

cathode rays limited to 0.3c. The results that he obtained were interpreted by
him as being in agreement with those of Kaufmann.

COMPETING THEORIES

Predictions of speed dependence of transverse electromagnetic mass according

to the theories of Abraham, Lorentz, and Bucherer.

In 1902, Max Abraham published a theory based on the assumption that the
electron was a rigid, perfect sphere, with its charge being distributed evenly on
its surface. As explained above, he introduced the so-called "transverse
electromagnetic mass" besides the "longitudinal electromagnetic mass", and
argued that the entire electron mass is of electromagnetic origin.

Meanwhile, Lorentz (1899, 1904) extended his theory of electrons, assuming that
an electron's charge was spread throughout its volume, and that in Kaufmann's
experiment, its shape would be compressed in the direction of motion and
would stay unchanged in the transverse directions. To Kaufmann's surprise,
Lorentz could show that his model agreed with his experimental data as well.
This model was further elaborated and perfected by Henri Poincaré (1905), so
that Lorentz's theory was now in agreement with the principle of relativity.

A similar theory was developed by Alfred Bucherer and Paul Langevin in 1904,
with the difference that the total volume occupied by the deformed electron
was assumed unchanged. It turned out that this theory's prediction was closer to
Abraham's theory than to Lorentz's.

Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity (1905) predicted the change of the
point-like electron's mass due to the properties of the transformation between
the rest-frame of the particle and the laboratory frame in which the
measurements were performed. Mathematically, this calculation predicts the
same dependence between velocity and mass as Lorentz's theory, although it
assumes very different physical concepts.

KAUFMANN'S SECOND EXPERIMENT OF 1905

In order to make a decision between those theories, Kaufmann again performed

his experiments with higher precision. Kaufmann believed that he had
conclusively disproven the formula of Lorentz–Einstein, and had therefore also
disproven the principle of relativity. In his view, the only remaining options were
between the theories of Abraham and Bucherer. Lorentz was perplexed and
wrote that he was "at the end of his Latin".

However, criticism of Kaufmann's experiment arose.Shortly after Kaufmann

published his results and the conclusions of his analysis, Max Planck decided to
re-analyze the data obtained by the experiment. In 1906 and 1907, Planck
published his own conclusion on the behavior of the inertial mass of electrons
with high speeds. Using just nine data points from Kaufmann's publication in
1905, he recalculated the exact setup of the fields for each point, and compared
the measurements against the predictions of the two competing theories. He
showed that Kaufmann's results are not fully decisive and would lead to
superluminal velocities. Einstein remarked in 1907 that although Kaufmann's
results were better in agreement with Abraham's and Bucherer's theories than
with his own, the foundations of the other theories were not plausible and
therefore had only little probability of being correct.

BUCHERER EXPERIMENT

The main problem of Kaufmann's experiments was his use of parallel magnetic
and electric fields, as pointed out byAdolf Bestelmeyer (1907). Using a method
based on perpendicular magnetic and electric fields (introduced by J. J. Thomson
and further developed to a velocity filter by Wilhelm Wien), Bestelmeyer
obtained considerably different values for the charge-to-mass ratio for cathode
rays up to 0.3c. However, Bestelmeyer added that his experiment was not
precise enough to provide a definite decision between the theories.

Therefore, Alfred Bucherer (1908) conducted a precise measurement using a

velocity filter similar to Bestelmeyer's. A radium beta source was placed at the
center of a circular condenser consisting of two silvered glass plates spaced 0.25
mm apart and charged to about 500 volts, set in a homogeneous 140 Gauss
magnetic field. The radium emitted beta rays in all directions, but in any
particular direction α, only those beta rays exited the velocity filter whose speed
was such that the electric and magnetic fields exactly compensated each other.
After leaving the condenser, the rays were deflected by the magnetic field, and
exposed a photographic plate set parallel to the condenser rim and
perpendicular to the non-deflected
For his final analysis, Bucherer recalculated the measured values of five runs
with Lorentz's and Abraham's formulas respectively, in order to obtain the
charge-to-mass ratio as if the electrons were at rest. Since the ratio doesn't vary
for resting electrons, the data points should be on a single horizontal line .
However, this was approximately only in the case when the data were calculated
with Lorentz's formula, while the results of Abraham's formula sharply deviated
(the red and blue lines represent the average value according to both formulas).
The agreement with the Lorentz–Einstein formula was interpreted by Bucherer
as the confirmation of the relativity principle and the Lorentz–Einstein theory – a
result immediately applauded by Lorentz, Einstein, and Hermann Minkowski.

In addition, Bucherer's apparatus was improved in 1909 by his student Kurt

Wolz, who also obtained agreement with the Lorentz–Einstein formula. Even
though many physicists accepted Bucherer's result, there still remained some
doubts.For instance, Bestelmeyer published a paper in which he cast doubt on
the validity of Bucherer's result. He argued that one experiment alone cannot
establish the correctness of an important physical law, that Bucherer's result
might be significantly distorted by non-compensated rays reaching the
photographic plate, and that extensive data protocols and error analysis are
necessary.polemic dispute between those two scholars followed in a series of
publications, in which Bestelmeyer argued that Wolz's experiments are affected
by the same problems.

HUPKA EXPERIMENT.

Unlike Kaufmann and Bucherer, Karl Erich Hupka (1909) used cathode rays at
0.5c for his measurements. The radiation (generated at a copper cathode) was
strongly accelerated by the field between cathode and anode in a highly
evacuated discharge tube. The anode serving as a diaphragm was passed by the
ray with constant velocity and drew the shadow image of two Wollaston wires
on a phosphorescent screen behind a second diaphragm. If a current was
generated behind this diaphragm, then the ray was deflected and the shadow
image was displaced. The results were in agreement with Lorentz–Einstein, even
though Hupka remarked that this experiment didn't represent a definitive
result.Subsequently, W. Heil published some papers dealing with criticisms and
interpretations of the result, to which Hupka replied.
NEUMANN AND GUYE/LAVANCHY

In 1914, Günther Neumann conducted new measurements using Bucherer's

equipment, in particular making some improvements to address Bestelmeyer's
criticisms, especially the question of non-compensated rays, and making
extensive refinements to the data protocols. The calculation method was the
same as Bucherer's . Also in this experiment, the data corresponding to Lorentz's
formula are nearly on a horizontal line as required, while the data obtained from
Abraham's formula sharply deviate . Neumann concluded that his experiments
were in agreement with those of Bucherer and Hupka, definitely proving the
Lorentz–Einstein formula in the range 0.4–0.7c, and refuted Abraham's formula.
Instrumental uncertainties occurred in the range 0.7–0.8c, so the deviation from
the Lorentz–Einstein formula in this range wasn't considered as being significant.

In 1915, Charles-Eugène Guye and Charles Lavanchy measured the deflection of

cathode rays at 0.25c–0.5c. They used a tube with a cathode and anode in order
to accelerate the rays. A diaphragm at the anode produced a beam which was
deflected. A screen was placed at the end of the apparatus, at which the impacts
were photographed by a camera. They subsequently computated the ratio of
transverse electromagnetic mass mTand rest mass m0 indicated by the red and
blue curve, and obtained good agreement with the Lorentz–Einstein formula
supplementing Neumann's result.

Neumann's and Guye/Lavanchy's experiments were considered by many as

conclusively proving the Lorentz-Einstein formula. Lorentz summarized these
efforts in 1915:

Later experiments [..] have confirmed the formula [..] for the transverse
electromagnetic mass, so that, in all probability, the only objection that could be
raised against the hypothesis of the deformable electron and the principle of
relativity has now been removed.
ZAHN AND SPEES EXPERIMENT

Zahn & Spees (1938) and Faragó & Lajos Jánossy (1954) argued that many
assumptions employed in those early experiments as to the nature and the
properties of electrons and the experimental setup, were wrong or imprecise. As
with Kaufmann's experiments, the Bucherer–Neumann experiments would only
show a qualitative increase of mass, and were incapable of deciding between the
competing theories.

While the results of those electron deflection experiments were disputed for a
long time, the investigations of the fine structure of the hydrogen lines by Karl
Glitscher (based on the work of Arnold Sommerfeld) had already in 1917
provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz–Einstein formula, because the
relativistic expressions for momentum and energy were necessary to derive the
fine structure, and a constituted a refutation of Abraham's theory.

In addition, the first electron deflection experiments with sufficient precision

was conducted by Rogers et al. (1940), who developed an improved setup. The
radium decay series yields a spectrum of beta particles with a wide range of
energies. The earlier measurements by Kaufmann, Bucherer, and others had
used flat parallel plate condensers which provided no focusing of the beta
particles. Rogers et al. instead constructed an electrostatic spectrograph capable
of resolving the energy maxima of individual beta particle lines from the radium
decay series. The electrostatic spectrograph was constructed of segments of two
cylinders and was enclosed in an evacuated iron box. The beta rays were emitted
from a fine platinum wire coated with radium active-deposit. The dispersed rays
were incident on a slit in front of a Geiger counter.
The data from this experiment was combined with previous magnetic
spectrometer measurements of Hρ to yield the charge-to-mass ratio, which was
subsequently compared with the predictions of Lorentz and Abraham for the
ratio of transverse mass and rest mass. The points were all on the curve
representing the Lorentz–Einstein formula to within 1% This experiment is seen
as being sufficiently precise to distinguish between the theories.

A circular capacitor B, 7.7 cm in diameter, built from multiple layers ofmica and
tinfoil, was fitted into a smooth spherical celluloid ball D that was covered with
conductive paint, and which was suspended by a fine phosphor-bronze wire 37
cm long within a grounded tube. The wire was connected to one electrode of
aWimshurst machine which kept alternate plates of the capacitor charged to
3000 volts. The opposite plates of the capacitor as well as the celluloid ball were
kept at ground voltage by means of a platinum wire that dipped into a sulfuric
acid bath that not only served as a conductiveelectrode, but also damped
oscillations and acted as a desiccant. A mirror attached to the capacitor was
viewed through a telescope and allowed fine changes in orientation to be
viewed.

TROUTON -NOBEL EXPERIMENT

The Trouton-Noble experiment was performed in 1903 in an attempt to measure

the velocity of the Earth’s movement through “ether” by observing the rotation
of a charged capacitor. The basic consideration was that if a freely suspended
parallel plate capacitor is charged at high voltage, it will turn spontaneously to
minimize its total energy and will seek a stable position parallel to the direction
of the motion of the Earth in the ether (the zero-point field). The idea was based
on the Maxwell equations that a purely electric field in one reference frame can
be magnetic in another and that the separation of these interactions depends on
which reference frame is chosen for description. Specifically, a charged capacitor
moving through the ether with its plates parallel to the direction of motion
should possess magnetic energy as well as electrostatic energy because a moving
charge is equivalent to a current.
Their idea was to look for the turning motion of a charged plate capacitor
suspended at rest in the frame of the earth. The energy of a capacitor at rest in
the ether, U’, is:
U' = εE'2/2
Energy in motion through ether:
U = εE2/2+μB2/2
Thus, there should be a torque tending to rotate the capacitor until the plates
are aligned perpendicular to the velocity through the ether, which is the lowest
energy state. Because the orientation of the capacitor with respect to the earth's
motion through the ether should presumably be different at different times of
the day, one may look for a rotational effect. Trouton and Noble made the
prediction of this electromagnetic turning moment using the then available
prerelativistic formulas for a moving charged capacitor.

When the experiment was performed by Trouton and then by Trouton and
Noble, they obtained a null effect. Chase repeated the experiment later, and
more recently Hayden, with a more sensitive instrument, but again they
reported a null result.
The Trouton–Noble experiment is generally regarded as the electrostatic
equivalent of the Michelson–Morley optical experiment.
The negative results of the Trouton–Noble experiments have been explained on
the basis of relativistic arguments. If the capacitor is in equilibrium for an inert
observer at rest with respect to the capacitor, then it cannot appear to be
rotating in a uniformly moving frame, for otherwise this effect could be used to
single out the preferred frame that has no rotation.
This Trouton-Noble experiment continues to intrigue theorists and
experimentalists, even in actual time (Teukolsky-1996; Hayden-1994; Cornille,
Naudin, and Szames 1998, 1999).
Michel Janssen has made a detailed analysis and multitude of interpretations for
this simple experiment and interested persons can find entire history and
detailed mathematical approach on his webpage.
In all prerelativist and relativistic explanations, it is implicitly supposed the
apparition of a magnetic field when a charge is moving relative to a referential.

EXPLANATIONS ; 1

Fitzgerald’s answer, more precisely, magnetic field is generated from capacitor’s

kinetic energy is hilarious.
Special relativity theory in principle permit a transformation of another form of
energy in magnetic energy, but again no mechanism is available.
There is no clear answer for this magnetic field apparition, and in fact, the
proposed explanation start form the simple idea already formulated in atomic
book, that a moving charge does not represent an electric current. Consequently
a moving charge does not produce a macroscopic magnetic field. It is necessary
to highlight ,,macroscopic”, because a charge (an electron as example) posses a
proper magnetic moment and consequently a moving charge produce a small
magnetic effect. But this magnetic effect is some order of magnitude lower then
expected magnetic effect calculated with Maxwell equations. In principle, a
further extension and increasing precision of this kind of experiment, will lead to
a small effects due to the electrons magnetic moments and their arrangements
but this does not mean a positive effect as is claimed by recent repetition of
experiment made by Cornille.
The up presented experiment has nothing to do with relativity and the entire
discussion was made by great theoretician physicist without connection to
experimental reality and in fact all these discussion represent at least a consume
o inutile papers.
Experimentally, it is a little bit difficult to observe, the existence of a magnetic
effect in a short time of condenser discharge.
But there is known from the beginning of electricity a device, called van der
Graff, which can produce quite enough amount of charge.

The absurdity of Trouton Noble interpretation can be very easy observed if it’s
possible to show in another way that a moving charge does not produce a
macroscopic magnetic effect.
A Van de Graff generator is an electrostatic machine which produces
,,electricity” using mechanic friction and permits to accumulate very high
voltages on a hollow metal globe. The potential differences achieved in modern
Van de Graff generators can reach 6 megavolts.
First part of experiment consists in repeating the already known experiments
using Van der Graff generator, more precisely sparks or induction charge effects.
In second part of experiment a verification of capability of Van der Graff
generator to produce an electric current is tested. In the absence of an electric
current, practically there is no magnetic field around moving charge and
Maxwell equations are without sense.

In this purpose between the generators spheres or between the high voltage
sphere and an external null point a resistor and an ampermeter are connected.
The device is started and the intensity of produced current is followed. Strange
enough, there is no indication of an electric current in the circuit and
consequently there is no macroscopic magnetic effect around a conductor
traveled by a moving charge; this is a direct proof that a charge flowing does not
represent an electric current. It is very strange and inexplicable in actual
electrodynamics how a Van der Graff generator can produce a voltage difference
of millions of volts but is incapable of producing a microampere electric current.
In the same time the generator can produce sparks and this mean there is an
appreciable quantity of electric charge on the sphere.
The further extension of this electric experiment to relativity does not need any
explanation ….

EXPLANATION; 2

"The Trouton-Noble experiment was performed in 1903 in an attempt to

measure the velocity of the Earth’s movement through “ether” by observing the
rotation of a charged capacitor. "

"The negative results of the Trouton–Noble experiments have been explained on

the basis of relativistic arguments. "

"The Trouton–Noble experiment is generally regarded as the electrostatic

equivalent of the Michelson–Morley optical experiment."
And they both show that the luminiferous ether doesn't exist.
so it's true to say that "The further extension of this electric experiment to
relativity does not need any explanation …."

Incidentally, when the sparks happen there is a significant current. It's possible,
but not easy to measure. You can calculate a rough value for it if you can find the
capacitance of the charged dome of the VderG and the inductance of the circuit
through which the current flows.
The stored energy E of the capacitor is E=1/2 CV^2 and that energy ends up
(largely) in the magnetic field where it's E=1/2L I^2.
Solve the equations for I and you get an upper bound to the current.

Another way to calculate the current that flows is to estimate the charge
transfered by the spark (Q) and the time that it takes (T). I=Q/T

Yet another way is to calculate it from the average current (measured, as Sophie
said, with a reasonably sensitive meter) and the ratio of the duration of the
spark and the time interval between sparks.

RIGHT ANGLE LEVER PARADOX EXPERIMENT.

The Trouton–Noble paradox is essentially equivalent to a thought experiment

called "right angle lever paradox", first discussed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and
Richard Chase Tolman in 1909.[9] Suppose a right-angle lever with endpoints
abc. In its rest frame, the forces towards ba and towards bc must be equal to
obtain equilibrium, thus no torque is given by the law of the lever:

where is the torque, and the rest length of one lever arm. However, due to
length contraction, ba is longer than bc in a non-co-moving system, thus the law
of the lever gives:

It can be seen that the torque is not zero, which apparently would cause the
lever to rotate in the non-co-moving frame. Since no rotation is observed, Lewis
and Tolman thus concluded that no torque exists, therefore:

However, as shown by Max von Laue this is in contradiction with the relativistic
expressions of force,

The detailed relativistic analysis of both the Trouton-Noble paradox and the
Right-angle lever paradox requires care to correctly reconcile, for example, the
effects seen by observers in different frames of reference, but ultimately all such
theoretical descriptions are shown to give the same result. In both cases an
apparent net torque on an object (when viewed from a certain frame of
reference) does not result in any rotation of the object, and in both cases this is
explained by correctly accounting, in the relativistic way, for the transformation
of all the relevant forces, momenta and the accelerations produced by them. The
early history of descriptions of this experiment is reviewed by Janssen (1995).

Laue current
The first solution of the Trouton-Noble paradox was given by Hendrik Lorentz
(1904). His result is based on the assumption, that the torque and momentum
due to electrostatic forces, is compensated

by the torque and momentum due to molecular forces.

This was further elaborated by Max von Laue (1911), who gave the standard
solution for these kind of paradoxes. It was based on the so-called "inertia of
energy" in its general formulation by Max Planck. According to Laue, an energy
current connected with a certain momentum ("Laue current") is produced in
moving bodies by elastic stresses. The resulting mechanical torque in the case of
the Trouton–Noble experiment amounts to:

which exactly compensates the electromagnetic torque mentioned above, thus

no rotation occurs on both cases. Or in other words: The electromagnetic torque
is actually necessary for the uniform motion of a body, i.e., to hinder the body to
rotate due to the mechanical torque caused by elastic stresses.
Since then, many papers appeared which elaborated on Laue's current, providing
some modifications or re-interpretations, and included different variants of
"hidden" momentum.

Reformulations of force and momentum

Other authors were unsatisfied with the idea that torques and counter-torques
arise only because different inertial frames are chosen. Their aim was to replace
the standard expressions for momentum and force and thus equilibrium by
manifestly Lorentz covariant ones from the outset. So when there is no torque in
the rest frame of the considered object, then there are no torques in other
frames as well. This is in analogy to the 4/3 problem of the electromagnetic mass
of electrons, where similar methods were employed by Enrico Fermi (1921) and
Fritz Rohrlich (1960): In the standard formulation of relativistic dynamics the
hyperplanes of simultaneity of any observer can be used, while in the
Fermi/Rohrlich definition the hyperplane of simultaneity of the object's rest
frame should be used.According to Janssen, deciding between Laue's standard
model and such alternatives is merely a matter of convention.

Following this line of reasoning, Rohrlich (1966) distinguished between

"apparent" and "true" Lorentz transformations. For example, a "true"
transformation of length would be the result of a direct application of the
Lorentz transformation, which gives the non-simultaneous positions of the
endpoints in another frame. On the other hand, length contraction would be an
example of an apparent transformation, since the simultaneous positions of the
endpoints in the moving frame must be calculated in addition to the initial
Lorentz transformation. Furthermore, Cavalleri/Salgarelli (1969) distinguished
between "synchronous" and "asynchronous" equilibrium conditions. In their
view, synchronous consideration of forces should only be used for the object's
rest frame, while in moving frames the same forces should be considered
asynchronously.

Force and acceleration

A solution without compensating forces or redefinitions of force and equilibrium
was published by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Sophus Epstein in 1911. A similar
solution was re-discovered by Franklin (2006). They alluded to the fact that force
and acceleration do not always have the same direction, that is, the relation of
mass, force and acceleration has tensor character in relativity. So the role played
by the concept of force in relativity is very different from that of Newtonian
mechanics.

Epstein imagined a massless rod with endpoints OM, which is mounted at point
O, and a particle with rest mass m is mounted at M. The rod encloses the
angle with O. Now a force towards OM is applied at M, and equilibrium in its
rest frame is achieved when . As already shown above, these forces have the
form in a non-co-moving frame:

So the resultant force does not directly point from O to M. Does this lead to a
rotation of the rod? No, because Epstein now considered the accelerations
caused by the two forces. The relativistic expressions in the case, where a mass
m is accelerated by these two forces in the longitudinal and transverse direction.

Thus no rotation occurs in this system as well. Similar considerations are also to
be applied to the right-angle lever and Trouton-Noble paradox. So the paradoxes
are resolved, because the two accelerations (as vectors) point to the center of
gravity of the system (condenser), although the two forces do not.
Epstein added, that if one finds it more satisfying to re-establish the parallelism
between force and acceleration with which we are accustomed in Newtonian
mechanics, one has to include a compensating force, which formally corresponds
to Laue's current. Epstein developed such a formalism in the subsequent
sections of his 1911 paper.

RAYLEIGH AND BRACE EXPERIMENT.

The experiments of Rayleigh and Brace (1902, 1904) were aimed to show
whether length contraction leads to birefringence or not. They were some of the
first optical experiments measuring the relative motion of Earth and the
luminiferous aether which were sufficiently precise to detect magnitudes of
second order to v/c. The results were negative, which was of great importance
for the development of the Lorentz transformation and consequently of the
theory of relativity. See also Tests of special relativity.

To explain the negative outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment, George

FitzGerald (1889) and Hendrik Lorentz (1892) introduced the contraction
hypothesis, according to which a body is contracted during its motion through
the stationary aether.

Lord Rayleigh (1902) interpreted this contraction as a mechanical compression

which should lead to optical anisotropy of materials, so the different refraction
indices would causebirefringence. To measure this effect, he installed a tube of
76 cm length upon a rotatable table. The tube was closed by glass at its ends,
and was filled with carbon bisulphide or water, and the liquid was between two
nicol prisms. Through the liquid, light (produced by an electric lamp and more
importantly by limelight) was sent to and fro. The experiment was sufficiently
precise to measure retardations of of a half wavelength, i.e. of the order
1.2×10−10. Depending on the direction relative to Earth's motion, the expected
retardation due to birefringence was of order 10−8, which was well within the
accuracy of the experiment. Therefore it was,

besides the Michelson-Morley experiment and theTrouton–Noble experiment,

one of the few experiments by which magnitudes of second order in v/c could be
detected. However, the result was completely negative. Rayleigh repeated the
experiments with layers of glass plates (although with a diminished precision by
a factor of 100), and again obtained a negative result.
However, those experiments were criticized by DeWitt Bristol Brace (1904). He
argued that Rayleigh hadn't properly considered the consequences of
contraction (0.5×10−8instead of 10−8) as well as of the refraction index, so that
the results were in no way conclusive. Therefore, Brace conducted experiments
of much higher precision. He employed an apparatus that was 4.13 m long, 15
cm wide, and 27 cm deep, which was filled with water, and which could be
rotated (depending on the experiment) about a vertical or a horizontal axis. Sun
light was directed into the water through a system of lenses, mirrors and
reflexion prisms, and was reflected 7 times so that it traversed 28.5 m. In this
way, a retardation of order 7.8×10−13 was observable. However, also Brace
obtained a negative result. Another experimental installation with glass instead
of water (precision:4.5×10−11), also yielded no sign of birefringence.

The absence of birefringence was initially interpreted by Brace as a refutation of

length contraction. However, it was shown by Lorentz (1904) and Joseph Larmor
(1904) that when the contraction hypothesis is maintained and the complete
Lorentz transformation is employed (i.e. including the time transformation),
then the negative outcome can be explained. Furthermore, if the relativity
principle is considered as valid from the outset, as in Albert Einstein's theory of
special relativity (1905), then the result is quite clear, since an observer in
uniform translational motion can consider himself as at rest, and consequently
won't experience any effect of his own motion. Length contraction is thus not
measurable by a comoving observer, and has to be supplemented by time
dilation for non-comoving observers, which was subsequently also confirmed by
the Trouton–Rankine experiment (1908) and the Kennedy–Thorndike
experiment (1932)

TROUTON - RANKINE EXPERIMENT.

Description

The famous Michelson–Morley experiment of 1887 showed that the then-

accepted aether theory needed to be modified. FitzGerald and Lorentz,
independently of each other, proposed a length contraction of the experimental
apparatus in the direction of motion (with respect to the Luminiferous aether)
that would explain the almost null result of the Michelson Morley experiment.
The first attempts to measure some consequences of this contraction in the lab
frame (the inertial frame of reference of an observer co-moving with the
experimental apparatus) were made in the Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace
(1902, 1904), though the result was negative. By 1908, however, the then-
current theories of electrodynamics, Lorentz ether theory (now superseded) and
Special Relativity (now generally accepted, and doesn't include an aether at all),
predicted that the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction is not measurable in a co-
moving frame, because these theories were based on the Lorentz
transformation.

In the Trouton–Rankine experiment, it was expected that length changes due to

Lorentz–FitzGerald contractionwould result in detectable changes in the
measured voltage across aWheatstone bridge as the circuit is rotated.

Frederick Thomas Trouton, (after conducting the Trouton–Noble experiment in

1903), instead did the calculations using his own interpretation of
electrodynamics, calculating the length contraction according to the velocity of
the experimental apparatus in the aether frame, but calculating the
electrodynamics by applying Maxwell's equations and Ohm's law in the lab
frame. According to Trouton's view of electrodynamics, the calculations then
predicted a measurable effect of the length contraction in the lab frame.
Together with Alexander Oliver Rankine, he set out to verify this in 1908 by
attempting to measure the change of the resistance of a coil as they changed its
orientation to the "aether velocity" (the velocity of the lab through the
luminiferous aether). This was done by putting four identical such coils in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration which allowed them to precisely measure any
change in resistance. The circuit was then rotated through 90 degrees about its
axis as the resistance was measured. Because the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction
is only in the direction of motion, from the point of view of the "Aether frame"
the length of the coils depended on their angle with respect to their Aether
velocity. Trouton and Rankine therefore believed that the resistance as
measured in the rest frame of the experiment should change as the device was
rotated. However their careful measurements showed no detectable change in
resistance.

This showed that if the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction existed, it was not

measurable in the rest frame of the object – only theories containing the
complete Lorentz transformation, like special relativity, are still valid

CONCLUSIONS

The main objective of the Ariny Amos experiment was to check for the
presence of the 'luminiferous ' aether. A substance that had to possess
millions of time the rigidity of steel in order to accommodate transverse
waves travelling at a speed of approx. 2.99×105 Km/s and at the same
time had to be flexible enough to allow for the passage of planets
through it and was also transparent and completely undetectable to the
ordinary senses. A tall order to fulfill! The idea was to measure the
velocity of the earth with respect to the aether. If the earth were moving
through the stationary aether with a uniform velocity and if a beam of
light were sent from the source in the direction of the motion of the
earth, then it would be travelling in opposition to the aether and should
take more time to reach its destination than if sent in the opposite
direction. The time difference between the two measurements could
then be measured and the velocity of the earth with respect to the aether
determined. Unfortunately, at the end of the experiment there was
nothing to measure! The Michelson & Morley experiment has been
called the most important failed experiment in History. In retrospect,
this judgment may have been a little hasty. Consider what they had set
out to find: A medium that was millions of times more rigid than steel,
but was completely transparent and pliable enough for the planets to
move through without hindrance! It can hardly have come as a surprise
when such a medium failed to be detected. Yet so important was this
concept of an aether to science that several scientists, most important
amongst them, the highly respected Dutch Scientist Hendrik Lorentz,
went to incredible lengths to show why the Michelson & Morley
experiments had failed to detect the aether; among his many ideas were
time dilation and length contraction known today as Lorentz
transformations and adopted more or less unchanged by Einstein for his
special theory of relativity. The point to stress here is not that Einstein
adapted Lorentz's equations for his own use but that Scientists thought
the aether important enough to pursue improbably theories in search of.
In the end reason could not sustain the idea that a medium or substance
that possessed millions of times the rigidity of steel, yet was completely
permeable to matter and completely invisible could possibly exist.
When, therefore, the suggestion was put forward that electromagnetic
radiation did not require a medium to propagate, it was welcomed with
a sense of relief.

One result of Newton's theory of gravity was that according to the

theory, stars should attract each other and therefore could not remain
as fixed points in the sky as had been conjectured for thousands of
years. Newton, himself was very worried by the lack of absolute
position, or absolute space, that was implicit in his theory that the stars
moved.
Maxwell's equations imply a wave equation for light that has a speed in
it

c=1ϵ0μ0−−−−√≈3.0×108m/s.
That speed must be measured relative something. The initial thought
(consistent with the treatment of waves on a string, waves on the surface
of a liquid and sound) it that it is measured relative a medium (dubbed
the luminiferous ether).

The interferometry experiment, seems to imply the non-existence of

such a medium (which has been confirmed to much high certainty since
then) or some other moderately exotic options such as having Lorentz
contraction with the ether.

By itself the Michelson-Morley result doesn't prove much.

Einstein sought and found a theory that encompasses the usual Galilean
relativity at low relative velocities and the relativity implicit in
Maxwell's equations (which had been found by Lorentz) in one neat
bundle. That kind of neatness is appealing, and when the ability to test it
came around it passed with flying colors.

In fact, Ariny Amos refused to accept the lack of a Universal frame of

reference, even though it was implied by his own findings. Newton's
Laws of Motion, including motion due to gravity, pre-supposed a fixed
point of reference. Thus, for instance if you had two games of table
tennis going on, one on the ground and the other on a moving train, they
would both utilise the same frame of reference. This is because all the
objects on the train would obey Galilean transformations and acquire
the same velocity as the train. There would therefore be no difference
between the game of table tennis on the platform and the one on the
train providing the train is moving at either constant velocity or
constant acceleration. So far so good. Along comes Maxwell, who shows,
mathematically, that the speed of light is constant. How could this be?
Simply put, if light were a wave travelling through a medium its speed
would automatically be constant regardless of whether the source or the
destination were moving. In fact the mathematical equation that
Maxwell used to indicate the speed of light as constant is a wave
equation:(∇2−1c2∂2∂t2)E=0 (The d’alembert wave equation.).

To reinforce this image it must be understood that light does in fact

exhibit all the classic characteristics of a wave. Yet modern physics
treats electromagnetic radiation as something physical(i.e., a solid and
not a wave). When considered in this light, Galilean transformations fail
and light becomes an enigma. It is here, at this point, that the fantastical
additions and improvements made to this very simple and , completely
natural phenomena begin to appear. By insisting that the speed of light
is constant in an aberrant way, Einstein literally changed the physical
nature of the Universe to suit his own theories. By stating that the one
way journey of a ray of light from A to B takes the same amount of time
as it does for the ray of light to travel from A to B and back to A again,
Einstein entered into territory which could not be physically proved or
disproved. For the first time in the history of science, and maybe even of
mankind, man begins to doubt the evidence of his own senses. While the
physical measurement of the distance between A and B shows one thing,
he is asked to believe, not only that his measurement is wrong, but that
it is wrong to a quite irrational extent.

The postulate that the speed of light is constant when stated in these
terms is an argument which is totally indefensible in terms of physical
proof. Even if measuring rods showed the expected calculated distance,
Einstein maintained that there was something wrong with the
measuring rods themselves. Einstein, by this theory and by these
questionable means, completely obliterated any chance of finding a
medium through which light must travel to maintain a constant speed.
Instead a whole slew of totally aberrant and physically un-provable
ideas occupied the place of scientific knowledge. Like it or not this is
what it comes down to. Einstein's theories were accepted mainly because
people could not accept the fact that a medium (the aether) could exist
that influenced the speed of light but remain completely undetectable to
any means of discovery.

No acceptable theory of how light or electromagnetic radiation

propagates has been found even four hundred years after Newton! It is
almost impossible to equate the particle nature of light with its wave
nature. To illustrate this. Dr. Richard Feynman is considered to be the
foremost authority on light and its properties. Here is how he explains
the propagation of light:

Feynman explains that in QED light sources produce not physical

particles or waves, but wavelike “probability amplitudes” that
propagate at c in space (not superluminally). The amplitudes spread in
all directions and superpose (interfere) just as real light waves do
according to the Huygens-Fresnel principle: by spherical wavelets from
every portion of the wavefront. Feynman restates this principle as light
“has a nearly equal chance of going on any path”. As they propagate in
space, the probability amplitudes shrink according to the inverse square
law and rotate in space according to their frequency (“shrinks and
turns”). Adding up all the resultant arrows for all the possible paths
light may travel to the receiver renders a final amplitude arrow.
Squaring this arrow yields the probability that a detectable light-matter
interaction will be observed. Where the probability amplitudes
superpose constructively is where events (e.g. photomultiplier counts)
are more likely to occur; where they superpose destructively is where
events are less likely to occur. Feynman admits that the wave theory of
light can account for all the phenomena modelled by QED when the
light is intense; but insists that “wave theory cannot explain how the
(photomultiplier) detector makes equally loud clicks as the light gets
dimmer.” On this basis alone he rejects wave theory and concludes that
“light is made of particles.
As this brief tour of special relativity has shown, we have to re-think our
notions of space and time in Einstein's world. Moving clocks tick at a
slower rate, light speed is the same for all (inertial) observers, and
lengths and distances depend on who measures them - unfamiliar
territory, if we go by everyday experience. The main reason that we
don't see those relativistic effects every day is because life around us is
moving very, very slowly, compared to the speed of light. Even a
Concorde flying at full speed reaches a mere fraction of light speed, less
than a thousandth of a percent. Compared to light speed, everyday
motions are extremely slow, so the relativistic deviations from our
classical notions of space and time are correspondingly small.

Special relativity is more than just another branch of physics. It is a

framework into which other physical laws can be embedded: All
physical laws in which space and time play a role naturally depend on
the properties of space and time, and those are governed by special
relativity. Indeed, relativistic generalizations have been found for
almost all laws of physics that predate special relativity. For instance,
we have relativistic thermodynamics and fluid dynamics. In one case the
laws didn't need any changing at all: The laws of electric and magnetic
forces, described by Maxwell's equations, fit the special-relativistic
framework perfectly. (In fact, it was their incompatibility with previous
notions of space and time that led Einstein to develop his theory in the
first place.) The marriage of special relativity and quantum theory is a
success story in a class of its own, and I'll come back to it later in the
chapter on Relativity and the quantum.

With the general theory of relativity, in which Ariny Amos managed to

reconcile relativity and gravitation, he had to discard the traditional
physics worldview, which saw space as merely a stage on which the
events of the world unfold. Instead, space-time is a dynamic entity,
which is distorted by any matter that is contained in it, and which in
turn tells that matter how to move and evolve. This interaction between
spacetime and matter is described by Einstein's geometric, relativistic
theory of gravity.
The consequences of that theory are spectacular. For instance, general
relativity predicts that even light is deflected by gravity - a prediction
that has been confirmed by numerous astronomical observations. In
addition, it predicts exotic phenomena like gravitational waves and
black holes

The aim of this chapter was to give the reader a basic idea of what
general relativity is all about.
Einstein's theory of gravity led physicists to a variety of new models and
phenomena

Ariny Amos experiment on Theory of relativity revolutionized how the world

thinks about space , time ,mass , energy and Gravity .

Law used to understand the physics of motion , in 1687 news Sir Isaac Newton
wrote that gravity affects everything in the universe.

Ariny Amos a treatise of human nature is a big influence on Einstein thinking

bout space and time , adds David Humes, humes was empiricist and skeptical
believing that scientific concepts must be based on experience and evidence not
reason alone. He held that time did not exist separately from the movement of
objects.

Scientist Ariny Amos believe that space is filled luminous aether that world
cause the speed of light to change depending on the relative motion of the
source and the observer.

As a result of these principles , Ariny Amos predicted that there is no fixed frame
of referenc in the universe , everything is moving relative to everything else
hence the theory of relativity.

Special relativity which applies only to special cases , frame of reference in

constant unchanging motion In physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the
special theory of relativity or STR) is the generally accepted and experimentally
well-confirmed physical theory regarding the relationship between space and
time. In Albert Einstein's original pedagogical treatment, it is based on two
postulates:
The laws of physics are invariant (i.e., identical) in all inertial systems (i.e., non-
accelerating frames of reference).The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for
all observers, regardless of the motion of the light source. It was originally
proposed by Albert Einstein in a paper published 26 September 1905 titled "On
the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies".[1] The inconsistency of Newtonian
mechanics with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and the lack of
experimental confirmation for a hypothesized luminiferous aether led to the
development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations
involving motions at a significant fraction of the speed of light (known as
relativistic velocities). As of today, special relativity is the most accurate model
of motion at any speed when gravitational effects are negligible. Even so, the
Newtonian mechanics model is still useful (due to its simplicity and high
accuracy) as an approximation at small velocities relative to the speed of light.

General relativity principle of the theory of relativity applies to frame that are
accelerating with regard to each others. General relativity (GR, also known as
the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation
published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in
modern physics. Widely acknowledged as a theory of extraordinary beauty,
general relativity has often been described as the most beautiful of all existing
physical theories.

General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal

gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of
space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly
related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are
present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of
partial differential equations.

Time does not pass on the same rate for everyone ,a fast moving observer
measures time pasing more slowly than a relatively stationery observer would
such that this phenomenon is called time dilation. Time dilation is a difference
in the elapsed time measured by two observers, either due to a velocity
difference relative to each other, or by being differently situated relative to a
gravitational field. As a result of the nature of spacetime, a clock that is moving
relative to an observer will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest
in the observer's own frame of reference. A clock that is under the influence of a
stronger gravitational field than an observer's will also be measured to tick
slower than the observer's own clock. In the visualization, the moving watch
runs more slowly than the stationary watch.

A fast moving object appears shorter along the direction of motion relative to a
slow moving one, this effect is very subtle until the object travels close to the
speed of light.

Mass and energy are different manifestation of the same thing , Albert Einstein
Famous equation means that Aquantity of energy equivalent to a quantity of
mass multiplied by the speed of light squared, this is what enables the release of
a huge amount of energy from a nuclear explosion.

As a result of E= MC2 , Afast moving object appers to have increased mass

relative to a slow moving one. This is due to the fact that increasing an objects
velocity increases it’s kinetic energy and therefore it’s mass since mass =
energy.

The increase in mass is the reason that Ariny Amos states that matter can not
travel faster than light. The mass increases with velocity until the mass
becomes infinite when it reaches light speed. An infinite mass would require
infinite energy to move , so this is impossible.space and time are part of one
continuum called space-time, Albert Einstein Mathematics space has three
dimensions and the fourth dimension is time more recent theories presume
extra dimensions that we do not perceive. Space- time can be thought of agrid
or fabric , the presence of mass distorts space – time as of rubber sheet model.

Relativity explains where gravity comes from , the rubber sheet models shows
that gravity results from massive objects warping space- time . the warp is
called gravity well, orbiting objects follow the parth that is shortest and requires
the least amount of energy , the planets move in ellipces . the most energy
efficient path in the gravity well of the sun.

Gravity bends light, this phenomenon is called gravitational lensing. When we

observe a distant galaxy , the gravity of matter between earth and the galaxy
causes light rays to be bent into different paths . when the light reaches the
telescope . multiple images of the same galaxy appear.
RECOMMENDATIONS.

The aim of this chapter was to give the reader a basic idea of what
general relativity is all about, Ariny Amos work of applications of the
physics of theory of relativity,an experiment on general relativity,
Einstein's theory of gravity led physicists to a variety of new models and
phenomena.

The most important examples - gravitational waves, black holes, the big
bang models - will be dealt with in the following chapters. Elementary
Einstein and Gravitational waves

Alternatively, if you want to find out more about the basics of general
relativity first, check out the category General relativity of our
Spotlights on relativity.
1905 Albert Einstein based on new theory of relativity which is of two principles,
General relativity principle and Special relativity principle. The law of physics
appear the same to all observers. As calculated that the speed of light 186,000
mile per second, equally to 299,338 kilometers per second , is unchanging.

Spacetime and Geometry: An Introduction to General Relativity by Sean Carroll

is one that I've used a bit, and which goes into a slightly higher level of
mathematical detail than Hartle. It introduces the basics of differential geometry
and uses them to discuss the formulation of tensors, connections, and the metric
(and then of course it goes on into the theory itself and applications). It's based
on these notes which are available for free.

General Relativity by Robert M. Wald is a classic, though I'm a little embarrassed

to admit that I haven't read much of it. From what I know, though, there's
certainly no shortage of mathematical detail, and it derives/explains certain
principles in different ways from other books, so it can either be a good
reference on its own (if you're up for the detail) or a good companion to
whatever else you're reading. However it was published back in 1984 and thus
doesn't cover a lot of recent developments, e.g. the accelerating expansion of
the universe, cosmic censorship, various results in semiclassical gravity and
numerical relativity, and so on.

Gravitation by Charles Misner, Kip Thorne, and John Wheeler, is pretty much the
authoritative reference on general relativity (to the extent that one exists). It
discusses many aspects and applications of the theory in far more mathematical
and logical detail than any other book I've seen. (Consequently, it's very thick.) I
would recommend having a copy of this around as a reference to go to about
specific topics, when you have questions about the explanations in other books,
but it's not the kind of thing you'd sit down and read large chunks of at once. It's
also worth noting that this dates back to 1973, so it's out of date in the same
ways as Wald's book (and more).

Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of

Relativity by Steven Weinberg is another one that I've read a bit of. Honestly I
find it a bit hard to follow - just like some of Weinberg's other books, actually -
since he gets into such detailed explanations, and it's easy to get bogged down in
trying to understand the details and forget about the main point of the
argument. Still, this might be another one to go to if you're wondering about the
details omitted by other books. This is not as comprehensive as the
Misner/Thorne/Wheeler book, though.

A Relativist's Toolkit: The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics by Eric Poisson

is a bit beyond the purely introductory level, but it does provide practical
guidance on doing certain calculations which is missing from a lot of other
books.

Gravity: An Introduction To General Relativity by James Hartle is reasonably

good as an introduction, although in order to make the content accessible, he
does skip over a lot of mathematical detail. For your purposes, you might
consider reading the first few chapters just to get the "big picture" if you find
other books to be a bit too much at first.

A First Course in General Relativity by Bernard Schutz is one that I've heard
similar things about, but I haven't read it myself.

RECOMMENDATIONS ON APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY OF

RELATIVITY.
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1] is a
satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States
government and operated by the United States Air Force.[2] It is a
global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time
information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.[3]
Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak
GPS signals.

The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates
independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these
technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning
information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to
military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United
States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in

1973 for use by the United States military and became fully operational
in 1995. It was allowed for civilian use in the 1980s. Advances in
technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to
efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS
Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System
(OCX).[4] Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White
House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress
authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. During the 1990s, GPS
quality was degraded by the United States government in a program
called "Selective Availability", however, this is no longer the case, and
was discontinued in May 2000 by law signed by President Bill
Clinton.[5] New GPS receiver devices using the L5 frequency to begin
release in 2018 are expected to have a much higher accuracy and
pinpoint a device to within 30 centimeters or just under one foot.[6][7]

The GPS system is provided by the United States government, which

can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian
military in 1999 during the Kargil War, or degrade the service at any
time.[8] As a result, a number of countries have developed or are in the
process of setting up other global or regional navigation systems. The
Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed
contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of
the globe until the mid-2000s.[9] GLONASS can be added to GPS
devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be
fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters.[10] China's
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is due to achieve global reach in
2020. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system,
and India's NAVIC. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (scheduled
to commence in November 2018) will be a GPS satellite-based
augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy
GLONASS (Russian: ГЛОНАСС, IPA: [ɡɫɐˈnas]; Глобальная
навигационная спутниковая система; transliteration Globalnaya
navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema), or "Global Navigation Satellite
System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in the
radionavigation-satellite service. It provides an alternative to GPS and
is the second navigational system in operation with global coverage and
of comparable precision.

Manufacturers of GPS navigation devices say that adding GLONASS

made more satellites available to them, meaning positions can be fixed
more quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas where the view
to some GPS satellites is obscured by buildings.[1][2][3] It is also more
suitable for use in high latitudes (north or south).[4]

Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976.

Beginning on 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added
satellites to the system until the constellation was completed in 1995.
After a decline in capacity during the late 1990s, in 2001, under
Vladimir Putin's presidency, the restoration of the system was made a
top government priority and funding was substantially increased.
GLONASS is the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space
Agency, consuming a third of its budget in 2010.
In hydrogeology, the superposition principle is applied to the drawdown
of two or more water wells pumping in an ideal aquifer.
In process control, the superposition principle is used in model
predictive control.
The superposition principle can be applied when small deviations from
a known solution to a nonlinear system are analyzed by linearization.
In music, theorist Joseph Schillinger used a form of the superposition
principle as one basis of his Theory of Rhythm in his Schillinger System
of Musical Composition.

Recommended application of the theory of relativity in Astrology,

Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of
celestial objects as a means for divining information about human
affairs and terrestrial events.[1][2][3] Astrology has been dated to at
least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in calendrical systems
used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of
divine communications.[4] Many cultures have attached importance to
astronomical events, and some – such as the Indians, Chinese, and Maya
– developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from
celestial observations. Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological
systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th century BCE
Mesopotamia, from which it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Arab
world and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary
Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that
purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict
significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects;
the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.[5]:83

Throughout most of its history astrology was considered a scholarly

tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation
with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine.[6] It was present
in political circles, and is mentioned in various works of literature, from
Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William Shakespeare, Lope de
Vega and Calderón de la Barca. During the 20th century and following
the wide-scale adoption of the scientific method, astrology has been
challenged successfully on both theoretical[7]:249;[8] and
experimental[9][10] grounds, and has been shown to have no scientific
validity[5] or explanatory power. Astrology thus lost its academic and
theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined.[11]
While polling studies have demonstrated that approximately 25% of
Americans, Canadians, and Britons say they continue to believe that
star and planet positions affect their lives,[12] astrology is now
recognized as pseudoscience.
AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY DRAFT WHITE PAPERS

AUTHOR; ARINY AMOS OR KIPSANG ARAP TARUS

(PRESIDENT)

CONSTITUTION OF AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY

BIOGRAPHY OF AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Formation; May 6, 1994
Type ; NGO
Purpose; To enhance and share humanity's scientific understanding of
the Universe.
Headquarters; KAPCHORWA DISTRICT - UGANDA.

The African Astronomical Society (AfAS, sometimes spoken as

-AfAS") is an African Astronomical society of professional
astronomers and other interested individuals, headquartered The
primary objective of the AfAS is to promote the advancement of
astronomy and closely related branches of science, while the secondary
purpose includes enhancing astronomy education and providing a
political voice for its members through lobbying and grassroots
activities.

HISTORY

The society was founded in 1994 through the efforts of Mr. Ariny Amos
or Kipsang Arap Tarus. The constitution of the group was written by
Ariny Amos, Ziraba Henry,Aporu David.These men plus four others
were
the first Executive Council of the society, Newcomb was the first
president. The initial membership was 1140. The AfAS name of the
society was not finally decided until 2005 previously it was the
"Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of Africa ".To Eliminate Nytil
trademark clothes and Refugees presence in Africa. One proposed
name
that preceded this interim name is "African Astrophysical Society".

AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY MISSION AND VISION

MISSION.
The mission of the African Astronomical Society is to enhance and
share humanity’s scientific understanding of the Universe.

MISSION OBJECTIVES OR VISION STATEMENTS.

1) In African continent, The Society through its publications,

disseminates and archives the results of astronomical research. The
Society also communicates and explains our understanding of the
universe to the public in African countries
2) The Society facilitates and strengthens the interactions among
members through professional meetings and other means. The Society
supports member divisions representing specialized research and
astronomical interests.
3) The Society represents the goals of its community of members to
the nation and the world. The Society also works with other scientific
and educational societies to promote the advancement of science in
African countries.
4) The Society, through its members, trains, mentors and supports
the next generation of astronomers. The Society supports and promotes
increased participation of historically underrepresented groups in
astronomy.
5) In Africa, The Society assists its members to develop their
skills in the fields of education and public outreach at all levels.
The Society promotes broad interest in astronomy, which enhances
science literacy and leads many to careers in science and engineering.

Adopted May 6, 1994

BASIC ORGANISATION INFORMATION.

AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY (AfAS)

Physical Address: Kapchorwa District , Uganda

Web URL: www.afas.org

Category, Astronomy and observation

Mission Statement

The African Astronomical Society (AfAS), established in 1994, is the

major organization of professional astronomers in Africa. The basic
objective of the AfAS is to promote the advancement of astronomy and
closely related branches of science. The membership (approximately

Legitimacy Information

This organization is to be registered with the IRS in Africa

This organization is required to file an IRS Form

Institutional funders should note that an organization’s inclusion on

GuideStar.org does not satisfy IRS for identifying supporting
organizations.

CONSTITUTION AND BY- LAWS

Constitution and Bylaws

Constitution.
This revised Constitution was adopted by the Society membership in
5000. Under this document the Society is registered as an incorporated
entity in the District of Kapchorwa, Uganda , East Africa.
ARTICLE I

The name of this corporation is The African Astronomical Society

(hereafter “The Society”).
ARTICLE II

The period of duration is perpetual.

ARTICLE III

The purpose of this Society is the advancement of astronomy and

closely related branches of science.
ARTICLE IV

The Board of Directors of the Society shall be known as the Council of

the Society and the Directors shall be known as Councilors. The
Council shall fulfill all the functions of the Board of Directors. All
members of the Board of Directors shall be elected or appointed as
provided herein and in the Bylaws.
ARTICLE V

These Articles of Incorporation shall be known to the members of the

Society as the Constitution. Except as provided in these Articles of
Incorporation, the internal affairs of the Society shall be regulated
and determined as provided in the Bylaws.
ARTICLE VI

The membership of the Society shall consist of those persons whose

names were signed on or before June 7, 1994, to the statement of
desire to form such an association plus such other persons
subsequently elected as provided in the Bylaws of the Society. The
individual members shall have the right to elect not less than
three-quarters of the members of Council and to vote for or against
amendments to the Constitution. Notwithstanding the foregoing, any
vacancies on the Council resulting from death, resignation,
disqualification, removal or other cause shall be filled solely by the
Council in the manner provided in the Bylaws.
ARTICLE VII

At all times, and notwithstanding merger, consolidation,

reorganization, termination, dissolution, or winding up of the Society
(voluntary or involuntary or by operation of law), or any other
provisions hereof:

1. The Society shall not possess or exercise any power or authority,

whether expressly, by interpretation, or by operation of law, that
would pose substantial risk of preventing it at any time from
qualifying and continuing to qualify as an entity described in section
of the International Revenue Code of (hereinafter referred to as “the
Code”), contributions to which are deductible for federal income tax
purposes, nor shall the Society engage directly or indirectly in any
activity that would pose a substantial risk of causing the loss of
such qualification under section of the Code.

2. At no time shall the Society engage in any activities that are

unlawful under the laws of the United States, the State of Illinois,
the District of Columbia, or any other jurisdiction where any of its
activities are carried on.

3. No part of the assets or net earnings of the Society shall ever be

used, nor shall the Society be organized or operated, for purposes
that are not exclusively charitable or educational within the meaning
of section of the Code.

4. The Society shall never be operated for the primary purposes of

carrying on a trade or business for profit.

5. The Society shall not carry on propaganda or otherwise attempt to

influence legislation to an extent that would disqualify it for tax
exemption under section of the Code by reason of attempting to
influence legislation. Nor shall the Society, directly or indirectly,
participate in or intervene in (including the publishing or
distributing of statements) any political campaign on behalf of or in
opposition to any candidate for public office.
6. No solicitation of contribution to the Society shall be made, and
no gift, bequest, or devise to the Society shall be accepted, upon any
condition or limitation that would pose a substantial risk of causing
the Society to lose its federal income tax exemption.

7. Pursuant to the prohibition contained in section of the Code, no

part of the net earnings, current or accumulated, of the Society shall
ever inure to the benefit of any private individual.
ARTICLE VIII

Upon termination, dissolution, or winding up of the Society in any

manner or for any reason, voluntary or involuntary, its assets, if
any, remaining after the payment or provision for payment of all
liabilities and obligations of the Society shall be distributed to,
and only to, one or more organizations then existent, dedicated to
purposes similar to those of the Society so long as those
organizations be exempt as described in section of the Code or under
such successor provision of the Code as may be in effect at the time
of the Society’s dissolution.
ARTICLE IX

The private property of the Officers and Directors of the Society

shall not be subject to payment of the Society’s debts to any extent
whatever.
ARTICLE X

Unless otherwise prohibited by law, the Society shall indemnify any

Director (Councilor) or Officer, any former Director or Officer, and
any person who may have served at its request as a director or officer
of another corporation, whether for profit or not for profit, and may,
by resolution of the Council, indemnify any employee, against any and
all expenses and liabilities actually and necessarily incurred by him
or her or imposed on him or her in connection with the defense of any
action, suit, or proceeding (whether actual or threatened, civil,
criminal, administrative, or investigative, including appeals) in
which he or she is made a party by reason of being or having been such
Director, officer, or employee, subject to the limitation, however,
that there shall be no indemnification in relation to matters as to
which he or she shall be adjudged in such action, suit, or proceeding
to be guilty of a criminal offense or liable to the Society for
damages arising out of his or her own negligence or misconduct in the
performance of a duty to the Society.

Amounts paid in indemnification of expenses and liabilities may

include, but shall not be limited to, counsel fees and other fees;
costs and disbursements; and judgments, fines, and penalties against,
and amounts paid in settlement by such director, officer or employee.
The Society may advance expenses to, or where appropriate may itself,
at its expense, undertake the defense of, any director, officer, or
employee; provided, however, that such director, officer or employee
shall undertake to repay or to reimburse such expense if it should be
ultimately determined that he or she is not entitled to
indemnification under this Article.

The provisions of this Article shall be applicable to claims, actions,

suits or proceedings made or commenced after the adoption hereof,
whether arising from acts or omissions to act occurring before or
after adoption hereof. The indemnification provided by this Article
shall not be deemed exclusive of any other rights to which such
director, officer, or employee may be entitled under any Bylaw,
agreement, vote of the Council, vote of the members or otherwise and
shall not restrict the power of the Society to make any
indemnification permitted by law.

The Council may authorize the purchase of insurance on behalf of any

Director, officer, employee, or other agent against any liability
asserted against or incurred by him which arises out of such person’s
status as a director, officer, employee, or agent or out of acts taken
in such capacity, whether or not the Society would have the power to
indemnify the person against that liability under law.

In no case, however, shall the Society indemnify, reimburse, or insure

any person for any taxes imposed on such individual under chapter of
the Code. Further, if at any time the Society is deemed to be a
private foundation within the meaning of section 509 of the Code then,
during such time, no payment shall be made under this Article if such
payment would constitute an act of self-dealing or a taxable
expenditure, as defined in section respectively, of the Code.

If any part of this Article shall be found in any action, suit, or

proceeding to be invalid or ineffective, the validity and the
effectiveness of the remaining parts shall not be affected.
ARTICLE XI

The address of the initial registered agent is: Kapchorwa district ,

Uganda , East Africa, and the name of the initial registered agent at
such address is [Mr. Ariny Amos or Kipsang Arap Tarus
ARTICLE XII

The number of Directors (Councilors) constituting the initial Board of

Directors (Councilors) is 56 as per each in African country , and the
names and addresses of the persons who are to serve as the Directors
(Councilors) until their successors are duly elected and qualified are
[those Officers and Councilors in office as of June 7, 1994].
ARTICLE XIII

The names and addresses of the incorporators are:

1) Mr. Ariny Amos.or Kipsang Arap Tarus,
Address; .P.O.BOX 21375 KAMPALA, UGANDA.

2) AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY INSTITUTE

Department of Terrestrial

3) Gart Westerhout
U.S. Naval Observatory
34th & Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20390
ARTICLE XIV

All references contained in these Articles to the International

Revenue Code , or to “the Code” shall be deemed to refer to the
International Revenue Code , and the Regulations established pursuant
thereto, as they now exist or as they may hereafter be amended.
ARTICLE XV

This Constitution may be amended only upon recommendation of the

Board
of Directors (Council) and only after notice of the proposed amendment
and a ballot have been sent by mail to every individual member of the
Society at least forty-five (45) days in advance of the deadline for
return of the ballots. Such amendment, in order to be adopted must
receive three-fourths (3/4) of the votes cast by mail.
Bylaws

These revised Bylaws of the African Astronomical Society were adopted

by the AFSA Membership in May 6, and amended in June 7, 2005,
.............,.............,

ARTICLE I. MEMBERSHIP

1. Classes of Membership

a. Individual membership in the African Astronomical Society shall be

classified as follows: Members (designated throughout with capital M),
Associate Members, Junior Members, Honorary Members and Patrons.
b. Any person deemed capable of preparing an acceptable paper upon
some subject of astronomy or related branch of science may be elected
a Member.
c. Any person seriously interested in the advancement of astronomy or
related fields may be elected an Associate Member if he or she is 28
years of age or older, or a Junior Member if he or she is under 28
years of age. Full time students pursuing a degree in astronomy or a
related science are eligible for Junior Membership, regardless of age.
d. Any astronomer of distinction who is not resident in North America
may be elected as an Honorary Member.
e. Any person who has rendered conspicuous service to astronomy other
than through scientific contributions may be elected a Patron of the
Society.
f. Organizational memberships are open to corporations and other
entities desirous of encouraging the work of the Society.
g. The Council and each Division may permit certain individuals who
have an interest that is allied with those represented by the members
of the AfAS or its Divisions to become Affiliate members. These
individuals may participate in the activities of the Society or the
relevant Division, as appropriate, but may not vote, hold office, or
serve on AfAS Committees. The Council or the appropriate Division
shall establish the qualifications, dues, and privileges of Affiliate
membership.
h. Any individual who would qualify for membership under b or c
above
who is resident outside the United States and its territories may
become an International Affiliate of the Society. These individuals
may participate in the activities of the Society or the relevant
Division, as appropriate, but may not vote, hold office, or serve on
AfAS Committees. The Council shall establish the qualification
process, dues, and privileges for International Affiliates.
i. Any individual professionally engaged in astronomy-related
education or public outreach and whose principal employment is at a
community college, elementary or secondary school, science center,
museum, planetarium, or educational organization or agency may
become
an Educational Affiliate of the Society. Individuals employed as
professors at Universities or four-year colleges would not be eligible
for the Educational Affiliate membership class. Educational Affiliate
members may participate in the activities of the Society or Divisions,
as appropriate, but may not vote, nominate individuals for membership,
promote members in membership level, hold elected office, or serve on
AFSA Committees.

2. Method of election of Individual Members

a. Applicants for Member, Associate Member or Junior Member may at

any
time be elected by the Council or its designated representative after
nomination by two Members. Unless he or she furnishes proof of full
time student status, any Junior Member reaching 28 years of age
automatically becomes an Associate Member at the beginning of the
subsequent year.
b. Junior or Associate Members wishing to upgrade to Member must be
nominated by two Members.
c. Nominations for Honorary Member must be signed by no fewer than
five Members. The Council may elect no more than one Honorary
Member
per year.
d. Patrons of the Society must be elected by the Council. Patrons may
be elected posthumously.

3. Dues and Privileges of Membership

The Council will determine the dues for each class of member. Junior
Member and Emeritus Member dues will be set at a lower rate than the
rate set for Member and Associate Member dues. Changes in the dues
will be announced at the annual business meeting of the Society.
Honorary Members and Patrons pay no dues. All Members, Associate
Members, Junior Members, Honorary Members and Patrons shall have
the
right to attend meetings of members and to vote in the annual election
and to vote on amendments to the Constitution and to receive such
publications as the Council may authorize. Only Members have the
right
to hold office or to chair committees of the Society.

4. Emeritus Status

Any member who has retired from gainful employment and whose
contiguous years of membership in the Society total at least ten (10),
shall be eligible to be transferred to the Emeritus status in the
class of membership held at the time of that request. Dues for members
in Emeritus status shall be set at 50% of the Council-determined dues
for active members, rounded up to the nearest dollar. The
implementation of dues for those members in Emeritus status shall go
into force for any member changing to Emeritus status after . The
Council shall determine any additional rights or privileges of Emeriti
members. Requests for transfer to Emeritus status shall be submitted
to the Executive Office of the Society for approval.

5. Termination of Membership

Members of any class may resign by notifying the Executive Office or

the Secretary in writing. Membership in the Society may be suspended
or terminated by vote of the Council for conduct adjudged to be
detrimental to the interests of the Society. Failure to pay dues
within the time set by the Council shall be deemed sufficient cause
for suspension. In exceptional cases of financial difficulty,
membership dues may be waived or reduced for one year upon
individual
request to the Secretary or Executive Officer.

6. Organizational Membership

The Council may establish classes of membership for corporations,

publishers and non-profit organizations. The Council shall set the
qualifications, dues and application procedure for each class of
organizational membership in the Society. The Council also shall
establish the benefits which accrue to organizational members.

7. Quorum and Voting

a. For purposes of all actions that require membership approval, a

quorum shall consist of 5 percent of the entire membership.
b. Proxy voting is not permitted.
ARTICLE II. OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY

1. Enumeration of Officers

The elected officers of the African Astronomical Society (AfAS) shall

be President, President Elect, or in alternate years, Past President,
three Vice Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Education Officer, and
Chair of the Publications Board. The Council shall appoint an
Executive Officer. Among these the President, the Secretary, the
Treasurer, and the Executive Officer shall serve as the officers of
the corporation.

In addition, the Council may appoint such other corporate officers as

it deems fit. Any such other officers chosen by the Council shall hold
office for such period, have such authority and perform such duties as
the Council may from time to time determine. No officer appointed by
the Council pursuant to this provision shall serve as a member of the
Council by reason of his or her appointment. Any officer appointed by
the Council pursuant to this provision may be removed, either with or
without cause, by the affirmative vote of a majority of the whole
Council.

2. Terms of Office

a. Upon his or her election, the President shall serve one (1) year as
President-Elect, two (2) years as President and one (1) year as
Past-President.
b. Vice-Presidents serve for three (3) years. One is to be elected each
year.
c. The President and Vice-Presidents are not eligible for immediate
reelection.
d. The Treasurer, Secretary and Education Officer serve for three
years and may succeed themselves twice for a total of nine (9) years.
e. The Chair of the Publications Board serves for four (4) years, and
is not eligible for immediate reelection.
f. The term of the Executive Officer shall be three (3) years.
g. The terms of office of the elected officers shall formally commence
at the close of the annual business meeting following the election.

3. Vacancies

a. If the office of President becomes vacant, the President-Elect

shall act as President for the remainder of the unexpired term and
shall then continue to serve as President for the term for which he or
she originally was elected. If no President-Elect exists, the senior
Vice-President shall act as President until the next annual business
meeting at which time a new President-Elect will take office and serve
as President for three years.
b. If the Treasurer, Secretary or Education Officer no longer can
serve, the Council may fill the office for the remainder of the
unexpired term.
c. In the event of a situation not specifically covered in these
Bylaws, the Council has the power, by a vote of the majority of the
Council, to fill any vacancy which may arise among the Officers. Such
an appointment shall be limited to the unexpired term of the vacancy
being filled.

4. Duties of Officers

a. The President shall preside over Council meetings and Society

business meetings and shall perform other duties usually associated
with this office.
b. The Vice-Presidents, as representatives of the Council, will have
the responsibility for the overall scientific content of the major
meetings of the Society, including review speakers and special
sessions, and to support and advise the Executive Officer in
maintaining the scientific quality of the program.
c. The Secretary shall be responsible for keeping an accurate record
of all meetings of the Council and for preparing the official minutes
of the Council meetings. He or she shall give, or cause to be given,
all notices in accordance with these Bylaws or as required by law and
in general, shall perform all duties customary to the office of
Secretary.
d. The Treasurer shall be responsible for the financial affairs of the
Society. He or she shall perform all duties customary to that office,
shall be responsible for all corporate funds and securities, and shall
keep, or cause to be kept, full and accurate accounts of receipts and
disbursements in the books of the corporation. The Treasurer shall
deposit or invest, or cause to be deposited or invested, all monies or
other valuable effects in the name of the Society in such depositories
or investments as shall be selected by the Council or its authorized
representatives. The Treasurer shall render annually to the Council,
or when the Council so requires, an account of the financial condition
of the Society. He or she shall secure audits of the financial
operations of the Society as needed.
e. The Education Officer, under the direction of the Council, shall be
responsible for the oversight of all educational activities of the
Society. The Education Officer shall chair the Council-appointed
committee which will provide advice to the Council regarding the
education programs of the AFSA.
f. The Executive Officer shall serve as the Chief Executive Officer of
the Society, and subject to the control of the Council, shall perform
the duties customary to that office and shall manage, supervise and
control the affairs of the Society in accordance with the policies and
directives approved by the Council.
g. In addition to these tasks, the officers shall perform other tasks
as enumerated elsewhere in the Bylaws or as assigned by the Council.

5. Eligibility for Holding Office

All Members of the Society are eligible to become Officers or

Councilors. In addition to being a Member, the President-elect also
must previously have served as an elected Officer or Councilor. Junior
and Associate Members are not eligible to be Officers or Councilors.
In addition to being a Member, the Chair of the Publications Board
ordinarily will have served previously or be serving as a member of
the Publications Board (or in some capacity of scholarly publishing
activities). There should be no current editors of any capacity on the
Publications Board. In addition to being a Member, the Chair of the
Astronomy Education Board (the Education Officer) ordinarily will
have
served previously or be serving as a member of the Astronomy
Education
Board. Associate Members are eligible to serve on Society committees;
they are not eligible to chair Society committees. Junior Members are
not eligible to chair or to serve on Society committees.

ARTICLE III. COUNCIL

1. Powers and Responsibilities

The Council shall be the governing body of the Society and shall
manage, direct and control the affairs and property of the Society.
The Council shall, within the limits of the Bylaws, determine the
policies of the Society and changes therein. It shall actively
prosecute the Society’s purposes and shall have discretion in the
disbursement of the Society’s funds. It may adopt such rules and
regulations for the conduct of its business as it deems advisable, and
may, in the execution of its powers, appoint such agents as it may
consider necessary.

2. Composition of the Council

The Council shall consist of the elected officers of the Society

(President, President-Elect or Past-President, Vice-Presidents,
Secretary, Treasurer and Education Officer), the Executive Officer,
the Chair of the Publications Board, and nine Councilors, three of
whom are elected from among the Members of the Society each year to
serve for a period of three years. The elected Councilors shall not be
eligible for immediate reelection.

3. Removal of Councilors

Councilors may be removed by the membership only for cause.

4. Organization of the Council

a. The President shall serve as Chairperson of the Council. In his or

her absence the President-Elect, or in the case of the latter’s
absence one of the Vice-Presidents, in order of seniority, shall serve
as Chair.
b. The Secretary of the Society will act as secretary of the Council.
In his or her absence a substitute for that meeting will be appointed
by the Executive Committee.
5. Meetings of the Council

a. The Council shall meet at least once each year. The annual meeting
of the Council shall be held not less than one and no more than thirty
(30) days prior to the annual business meeting of the Society.
b. Additional meetings of the Council may be held at such other times
as the President may decide.
c. A request in writing to the President from four members of the
Council shall render the convocation of the Council obligatory.
d. At any meeting of the Council, one-half of the entire membership of
the Council shall constitute a quorum and, except as otherwise
provided by these Bylaws, a majority of such a quorum shall decide any
question that may come before the meeting.
e. The Secretary or President shall provide to Council notice by mail
of any Council meeting no less than thirty (30) days before the date
of the meeting. This notice shall include at a minimum the time and
location of the meeting. An agenda containing at least the principal
items of business shall be transmitted to Council Members not less
than ten (10) days prior to the Council meeting.
f. In the interim between regularly scheduled meetings the Council may
meet and vote through a telephonic conference, provided all notice
requirements for a meeting have been satisfied. In such a conference
call each member must be able to speak and each must be able to hear
all other members participating in the call. A two-thirds (2/3)
majority vote of the total Council membership is required to decide
the question.
g. Unless otherwise restricted by the Articles of Incorporation or
these Bylaws, any action required or permitted to be taken by the
Council may be taken without a meeting if all Council members consent
in writing to the adoption of a resolution describing and authorizing
the action. The resolution and the written consents shall be
delivered to the organization and filed with the minutes of the
Council or filed with the corporate records reflecting the action
taken. Action taken becomes effective when the last Councilor signs
the consent, unless the consent specifies a different effective date,
in which event the action taken is effective as of that date,
provided, the consent states the date of execution by each Councilor.
Such consent shall have the same force and effect as a unanimous vote.
h. The Council has the power, by a vote of the majority of the
Council, to fill any vacancy which may arise among the elected
Councilors. This appointment shall be limited to the unexpired term of
the vacancy being filled.

6. Emergency Powers

If there is a catastrophic event, the Councilors able to meet may

exercise emergency powers to take action for the organization as
necessary.

ARTICLE IV. ELECTION OF OFFICERS AND COUNCILORS

1. Nominations

The slate of candidates for Officers and Councilors shall be prepared

by the Nominating Committee. At least two candidates shall be
proposed
by the Nominating Committee for each vacancy for President,
Vice-President and Councilor. For the position of Secretary, Treasurer
and Education Officer, the Nominating Committee, in consultation with
the Executive Committee of the Society, shall propose one candidate
for each vacancy. Members of the Nominating Committee are ineligible
for nomination to office.

2. Write-in Nominations

The proposed slate of candidates must be announced to the members of

the Society, along with a deadline not less than forty-five (45) days
after the mailing of the announcement before which additional
candidates may be proposed. Additional nominations may be made in
writing and must be signed by at least thirty (30) voting Members of
the Society. No Member may sign for more than one additional nominee
per year.

3. Balloting
In order to be included on the final slate of candidates, the
candidate must supply written consent that he or she is willing to
serve, if elected. The ballot shall be distributed, by mail or
electronic means, to all individual members no less than forty-five
(45) days before the deadline for counting. No provision for write-in
candidates will be made on the ballot.

4. Voting

Officers and Councilors will be elected by a plurality of the votes

cast by the members entitled to vote if a quorum has been met.

5. Nominating and Voting Procedure

The Council shall determine such additional requirements and

procedures as needed and shall assign the responsibilities for
preparing the ballot and recording the votes. Electronic voting shall
be permitted if the Council determines it is appropriate. All
questions of procedure and interpretation shall be resolved by the
Council.
ARTICLE V. INDEMNIFICATION OF OFFICERS AND
COUNCILORS

Individuals indemnified under Article X of the Constitution may be

indemnified only if they acted in good faith; reasonably believed, in
the case of conduct in an official capacity, that the conduct was in
the best interest of the organization, in all other cases, reasonably
believed the conduct was at least not opposed to the best interest of
the corporation, and in the case of a criminal proceeding, had no
reasonable cause to believe the conduct was unlawful. An individual’s
eligibility for indemnification shall be determined by a majority vote
of all the disinterested councilors.

Any individual seeking indemnification is prohibited from

indemnification for liability arising out of conduct that constitutes
intentional infliction of harm on the corporation or the members, or
an intentional violation of criminal law.
ARTICLE VI. MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY

1. Meetings

There shall be an annual meeting and such other meetings of the

Society as the Council shall designate. The Council shall determine
the time and place of the annual meeting of the Society, and shall
provide for an annual business meeting, which shall be held in
conjunction with a scientific meeting of the Society, at which the
President, Treasurer and other officers at the discretion of the
Council, shall report to the Membership.

2. Announcements of Meetings

An announcement of each scientific meeting shall be mailed to all

members not less than twenty-one (21) days before the meeting. The
announcement of the annual business meeting shall be included in the
announcement of the scientific meeting at which it is to be held.

An announcement for a special meeting including the date, time, and

place of the meeting shall be mailed to the members not less than
twenty-one (21) days before the meeting. The notice shall include a
description of the purpose for which the meeting is called.

3. Agenda and Program

The Council shall have charge of the agenda of business meetings and
the program of scientific meetings. The Council may establish rules
for the presentation of papers at meetings of the Society.

4. Participation in Meetings

All members may attend scientific meetings of the Society.

Organizational members of the Society may participate in the program
of scientific meetings in such ways as established by the Council.
They also may provide exhibits judged to be of interest to other
members of the Society. The regulations and charges for such exhibits
shall be set by the Council or its designated representative.

5. Special Meetings

a. The council or 25% of the voting membership can call a special

meeting.
b. Special meetings may be held inside or outside of the District
of Columbia. Meetings may be held by Internet if the members have
the
opportunity to read or hear the proceedings concurrently with their
occurrence, vote on matters submitted, pose questions, and make
comments.

ARTICLE VII. COMMITTEES

1. The Nominating Committee

a. The Nominating Committee shall consist of five Members of the

Society. All Members are eligible to serve except those who are voting
members of the Council. Associate Members and Junior Members are
not
eligible.
b. Each member of the Nominating Committee shall serve three years
and
shall not be eligible for immediate reelection to the Nominating
Committee. The terms of the five members shall be staggered so that no
more than two Members are elected in any one year.
c. Candidates for membership on the Nominating Committee shall be
nominated from the floor of the annual business meeting by a Member.
At least two names shall be proposed for each vacancy.
d. The proposed slate of candidates for the Nominating Committee must
be announced to the members of the Society along with a deadline not
less than forty-five (45) days after the mailing of the announcement
before which additional candidates may be proposed. Additional
nominations may be made in writing to the Secretary and must be
signed
by at least five (5) Members of the Society. No Member may sign for
more than one additional nominee per year.
e. In order to be included on the final slate of candidates, the
candidate must supply written consent that he or she is willing to
serve. The ballot shall be distributed, by mail or electronic means,
to all members no less than forty-five (45) days before the deadline
for counting. No provision for write-in candidates will be made on the
ballot.
f. The Council shall determine such additional requirements and
procedures as are needed and shall assign the responsibilities for
preparing the ballot and recording the votes. All questions of
procedure and interpretation shall be resolved by the Council.
g. Within two weeks after the election, the Secretary shall announce
to all old and new members of the Nominating Committee its new
composition. The term of office of new members starts and the term of
office of outgoing members terminates on the date of this
announcement.
h. If a vacancy occurs during the term of a member of the Nominating
Committee, it shall be filled by the candidate who had the next
highest number of votes on the most recent ballot. The new member
shall continue in office for the duration of the unexpired term.
i. Each new Chairperson of the Nominating Committee shall be selected
from the committee by a poll of its newly constituted members
conducted by the outgoing Chairperson. The new Chairperson shall
have
served at least one year on the Nominating Committee before being
eligible for this position. No Chairperson may serve in that capacity
more than one year of the term for which he or she was elected to the
Nominating Committee.

2. Executive Committee

a. The President, President-elect or Past-President, the two senior

Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and Executive Officer, plus any
additional Officers or Councilors designated by the Council, shall
serve as an Executive Committee to act for the Council between Council
meetings on all matters except the authorization of distributions,
action on items required to be approved by the members, or adoption,
amendment, or repeal of the bylaws. Such actions of the Executive
Committee shall be reported to the Council at its next regularly
scheduled meeting.
b. The Executive Committee may meet and vote through a telephonic
conference, provided all notice requirements for a meeting have been
satisfied. In such a conference call each member must be able to speak
and each must be able to hear all other members participating in the
call. A two-thirds (2/3) majority vote of the total Executive
Committee membership is required to decide the question.
c. Unless otherwise restricted by the Articles of Incorporation or
these Bylaws, any action permitted to be taken by the Executive
Committee may be taken without a meeting if all members consent in
writing to the adoption of a resolution describing and authorizing the
action. The resolution and the written consents shall be delivered to
the organization and filed with the corporate records reflecting the
action taken. Action taken becomes effective when the last committee
member signs the consent, unless the consent specifies a different
effective date, in which event the action taken is effective as of
that date. Such consent shall have the same force and effect as a
unanimous vote.

3. Publications Board

a. The Publications Board shall regularly review the publication

policies of each of the Society’s publications and shall, in
consultation with the Editors, report its findings and recommendations
to the Council. This Board shall, when required, nominate for Council
approval an Editor or Editor-in-Chief for each publication. This Board
will be available to the Editors and will act as an advisory Editorial
Board for each publication when called upon to do so.
b. There shall be nine (or ten) voting members of the Publications
Board, eight serving in rotation for terms of four years, dating from
the first of January in the year following their election, and the
ninth (and tenth) being the Chair (and Chair-elect). The chair shall
serve a term of four years following one year as chair-elect. A new
chair-elect shall be elected every fourth year. The Publications
Board chair-elect shall serve for a full year on the Publications
Board as chair-elect, beginning with the Annual Business Meeting
immediately following election and continuing until taking office as
Chair. The Publications Board Chair-elect would have the right to
attend Council meetings, but without voting privileges.
c. Council shall elect board members and chairs-elect from nominees
provided by the Nominating Committee. Two new members shall be
elected
by Council each year to replace two retiring members. The Nominating
Committee, in close consultation with the editors-in-chief, the
current Publications Board Chair, and the President, shall propose at
least two candidate board members and chairs-elect for each open
position as needed. No current editors shall serve on the Publications
Board. Written consent to serve shall be required of all candidates.
If a vacancy occurs among the board members, the Council may name
new
members as necessary. In the event the chair is serving as a member of
the Publications Board at the time of election, that election shall be
deemed to create a vacancy on the Publications Board and the
appropriate procedures for filling such a vacancy shall be followed.
d. The Special Libraries Association, Physics-Astronomy-Mathematics
Division’s Astronomy Roundtable shall nominate a non-voting board
member, who will be approved by the Council. The term for this
representative is four years.

4. Astronomy Education Board

a. The Astronomy Education Board shall regularly review the Society’s

education policies and activities, and shall report its findings and
recommendations to the Council. This Board will be available to the
Education Officer and the Director of Education Activities when called
upon for advice.
b. There shall be ten voting members of the Astronomy Education
Board(AEB), nine serving in rotation for terms of three years, dating
from the Annual Business meeting following their election, and the
tenth being the Education Officer. Each year the Council shall elect
new AEB Members as required from a slate proposed by the
Nominating
Committee in consultation with the Executive Committee and the
Education Officer. Written consent to serve shall be required of all
candidates for AEB Membership before their names are placed on the
slate. In the event the Education Officer is serving as a member of
the Astronomy Education Board at the time of election as Education
Officer, that election shall be deemed to create a vacancy on the
Astronomy Education Board and the appropriate procedures for filling
such a vacancy shall be followed.

5. Additional Committees

The Council may appoint such other standing or ad hoc committees as it

needs.
ARTICLE VIII. SUB-UNITS OF THE SOCIETY

1. Divisions of the Society for Special Subjects

a. The Council may appoint an Organizing Committee for the purpose

of
setting up a Division of the American Astronomical Society for a
special subject. This action is in order whenever the present general
meetings of the society as a whole, as well as its other activities,
do not effectively and sufficiently contribute to the advancement of
the research in the subject area because either:
1) a subject belonging to the discipline of astronomy in its broadest
sense has grown unusually rapidly in research activity and has
developed specialized approaches, or:
2) it receives a large portion of its key research contributions from
scientists who are not professional astronomers in the conventional
sense.
At the time such a Division is established, the Council shall appoint
a temporary Chairperson of the Organizing Committee whose duty it
shall be to conduct the election of the new Division’s permanent
Chairperson.
b. The Organizing Committee shall draw up the Bylaws governing the
organization and the procedures of the Division subject to the
following restrictions:
1) The Bylaws shall provide for such officers as are deemed necessary
to administer the Division and for the formation of the Committee of
the Division which shall be its governing body.
2) The Bylaws of the Division shall prescribe that Division officers
shall be voting Members of the Division. Divisional Chairpersons,
Secretaries and Treasurers (or Secretary/Treasurers if that is the
case) shall be Members of the AfAS.
3) The Bylaws shall prescribe the lengths and conditions of the terms
of office for the officers, the method of their nomination and
election, as well as the method of the nomination and election of
Division Members.
4) The Bylaws shall prescribe a procedure for amending the Bylaws.
5) The Bylaws may contain additional provisions which are not
inconsistent with the Bylaws and Constitution of the Society and which
do not interfere in any way with the activities or affairs of the
Society.
6) Before adoption of the Bylaws by the Organizing Committee, as well
as subsequent amendments to these Bylaws by the Committee of the
Division, they shall be submitted forty-five (45) days prior to the
next Council meeting via the Society’s Secretary to the Council of the
Society for approval.
c. Each Division shall normally hold at least one Division meeting per
year. All members of the Society shall have the right to attend such
Division meetings. Announcements of Division meetings shall be
published and distributed to all Society members.
d. The Treasurer of each Division shall submit annually a formal
account of the finances of the Division to the Treasurer or Executive
Officer of the Society for inclusion in the general accounts of the
Society and for presentation to the Council. Division accounts may be
audited if such action is deemed desirable by the Council.
e. Each Division shall be independently responsible for organizing its
Division meetings. The Chairperson of each Division, or an alternate
appointed by the Division, has the right to attend meetings of the
Council, and to report upon Division activities, but not to vote.
f. Any Division may be dissolved at the discretion of the Council.
2. Working Groups

a. Whenever it becomes apparent that coordinated action in a specific

area would be beneficial, the Council may establish a Working Group
for that subject and shall appoint a Chairperson and a steering
committee. Steering committee members must be either Associate or
Full
Members of the Society. The steering committee shall decide the
subsequent structure and organization of the Working Group.
b. Working Groups may hold meetings, identify problem areas, and
take
such actions as are necessary for the purpose of coordinating and
aiding in the general purposes of the Society as are not inconsistent
with the Bylaws and policies of the Society and that do not interfere
with the other activities or affairs of the Society.
c. The Working Groups shall be responsible to the Council and shall
submit annually to the Council a report of their activities for
comment and approval.
d. Working Groups which fail to submit an annual report shall be
presumed to have filled their need and will be deemed to have been
dissolved. The Council may dissolve a Working Group at any time.
ARTICLE IX. AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLICATIONS

1. Publications

The Society shall publish refereed scientific journals of original

content material such as the Astronomical Journal and Astrophysical
Journal and other publications including but not limited to journals,
monographs, databases, proceedings and reprint series as may be
deemed
advisable by the Council.
The Society shall publish additional materials in support of the work
of the Society, including but not limited to educational materials,
career services, historical materials, and public policy documents.
Society publications may be made available in a variety of print and
electronic media.
2. Editors

Each journal of original scientific content material shall have an

Editor (or Editor-in-chief) who shall be responsible for the overall
content and management of the journal. The Council, with advice from
the Publications Board, shall appoint each Editor. The term of the
Editor shall be set by the Council and may be renewable. The Editor of
each journal shall have the right to attend meetings of the Council,
but not to vote.
The Editor may propose and the Council, with advice from the
Publications Board, may appoint additional editors to assist in the
editorial process. The term of the appointment shall be set by the
Council.

3. Finances

A restricted fund shall be designated by the Council for the operation

of its journals. The reserve fund shall be maintained at a level of at
least one-half (1/2) of the annual operating expenses of its journals.

The Treasurer shall annually review and report to the Council on the
financial operation of each journal. The Council shall set the page
charges and subscription rates for the coming budget year at a level
which will maintain the required level in the journals fund or, in the
case of a deficiency, which will restore the level within three years.
ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS

1. Procedure for Amendment

These Bylaws may be amended, altered or repealed in whole or in part,

or new Bylaws may be adopted by the affirmative vote of two-thirds
(2/3) of the entire Council at any regular or special meeting of the
Council, provided that at least eight weeks written notice of the
proposed changes has been given to the members of the AAS.

2. Temporary Suspension
At any properly convened meeting of the Council, individual articles
of these Bylaws may be suspended until the next succeeding Council
meeting by a two-thirds (2/3) vote of the total membership of the
Council.
ARTICLE XI. NON-DISCRIMINATION IN PROFESSIONAL
ACTIVITIES

As a professional society, the AfAS must provide an environment that

encourages the free expression and exchange of scientific ideas. In
pursuit of that environment, the AfAS is committed to the philosophy
of equality of opportunity and treatment for all members, regardless
of gender, race, ethnic origin, religion, age, marital status, sexual
orientation, disabilities, or any other reason not related to
scientific merit. All functions of the Society must be conducted in a
professional atmosphere in which all participants are treated with
courtesy and respect. It is the responsibility of the chairperson of
an AfAS committee, of the organizers of any AfAS meeting, and of the
members themselves to ensure that such an atmosphere is maintained.
Furthermore, the rich diversity of the Society’s membership and of the
astronomical community in general is a resource that should be drawn
upon when selecting organizing committees, invited speakers, and
nominees for office and for special prizes.

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physics journal publishing invited reviews covering all areas of relativity
research.
 MathPages - Reflections on Relativity — A complete online course on
Relativity.
 Special Relativity Simulator
 A Relativity Tutorial at Caltech — A basic introduction to concepts of
Special and General Relativity, as well as astrophysics.
 Relativity Gravity and Cosmology — A short course offered at MIT.
 Relativity in film clips and animations from the University of New South
Wales.
 Animation clip visualizing the effects of special relativity on fast moving
objects.
 Relativity Calculator - Learn Special Relativity Mathematics The
mathematics of special relativity presented in as simple and comprehensive
manner possible within philosophical and historical contexts.
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