SOCIAL SCIENCE

SOCIAL SCIENCE, in its broadest sense, is the study of society and the manner in which people behave and
influence the world around us.

The uttermost goal of social science is to answer different questions and problems about the society and
human condition on how to improve it. (Hunt, 2002)

WHAT IS SOCIAL SCIENCE?

Social Science is being related to the fields of natural science and humanities because of some concepts.

 The social sciences main concern is to deal with aspects of human condition.
 Natural Sciences main concern is to explain natural and environmental phenomena.
 Humanities main concern is more on the philosophical side which aims to answer and interpret big
questions like “what is the meaning of life?”
 For the natural science and social science, they are classified as a science since both of them uses a
systematic way in explaining a certain theory. The scientific way is called the SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
Social Scientist use this method in understanding certain social behaviour.
 For humanities and social science, both of them are closely related to each other because this two fields
both deal with “humans and its culture”. (Hunt, 2002)

WHAT IS SOCIAL RESEARCH AND HOW IMPORTANT IS THE USE OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD IN SOCIAL RESEARCH?

 A research refers to systematic process of collecting and logically analysing information (data) for some
purpose.
 Doing a research helps society to answer many questions that one would like to know or find answers to
many questions or find solutions to many problems in society.
 Through a research, a social scientist or groups of social scientists try to find answers to question like
what is poverty?, Who are the poor? Where are the poor? Why does poverty exist in the society? How
to address poverty in society?

Stages of Research Process Key Questions

Identifying and delimiting the Problem
Review of related literature
Developing the Theoretical Framework
Formulating Hypothesis
Selecting the Research Design
Sampling
Specify methods to collect the Research Data
Finalizing and Reviewing the Research Plan
Conducting a pilot study
Collecting the Data
Preparing the data for analysis
Analyze the data
What is the problem and why should it be
studied?
What information is already available?
What are the variables and what relationships
exist?
How are we going to obtain the answers to
questions being studied?
Where will the study be conducted and with
what population?
What method to use to measure variables?
Are there any pitfalls and shortcomings?
Are there any ethical violations?
Is the study feasible? What needs to be
improved or revised?
Are we ready to collect the data? Where to
collect the data?
Which of the data is relevant or important?
Which data are related?
How do the data answer the research question?
 Interpreting the Results What are the implications of the findings?
Communicating the findings How do I impart the result of my research?
 How can the study be used/utilized? How can
Utilizing the findings
the findings be applied?
 To pursue quality social research, the use of scientific method is a pre requisite. Scientific method refers
to systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in an
investigating phenomenon, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
 For a social research to be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principle of resoning.
 A scientific inquiry follows a process which indicates specific steps and key question/s as guide to
pursue social research interest:
 Social research usually uses quantitative or qualitative methodological approach to gather the data.
 Quantitative designs approach examines social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely
on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to
create valid and reliable general claims.
 Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation,
communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual subjective accuracy
over generality.

RESEARCH ASPECT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The Purpose of the To understand and interpret social To test hypotheses, look at cause and
Research interactions effect, and make predictions.
Understanding why: why. Explanation: how. How many. Who
Key concepts of Who thinks what about… does what. Causal Explanation.
methodology Meanings and attitude
Small samples – often in natural Large samples to produce
setting; Relevance: informants are generalizable results (results that
Sampling Design relevant in relation to problems and
apply to other situations;
meaning Representatives: chosen informants
must represent the target group
Unstructured. Free form. Examples: Structured response categories
Data Collection Case study with interview and FGD provided. Example: Survey
Approach
Design of Data Flexibility: Interview with no clear Systematic: Survey with closed
Collection Instrument answer, dialogue, interaction questions
Low: open answers and a variety of High: the possibilities of answers are
Level of Structuration interpretations laid out for low response
High flexibility. Low flexibility
Qualitative Data (words, image, or Quantitative Data (numbers and
objects) such as open-ended statistics) based on precise
Form of Data Collected responses, interviews, participant measurements using structured and
observations, field notes. validated data-collection instruments

Identify pattern of qualitative Identify Statistical Relationships;

Type of Data Analysis variation, features, themes Mapping of the quantitative variation

Particular or specialized findings Generalizable findings that can be

Conclusion
that is less generalizable.
Research and their biases may be
known to participants in the study,
Role of Researcher & participant characteristics may be
known to the researcher.
Researcher Researcher is intimately involved.
Independence Results are subjective
applied to other populations.
Researcher and their biases are not
known to participants in the study, &
participant characteristics are hidden
from researcher
Researcher is uninvolved observer.
Results are objective.
WHY DO SOCIAL SCIENTISTS CANNOT PRODUCE ACCURATE RESULT AS THAT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES?

 Answer: this is due to the intrinsic difference that divides the two bodies of knowledge. However, this
does not mean that the knowledge derived from the social sciences is not reliable. The social world is
not as predictable as the physical world where the general laws operating in it are more exact and
more quantifiable. Human nature and human behaviour sometimes can be very elusive, more
complicated and less objective. Social scientist may try their best to be objective and scientific but
there will always be instances when the results of their findings will be compromised by a little bias
founded by human prejudice.

DISCIPLINES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

ANTHROPOLOGY can be easily defined as the scientific study of humanity. The most common tool that aid
Anthropologists in studying humanity is archaeology. In short, anthropology can be defined as a science that
deals with the study of human beings and their humanity through the examination of a people’s biological and
cultural past and comparing this with that of another group or community. This subject can also be construed
as a subject dealing with the question “what constructs the humanity of human?”

SUBFIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1. Socio-cultural/Cultural Anthropology – deals with the study of human culture and its influences on the
daily lives of people.
2. Biological/Physical Anthropology – studies the biological or physical aspects of human beings such as but
not limited to genetics, palaeoanthropology, evolutionary science, and population diversity.
3. Archaeology – is basically the study of the cultural heritage of the past through examination of the physical
remains and ruins of past cultures. It also involve the studies regarding ancient civilization
4. Anthropological Linguistics – deals with the influences of language and symbols to human culture. Without
language, there could be no culture to speak of since culture can only be transmitted through symbols of
communication.

SOCIOLOGY – has been defined as the scientific study of the society which necessarily entails the study of all
human activities in the society. It is a subject that has so many ramifications and complications. It is in
sociology that one will know how it is to live as a man inside the confines of the society and its culture.

-The Society is the focal point of sociology. Society can be basically defined as a group of people living together
in a particular area which commonly shares the same culture and racial heritage.

-Different Societies have different people having different culture and tradition. These differences mostly are
the center of research for sociologist. However, despite these variation and diversity, there is still a common
link among all the people of the world even if they belong to different timelines and cultures, it is our
HUMANITY.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE AS A TOOL IN UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY

What is a sociological perspective?

It is a kind of conceptual framework or paradigm for looking into the intricate relationships among individuals
in the society and how they react to the environment.

1. FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE

The functionalist perspective sees the society as composed of different but interdependent integral parts
and these parts play a vital role in keeping the society together in-tact and functioning. To use an analogy,
this perspective can be compared to seeing an automobile as a thing that functions through the different
function of its parts performing their task altogether.
2. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

It is a term coined by the notable sociologist Herbert Blumer, he believes that in order to understand
society, it is of paramount concern to know the underlying concepts embedded in everyday communication
and interaction. It focuses on social interaction to understand social phenomenon.

Symbolic Interactionism includes studying human conversations, responses and interpretation. People
always direct themselves on how they situate their actions in the overall impact of the way they see people
relate themselves to him. This happens through self-awareness, shared symbols, and negotiated order.

3. SOCIAL CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

People from different social groups are often in conflict with another social group. When people advance
their needs they often pair up with others who share their perspective and tend to clash with other with a
different point of view or status. The Social Conflict Theory as inspired by the sociologist and political thinker
Karl Marx, studies the different social groups or classes and outlines how they clash with one another.

POLITICAL SCIENCE- etymologically, political science is the study of the polis. The Greek word polis means a
“city”, tantamount to today’s State.

- It is an in-depth look at the state coupled with an explanation of how and why the government, the
people, and the institutions in the state work the way they do. Again, it is the specialized study of the
state, its government, and politics.
- POLITICAL SCIENCE is A SCIENCE. It is a science in the sense that it is a body of knowledge. It may be
different from the natural sciences, which we often associate with science, but it nonetheless represents a
mass of knowledge about the phenomenon of the state acquired by systematic observation, experience
and study.

ECONOMICS refers to the effective management of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants and
needs. It is a social science that studies the means by which individuals, groups and societies produce,
distribute and consume products and services.

It is derived from the greek word “oikos” which means “house” and “nomos” which means laws, hence the
definition: “rules of the house”.
 DOMINANT APPROACHES AND IDEAS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCE

THEORY - refers to a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explains, describes or
predicts events or situations by specifying relations among variables. Theories by their nature are abstract or
general ideas which have been conceptually developed and tested. In the Social Sciences, theories are usually
equated with models, perspectives or approaches that work in a limited range of settings, to examine and
interpret things in society.

A theory is needed for various reasons:

 Having an understanding of a theory to be used to assess a social issue, social problem or a social
phenomenon gave one the advantage of knowing the specific study components as well as measures to
be used.
 Knowledge of many theories or having several constructs will allow the research to choose or be given
option to select the appropriate theory to be used by looking at the strengths and weaknesses of each
theory.
 One could also compare two or more theories to one study, which could give a broader perspective or
seeing things from various facets and assumptions.
 Knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses of a theory allows opportunity for one to build or create a
new theory.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural Functionalism is the perspective which describes the society as a social system that has a social
structure of its own, made up of different parts which are interconnected and works together in harmony to
achieve balance and social equilibrium.

 In this perspective, the society’s social system is seen as analogous to the human system wherein all
systems of the body should be working harmoniously in order to be a functional body.
 In this perspective, connection is very important. In the human society, the social institutions have
specific defined functions in society; all of them are needed and interconnected to achieve social order
or equilibrium in society to survive as a social system.
 The saying “no man is an island” greatly describe what structuralism is.

FUNCTIONAL – means that the elements of a society do their specific task or jobs in order to contribute to the
social equilibrium.

DYSFUNCTIONAL – is the complete opposite of functional. Being dysfunctional means they disrupt the balance
in the society, that is, if social institutions fail to fulfil their functions or “break down”, society would have
serious problem.

STRENGHTHS OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

1. There is a general consensus about the values and norms of society by the majority. (e.g. wealth is good, murder
is bad). They wish to keep the status quo. Individuals and groups have to accept their roles in society.
2. Society is made up of integrated parts that are tied together, thus if something is wrong with one, it will affect
the other.
3. Society tends to seek stability and avoid conflict.
4. It uses macrolevel analysis in examining issues or problems in society.

WEAKNESSES OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

1. They do not see anything wrong with inequality in a society based on class gender, or race.
2. Not open to social change.
3. Does not look at the root cause of social problem.
 MARXISM

CLASS SYSTEM AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY

 Marxism is a perspective that the world is full of conflict.

 Marxism is the complete opposite of structural functionalism.
 For this perspective, it states that the society is composed of different groups with their own interest
to protect and each group is competing for powers and resources. As a theoretical perspective, it
focuses on class relations and social inequality in the human society.

SOCIAL INEQUALITY happens when resources in a given society are distributed unequally, which socially
define or divide people in categories.

According to Karl Marx, the final synthesis is COMMUNISM where the Proletariats revolt against the capitalist
in order to have this utopian society. In communism, everyone has equal access in resources. This would be
the result of a classless society hence there would be no more inequalities in the society.

STRENGTHS OF MARXISM

1. Societies are always in conflict with a battle over power to control the norms, values, and resources of
a society. This control in power is characterized by a group called the “power elite”
2. Conflict and power differentials are always present in the society as groups pursue their interests. It
looks to investigate social inequality as it relates to class, gender, race/ethnicality.
3. Conflict is a major contribution to societal transformation and social change.
4. It uses macrolevel analysis in examining issues or social problems in society.

WEAKNESSES OF MARXISM

1. In the past, the focus of the perspective was based largely on class inequality.
2. There is less focus on social stability and shared valve. For Marx, social order is an illusion and seldom
seen in human history.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM emphasizes that human behaviour is influenced by definitions and meanings
that are created and maintained through symbolic interaction with others. Notable interactionists are George
Herbart Mead, Charles Cooley, Georg Simmel and Erving Goffman.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION refers, ofcourse, to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes
place between human beings.

 The peculiarity consists in the facts that human beings interpret or “define” each other’s actions
instead of merely reacting to each other’s action.
 Their response is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead is based on the meaning
that they attach to such actions.
 Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the
meaning of one another’s actions. This mediation is equivalent to inserting a process of interpretation
between stimulus and response in the case of human behaviour.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM APPROACH

1. Human Interaction
2. Interpretation of definition rather than mere reaction
3. Response based on meaning
4. Use of symbol
5. Interpretation between stimulus and response
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

• PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPHY (FREUD)

• Psychoanalysis is a method of psychotheraphy and personality theory with a philosophical approach to

human nature.

• SIGMUND FREUD was the originator of psychoanalysis. According to him, human beings are basically
determined by psychic energy and early experiences.

• He further argued that a person is driven by his sexual and aggressive impulses.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. ORAL STAGE (0 to 1 year old)

 A child's first year or so is called the oral stage because the mouth and lips are the center of pleasure
then. (e.g. Sucking)

 The individual may be frustrated by having to wait on another person, being dependent on them. Being
fixated at this stage may mean an excessive use of oral stimulation, such as cigarettes, drinking or
eating.

2. ANAL STAGE (2 t0 3 years old)

 The anal personality might symbolically withhold faces by being controlling, stingy, highly organized,
stubborn, and perhaps excessively concerned with cleanliness, orderliness, and details.

 Here individuals have their first encounter with rules and regulations, as they have to learn to be toilet
trained. This encounter with rules and regulations will dictate the later behavior with rules and
regulations.

• The libido is focused anally, and frustration may arise from having to learn a somewhat complex
cognitive and motor response. Being fixated at this stage can result in stinginess, stubbornness, or
orderliness, as well as messiness. Essentially, behaviour related to retention and expulsion may be
related to experiences at this stage.

3. PHALLIC STAGE (4 to 6 years old)

 The focus of pleasure shifts to the genital area.

 The boy's id impulses involve sexual desire for the mother's affection-- OEDIPUS COMPLEX

 The boy's hostile fantasies and impulses about his father create a fear of retaliation called
CASTRATIONANXIETY.

 ELECTRA COMPLEX- Girls learns to adopt female sex-role behaviors, and subsequently choosing a male-
mate other than her father.

• Oedipus conflict - the boy begins to have sexual desires for his mother, and sees his father as a rival for
her affections. The boy begins to fear that his father is suspicious of his longing for his mother, and that
the father will punish him for his desires. That punishment, the boy fears, will be castration, which
brings us to the second critical episode for this stage.

• Castration anxiety. The fear of castration make the boy anxious. This anxiety begun with the fear of
punishment from the father leads to the boy thinking that the father hates him eventually becomes
unbearable and the boy renounces his sexual feelings for his mother and chooses instead to identify
 with his father, and hopes to someday have a relationship with a woman (though not his mother) just
like dear old dad has with his mother.

 The story for girls is slightly different. The oral and anal stages are the same for both girls and boys, so
the focus of affection and attention is on the mother for both. But this focus changes, for girls, from
the mother to the father, when the girls realize that they don't have penises, so they develop penis
envy. This realization coupled with the knowledge that her mother doesn't have a penis leads to her
thinking her mother unworthy, and becoming attracted to her father, as he does have a penis.

 Just as with boys, girls begin to suspect the same sex parent knows about their attraction to the
opposite sex parent, and they hate them for it. These feelings go round and round for awhile until the
point when the girls renounce their feelings for their fathers and identify with their mothers.

4. LATENCY STAGE

 As the phallic stage draws to a close, it's conflicts, resolved or not, are repressed or otherwise kept out
of consciousness by the ego.

 An interval of peace known as the latency period ensues, during which sexual impulses lie dormant and
the child focuses on education and other matters.

5. GENITAL STAGE

 When the child begins to mature physically during adolescence, sexual impulses begin to reappear at
the conscious level.

 The genital again become the focus of pleasure, and the young person begins to seek relationships
through which sexual impulses can be gratified.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES (ERIK ERIKSON)

• Erik Erikson built on Freud’s ideas and by extension stressed the social aspects of a person’s
development. These are called Psychosocial Stages:

1. Infancy (Trust versus Mistrust)

2. Early Childhood (Autonomy versus Shame and doubt)

3. Preschool Age (Initiative versus Guilt)

4. School Age (Industry versus Inferiority)

5. Adolescence (Identity versus Role Confusion)

6. Young Adulthood (Intimacy versus Isolation)

7. Middle Age (generativity versus stagnation)

8. Later Life (Integrity versus Despair)