86 PART | I
FIGURE 3.24 Histograms showing the number of volcanic eruptions (VE) following M 7 earthquakes binned in 1 day, 3 day, and 1 month increments
and at distances of 0e250 km, 250e500 km, and 500e750 km from the earthquake. Statistics for volcanic eruptions minus ongoing eruptions (VE-C)
are also shown on the histograms (right y-axis). From Eggert and Walter (2009).
The magnitude of tidal induced stress changes is often used
as the minimum stress required to promote or trigger an
earthquake or eruption. At timescales of days to years,
hydrologic loading can induce stress changes on the order of
0.1e0.001 MPa, and on millennial timescales glacial loading
can range from 10 to 100 MPa. All of these phenomena have
been linked to triggered seismicity and magmatic activity. In
comparison to these phenomena, earthquakes produce similar
stress changes, but have higher stressing rates. The
magnitudes of earthquake induced stress changes (i.e., static
and dynamic stress changes) are dependent on the magnitude
of the earthquake, distance between the source and receiver
fault of magmatic system, and geometry and orientation of
the receiver fault or magmatic system. In this section, we will
provide an introduction to the topic of magmaetectonic
interactions at short spatial and temporal scales with a focus
on triggering of volcanic unrest by static and dynamic stress
changes, strain changes, and associated magmatic processes.
In addition, we discuss and give several examples of magma-
triggered tectonic earthquakes. For a discussion of magma-
induced volcanic seismicity, the reader is referred to Chapter
59dVolcano Seismicity.
3.1. Static Stress Changes
Coseismic static stress changes on faults and magmatic
systems are of significant magnitude in the near-field. That is,
they are the result of elastic strain released during an
Origin and Transport of Magma
earthquake and decay by 1/r3, where r is the distance from
the hypocenter. For example, the static stress change for
an M8 earthquake at 100 km is 0.1 MPa, but 0.0001 MPa
at 1000 km (Manga and Brodsky, 2007). Therefore, the
magnitude of an earthquake and the proximity of the
magmatic system to the hypocenter of the earthquake are
important factors in the magnitude of static stress changes.
We use the Coulomb failure criteria, the stress required to
drive a fault toward failure, to describe the stress changes
on a fault. The change in Coulomb failure stress:
0
Dsf ¼ Dss þ m Dsn (3.2)
is equal to the change in shear stress (ss) on a fault plane
plus the product of the coefficient of friction accounting
0
for pore fluid pressure (m ), and the change in normal
stress (sn). Therefore, an equally important factor in the
magni-tude of stress changes induced by an earthquake is
the orientation of the receiver fault relative to the source
fault or magmatic system, as stress changes are related to
the strike, dip, and rake of a fault. A positive change in the
Coulomb failure stress promotes fault failure. In the case
of normal stress changes, the stress change is independent
of the rake, and a positive normal stress change promotes
fault failure.
In the discussion of earthquake-triggered eruptions in the
near-field, changes in normal stress (Dsn) on a magmatic
system are often invoked. A positive change in normal stress
can cause “unclamping” and formation or opening of a feeder
dike, allowing for magma migration and eruption
Chapter | 3 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism
Static Stress & Strain Triggering Mechanisms
Thrust faulting
Unclamping of dikes parallel to margin
Dike formation and propagation
Volatile exsolution & bubble growth
Density and viscosity decrease
Mingling of different magmas
Magma ascent and depressurization
Normal faulting
Unclamping of dikes normal to margin
Dike formation and propagation
Volatile exsolution & bubble growth
Compression of magma chamber
Density and viscosity decrease
Mingling of different magmas
Magma ascent and depressurization
FIGURE 3.25 Mechanisms for the triggering of volcanic eruptions by
earthquakes. Magmatic and tectonic systems not to scale. Modified from
Walter, T.R., Amelung, F., 2007. Volcanic eruptions following M 9
megathrust earthquakes: implications for the Sumatra-Andaman vol-
canoes. Geology 35, 539e542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G23429A.1.
(Figure 3.25). The regional tectonic stress field controls the
orientation (i.e., strike and dip) and geometry (i.e., dike, sill,
and/or magma chamber) of magmatic systems in the upper
crust (Figure 3.20) (see Section 2 and Chapters 8dMagma
Chambers and 10dConduits and Dikes). The magnitude of
unclamping will be a function of source strength and ge-
ometry, distance between the source and receiver (r), and
receiver geometry. Therefore, magmatic systems (i.e., dikes)
oriented parallel to extensional and compressional plate
boundaries and normal to transform plate boundaries will be
favored for positive normal stress changes (Figure 3.26).
Normal stress changes between >0.0001 and <10.0 MPa for
earthquake-triggered eruptions have been estimated and
reported in the literature.
The static stress triggering of volcanic eruptions is
typically not instantaneous. The timing between source
earthquakes and receiving magmatic systems is highly
variable and can be on the order of hours to months to years.
This temporal range likely reflects the state of the magmatic
system prior to the stress change (i.e., how close was the
magma to eruption) and processes related to magma
migration and eruption. Unclamping or opening of a conduit
will promote formation of a dike and magma ascent. If there
are nested magma chambers throughout the crust, magmas
migrating from depth may be injected into shallower magma
chambers, inducing magma mingling and mixing,
vesiculation, and eruption. There is a prepon-derance of
petrologic evidence that explosive silicic erup-tions are
triggered by the injection of more mafic magmas. Therefore,
the time between an earthquake and triggered volcanic
eruption likely reflects the rate and distance of magma ascent
(see Chapter 9dRates and Timing of Magma Ascent and
Storage and Chapter 11dMagma Ascent and Vesiculation at
Shallow Levels), and the timing
87
of mingling and mixing between distinct magmas prior to
eruption. The ascent rate of magmas is fairly well
constrained by geochemical and geophysical studies, with
average rates between 0.001 and 0.015 m s 1. Recent
studies of magma mixing suggest full mixing of different
magmas at the timescales of days to weeks.
Several of the greatest historical earthquakes, as well as
lower magnitude earthquakes, have been temporally and
spatially correlated with large, volcanic explosivity index
(VEI) >3 volcanic eruptions (see Chapter 13dSizes of
Volcanic Eruptions), and have observed petrology consis-tent
with magma mixing prior to eruption. For example, the 1707
VEI 5 Hoei eruption of Mt Fuji took place 49 days after the
Mw > 8.7 Hoei earthquake along the Nankai subduction
zone, Japan. This was the largest historical eruption of Mt
Fuji and the largest historical earthquake in Japan prior to the
Mw 9.1 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. Here, the earthquake
changed the normal stress on the magmatic plumbing system
by w0.1 MPa beneath Mt Fuji, promoting formation of a deep
dike and rise of basaltic magma from w20 km depth (Figure
3.27). Mingling and mixing of distinct andesitic and dacitic
magmatic bodies, possibly triggered by the basaltic magma,
occurred prior to their eruption and the basaltic plinian
eruptive phase. These observations suggest an average
magma ascent rate of 0.005 m s 1, although it is likely that the
ascent rate was variable between the different magmas.
Continued inves-tigation of large magnitude
earthquakedexplosive erup-tion pairs will provide further
insights into the processes leading to the triggering of
volcanic eruptions.
3.2. Dynamic Stress Triggering
Our ability to monitor and image magmatic systems and
related phenomena has expanded rapidly over the last several
decades. New geochemical and geophysical moni-toring
techniques and more extensive, multiparameter networks
provide better synoptic views of magmatic and volcanic
activity, and more importantly changes in activity, and allow
for a holistic approach to investigating these systems (see
Chapter 66dIntegration of Volcano Moni-toring). Increased
seismic monitoring of volcanoes has led to the development
of new techniques to image the internal structure of volcanic
systems and changes in crustal parameters (e.g., velocity
structure) within and around volcanoes, and allows for
observing the passage of seismic waves from tectonic
earthquakes through the volcano. Seismic waves generated by
large magnitude earthquakes cause near-instantaneous
changes in crustal stress and strain at great distances from the
earthquake hypocenter. These dynamic stress changes decay
by 1/r1.66, where r again is the distance from the earthquake
hypocenter. The magnitude of these stresses can be quite
high, on the order
 (A) Normal faulting
25 25
Dike: 90o strike Dike: 0o strike
60 20 60 20

40 40
15 15

20 20
10 10

0 A B 0 A B
5 5

(k
m
Y (km)

Y )
−20 −20
0 0

−40 −40
−5 −5

−60 −60 A
0A B −10 0 B −10

(km
Depth m)
(k

−10 20 −10 20

Depth )
−80 −30 0 −80 −30 0
−15 −15
−20 −20

−20 −20
−100 0 50 100 150 Bar −100 0 50 100 150 Bar
Distance(km) −20 Distance(km) −20

−120 −120
−25 −25
−80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80
Bar Bar
X (km) X (km)

(B) Thrust faulting

25 25
Dike: 90o strike Dike: 0o strike
60 60
20 20

40 40
15 15

20 20
10 10

0 A B 0 A B
5 5
m
Y (km)

k
(

Y )

−20 −20
0 0

−40 −40
5 5

−60 −60
0A B −10 0 A B −10
Dept (km

m)

−10 −10
Dept (k

20 20
)

−80 −30 0 −80 0

h
h

−15 −15
−20 −20

−20 −20
−100 0 50 100 150 Bar −100 0 50 100 150 Bar
Distance(km) −20 Distance(km) −20

−120 −120
−25 −25
−80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80
Bar Bar
X (km) X (km)
Strike-slip faulting
(C)
25 25
Dike: 90o strike Dike: 0o strike
60 60
20 20

40 40
15 15

20 20
A B 10 A B 10
0 0
m

5 5
k
Y (km)

Y )

−20 −20
0 0

−40 −40
−5 −5

−60 −60
0 A B −10 0 A B −10
m)
m)

(k
(k

−10 20 −10 20
Dept
Dept

−80 −30 0 −80 −30 0

h
h

−15 −15
−20 −20

−20 −20
0 50 100 150 Bar 0 50 100 150 Bar
−100 Distance(km) −20 −100 Distance(km) −20

−120 −120
−25 −25
−80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80
Bar Bar
X (km) X (km)
FIGURE 3.26 Normal stress change for a M7 earthquake calculated at 5 km depth on vertical planes (i.e., dikes or faults) striking parallel and normal (thin black
lines) to the fault that slipped during the earthquake. Surface projection of faults shown as thick black lines and the faults are shown by red boxes. Cross-sections
(A-B) through the static stress change field are shown for each case. The dashed line is at 5 km depth. (A) Normal faulting on a 45 east-dipping fault. (B) Thrust
faulting on a 45 east-dipping fault. (C) Strike-slip faulting. Note the change in scale of the normal stress changes. 1 bar equals 0.1 MPa.
Chapter | 3 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism 89

Normal stress Distance (km)

(bars) 5 NW 0 SE
0 5 10
36˚ z = 8 km z = 20 km 4
1 3
5
−5
35˚ 1 4 1 −4
2
2 −3
2 0 1 10

(km)
5
34˚
5

2.3
4 0 −2
15
33˚ 5

Dep
−1

th
NW SE −2

SE NW 20
32˚ (A)
1

(B) −3
−

31˚ 25
132˚ 134˚ 136˚ 138˚ 132˚ 134˚ 136˚ 138˚ 140˚ −4 (C)
30 0
−5

FIGURE 3.27 Normal stress change on the Mt. Fuji magmatic system following the 1707 M > 8.7 Hoei earthquake. Chesley, C., LaFemina, P.C.,
Puskas, C.M., Kobayashi, D., 2012. The 1707 M8.7 Hoei Earthquake triggered the largest historical eruption of Mt. Fuji, Japan. Geophys. Res. Lett.
39, L24309, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL053868.

of 1 MPa in the near-field (100 km) to 0.01 MPa in the
far-field (1000 km) (Manga and Brodsky, 2007).
Dynamic stresses are larger in magnitude and more far-
reaching than static stresses, and there is a clear correlation
between the passage of seismic waves and triggering of
seismicity in hydrothermal systems (Figure 3.28). Dynamic
stresses and strains associated with the passage of seismic
waves may stress preexisting fractures in the shallow crust to
failure or cause dilation of fractures and subsequent fluid
flow that triggers seismicity. However, there are few studies
indicating the direct triggering of volcanic eruptions by
dynamic stress changes. Nevertheless, dynamic stresses have
been invoked for the triggering of mud volcano eruptions,
changes in volcanic activity and are linked mechanically to
several processes that have been postulated to increase
magmatic overpressure (Manga and Brodsky, 2007 provide a
thorough discussion).
Processes within magma chambers that enhance the
formation of bubbles (i.e., vesiculation) will increase the
magmatic overpressure and potentially trigger magma
migration and eruption. Several processes related to dynamic
stresses have been called upon to increase bubble formation;
these include rectified diffusion, advective overpressure,
direct bubble nucleation by the passage of seismic waves, and
crystal settling or collapse of a crystal mush roof. Rectified
diffusion is the increase in growth of existing bubbles caused
by the passage of seismic waves. This mechanism produces
small pressure variations (10 2e10 4 MPa) and is likely not
significant enough to promote eruption. Advective
overpressure is the increase in magmatic overpressure caused
by the rise of bubbles from the bottom to the top of a magma
chamber or conduit. Because magmas are compressible,
volatiles diffuse in and out of bubbles, and magmatic systems
deform in response to increases in pressure, the effects of
advective over-pressure are also not large. The passage of
seismic waves can also trigger bubble nucleation by changing
the pressure
regime in the magma chamber. In this case, the magma must
be supersaturated and already near the critical pressure for
bubble nucleation. Once bubbles are nucleated they may
grow rapidly, increasing magmatic overpressure. Finally,
dynamic strain and stress changes associated with passage of
seismic waves may trigger the settling of crystals or crystal
mushes formed on the roof of a magma chamber. The settling
of the crystals can cause bubble nucleation and convection
within a magma chamber resulting in an increase in
magmatic overpressure. This process can lead to magmatic
overpressures of high enough magnitude (>1 MPa assuming
basaltic magmatic systems) to trigger a volcanic eruption.
3.3. Strain Changes on Magmatic Systems
Static and dynamic stress changes are inherently linked to co-
seismic strain changes in the crust via Hooke’s Law. These
strain changes have also been invoked with regards to the
triggering of volcanic unrest and eruptions (Figure 3.25).
Specifically, compressional and dilatational stresses have
been discussed with regards to eruption triggering, and again,
the geometries of the source and receiver systems play a very
important role in the triggering process. Coseismic strain
changes that increase compression on a magmatic system
(i.e., magma chamber) are thought to trigger magma migra-
tion and eruptive activity by “squeezing” the magma. When
combined with unclamping of a feeder dike system, the two
processes could lead to eruption. Compression is typically
associated with divergent plate boundaries and normal
faulting earthquakes. Although, compression of magmatic
systems could occur in convergent margins, dependent on the
location and orientation of the magmatic systems relative to
the plate boundary (e.g., see the case of the 1707 eruption of
Mt Fuji above). One issue with compression as an eruption
trigger is the compressibility of magmas. Magma
compressibility is a function of magma chemistry,
90 PART | I
FIGURE 3.28 Dynamic triggering of seismicity (colored circles) in the Yellowstone caldera following the 2002 Denali earthquake. From Husen, S.,
Taylor, R., Smith R.B., Healser, H., 2004. Changes in geyser eruption behavior and remotely triggered seismicity in Yellowstone National Park
produced by the 2002 M 7.9 Denali fault earthquake, Alaska. Geology 32 (6), 537e540, http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G20381.1.
specifically the concentration and solubility of volatiles in the
magmas, and therefore the depth of the magma chamber.
Earthquake induced strain changes imparted on the magmatic
system could be absorbed by compression of the magma.
Coseismic displacements associated with large magni-
tude earthquakes at convergent margins cause extension (i.e.,
positive dilatation) across volcanic arcs and could promote
the opening of margin parallel magmatic systems (i.e.,
magmatic dikes and conduits). Reducing the pressure on a
magma chamber could induce vesiculation, magmatic
overpressure, and eruption (Figure 3.25). This mechanism has
been discussed for the triggering of volcanic eruptions at
convergent margins following large magnitude earth-quakes.
The large magnitudes of dilatation associated with large
magnitude earthquakes may not lead to eruption, but could
still trigger changes in the magmatic systems. Recent
observations of the Holocene volcanic arcs in Chile and
Japan following M > 8 earthquakes, indicate w15 cm of
relative subsidence of the arcs and magmatic systems along
the arcs. These large subsidence signals were hypothesized to
be caused by fluid flow in the upper crust within the
magmaticdhydrothermal systems and by deformation of
magma bodies beneath the arc, respectively. In the case of
Japan, the subsidence signal was also associated with
instantaneous (i.e., dynamically triggered) changes in seismic
velocity, which were attributed to increases in pressure within
the shallow (<5 km) crust, again suggest-ing the affect of
fluids in triggering changes in crustal pa-rameters and
magmaticehydrothermal activity.
Although there are clear temporal and spatial correla-
tions between earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, our
Origin and Transport of Magma
understanding of these complex interactions is far from
complete. Future studies must investigate both the
mechanics of earthquake rupture and the mechanical,
physicochemical, and petrologic processes that can lead to
triggering of volcanic eruptions.
3.4. Magmatic Triggering of Tectonic
Earthquakes
Magmatism and volcanism have been linked to seismicity at
a range of temporal and spatial scales since Pliny the
Younger’s observations of the 79 AD eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius. Magma chamber pressurization, magma migration,
and eruption all induce seismicity (see Chapter 59dVolcano
Seismicity). Our interest here is in the triggering of regional
tectonic earthquakes by magmatic processes. The
pressurization of magma chambers and the intrusion of
magmas into the crust can induce stress changes on fault
systems in the surrounding crust, promoting failure. The
pressurization or change in volume of a magma chamber will
induce changes in the radial (srr) and tangential (sqq)
components of the stress field and will enhance or hinder
failure on vertical strike-slip faults (Figure 3.29). Where as a
change in sqr is important in the promotion of failure on
dipping faults (i.e., normal or thrust faults). Following
Coulomb failure criteria, shear stress changes will be greatest
for vertical faults oriented 45 to the source and normal stress
changes will be maximum for faults oriented transverse to the
source, clamping the faults and hindering failure. Therefore,
vertical faults oriented
Chapter | 3 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism
Trace
Fault
Free surface
σzz
σrz
σrr Earthquake
σθθ hypocenter
In ation
x
source
y along divergent plate boundaries accommodate the roughly 1
z bodies (i.e., batholiths and plutons) and
FIGURE 3.29 Stress field geometry for an inflating magmatic source
and vertical strike-slip fault promoted by changes in the shear and normal
stresses. Modified from Thatcher, W., Savage, J.C., 1982. Triggering of
large earthquakes by magma chamber inflation, Izu Peninsula, Japan.
Geology 10, 637e640.
radial to the source will be promoted by normal stress
changes. For example, pressurization and inflation
episodes of the Long Valley Caldera, CA in the 1970s and
1980s triggered several M6 earthquakes by increasing the
shear stress on north-trending faults south of the caldera.
Rifting events have also been correlated temporally and
spatially with tectonic earthquakes (see Figure 3.13 and
earlier discussion on stress changes associated with dike
intrusion in Section 2.1.2). Following the initial dike
intrusion event for the 1975e1984 Krafla, Iceland rifting
episode, there was an M6.2 earthquake on the Tjornes
fracture zone, a transform fault zone connecting the
Northern Volcanic Zone (i.e., the on-land expression of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in northern Iceland to which
Krafla belongs) to the offshore Kolbeinsey Ridge. In some
regions, it has also been shown that tectonic and magmatic
systems are syn-chronized, promoting failure and
triggering between each other. For example, intermediate
magnitude earthquakes on normal faults in the Apennine
Mountains and inflation and eruption of Mt. Vesuvius can
promote failure in each other. And there are observed
interactions between rift zone ac-tivity on Mauna Loa and
earthquakes on basal deco´llement faults beneath the
volcano. In total, these observations indicate interesting
interactions between magmatic and tectonic systems that
are both acting to accommodate relative pate motions.
4. SUMMARY
Earth is a dynamic planet driven by internal heat loss and
resulting plate tectonic and magmatic processes. Plate
tectonics is the paradigm in Earth system science that best
91
explains the processes acting within and on the surface of the
Earth that result from this internal heat and planetary cooling.
Magmatism and volcanism are processes resulting from heat
generation in the core and mantle, and plate tectonics.
Relative lithospheric plate motions are accom-modated by
tectonic (i.e., elastic and plastic deformation of the
lithosphere) and magmatic (i.e., intrusive and extrusive)
processes. Magmaetectonic interactions occur across vast
temporal and spatial scales. At geologic timescales,
magmaetectonic interactions are the formation of oceanic and
continental crust and lithosphere, and the accommo-dation of
plate motions. Repeated lateral and vertical dike injections
to <12 cm a 1 of relative motion and form new oceanic crust
and lithosphere. The intrusion of large volume magmatic
formation of volcanic arcs at convergent margins, aid in
the growth of continental lithosphere, albeit at a small
percentage of total continental lithospheric volume.
Volcanism occurs along transform plate boundaries where
transtension takes place.
On human timescales, there is a growing set of obser-
vations and studies indicating that earthquakes trigger
explosive volcanic eruptions and magmatic processes
trigger tectonic seismicity. Large magnitude subduction
zone earthquakes induce arc-wide static stress and strain
changes that can relieve stresses on magma chambers and
allow for the opening of magmatic conduits. Dynamic
stress and strain changes associated with the passage of
seismic waves can also trigger vesiculation processes in
magma chambers that increase the magmatic overpressure,
therefore triggering eruption. The development and
expansion of multiparameter volcano monitoring
networks, combined with geochemical and petrologic
analyses of eruptive products, will lead to new
understanding of the complex physicochemical processes
that lead to explosive volcanic eruptions.
FURTHER READING
Acocella, V., 2014. Structural control on magmatism along divergent and
convergent plate boundaries: overview, model, problems. Earth Sci. Rev.
136, 226e288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.006.
Clift, P., Vannucchi, P., 2004. Controls on tectonic accretion versus
erosion in subduction zones: implications for the origin and
recycling of the continental crust. Rev. Geophys. 42, RG2001.
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1029/2003RG000127.
Darwin, Charles, 1839. Journal of Researches into the Natural History
and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H.M.S.
Beagle Round the World, Under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy,
R.N., from 1832e1836. Henry Colburn, London.
Dick, H.J., Lin, J., Schouten, H., 2003. An ultraslow-spreading class of
ocean ridge. Nature 426, 405e412.
92 PART | I
Eggert, S., Walter, T., 2009. Volcanic activity before and after large tectonic
earthquakes: observations and statistical significance. Tectonophysics
471, 14e26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.10.003.
Linde, A.T., Sacks, I.S., 1998. Triggering of volcanic eruptions. Nature
395, 888e890.
Manga, M., Brodsky, E., 2006. Seismic triggering of eruptions in the far field:
volcanoes and geysers. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 34, 263e291.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125125.
Michael, P.J., Langmuir, C.H., Dick, H.J.B., Snow, J.E., Goldsteink, S.L.,
Graham, D.W., Lehnertk, K., Kurras, G., Jokatq, W., Mu¨he, R.,
Origin and Transport of Magma
Edmonds, H.N., 2003. Magmatic and amagmatic seafloor generation
at the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel ridge, Arctic Ocean. Nature 423,
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Rubin, A.M., Pollard, D.D., 1988. Dike-induced faulting in rift zones of
Iceland and Afar. Geology 16, 413e417.
Sinton, J.M., Detrick, R.S., 1992. Mid-Ocean Ridge magma chambers.
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White, S.M., Crisp, J.A., Spera, F.J., 2006. Long-term volumetric
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