Notes GG         

      Microbiology QUESTIONS             the  *  indicate the number of times it has been requested topic    

Background: I have collected questions from the year 2013 to 2016 (September) session, but I do not have unified
some questions that remained scattered (albeit deal with the same topic). Some questions are out of place as a
section. They tend to be quite accurate, but to err is human. These notes should be right, but you always call to
check before you make an argument. On Sunhope find the Paco notes on bacteriology and special virology, but
those notes lack parasitology, protozoa and fungi, so you can integrate them from here (in addition to this, some
topics of general bacteriology are discussed in more detail in my notes, so ibridateli a bit ;) )   

general Bacteriology   

Cell wall - Gram +, Gram - *********: the cell wall is a layer composed of peptidoglycan and other
molecules that is located outside of the plasma membrane of bacterial cells. E 'consists of a polymer of
N- acetylglucosamine linked by a beta 1-6 bond to a molecule of N- acetylmuramic acid, which in turn is
linked via a beta 1-4 bond to a N- acetylglucosamine, to resume the cycle until the termination of the
molecule. This linear polymer is connected to the other adjacent linear polymers via a tetrapeptide chain
(originating from a molecule of N-acetylmuramic acid) that underlies a pentaglicina that connects one
tetrapeptide chain, allowing the formation of crosslinks. The layer can be more or less often depending on
the fact that the bacterium is Gram + or Gram - (with relative structural differences). The Gram + possess
a very thick cell wall teichoic acid and the use to connect one layer to another (while the chains are
connected with the common mode to both); these acids run through all the layers, from the plasma
membrane to the lowest layer and from this to the highest, acting as a support, and connection filter that
allows both the passage of hydrophilic molecules, ions and even large molecules selected both the
export of proteins synthesized by the bacterium (exo-enzymes, toxins). The Gram - instead possess a
very thin cell wall but also an outer membrane that overhangs the layer of peptidoglycan; this outer
membrane is divided into 2 parts: one part more 
Internal formed by phospholipids and an outermost formada by LPS, a molecule with pathogenic function

and peculiar of Gram - (defined endotoxin). In the past we mycobacteria which possess a layer of

peptidoglycan connected to arabino- galactans in turn connected with mycolic acids and phenolic

glycolipids    

Synthesis peptidoglycan *: the synthesis cycle starts from a n-acetylglucosamine (NAG) which is
phosphorylated transformed into NAG-P. The NAG-P is associated to 'UDP coming from a molecule of
UTP, with expenditure of P 2 molecules, forming UDP-NAG. UDP-NAG is associated with a molecule of
phosphoenolpyruvate, forming UDP-NAG-pyruvate with expenditure of a P (reaction inhibited by
fosfomycin). The UDP-NAG-pyruvate pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid with the formation (through the
use of glucosamine) of a muramic acid molecule that remains associated UDP. Thus, the UDP-NAM is
tied to a pentapeptide (reaction inhibited by CYCLOSERINE). UDP-NAM-pentapeptide is transferred on a
lipid carrier, it represented dall'Undecaprenil-P, with release of UMP.
All'Undecaprenil-P-P-NAM-pentapeptide of NAG is added via transfer from a UDP-NAG, with release of
UDP. It was formed complete baseline unit of peptidoglycan (NAG-NAM). At this point,
all'Undecaprenil-P-P-nag- NAM-pentapeptide are added different basal units of peptidoglycan by the
action of PBP 1A and 1B (PBP = penicillin binding proteins - in fact, the reaction is inhibited by penicillin)
that forming both the beta 1-4 bonds (transglicosilante action) both links between adjacent chains of
peptides (transpeptidante action). The polymers are detached from the lipid carrier (action inhibited by
vancomycin) through the use of a D-alanine molecule as an energy source. The lipid carrier
Undecaprenil-P-P is recycled through release of P (action inhibited by BACITRACIN) to accept the next
UDP-nam pentapeptide. The inclusion of the NAG-NAM-tetrapeptide in the cell wall is mediated by PBP 2
and 3 (action inhibited by PENICILLIN)   

Spore - ********** spore-forming bacteria: the spores are structures formed by Gram + bacteria designed
to ensure their survival even in absolute disadvantage environmental conditions (temperatures from less
than 0 ° to 100 °, no energy reserves , exposure to sunlight that lasts for years, drying). Generically bacilli
are the spore-forming bacteria, but there are also cocci of the genus 
Sporosarcina and Rickettsia similar formations that produce spores (endospores). The spores are
grouped into 3 different morphologies: battridio (central spore that does not deform the bacterial body),
clostidio (spore with largest diameter larger than the mother cell and deforms the profile) and plettridio
(spore terminal that makes it look like the cell to a "drumstick"). To describe a spore is necessary to
speak of the structure, sporulation and germination 

- Structure of spore: formed by a core, a cortex and two external coatings 

Core : It contains the chromosome, a part of the cytoplasm, some enzymes, acid soluble proteins
(which allow the spore to survive UV) and 3- phosphoglycerate as an energy reserve. E
'surrounded by a plasma membrane surmounted by a layer of peptidoglycan (spore wall) 

Cortex : External to the spore wall, is constituted by a thick layer of peptidoglycan and modified
sugars (Muramic delta lactam acid - site of attack of germinal enzymes). Associated with the
peptidoglycan there is an acid, the DPA that is complexed with Ca ++ ions and create crosslinks
in the same peptidoglycan that cause contraction and eliminate the water (to increase the
resistance of the heat-spore) 

Coating : Also called coats, there are two and are composed of proteins similar to the keratins that
allow the cell to resist antibacterial and coloring substances. These two coatings can be in turn
surmounted by a thin membrane lipoprotein (called esosporio), formed by teichoic acids and
glucosamine 

- Sporulation: the start is given by 2 distinct events: the decrease of GTP intracellular and
extracellular increase in density with EDF1 secretion cells. These 2 signals cause the bacterial
RNA polymerase composed of alpha subunit beta beta sigma, is cleaved and inactive one
subunit that recognize the genes of the vegetative cell. Simultaneously it activates sigma11
transcribing some useful genes to sporulation. At the same time also the SPOA regulatory protein
is phosphorylated, and if it reaches high concentrations, induces the transcription of other sigma
subunits (F, G, E, K) which transcribe genes acts to sporulation [sigma K transcribes genes that
allow the 
 formation of the cortex and of coats, while sigma G allows the synthesis of spore] wall 

- Germination: shall be understood as the return to vegetative cell and takes place in three distinct

phases: activation, germination, esocrescita. 

Activation : As a result of traumatic nature stimuli such as changes in pH or exposure to high

temperatures (60 °) the transverse sulfur bridges are broken, increasing the cellular permeability 

Germination : If there are the "inducers of germination process" (ie substances such as sugars,
amino acids and precursors of nucleic acids) the germination prosiegue entering the phase
germination real. Lytic enzymes are activated while the water penetrates into the spore. They
degrade the components of the spore coatings (such as DPA) and begin to synthesize the
materials useful for the nascent vegetative cell. They are synthesized proteins and nucleic acids
that promote fattening in the third phase 

Esocrescita : If there is a good availability of nitrogen and carbon, is formed a new vegetative cell

that escapes from degraded coatings of the spore and vegetative life begins   

Growth curve ***********: semilog Cartesian axis system in which they are reported on the abscissa the
time of observation and on the ordinate axis the number of bacteria. From the diagram you can describe a
growth of "standard mode", divided into 4 phases: lag phase, phase of positive acceleration, exponential
growth phase, phase of negative acceleration, stationary phase and decline phase. Obviously, the growth
will not take place in the same manner for all cells, but there are ways to select the cells and ensure that
you will be able to have a growth as homogeneous as possible (or using the filtration by size, or lower
temperatures for slow growth or operating cytostatic for the same reason). Shift Shift Up and Down
respectively indicate an increase and a decrease of growth given by an increase or a decrease of
environmental resources 

- Lag phase: characterized by the volume increase of the cells in the absence of cell division. In this
phase it has increased metabolism of the bacterial cell, which synthesizes especially nucleic acids
and proteins. The duration of the phase depends on factors depending on the ground (if it comes
from the bacterium 
 a phase different terrain stretches), environmental factors (temperature, pH and oxygenation) and
dependent factors inoculation (inversely proportional to the amount of cells inoculated and
directly proportional to their age) 

- positive acceleration phase: starts with an acceleration of cell growth rate that increases over a
number 
- Exponential growth phase: the stage where the growth rate is maximum and constant (1 / d =
mu -> growth rate) 
- negative acceleration phase: progressive deceleration of the cell growth rate  

- Stationary phase: occurs when the number reaches 1-5 billion cells per milliliter. At this stage
there is a strong decrease of nutrients, the accumulation of toxic metabolites and by contact
inhibition phenomena  
- Decline Phase: condition given the depletion of nutrients and a high accumulation of toxic

substances, which lead to bacterial cell death. The spore-forming bacteria do not reach this stage,

but already in the stationary to ensure their protection and conservation   

Biofilm ********: capsular material derived from an entire bacterial colony that has defensive properties,
adhesive and nutrients. Generally we find it adherent to the teeth, but it can also adhere to the venous
catheters, heart valves and transplanted to different types of prosthesis. The term biofilm is used to
describe structured communities of bacterial cells (microcolonies) enclosed in polymer matrices (both
hetero polysaccharide polymer that homo, called "slime") extracellular autoprodotte and adherent to an
inert or living surface, at the interface with a liquid phase . Generally the functions that we can attribute to
the biofilm are: buffer against changes in pH environment, capturing the nutrients to the external
environment, energy reserves, resistance to selective gas pressure, resistance to phagocytosis, antibiotic
resistance, toxins and as an adhesive factor . It consists of 5 different temporal evolutionary stages:  

-  adhesion to the surface [that it is organic or inorganic, is implemented through the MSCRAMM
protein family; these proteins can bind fibrinogen, albumin, and the Von willerbrand factor]  
-  formation of microcolonies [anchor the bacteria to the area of ​colonization determines the
activation of genes otherwise repressed, responsible for the phenotype "biofilm". The interaction between
the various individuals determines a mechanism (called quorum sensing) that enables all the cells of a
microbial population to adjust, in a coordinated manner, the expression of a number of genes as a function
of the density of the population itself. It is effected by means of the production, secretion and perception of
specific signal molecules, called inducers car 

-  stable intercellular adhesion [is used predominantly as the adhesin PIA, namely the
polysaccharide intercellular adhesin, formed by a linear omoglicano of 130 residues of
N-acetylglucosamine with beta 1-6] ties 

-  maturation [Growth and formation of multi-layered structure of a vegetative or sessile appearance.

It involves all the components of the biofilm or the cellular elements such as the esopolisaccaridica
substance] 

-  bacterial release [in planktonic form or in the environment of bacterial aggregates] The defensive

function of the biofilm is carried out both by preventing the diffusion of drugs within the polysaccharide

layer, either by preventing the phagocytosis of the bacterial cell by macrophages and neutrophils. The

shape of the aggregate sessile bacteria produces antigens that stimulate antibody synthesis but these are

unable to reach out and kill bacteria trapped in the biofilm due to the steric hindrance polymorphonuclear

can not reach the site of infection and carry out their action but even though they penetrate the biofilm

physical barrier fail to engulf bacteria. The biofilm is therefore an important factor in the persistence of the

infectious process   

bacterial capsule:   

Staining Gram +, Gram - ****: is part of the differential staining: the bacterial material is fixed on the slide
or with heat or with chemical fixatives, then is colored with crystal violet for about a minute and is etched
with solution of Iodized Iodine for another minute. Wash the slide with water and decolorized for 30
seconds with the use of an ethanol-acetone 1: 1 solution. Wash the slide with water and is colored with
safranin again for about 30 seconds. Wash the slide again 
and it is observed the preparation: some bacteria appear colored violet and other red. The Gram + are

those of violet colored, given that their wall is opposite to the ethanol-acetone discoloration thanks to the

thickness of the peptidoglycan. The Gram - are those who do not possess a thick wall were bleached

and then re-colored red (safranin)   

colors:  

- Simple: involving the use of a single dye. The preparations are fixed and the dyes being left to act
for about 3 minutes and then we proceed to washing. The simple most commonly used dyes are
crystal violet, methylene bleu (Janet monochromatic coloring - used for Neisseria gonorrhoeae),
the basic fuchsin    

color of the capsule  [Not intendibile as coloring in the strict sense, using the India ink undiluted
to highlight in "negative" bacterial capsule that microscopic observation corresponds to a white
halo region around the bacterium, while the extracellular environment will be black]    

- Differentials: they foresee the use of more dyes, which are used at different times on the same
prepared. Among these we are: 

Gram stain [ already described] 

Ziehl-Neelsen  or hot carbol fuchsin [useful to recognize the mycobacteria, the specimen is fixed by
heat to the glass slide and then is colored with magenta added to carbolic acid. The solution is
heated to form vapors and then washed with water. It proceeds to discoloration by using a solution of
alcohol-acid (generically ethanol + 3% hydrochloric or sulfuric to 20%) for 30-60 seconds. The
preparation is washed with water and bleached in a manner identical repeatedly, until does not yield
more dye. At this point we use the Loeffler methylene blue for 2-3 minutes to give color to other
bacteria and washed with water. Mycobacteria are colored in pink, while other bacteria in blue] 
 Kinyoun of color  or cold carbol fuchsin [4 grams of Fuchsin ranging dissolved in 100 ml of ethanol
and then must be added to 100 ml of water and 8 grams of phenol. It is expected that the solution to
cool to room temperature and turns the slide for 5 minutes. It is washed with water and then colored
with methylene blue the remaining cells. It is washed again with water and it is observed the
preparation]  

coloration auramine rhodamine  [0.1 grams of auramine and 0.75 grams of rhodamine with agginuta of
glycerol in 10 ml of 95% ethanol are mixed with 3 grams of phenol dissolved in crystals in 100ml d
'water. It lays the solution on the slide, expect 15 minutes and washed with water. It is decolorized
with a solution of hydrochloric acid and 100 ml of 70% ethanol for about 2 minutes. It is washed with
water and using potassium permanganate in 100 ml of water for the last contrast coloring; washing
after 2 minutes and you examine (mycobacteria appear yellow gold)] 

staining metachromatic granules  [Turns the slide with Albert dye for 3-5 minutes, then wash with
water. Subsequently is colored with Lugol's iodine solution for 1 minute. Wash with water and
proceed microscopic observation] 

coloration of the spores  [Similar to Ziehl-Neelsen, left for a longer time (5 minutes) the carbol magenta
hot]   

Staining of the flagellum  [An iron tannate solution is applied for several minutes and then wash with water. An

ammoniacal silver nitrate solution is then heated nearly to boiling and poured onto the slide. It is left to act for 3 to 5

minutes and then is observed under the microscope]                                                                                               

drugs:  

- Inhibitors of DNA synthesis as a result of blocking the synthesis of folic acid -> Sulfonamides 

- Inhibitors of DNA synthesis as a result of topoisomerase Block 2 and 4 -> quinolone 

- Irreversible damage bacterial DNA -> Nitrofurans 

- Inhibitors of RNA synthesis -> Rifamycines 
 - Inhibitors of protein synthesis -> Tetracycline 
- Damage to the bacterial cell wall by interference with the synthesis of peptidoglycan ->
Beta-lactam, Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Fosfomycin, Cycloserine 

- Damage to the wall of mycobacteria by interference with the synthesis of typical compounds ->
Isoniazid 
- Damage to bacterial membranes -> polymyxins (for Gram - only)   

Toxins ****:   

Sterilization *: practice used to eliminate all forms of life from a given surface. Generally an object is
called sterile when the likelihood of finding life on it is comparable to one in a million. There are various
means for sterilization, grouped into two categories: chemical and physical means. The chemical means
correspond to exposure to formaldehyde or ethylene oxide, but more often are used physical ones, such
as heat or ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation corresponding to UV rays and gamma rays. The sources
of heat to sterilize most used are the dry stoves (the object is placed for 2 hours at 180 ° C or 3 hours at
140 °) or autoclaves (the object is exposed to water vapor under pressure to 120 ° for about 30
minutes)    

Lipoprotein Brown: presents a hydrophobic termination via which binds to the outer membrane. In this

way the lipoprotein acts as a binder between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan layer   

Vaccines - pasteur of rabies, and salk sabin ********: The vaccine is a preparation containing material
consisting of foreign substances, from microorganisms or parts of them, suitably treated so as not to lose
the antigenic properties and thus be immunogenic but so as not to be pathogenic to the treaty body. The
vaccine is primarily aimed at active immunity conferring the person to whom it is administered. 
 - Rabies Pasteur: prepared by Louis Pasteur in 1885. The scholar isolated the virus from an
infected animal (street virus) and attenuated by drying with a series of repeated passages of
rabbit brain (fixed virus) 

-  

LPS endotoxin ******: constitutes the most superficial part of the double lipid leaflet of the outer
membrane, composed of phospholipids inferiorly and superiorly LPS, composed in turn by three different
structures: lipid A, the core and the antigen OR 

-   The region of lipid A: consists of a disaccharide (glucosamine)   phosphorylated esterified with

saturated fatty acids from 12 to 16 carbon atoms 
- The core polysaccharide (core): constituted by a short chain of sugars, including if they are two
peculiar the KDO and a Heptose 
- The lateral polysaccharide chain (O-antigen): consisting of a long chain polysaccharide (up to 40

sugars) that is bound to the adjacent thanks to Mg2 + ions, which act as a bridge between the

chains   

Quorum sensing: The quorum sensing is a transcriptional regulation system dependent on the cell
density. The system is composed of two elements: the signal molecule (usually an acylated homoserine
lactone for gram-negative bacteria, an oligopeptide for gram-positive) and the transcriptional activator.
The signal molecule is an inductor that spreads outside the original cell, and can thus enter into the
cytoplasm of other adjacent cells. If the concentration of signal molecule within the bacterial cell
population is high, this molecule will bind to the transcriptional activator, which in turn will activate or
repress a series of genes, determining the activation or shutdown of metabolic pathways or processes
specific cell.   

Bacterial Genetics *****: bacteria possess a single large circular chromosome in single copy,
confined in a region of space defined nucleoid. This DNA is not wrapped by histones, it is
organized into transcriptional units 
multicistronic, defined operon or operons and there are non-redundant sequences. There are also
ancillary units defined gene plasmids; circular and double-stranded, they may encode or less and when
coding may confer resistance to the particular cell, such as antibiotics, toxins or may act as a
"conjugative plasmids". Genetic processes that bacteria can perform or undergo are: duplication,
transcription and translation, sequence transfer, transformation, transduction, conjugation. 

-  Duplication: semiconservative mechanism. There are 2 possible replicative models: the fork
model replicative and the mechanism to "rolling circle" 

Replication fork : Predicts that the DNA is initially separated from Topoisomerase 4 and that a
primase fits over point just opened; the primase synthesizes an RNA primer that is bound by the
DNA polymerase 3, which synthesizes the DNA strand in the direction 5 '-> 3'. The filament which
takes place in the opposite direction can not progress in a continuous manner but, as the replicative
fork becomes larger, they fit primase of synthesizing new primers each new opening, allowing
replication in "shots"; these interruptions are called Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are
removed by DNA polymerase 1, which removes and replaces the RNA with DNA. A firm ligase
together the various fragments. Topoisomerase 1 progressively despiralizza the double helix to
decrease the tensional stress, while Topoisomerase 2 increases spiralizzazioni to ensure proper
"inpacchettamento" DNA neoformato 

Replication to "rolling circle" : It predicts that the DNA is cut by a specific enzyme and that the DNA
polymerase 3 binds to the free OH group of the nucleotide adjacent to the cut; at this point the
polymerase should synthesize the complementary nucleotides to the filament that reads while the
overlying filament comes off gradually. Once synthesized completely circular filament, it will be
obtained a free linear filament which can be bound by a DNA polymerase 3 for the synthesis of the
complementary strand. The linear fragment is subsequently coiled and circularized. 

- Transcription and translation: the bacterial RNA polymerase synthesizes the messenger RNA
from a DNA fragment (suitably despiralized and made accessible); is polycistronic messenger
RNA (ie can be translated directly into several proteins) and does not undergo the processes of 
 splicing. While the synthesis takes place immediately binds to ribosomes and is translated into
proteins (subunit of the ribosome are 30S and 50S). The translation process is identical to that
prokaryotic 
- Transfer sequence: elements present in both the circular chromosome into plasmids that can
move (after dubbing) from one area of ​DNA, with mutagenic effect. The transposable elements
are: the insertion sequences, transposons and reversible elements 

Insertion Sequence : Small stretches of DNA coding for the most part in enzymes, able to move
from one area to another DNA 

transposons : Elements larger than the insertion sequences. They encode for enzymes that can
inactivate drugs, conferring antibiotic-resistance (genes contained in the core of the transposon) 

invertible elements : Similar to transposons, but in addition to the genes that encode for the
transposition also encode for the genes that enable them to synthesize an enzyme that reverses the
whole towards the element (rotating 180 °) 

- Transformation: a process discovered by Griffith and Avery, allows bacteria to acquire genetic
material from outside the cell. If the bacterial population density is high, competent cells release a
protein called "competence factor" leading to the production of other proteins such as autolisina,
which digests the cell wall, and DNA binding proteins that are found on the membrane plasma and
are capable of binding double-stranded DNA present in the environment and bring it within the
cytosol. There, the DNA will be digested and partially integrated into the cell, which may acquire
the characteristics  

- Transduction: is assumed to be the consequence of occasional errors of replication of

bacteriophages [a bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria, injecting its DNA. The virus can
exploit the replicative structures to create new DNA and proteins to assemble new phages that
lyse the cells (lytic cycle) or can integrate their DNA with that of the host cell, and when conditions
are favorable, the DNA is reactivated resulting in the formation new phages that lyse cell
(lysogenic cycle)]. It may happen that specific nuclease to cut in addition to the viral DNA also
bacterial DNA, associating it to the viral infection. The new phages assembled and escaped from
the cell "mother" go to infect another bacterium and transfer genetic material from one cell 
 other (transducing particles). Generically, bacteriophages which possess bacterial genetic
material lose the ability to restart a lytic cycle in the subsequent or infected cells and their DNA
remains silent under repressive control, or encodes protein products that interact with bacterial
cell phenotype (lysogenic conversion)  

- Conjugation: direct transfer of genetic material between the cell and the bacterial cell. The

conjugative plasmids coding for the production of a pilo (called pilo F), which allows to associate

the two membranes and the two cytoplasms and transfer the circular chromosome from one

bacterial cell, via a rolling circle mechanism   

Culture media *: method used to grow the bacteria in a controlled environment. There are essentially of
two types: liquid and solid. Those liquids make it possible to grow the bacteria even when they are
present in limited number in the sample, while solid ones are used for the isolation of bacterial colonies. In
addition to this division, they can be further divided into minimum terrains, simple and complex. The
minimum land only possess the essential elements and inorganic salts necessary for the growth of
bacteria chemiolitotrofi. The simple soils possess the organic and inorganic elements required for
bacterial growth in general. The complex terrain instead possess all the basic elements 

+  additions of various organic liquids (blood, ascites, serum, meat extracts) necessary for the growth of

even the most fastidious bacteria. There are 3 different types of containers for the bacterial cultures:

tubes (glass cylinder closed at one end, are easily transportable but they have less surface area

available for planting), petri capsules (cylindrical dishes with closure, made of glass. Maximum surface

usable, but little transportable) and flasks (almost spherical containers with flattened bottom and narrow

and high neck. used for liquid media)   

solids Land (constitution): constituted by one of a polysaccharide solution (agarose) derived from
seaweed which does not interfere with bacterial growth since the gel mesh allow the diffusion of
nutrients, but prevent the bacterial movement. Added to 1.5% to water, it forms a gel if brought to 100
degrees and solidifies at a lower temperature at 45 degrees. Generically there 
adds isotonic NaCl, microelements, 0.5% of digested proteins of the meat (or peptones) and the pH is

buffered at 7.0 through the use of phosphate buffers   

Methods of seeding: if the soil is liquid, is added to the bacterial sample to the flask and stirred to
disperse the bacteria. If the soil is solid but you want to equally disperse the bacteria, it is added to the
bacterial sample agar when it is still liquid (about 45 °) and mixes; As soon as the temperature falls to 40
° about the agar it will solidify, imprisoning finely dispersed bacteria inside. If the ground is solid and you
want to purify individual colonies, is expected to solidify the agar, put in a thermostat and, reached the
desired conditions, the sample is deposited in a corner of the petri dish; It takes sterilized platinum loop
and passes the loop in a zig-zag on the side where the sample is located at the opposite side, without
ever turning back; This allows the display and the growth of distinct colonies even from mixed samples
(the colonies may have different aspects, depending on the bacteria that constitute them, but the most
important are the "S" or smooth which are also the most virulent and the " R "or wrinkled, they are less
pathogenic)   

insulating crops *: culture medium used to isolate a given bacterium. And 'possible to do this through the

use of: Indicators land [use color indicators to identify specific bacterial colony], selective media [using

toxic to some bacteria to promote the growth of a given bacterial class than the other; examples are the

soils with antibiotics such as vancomycin for the isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, not sensitive to this

antibiotic given], enrichment media [contain specific nutrients, which promote the growth of a bacterial

class with respect to another]   

special Bacteriology 

Helicobacter breath test and Bordetella ******* * 

Bacilli, Lactobacilli * 
Lysteria monocytogenes * Mycobacteria

and Igra ******* test 

Mycobacterium tuberculosis - tuberculin Salmonella **

***** ** Emofili Brucella 

Streptococcus - Streptococcus piogenes ****** spirochetes 

                                                                               spirochetes   

Bacteria whose soma is structured spiral. They possess a wall similar to G-N, but more flexible. Furniture

by fibrils (scourges modified) and multiply by simple division. The spirochetes are pathogens in humans:

Treponema, Borrelia, and Brachispira Leptospiraceae.    

                                                                        Treponema pallidum   

causative agent of syphilis, venereal disease chronic course, is the only real strong medical interest
treponema. Although it does not appear that produces exotoxin, it seems that its pathogenicity is
correlated with the ability to invade tissues passing between the tight junctions and its "poor antigenicity"
which protects it from strong immune responses. It has 3 stages of development:  

-  in the first stage there is penetration into the tissues, where it forms first a papule that turns into
an ulcer after a hard and indolent Fund within 15 days (you can find many treponemes exudate). The
primary lesion is defined syphiloma that goes into spontaneous healing 

-  in the second stage, after 3 months, you have the appearance of rash and scattered mucosal lesions

(the treponemes are found in various organs at this stage). THE 

treponemes are predominantly located in the CNS (where they cause tabes dorsalis) and the cardiovascular
system (where they cause aortic aneurysm) 

-  in the third stage are formed lesions defined rubbers, ie nodosità that evolve towards the

ulceration and then cured to leave a deforming scar. The histological structure of nodosità mimics the

tuberculous granuloma The diagnosis is or exudates examining under a microscope, or by coloring by

silver impregnation, or by inoculation into a rabbit. An antigen nontreponemal but cellular origin appears

to be associated frequently to the bacterium soma antigen (Wasserman or cardiolipin). Treatment with

penicillin   

                                                                                 Borrelia   

Etiologic agents of relapsing fever and borreliosis Lyme. They are transmitted by lice and ticks. They are
the only spirochetes big enough to be seen by optical microscope. They are microaerophilic, then they do
not tolerate high levels of oxygen. 

-  The relapsing fever is characterized by about 7 days of incubation post puncture and then the
appearance of a sudden fever that persists for approximately 5 days. Following remission and subsequent
flare, in a cycle that can be repeated a dozen times. The peculiarity of the pathogen antigens is to vary
each time they are detected, resulting in first remission of fever and subsequent exacerbation at any time
of new virulence 

-  The borreliosis Lyme disease is characterized by three stages: the skin involvement with erythema

chronicum migrans, articular and cardiac involvement with arthritis and BAV, and nervous involvement with

polyneuropathies 

The diagnosis is based on PCR, immunofluorescence, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and

immunoblot. Treatment with beta-lactams    

                                                                            Leptospira   
G-N and obligate aerobes, are the etiological agents of leptospirosis. They differ mainly thanks to

membrane antigens, since pathogenic action, morphology and cultural characters are identical in all

species. The best known is Leptospira. It is not known to produce protein toxins. The infection generally

comes from water contaminated with infected animal feces and may present have a severe liver

impairment, kidney and meninges or intermediate form with catarrhal affection or even run out subclinical

level. Diagnosis is made by isolating leptospires from the blood or in the first week of infection or urine in

the rest of the time; you can also search for antigens of the best known leptospires. Treatment is with

penicillin. Vaccines prepared with suspensions of L. interrogans are commercially     

E.coli *** 

Pneumococci *

Enterobacteria ***

Enterococci 

Bacillus anthracis ** Vibrio

cholerae Neisserie * ** ***

Campylobacter

Corynebacterium 

Staphylococci ********

Diphtheria ** streptolysin O 

Title antistreptolysin TAS cholera

toxin * 
Meningococcal *

Tetanus Clostridium

Botulinum Yersinie ** *

* Rickettsia 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa *

Chlamydia **  

                                                                             Chlamydiae   

G-N, roundish (cocci), motionless and intracellular pathogens obliged, since it does not ingrado to
produce ATP. They are equipped with cell wall consists of peptidoglycan, but consists of a protein rich in
cysteine ​wall, connected with the typical outer membrane of a G-N, surmounted by MOMP said proteins
with likely function as porins. This particular structure prevents the fusion of the phagosome with
lysosome in which chlamydia, penetrating into the host cell, it is incorporated; also the characteristics of
the cell wall make that the chlamydiae exhibit little or no sensitivity to β-lactam antibiotics. This bacterium
has a peculiar life cycle characterized by the alternation of two distinct morpho-functional unit (dimorphic
cycle): elementary body (ce) and reticular body (cr). The first is small (200-300 nm), round, and compact
with dense cytoplasm and is the infective form; probably through the MOMP it binds to the mucosal
surface by interacting with glucans. Introduced via endocytosis, the elementary body undergoes a
progressive hydration becoming reticular body; this is bigger (600-1000 nm), the cytosol less dense, is
metabolically active, it multiplies by binary fission and represents the non-infectious form. Once the lysed
cell the reticular body "compresses" transformed into elementary body that manages to survive in the
environment thanks to the presence of multiple disulfide bonds between the membrane proteins.   
                                                                     Chlamydia trachomatis   

Chlamydia purely human. Characterized by at least 15 different serovars with different degree of
pathogenicity 

-  Serovar A, B, Ba and C: responsible for the endemic trachoma, given by poor sanitation
and causing blindness (2nd cause world after cataract) 

-  Serovar D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K: responsible for genital infections. In humans, is characterized

by purulent urethritis slightly, while in women with a cervicitis that can evolve into endometritis with
the advance of colonization and determine infertility 

-  Serovar L1, L2, L3: agents of lymphogranuloma venereum, sexually transmitted disease

characterized by a papule or ulcer that quickly follows the appearance of inflammatory granulomas     

                                                                      Chlamydia pneumoniae   

Characterized by a pneumonia of moderate seriousness. Tend benign trend, elderly or debilitated

patients can have serious characters. Healing follows immunity demonstrated by antibody titer   

                                                                         Chlamydia psittaci   

Also known as ornithosis, it occurs predominantly in individuals living in close contact with birds (for

example parrots). It manifests as severe pneumonia complicated by systemic impairment   

general Mycology 
 

Dimorphism of fungi: peculiar characteristic of pathogenic fungi which consists in having two distinct

morphologies depending on in which situation they are. In a tissue structure in parasitic condition

develop with morphology lievitiforme (blastospores) at 37 °, while in a cultural structure in saprophytic

condition develop with mycelial morphology (filamentous) at 25 °   

fungal wall: constituted by a dense network of chitin fibrils, of N- acetylglucosamine polymer with

beta 1-4 bonds of association to D-glucose, D-mannose, lipids and proteins (among the latter are

formed disulfide bridge bonds)   

of sabourod Land: solid medium based on agarose with the following composition: peptone 1 g, glucose

4 g, agar 2 g, distilled water 100 ml. Generically he has buffered pH to 6.8 - 7 and is kept at 25 ° or 37 °

for the incubation   

Lactophenol bleu cotton: solution used to clarify (highlight some particularity, otherwise poorly visible

due to the force of cohesion of some fungal colonies - example: hyphae, microstructures of the spores).

E 'it is consisting of: phenol in crystals 20 g, 20 g lactic acid, glycerin 40 g, cotton bleu 0.05 gr, 20 ml

distilled water   

special Mycology 

Candida *****: lievitiforme ubiquitous fungus that normally can be found on the skin or mucous
membranes of man (and other animals) as a diner. If the depression of the immune system, the yeast
can give rise to opportunistic infection. The infections are generically mucosal (thrush, vulvovaginitis), of
the folds (intertrigo). The candidiasis may also take place at the expense of deep organs, with more or
less severe clinical pictures. Frequent in AIDS patients. The Candida albicans is the most frequently
detected; generally form white colonies and creamy texture, which at 25 ° and in relatively poor soils
abundant form pseudomicelio (pseudohyphes). Candida 
Albicans also has its own distinctive characteristics: it develops large clamido- spherical conidia, singly or

in clusters, especially in agar to Tween flour; It produces germ tubes and hyphae true at 37 ° on

agar-blood (or blood serum) at pH 7   

Aspergillus: filamentous fungus (muffiforme) particularly present ubiquitously in plant material rich
environments decaying. The pathogenicity is based on purely opportunistic. E 'due to pulmonary
aspergilloma (agglomerate fungal within a pulmonary cavity), or invasive pulmonary aspergillosis,
systemic (state serious infectious disease associated with inhalation of spores dell'aspergillo, and allergic
bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (state infectious-allergic). It reproduces through conidia and fialoconidi
occur stacked in long filiadi that have an end expanded terminal (conidiophores). the filiadi can be
supported by said metulae structures. Ne differ about 100 species collected in 15 groups. the analysis is
based on microscopic characteristics (morphology conidiali heads) and macroscopic (morphology, color
development speed of the colonies). The main representative is Aspergillus fumigatus    

Criptococcus neoformans: fungus spread lievitiforme, saprofita. It grows in particular in areas where there
is high concentration of birds (pigeons especially). The infection occurs via airborne (very rarely
digestive). The fungus from the lungs quickly penetrates into the bloodstream and reaches the central
nervous system where it proliferates, resulting in meningoencephalitis). Rarely from place to pulmonary
complications. In cultured to form colonies net outline, glossy, pigmented yellow, orange, red or white,
which are constituted by blastocellule spherical or ovoid gemmanti, without production of mycelia. The
clarity of the colony may appear at a later time for formation of a mucopolysaccharide capsule (visible
only after contrast with Indian ink). Criptococcus is not able to use sugars in fermentation purpose, but
can metabolize inositol and nitrogenous products in structure (such as creatinine); on ground of Shields
and Ajello takes dark color (due to melanin production). It is divided into 5 serotypes: A, B, C, D and AD
(in relation to the length of the chain on xylose greater capsular antigen). In animals, if injected
intraencefalicamente form a draft characteristic; in vivo it tends to form granulomas with little inflammatory
reaction and tissue 
blastocellule are usually locate outside the cells. It may mention the filamentation   

general Protozoa 

Protozoa: unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms, capable of oxidative and fermentative reactions. Most of
them are aerobic-facultative anaerobic bacteria, heterotrophic. They move through pseudopodia, cilia and
flagella. They can be either extracellular intracellular parasites (able to resist the action of phagocytic
monocyte macrophage system, creating a vacuole parasitophorous place where their life cycle). They can
induce damage according to different pathogenic actions: inapparent (the infection does not cause
disease), mechanical (eg Giardia papers the intestinal wall and no longer allows a correct absorption),
toxic (the protozoan induces massive release of pyrogenic cytokines), necrosis lytic (the protozoan free
digestive enzymes that destroy host cells for food purposes), tissue reaction (granuloma amebic
example). They possess different systems to evade the host's immune defenses, of which it should be
noted: antigenic variation (eg trypanosome brucei - some clones of the protozoan produce different
antigens that allow it to evade the immune system), antigenic modulation (of a given capacity protozoan
eliminate their surface antigens in order to escape the action of antibody and complement), persistence
intramacrofagica (eg toxoplasma gondii - ability to inhibit the fusion of lysosomal vesicles with that
parasitic) and immune suppression (massive release of antigens in a circle with saturation of the immune
system , which is no longer able to interact with the protozoan). The anti-protozoal vaccines have
difficulties related to the fact that protozoa have life cycles in several stages with specific antigens by
stage, however, there are anti-merozoite vaccine and the anti-gametocytes. The diagnosis can be
cold-microscopic or with colorant, by means of biological evidence, cultivation trials, molecular probes or
specific antigens. The anti-protozoal drugs are poorly compatible with the body, since both men protozoa
are eukaryotes, but we have still available to the emetine, quinine, artemisinin, allopurinol, and the
antimony compounds   

special Protozoa   
Plasmodium malaria ******: belonging to the class of sporozoa (small protozoa that parasitize the cells,
characterized by both phenomena asexual / schizogony, which sexed / sporogony phenomena). Of over
120 species only 4 are pathogenic for humans: Plasmodium falciparum, vivax, malariae and oval,
responsible for different types of malaria. The prevalence areas are Africa (P. falciparum), Asia (P.
vivax) and sub-american, counting globally 250 million new cases each year. The inter-human
transmission is mediated by blood-sucking insects of the genus Anopheles where they live sporozoites
in the salivary glands. Once injected by the insect in human blood, the sporozoites reach the
hepatocytes, colonize them and remain quiescent or in the form of ipnoziti (P. vivax, 

P.ovale) or turn into trophozoite, which undergoes repeated divisions becoming multinucleato (schizont).
From the schizont they are generated merozoites that penetrate inside the red blood cells, becoming
trophozoites and after several asexual reproductions fail to differentiate into sexual forms microgametocita
(masculine form) and macrogametocita (feminine form). These 2 sexual forms are ingested by the insect
vector and the female form is fertilized, generating the oocinete, which turns into oocysts containing up to
10 thousand sporozoites. These perforate the insect intestinal wall and reach the salivary glands,
restarting the cycle. Forms worthy of note: merozoite - provided with external and internal and apical
membrane complex for penetration into red blood cells; trophozoite - it feeds through a specialized
structure (cytostome); schizont - when it becomes metabolically active multinucleato. pathogenic forms:
malignant tertian malaria (7-14 days of incubation, high fever, headache, arthralgia and subsequently
defervescence and profuse sweating; without treatment, assumes periodicity of every other day), benign
tertian malaria (incubation of 14-20 days, with fever and headache and then defervescence; you may
have post-healing relapse even after 5-10 years because of ipnoziti), malaria quart (incubation of 21-28
days but 6-8 months, febrile every 72 hours). Diagnosis via direct blood test (preferably during the febrile
access), staining of May-Grunwald-Giemsa in distilled water (to lyse red blood cells), examination of thick
drop with Defibrination manual, monoclonal antibodies. The therapy is based on chloroquine or quinine,
artemisinin, mefloquine and halofantrine   
Toxoplasma ***: belonging to the class of sporozoa (small protozoa that parasitize the cells, characterized
by both phenomena asexual / schizogony, which sexed / sporogony phenomena). Of the seven species,
only Toxoplasma gondii is pathogenic to humans. Extremely popular, it is estimated that between 40%
and 80% of the world population is healthy carrier of this protozoan. Generally the infection occurs
through ingestion of contaminated food or water with cat faeces (definitive host of Toxoplasma gondii).
The life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii has two phases. The first occurs final host, a feline and includes
sexual reproduction: the cat, becomes infected by ingesting meat containing the parasite cysts or
sporulated oocysts. The sporozoites, thanks to the action of digestive juices, protrude dall'oocisti and can
infect the epithelial cells of the small intestine where they reproduce microgametocita (masculine form)
and macrogametocita (female form) and form oocysts, which are expelled with the feces. The cysts, each
containing 4 sporozoites, infectious elements. In the second phase, the parasite reproduces only
asexually in any warm-blooded animal (except for felines). Intermediate hosts can become infected or
parasitized oocysts in food or water; the parasite passes the intestinal barrier, invades via the blood cells
of various tissues (is called merozoite) and forms there the vacuoles parassitofori. Within this vacuole
Toxoplasma gondii propagates in a series of divisions until the infected cell is lisa. This form of fast and
asexual replication of Toxoplasma gondii is called tachyzoite. As a rule, after this first phase, the host
acquires a certain immunity and this determines the appearance of a slow reproductive shape, said
bradizoite because the antibodies produced limited invasiveness. The vacuoles of bradizoite can form
cysts in the infected tissue guests (especially in muscles and in the brain) and can take years to develop
completely. If you get infected enterocytes, the sporozoites are released into the lumen, they turn into
cysts and are eliminated to restart the cycle. The sporozoite, the tachyzoite and bradizoite have similar
structure with an apical complex (confers the cellular penetration capacity of the parasite, with
function-like lysosomal - consists of rhoptries and micronemes) located on the pole of the cell.
Pathologically the infection may be asymptomatic (most of the time) or in immunodeficient subjects (eg
HIV-positive) may occur with multiple necrotic foci or meningoencephalitis Toxoplasma; the infection can
also occur in the form of febrile benign lymphadenitis similmononucleosica. The diagnosis can be carried
out via direct search is carried out on fecal material "fresh" or by staining, using serological, Dye Test (or
test 
Sabin, use Toxoplasma virulent factors linked to the complement and the patient's antibodies; If the

antibodies bind, the Toxoplasma not take blue color - positive result) immunofluorescence or

hemagglutination. The therapy is based pyrimethamine     

Hemoflagellates: flagellate protozoa that are located deep in the blood and tissues. They have different
morphological features depending on the stage of development: amastigote, promastigote, epimastigote,
trypomastigote. The amastigote is the simplest form: intracellular, small diameter, polar rear core and
rudimentary anterior polar flagellum not protrudes from the flagellar pocket. Promastigote: elongated cell
larger with long scourge that protrudes from the pocket; the nucleus is more central and cineplasto
(blefaroplasto) is anterior to the nucleus. Epimastigote: elongated shape, protrudes from the scourge of
the protozoan front third of the body and remains there in contact via undulating membrane, becoming
free at the anterior pole. Trypomastigote: large, central core, cineplasto at the posterior pole and before
this the emergence of the flagellar pocket scourge which remains adherent to the protozoan through a
long undulating membrane and becomes free on the anterior pole   

Trypanosomes: pathogenic haemoflagellates Kinetoplastida part of the order, the genus Trypanosoma is divided

into 2 subgenres, trypanozoon and schizotrypanum of which they are respectively part Trypanosoma brucei

(African trypanosomiasis) and Trypanosoma cruzi (American trypanosomiasis) 

- Trypanosoma brucei: causative agent of African trypanosomiasis, is carried by the insect vector
(glossine) and injected into the host via blood meal. It exists in two different forms: brucei
gambiense and brucei rhodesiense. Gambiense is transmitted from glossine hygrophile (live at
the waterways) and presents acute trend while rhodesiense from glossine xerofile (living in arid
areas) and has a chronic course. Tank of both forms are the antelopes. The life cycle is the same
in both forms: during the protozoan blood meal is inoculated subcutaneously, multiplies and
penetrates in the form of trypomastigote into the bloodstream, from where they can colonize the
lymphatic system and the central nervous system or be 
 riassimilato by the insect vector. Pathogenicity: provides an incubation period of from 20 days to
one year; emolinfatica follows a phase which corresponds to the period of blood invasion of the
protozoan, wherein the protozoa reach the lymph nodes giving lymphadenopathy, fever,
lymphadenopathy, and hepatosplenomegaly; finally, the phase of cerebral localization gives
leptomeningiti, hemorrhage, brain softening and coma (sleeping sickness?). Diagnosis: direct
through examination of blood and cerebrospinal fluid or "fresh" or with Giemsa stain, or via
concentration techniques (thick drop - carried out without making the smear - or centrifugation),
cultivation tests (NNN medium), serological or biological evidence. Therapy: the acute stage using
suramin or pentamidine, while for the brain during the melarsoprolo (which crosses the
blood-brain barrier)   

- Trypanosoma cruzi: etiologic agent of American trypanosomiasis, is carried by the insect vector
and issued with the feces of this. It can penetrate during the blood meal actively in the skin or be
ingested with contaminated food and water. Once penetrated in the form of trypomastigote,
colonizes the macrophage system and is transformed into amastigote, giving way to repeated
binary divisions. It penetrates again in the blood in the form of trypomastigote, infected cells and
smooth muscle and striated by the insect vector is riassimilato through blood meal. Pathogenicity:
The incubation period lasts about 20 days, generally resulting asymptomatic and not inducing
production of antibodies due to its intracellular localization; then it attacks the heart, esophagus
and colon, leading to inflammation and fibrosis; Furthermore, due to megalie hypertrophies and
widespread. The diagnosis is made through direct research in the host's blood, or fresh or by
Giemsa staining, or by means of concentration, cultivation tests (NNN medium) or bioassay
techniques. Treatment is with nifurtimox or beznidazolo   

Leishmania ******: pathogenic haemoflagellates part of the order Kinetoplastida and tripanosomatidae
family, the Leishmania genus comprises several species pathogenic to man, grouped into complexes on the
basis of pathological effect: Leishmania donovani complex (affects India, Mediterranean , South America,
the species responsible for visceral leishmaniasis or kala-azar), complex Leishmania tropica 
(Affects India, Middle East, West Africa, especially heads of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Old World),
Leishmania mexicana complex and brazilensis (affects Latin America, especially cutaneous leishmaniasis
in charge of the New World). The life cycle provides only 2 stages: that of promastigote and amastigote.
The insect vector assimilates the amastigote during the blood meal; this turns into promastigote and
penetrates the gut of the insect vector, insect reaching the salivary glands. The insect transmits
Leishmania promastigote form that infects the reticulo-endothelial system of different body structures
depending on the type of leishmaniasis, later becoming intracellular amastigote and restarting the cycle
as soon as it reaches the insect vector. If you talk about donovani complex parasites invade mainly
reticolo- endothelial system of spleen, liver, lymph nodes and bone marrow; in complex tropica and
brazilensis instead protozoa are phagocytosed locally in the infection point, and when the cell lisa, the
infection spreads by contiguity (in brazilensis complex metastatic spread is also possible, blood or
lymphatic that is) 

- Visceral leishmaniasis: in this case, the mononuclear phagocyte system is full of macrophages
stuffed protozoa; these macrophages are not activated by a good interaction with the TH1 and
remain unable to respond to infection. After 2-4 months of incubation is generalized concern with
fever, hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, macrophage hyperplasia. Subsequently
becomes undulant fever in the absence of therapy and one arrives at terminal cachexia (in acute
conditions, one can arrive at the terminal stage in 3-4 weeks). Diagnosis: microscopic
identification of the parasite in the affected tissues, or to cool by biopsy or by Giemsa staining,
cultivation in soil NNN, immunofluorescence antibody reaction research (intradermal or
serological tests). Therapy with antimonial preparations (meglumine antimoniate, sodium
stibogluconate) and amphotericin B    

- Cutaneous leishmaniasis of the Old World: After 4-8 weeks incubation appears a papular
nodular lesions in the site of inoculation. It may later ulcerate and become infected by bacterial
superinfection. Diagnosis: direct search in exudation of ulcerative lesions or fresh biopsy or
Giemsa, growing in soil or antibody reaction research (intradermal or serological tests). Therapy
with antimonial preparations 
  

- Cutaneous leishmaniasis of the New World: After 4-8 weeks incubation appears a papular

nodular lesions in the site of inoculation. It may later ulcerate and become infected by bacterial

superinfection. Cause a multiplicity of pathological forms: The ulcer de los chicleros, the ground

bois, the uta, the espundia and cutaneous leishmaniasis anergic disseminated. Diagnosis: direct

search in exudation of ulcerative lesions or fresh biopsy or Giemsa, growing in soil or antibody

reaction research (intradermal or serological tests). Therapy with antimonial preparations   

Giardia: flagellated protozoan. 3 species are belonging to Giardia and this is available in two distinct
forms: the trophozoite and the cyst. The trophozoite is the part of "mobile" and active infettivamente: has
pyriform aspect, presents a ventral disc behind which we highlight 2 asymmetric nuclei, 4 blefaroplasti
(also called basal body and originated by the division of the centrosome, is the flagellum motor) and 8
scourges. The cysts instead is the part used for the survival and transmission: it has a fibrillar structure
(thickness: 0.5 micrometers), four cores (2 in young forms), striatum disc, median body, blefaroplasti 8,
presents a cyst wall and inside this but separated from the same, lies the cytoplasmic material in granular
form. A fecal-oral route, the biological cycle involves the ingestion of cysts from contaminated food or
water. Inside the stomach occurs escistamento and the liberation of 2 trophozoites that adhere to the
intestinal wall duodenal-jejunal via a ventral disk and form flagella; multiply by binary fission. Once the
trophozoite is located on level colic, the flagella are retracted and the protozoan body is condensed: it
forms the cyst. Giardia lamblia nell'orletto induces alterations brush intestinal epithelium and in response
to it the production of IgM, IgG, IgA but above all (to limit the adhesion of intestinal lamblia). Giardia
intestinalis runs the vast majority of times asymptomatic, but if it spreads to the whole intestinal wall, can
give rise to malabsorption syndromes. Diagnosis is made or by direct search in the stool (trophozoite in
your diarrhea, cysts in the normal ones), by biopsy, using immunoassays and immunoelectrophoretic
techniques. The therapy involves metronidazole   
Trichomonas: flagellated protozoan. 3 species of medical interest, among which only Trichomonas
vaginalis is really pathogenic. Trichomonas vaginalis does not form cysts and not very resistant to outside
man; its structure contains 4 flagella on the anterior pole connected to a blepharoplasty area received in a
crescent of microtubules (pelta) and an undulating membrane that extends from the anterior pole until the
middle of the protozoan; the protozoan is traversed from pole to pole by 50-60 microtubules that form the
assostilo. Present the golgi and ribosomes, but mitochondria are replaced by hydrogenosomes (granules
periassostilari in fermentative metabolism). The life cycle involves the passage male urethra to the vaginal
canal and vice versa. It multiplies by binary fission. The events are generally absent in humans (except in
the form of symptomatic urethritis purulent), while in the woman is manifested by vaginal microerosions
ulcerative with leukocyte infiltrate, edema and sometimes leucorrhea. direct diagnosis (fresh or through
Papanicolaou) staining or by culture. Therapy with metronidazole    

Entamoeba histolitica *: part of the order Amoebida and Entamoeba kind. It is estimated that about 10% of
the world population is a carrier. The life cycle of this protozoan provides two forms: trophozoite and cysts.
The trophozoite is movable and has a differentiated cytoplasm in 2 portions: a clearer (ectoplasm) and a
more grainy (endoplasm) in which are located the digestive vacuoles of vesiculo-lysosomal system (with
residues of whole red blood cells or lysates) and the nucleus; There are neither the mitochondria, or the
Golgi, or the RER. The cysts instead is quadrinucleata (only in young forms is uninucleata) and has a cyst
wall formed by two layers: esocisti and endocyst; It is rich in glycogen granules. A fecal-oral route cysts are
found on contaminated food and water; when they are ingested, the digestive processes (especially at the
level of the small intestine) free from a single cyst 4 trophozoites that arrived in the blind adhere to the
mucosa penetrating in the crypts, where they mature in furniture and large trophozoites. Hence the
trophozoite can remain on the mucosa or disseminate to other tissues away. If the protozoan finds itself in
the end portion of the large intestine can reform a uninucleata cysts, condensing the cytoplasm, glycogen
accumulating and forming the cyst wall. The cysts can survive for up to 2 weeks outside the body.
Essentially the structures that mediate the pathogenetic mechanisms are 2: adhesion to the intestinal
mucosa through un'adesina specific for galactose and cellular damage through proteolytic enzymes that
are activated by an increase in the 
Ca ++ gradient. The possibility of pathogenesis are related to parasited structure: in the gut may be
asymptomatic or lead to ulcerations "a fiasco" (can be painful and lead to sclerosis), in the liver can
cause liver abscess (with fever, gravitational pain and hepatomegaly) , the lung can cause lung abscess
that tends to empty into blood vessels or bronchi. Diagnosis can be made via direct search is performed
on fecal material or biopsies "fresh" or by staining by immunofluorescence or hemagglutination. The
therapy for endoluminal forms is with iodoquinol or paromomycin, for systemic forms it is with
metronidazole     

general Virology 

Baltimore classification + viral replication of each class CLASSIFICATION

OF BALTIMORE   

Classification of viruses based on the nature of their genome (whether DNA, RNA,

single-double-stranded) and their type of replication.   

Deossiribovirus: 

-  Class 1 (herpesvirus): a double-stranded DNA viruses that circularizes inside the cell (due to the
presence of repeated sequences and inverted to extremes). The nucleocapsid is transported along the
cytoskeleton up in the vicinity of a nuclear pore and when there penetrates, the DNA is released into the
environment and Transcriptive intercepted by the apparatus of the cell (which operates a symmetric
transcription, ie on both chains), producing messengers that encode for early and late proteins. Early
proteins are essentially enzymes acts to the replication of the genome (DNA-polymerase-virus-specific);
the late proteins are structural proteins of the viral progeny. The replication of the genome takes place
after circularization of the genome itself by the DNA-polymerase-virus-specific via a rolling circle
mechanism 

-  Class 2 (Poxvirus): a double-stranded DNA virus whose ends are covalently linked to each
other, which allows it to denaturation in the form 
circular monocatenaria. The transcription process is totally carried out in the cytoplasm due to a
RNA-polymerase-DNA-dependent that the virion has with itself. The transcript begins in the core and
are produced early proteins that allow the exposure of the nucleic acid in the cytoplasm which is then
duplicated by viral enzymes and further transcribed, forming late messengers that encode enzymes
and structural proteins which allow the formation of the virion 

-  Class 3 (Parvovirus): a linear monocatenario DNA virus with the ends bent to hairpin. Divided
into independent and Dependovirus virus (requiring co-infection of herpesvirus). In those self-replication
it is possible only in the S phase of the cell cycle (when it is replicating DNA). The genetic material, once
reached the cell nucleus, is intercepted by the cellular polymerase and using the folded ends as a
trigger, is duplicated. It thus produces a structure bicatenaria (which is joined at the 3 ') which acts as a
mold for the transcription of messengers for the structural proteins and not. The structure bicatenaria is
subsequently cut by a virus specific enzyme, producing both a neoformed chain (who owns the end
hairpin "subtracted" to the old chain) is an old chain, missing of a stretch; the latter is re-synthesized on
the end 3 'end due to linearization hairpin of the new chain. The two molecules are subsequently
separated thanks to enzymes with helicase action and subsequently re-structured (formation of hairpins)
to then be incapsidiate separately in separate virions 

-  Class 4 (hepadnavirus): a partially double-stranded circular DNA virus. It penetrates into the cell
via receptor-mediated endocytosis (p170); subsequently the incomplete DNA is transferred to the
nucleus where it completes the bi-catenary structure (shelter synthesis) by cellular enzymes, the genome
is transcribed with the formation of two classes of RNA: messengers and pre-genomic. The messengers
coding for specific proteins of the virus peplos (S) and the protein derived from gene X, while the
pre-genomic before forming the capsid protein (C) and subsequently incapsidiati from these, within a
"provirione" where thanks to a RNA-dependent DNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase is re-format the
original genome (after passing through an intermediate RNA-DNA). The virion at this point acquires the
pericapsidico wrapper from RE / Golgi with the relevant antigens set above HBsAg and is ejected from
the cell by exocytosis (characteristic excess production of peplos / HBsAg antigens, which can be 
sourced in the blood in hollow spherical structures). The process occurs without integration of the DNA

into the cell nucleus (although this is still possible).   

Ribovirus: 

-  Class 1 (Calicivirus, a picornavirus, Flavivirus, Togavirus): RNA viruses + monocatenario. The

RNA is polyadenylated at the 3 'and 5' end is associated with a small protein. All this serves to mimic
the structure of a cellular messenger RNA. Just associatosi to ribosomes, coding for a single
polyprotein which is then cut into structural proteins and non-structural. The RNA-dependent
RNA-polymerase, derived from the latter proteins, transcribes the viral RNA in an RNA molecule -
complement, which in turn is re-transcribed by polymerase same in different RNA molecules +,
identical to the original genome 

-  Class 2 (Orthomyxovirus, Rhabdovirus): RNA virus - monocatenario, whole or segmented. If the

genome is whole once scapsidiato RNA - it is intercepted by an RNA-polymerase-RNA-dependent and is
transcribed into a messenger RNA +; It is then translated by the cellular ribosomes in the various specific
virus proteins, both structural and non-structural (enzymatic); a RNA-polymerase transcribes the newly
formed RNA-dependent RNA - initial (genomic) in many RNA copies + pre-genomic and the latter is
transcribed into RNA by the same enzyme - which is incapsidiato and exits from the cell. If the genome is
segmented, the various fragments of RNA -, scapsidiati and penetrated into the core, is added to a primer
by polymerase II phone. At this point the RNA-polymerase-RNA-dependent viral (always present inside the
viral capsid and inoculated into the cell together with the RNA) transcribes the RNA - RNA messengers in
positive polarity, some of which are subjected to splicing, for then be transferred into the cytoplasm and
translated into the various viral proteins. Among these there are the RNA-polymerase-RNA-dependent and
two non-structural proteins (NS1 and NS2), which fall in the nucleus and transcribed the RNA - genomic in
many RNA copies + that are Indexes in RNA - (protected by the mechanisms of spicing by NS1 and NS2),
transported into the cytoplasm and incorporated into new viral progeny. 

-  Class 3 (Retrovirus): a monocatenario RNA viruses but diploid, with 2 molecules partially connected to

the extreme 5 'because of the hydrogen bonds. Immediately after the penetration of the virus into the cell, there is

the synthesis of a double-stranded DNA 

by a reverse transcriptase (RNA-DNA-polymerase-dependent), directly inside the virion. The newly
synthesized DNA is then released and conveyed to the nucleus where it integrates into the genome of
the host cell where it can remain for a long time in a latent form. When conditions are favorable, there is
the synthesis of RNA messengers, some of which are translated into polyproteins subsequently split into
various functional and structural proteins while others are transcribed from the entire provirus, forming
genomic RNA +. The latter, thanks to the action of certain proteins are protected by splicing processes
and exported to the cytoplasm to be incapsidiati  

-  Class 4 (Reoviridae): a double-stranded RNA virus. They have a double capsid. In a first phase,

within the internal capsid (after removal of the outer capsid) it takes the genome transcription process,

by a polymerase-RNA-dependent viral RNA, that affects only the RNA fragment - generating + different

RNA messengers that are projected outside the capsid. These are first translated into structural proteins

and non-structural and subsequently incapsidiate in the new virions, where occurs the synthesis of RNA

strands - necessary to complete the structure bicatenaria. It follows the affixing of the second layer of the

capsid proteins Antivirals - acyclovir, hiv Prions ** 

viral oncogenesis   

Special Virology

rhabdoviruses **

Hortomixovirus 

Portomixovirus (antigenic shift) 

Erpesviridiae (varicella zoster, herpes simplex and gladiatorum) ************** HIV ******* 

                                                                               HIV 
Virus RNA in monocatenario but diploid, with 2 molecules partially connected to the extreme 5 'because of

the hydrogen bonds.   

Penetration 

The penetration of the virus in T-helper lymphocytes or macrophages is carried out by gp41 and gp120

that interact with CD4. Gp120 is a surface glycoprotein inserted into the viral peplos and is anchored by

means of a portion of the extreme COOH NH2 terminal of gp41, which is instead inserted a full thickness

in the peplos as a transmembrane protein. In addition to CD4 there is also need interaction with a

co-receptor, ie CXCR4 and CCR5 for T lymphocytes, macrophages occur for penetration. The peplos

fuses with the cell membrane (by gp41) and free inside the capsid.    

Replication 

Subsequently, the capsid liberates the genomic + RNA that has a particular constitution: it is constituted by
a coding structure that presents the ends a sequence of bases repeated (R sequence), poliadenilate in the
extreme 3 'and a cap with the extreme 5' . Among the end R and the coding sequence is a sequence, U5
extreme 5 'and a U3 sequence extreme 3', which serves to replication. The viral reverse transcriptase,
which needs a primer constituted by a cellular tRNA in 5 ', transcribes the DNA corresponding reforming the
sequence, ie "jumps" from one extreme to another by inserting U3 at the outer side of the 5' and U5 to the
outermost side of the 3 '(the rest remains unchanged). U3-R-U5 are the long terminal repeat, or LTR. The
newly synthesized DNA becomes double-stranded and is then conveyed into the nucleus where it
integrates into the genome of the host cell thanks to the integrase / endonuclease, where it can remain for a
long time in a latent form. When conditions are favorable, there is the synthesis of RNA messengers, some
of which are translated into polyproteins subsequently split into various functional and structural proteins
while others are RNA transcripts from the entire provirus, forming RNA 

+  Genomic. The latter, thanks to the action of certain proteins are protected by splicing processes and

exported to the cytoplasm to be incapsidiati   

HIV Genome 

It has essentially three main genes and at least six genes for regulatory proteins. Speaking of the key
genes, we gag, pol and env. Gag and Pol are transcribed and translated together, forming a polyprotein
that is cleaved into p180 and p55 in virus-specific enzymes (protease, reverse transcriptase and
endonuclease); p55, in turn, is cleaved into p17 (form the viral matrix), p24 (form the casing of the core
and the antigen CA) and p9 (binds to RNA molecules as nucleo-capsid protein). The env gene is
translated into a p88 protein that is glycosylated, becoming gp160; the latter is cleaved into gp120 and
gp41, both included in the peplos (penetration)   

regulatory Proteins 

Six proteins that regulate the replication cycle of HIV 

-  Tat: once synthesized, it falls within the nucleus and acts as a transactivator of viral replication,
inducing it. Also Rookie of adapter proteins that act as transcriptional adapters 

-  Rev: Once synthesized, part of the nucleus and regulates the production of virus-specific
RNA. It protects the mRNA by splicing processes 

-  Vpu: binds to intracellular CD4 in the endoplasmic reticulum, preventing the association between the

gp120 / gp41 and the same CD4 

-  Nef blocks the expression of CD4 and MHC1 infected cells so as to inhibit the immune
response against them (especially the cytotoxic response) 

-  Vif: cytosine deaminase degrades the cell, preventing it from acting as "intracellular antiviral
defense" 

-  Vpr: promotes intranuclear transport nucleoprotein complex Hepaxvirus - hepatitis c, b

***** ************* Poliovirus Rubella Virus anger * 

Papilloma *

Rotavirus * 

                                                                              ROTAVIRUS 

Extremely popular, it is estimated that over 90% of human within 5 years of life they have been infected.

Transmitted by fecal-oral-circuit, causing enteritis with high fever, severe diarrhea and vomiting event;

They act mainly in the winter months. It can generate a diarrhea so severe as to result in volume

depletion and massive need for hospitalization; in non-industrialized countries it is one of the leading

causes of death among children.   

Replication 

double-stranded RNA virus. They have a double capsid. In a first phase, within the internal capsid (after

removal of the outer capsid) it takes the genome transcription process, by one-RNA

polymerase-dependent RNA viral, which affects only the RNA fragment - generating + different RNA

messengers that are projected outside the capsid. These are first translated into structural proteins and

non-structural and subsequently incapsidiate in the new virions, where occurs the synthesis of RNA

strands - necessary to complete the structure bicatenaria. It follows the affixing of the second layer of

the capsid proteins   

Structure 

It has icosahedral symmetry and is formed by a virion with three layers of protein subunits (capsomeres), of

which the inner one contains a genome consisting of 11 segments of double-stranded RNA. The genome

encodes structural proteins (VP ​and VP 1-4 

6,7) and not (NSP 1-6). Structural: VP1 and VP3 are associated to 'RNA and form the
RNA-polymerase-RNA-dependent; VP2 formalo innermost layer of the capsid; VP6 the intermediate
layer; VP7 the outermost layer; VP4 acts as a viral antirecettore because it is cut by pancreatic trypsin
into VP5 and VP8, of which VP5 permeabilizza the intestinal cell membrane while VP8 constitutes the
actual viral antirecettore which binds to sialic acid cell. Structural No: NSP4 damages the enterocytes by
acting as a "viral toxin", while the other NSP 
intervene in the assembly, in transcription and replication of the viral genome. 

PS: based on VP6 distinguish 7 different groups (A-G), but the human disease is generally of group

A   

Diagnosis 

Tied solely for demonstration of rotavirus in diarrheal stools (are grown in monkey kidney VERO crops).

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays are also reported VP6   

Therapy 

Only symptomatic with electrolyte balance reintegration   

Vaccine 

Consisting of attenuated virus obtained from the reassortment of five different strains of human rotavirus and cattle

(pentavalent vaccine)   

celiac disease 

In genetically predisposed individuals, it is possible that through the rotavirus VP7 mimino tissue

transglutaminase (antigenic mimicry), inducing the immune system to form auto-antibodies against

human digestive this enzyme, with the result that as soon as the subject eat gluten and is secreted the

enzyme has autoaggression with tissue-like allergic reaction hepadnavirus Calciviridiae Poxvirus

Astroviridiae 
Deltavirus

Reoviridiae

Flavivirus 

Cytomegalovirus 

Virus influence; influenza A; antigenic shift *********** * Ebola Marburg

Arbovirus Epstein barr ** * * Filovirus Enterovirus   

general Parasitology 

Lifecycle *: metazoan parasites (commonly referred to as helminths) also include parasites of medical
interest such as nematodes, the cestodes and trematodes the given their ability to parasitize both the
external mucous that the deep tissues. Many worms have a common life cycle scheme, carried out in
different hosts. The host in which I place the reproductive stage takes the name of definitive host, while
the host that is used to carry out certain maturational stages of the life cycle and then abandoned takes
the name of intermediate host. It is also possible "transport guests", in which there occurs no phase or
maturation, but is accidentally infected and subsequently abandoned by the parasite. The pathogenic
action is very variable from parasite to parasite, but in common there is inflammation in response to
parasitic antigens and the formation of granulomas in parasitized areas. For the diagnosis generically
they investigate the eggs or specific IgE   

special Parasitology 
 

Flukes: flatworms elongated and normally hermaphrodites, except Schistosomes. Generically they

have more guests and final host show a sexed replication, while in the intermediate ones asexual. They

are generally equipped with a suction cup and a ventral buccal. Their eggs contain miracidia (embryo)

that develops in the aquatic environment and migrated in the intermediate host life before damage to

the sporocysts and then to cercariae, which migrate and infect the definitive host via two routes:

Transcutaneous or food   

Schistosoma *: genus of flatworms of the class of trematodes. There are 5 species pathogenic to
humans. Its life cycle involves the existence of a definitive host, vertebrate and an intermediate, mollusk.
Through transcutaneous invasion, the cercariae enter the tissues and becomes schistosomulo
penetrating the lymphatic vessels and reaches the liver and lungs where it matures host permanently.
The adults are descended countercurrent in the mesenteric vein and in the plexus bladder and mate
(different morphology compared to other flukes that allows it to be coupled into the bloodstream; the male
presents a shower where the female more "cylindrical" and "flat" you are staying for the 'coupling),
deposing "thorny" eggs in the capillaries of the submucosa. The plugs determine lesions causing lysis of
the tissue and the release of eggs by fecal or urinary tract. The eggs are transformed into miracidia that
infects an aquatic mollusk and mature in 4-6 weeks to restart the cycle. If the cercariae do not find the
definitive host in 48 hours die. It can determine various pathological reactions: Katayama syndrome -
antibodies are formed towards the states larval parasite that give rise to immune complexes that
determine toxic shock; granulomatosis damage may occur as a result of drilling and vascular
inflammatory reaction triggered by eggs, both in the intestine where they give rise to the formation of
polyps, both in the liver (eggs trapped in the blood stream returning to the liver) where they form
granulomas to fibrous evolution (cirrhosis liver). Diagnosis is based on the discovery of eggs and
treatment is with praziquantel   

Fasciola: class of trematodes. Two species are important for human medical parasitology: hepatica
and F. buski fluke. In fact, Liver Fluke is 
a parasite of sheep and cattle, but the man can become infected after ingestion of cercariae. Flatworms
are 2-3 cm long and 1 cm wide, who live in the bile ducts and lay their eggs in the same juice that carries
them out. The embryo ciliated (or miracidia) is released from the egg and actively reaches the
intermediate host, a snail freshwater where it matures for two months about getting cercariae. These
latter protrude from snails and lurk on vegetation, from where they reach the definitive host. The latter
intestine to the liver, actively penetrating the tissue; joints in the liver, biliary tract and descend into
mature as adults. F. buski has life cycle similar to hepatica fluke, but mature in the duodenum. The liver
pathogenesis involves fever, vomiting and obstructive jaundice epatialgia (with marked eosinophilia);
intestinal ulcer pathogenesis expected to type pain and malabsorption syndromes caused
dall'incistamento in the intestinal wall. The diagnosis is given by hepatomegaly and eosinophilia in the
liver, while the intestine is used to search for eggs in the feces. Liver treatment using bitinolo; Intestinal
with praziquantel   

Filariasis oculo-cutaneous - Loa loa: belonging to the Filarioidea family (nematodes threadlike, adapted to
survival in tissues such as the lymphatic system, the connective tissue; the predominantly adult form has
localization lymphocytic and cutaneous, while the embryo has a predominantly blood localization; divide
in lymphatic filariasis, skin and oculo-cutaneous). Cylindrical Worm present only in Africa. The insect
vector is a gnat hematophagous where after 10 days of ripening, the nematode moves from the trunk
muscles and is inoculated final host, man. Deposition in the subcutaneous, the Loa loa migrates to the
skin tissues of the whole body. The adults mate and   free microfilariae already hatched (ovoviviparous
reproduction) in the subcutaneous. These migrate rapidly to the lymph vessels and from there into the
bloodstream (where they are re-assimilated by a new insect vector). The disease include itching, local
pain or paresthesias, linked to adult migration. The diagnosis is made on clinical findings (signs of
migration of the worm on the conjunctiva, the anterior chamber, lingual frenulum and fingers) and on
finding blood microfilariae (Giemsa stain). Treatment with ivermectin   
Filariasis skin - Mansonella ozzardi, Dracunculus medinensis: Filarioidea part of the family, both
Mansonella that Dracunculus are nematodes that selectively infect the skin. Mansonella is transmitted by
the hematophagous fly Simulium; the microfilariae are taken through by the insect blood meal and
mature in his muscles for about 8 days and then again move into the trunk, be re-injected into the
bloodstream and migrate into the subcutaneous, where they become adults, mate and lay eggs which
hatch into microfilariae to restart the cycle. Dracunculus however has no insect vectors, but it enters the
human body through ingestion of uncooked shellfish; the adult worm female lays eggs emerging directly
from the subcutaneous tissue in areas where water is present, the eggs hatch and the embryos are
ingested by Cyclops crustaceans; embryos then ripen in gonadal tissues of the crustacean which in turn
can esere ingested by a human; once in the stomach, the larva penetrates the tissue and moves up to
the subcutis, where it becomes an adult (female measuring about 60 cm in length and 1.5 mm in
diameter; the male 3 cm in length and 0.4 mm in diameter ). The pathogenesis are associated - for
Monsonella: rash, joint pain and headache; for Dracunculus: tissue injury accompanied by a like
anaphylactic reaction (nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, hives and asthma-like reaction) due to toxic
substances secreted by the female (the male is asymptomatic). Diagnosis - for Monsonella: finding blood
microfilariae; Dracunculus: Clinical data from the observation of the worm emerges to give birth. Therapy
- Monsonella: ivermectin; Dracunculus: metronidazole   

Tenia solium ***: of tapeworms belonging to the class, the pork tapeworm is a segmented flatworm,
parasite of the intestinal tract. It can reach 2-3 meters in length or more and nestles the human small
intestine. The adults are constituted by a head of 1 mm and about 800-1000 proglottidi (12 mm width
and 6 mm length) that contain 30,000-50,000 eggs each. Normally the parasite life cycle involves the pig
as intermediate host in which the eggs develop before becoming oncospheres and then through blood
circulation become cysticerci in 2 months. The cysticercus prefers muscle tissue and nervous. Man eats
raw meat containing cysticerci. In the human stomach, the cysticercus is dissolved by enzymes and the
larva is freed; subsequently the larva, via the cranial or scolex segment (containing hooks used for
anchoring to the intestinal wall) adheres to the intestinal wall and 
It begins to produce proglottids, reaching from full size adult in 6 to 12 months and even surviving in the

host for 25 years. Generically the infestation is totally asymptomatic, but if the man becomes occasionally

the intermediate host, the parasitosis (defined cysticercosis) is manifested by inflammatory granulomas,

infiltrated neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes and macrophages; If the infestation is nervous tissue

(brain species) pathology may present with seizures and blurred vision. Diagnosis is based on the

discovery of eggs in the feces. The treatment with praziquantel and 10 mg / kg single dose   

Tenia saginata: same as the pork tapeworm, but can reach 4-10 meters, produces about 2,000 proglottids

with his mobility and each containing about 100,000 eggs. The intermediate host is bovine. Pathologically

asymptomatic and does not cause never cysticercosis in man. The diagnosis is made or via retrieval of

eggs or by tempering of proglottids in undergarments (due to the ability of proglottids to move

independently and escape anal orifice). Therapy with praziquantel    

Other  

Via the alternative complement Dimming

TLR 

Microorganisms that cause meningitis (bacterial, viral, fungal) Difference between

bacilli and clostridia * 

Difference between enterobacteria and pseudomonas aeruginosa (oxidase)

Difference of the titration of streptolysin swarming of enterobacteria Test on plot of

ames 

Because the sampling must be done before the febrile peak EPEC 
Wright Widal LOS

oncogenesis 

Glycoproteins of Herpesvirus HERPESVIRUS surface   

Herpes simplex surface glycoproteins 

Sull'envelope are contained 12 glycoproteins. Among these, g (D) is the real responsible for the fusion of

the viral peplos with the cell membrane. It binds to HVEM, nectin 1 and 2. Once anchored, starts the

cooperation of other glycoproteins g (B), g (H) and g (L) which assist the merger; The process terminates

when the capsid is released into the cytoplasm. Other surface glycoproteins have defensive actions; g (c)

binds complement factor C3 and degrades, decreasing the lysis of virions; g (E) bind the Fc portion of

antibodies, covering the virus and hiding the presence of the immune system   

Epstein-Barr virus surface glycoproteins 

The virus binds to CR2 cell (on the surface of B cells) by means of two glycoproteins, gp350 and
Gp220, and penetrates the lymphocyte. The penetration is also aided by other factors, Gp25,38,42
and 85, which complessandosi with MHC2 function as co-receptor for entry into B lymphocytes