PSY 101 LT 2 Reviewer

Chapter 6: Memory

Memory – active system that receives info from sense, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and
then retrieves it from storage

Processes of Memory

 Encoding – set of mental operations that converts sensory info to a form that is usable in the
brain’s storage systems
 Storage – holding onto info for some period of time
 Retrieval – getting info from storage

Models of Memory

 Information- processing model

o Assumes processing info for memory stage is similar to a computer’s three way system
of storing
 RAM
 Room for activity
 Hard drive
 Storage of files
 Input
 Things typed into the computer
 Levels-of-processing model
o Assumes info is processed at different levels and the deeper it is, the easier it is to be
retrieved
 Parallel distributed processing model
o Processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural
connections

Three Stage Processes of Memory

 Encoding -> SENSORY MEMORY -> Selective attention -> SHORT-TERM MEMORY ->
Consolidation/Retrieval -> LONG-TERM MEMORY

Sensory Memory- point which info enters the nervous system through the sensory systems

 First stage
o Iconic Memory
 Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second
 Capacity: everything that can be seen at one time
 Duration: pushed out very quickly due to a process called masking
o Eidetic Imagery
 Photographic memory
o Echoic Memory
 Brief memory of something a person has just heard
  Capacity: limited to what can be heard at one time and is smaller than the
capacity of iconic memory
 Duration: 2-4 seconds

Short-term Memory- system in which info is held for brief periods of time

 Auditory memory – audio recorder

 Visual memory – visual sketchpad
 Working memory – coordinates, interprets, manipulates info
o Photoshop, imagination
 Capacity of STM
o Digit-span test memory – series of numbers shown then asked to recall them in order
o Capacity is about seven items plus or minus two
o Chunking – bits of info combined into meaningful units or chunks
o Maintenance Rehearsal – practice of saying info to be remembered over and over in
one’s head in order to maintain it in STM
o Susceptible to interference (repeating counting after being interrupted)

Long- term Memory – info placed to be kept more or less permanently

 Types of LTM
o Procedural (non-declarative) memory
 Skills, procedures, habits, conditioned responses
 Unconscious but implied to exist since they affect conscious behavior
 Implicit memory
 Skills that people know how to do
 Emotional associations, habits, conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in
conscious awareness
 Amygdala and cerebellum
o Declarative memory
 Conscious and known
 Semantic Memory – general knowledge, language
 Episodic Memory – personal not readily available to others, daily
activities and events
 Explicit Memory

Organization and Retrieval

Organization- LTM organized in terms of related meanings and concepts

 Semantic Network Model

o Info is stored in a connected fashion
o Concepts related are stored physical closer to each other
o Acts as retrieval cues
 Retrieval cues
o Stimulus for remembering
 Encoding specificity
o Tendency for memory of info to be improved if related info available when memory is
first improved is present. Ex: Butterfly
 o State-dependent learning – memories formed during a particular physiological or
psychological state will be easier to recall while in similar state

Kinds of Retrieval

 Recall – info to be retrieved must be pulled from memory w/ few external cues
o Retrieval failure – recall failed temporarily
o Tip of the tongue phenomenon
o Serial position effect – beginning and end info are easily remembered
 Primacy – beginning
 Recency – end
 Recognition – ability to match a piece of info or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
o False positive – error of recognition in which people think the that recognize some
stimulus that is not actually in memory

How are LTM’s formed?

 Consolidation
o Changes that take place in structure and functioning of neurons when memory is formed
o Hippocampus – responsible for LTM’s
 Constructive processing
o Retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influence by
newer info

Reliability of Memory Retrieval

 Hindsight Bias
o Falsely believe through revision of older memories to include newer info, that one could
have correctly predicted the outcome of an event (Knew it all along after the event has
transpired)
 Misinformation Effect
o Tendency of misleading info presented after an event to alter memories of event itself
o Ex: Dead hamster
 False memory syndrome
o Creation of inaccurate or false memories through suggestion of others
o False memories cannot be created if too unrealistic

Forgetting

 Curve of forgetting
o Forget most after 1 hour
o Distributed practice – better retrieval than massed practice

Memory Trace theory

 Physical change in brain that occurs when memory is formed

o Decay – loss of memory due to passage of time
o Disuse – another name for decay, assumes that info not used will eventually decay
Interference theory

 Proactive interference – older info prevents newer info

 Retroactive interference – newer info prevents older info

Amnesia

 Retrograde amnesia – point of injury backwards

 Anterograde amnesia – point of injury forwards, inability to form new LTM’s
 Infantile amnesia – tendency to not retain info until age of 3

Chapter 8

Human development – scientific study of changes that occur in people from conception to death

Development Research Designs

 Longitudinal design
o One group is being studied for a long period of time
 Cross- sectional design
o Several different age groups are studied in one particular point of time
 Cross- sequential design
o Participants are first studied by means of cross-sectional then followed and assessed
o Combination of 2

Nature vs Nurture

 Nature – influence of inherited characteristics to personality, physical growth, intelligence

 Nurture – influence of environment to personality, physical growth, intelligence

Infancy

 Genetics – science of inherited traits

 DNA- molecule that contains genes
 Genes – Dominant and Recessive
 Chromosomes – tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
o Chromosome disorders
 Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, Furner syndrome
o Genetic disorders
 PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease
 Seizures, overactivity and underactivity
 Conception- moment a female becomes pregnant
o Ovum – egg cell
o Zygote
 Germinal Period – 1st – 2nd week after fertilization, zygote moves down to uterus and implant in
lining
 Embryonic Period- 2nd – 8th week after fertilization where major organs develop
o Critical periods – environmental influences have impact on development of structures
and functions
 o Teratogen – any factor that can cause a birth defect
 Fetal Period – 8th week to conception

Physical Development

 4 critical areas for newborn

o Respiration, Digestion, Circulation, Temperature regulation
 Sucking, rooting
 Senses are well developed except sight
 Motor milestones
o Gross motor skills develop at a fast pace
 Cognitive development
o Development of thinking, problem solving, memory scheme
o Schema – mental concept formed through experiences w/ objects and events
o Sensory motor’s stage
 Object permanence
 Learn to interact w/ environment

Psychosocial Development

 Trust vs mistrust (0-1 year old)

o Sense of trust and mistrust as a result of consistent or inconsistent care
 Temperament
o Behavioral characteristics are fairly well established at birth
o Easy, difficult, slow to warm-up

Childhood

 Language development
o Child-directed speech
 Children attend to higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech
 Cooing
 Babbling – syllables
 One-word speech – holophrases
 Telegraphic speech – sentences
o Language acquisition device
 Governs learning of language during infancy and early childhood

Psychosocial Development

 Autonomy versus shame & doubt (2-3 years old)

o Toddler strives for physical independence
 Initiate versus guilt
o Strive for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity
about the world
 Preoperational stage – learn to use language as a means of exploring the world
o Egocentrism – inability to see the world through other’s eyes
 o Centration – tendency of a child to focus on only one feature of an object while ignoring
others
o Conservation – inability to understand that changing the appearance of an object does
not change the nature of the object
o Irreversibility – inability to mentally reverse an action
 Attachment
 Emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver
o Secure – mother departs, when arrive, become soothed
o Avoidant – unattached
o Ambivalent – upset when mother leaves, angry upon return
o Disorganized- disoriented – abused, neglected, fearful
 Industry versus inferiority (6-13 years old)
o Child strives for sense of competence and self-esteem
o Start and finish projects
 Concrete operations stage
o Capable of logical thought process but not abstract thinking

Learning by Vgotski

o Scaffolding
o More skilled learning gives help to less skilled, reducing amount of help as less skill
becomes more capable
o Zone of proximal development
o Difference between what a child can do alone vs w/ a trainer
o Gender role development
o Gender – behavior associated w/ being male or female
o Gender identity – perception of one’s gender and behavior associated w/ that gender

Levels of Morality

o Pre-conventional morality
o Governed by consequences of behavior

Adolescence- 13 to early twenties where he is no longer physical a child, but not yet independent

o Puberty – physical changes occurring in body as sexual development reaches peak

o Personal fable – young people believe themselves to be unique
o Imaginary audience – other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thought and
characteristics as they themselves are
o Conventional morality
o Governed by social norms of behavior

Identity vs Role confusion (13-20)

o Consistent sense of self, time of trying on identities for size

Formal Operations stage

o Ability to test hypothesis and think of logical possibilities for hypothetical events
Adulthood (20’s – old age/death)

o Intimacy vs Isolation (20-30)

o Able to share self w/ others w/o losing individuality
o Generativity vs Stagnation (40-50)
o Challenged to be creative, productive, and to nurture next generation

Post-conventional morality

o Moral principles are used to determine right and wrong

o Follow norms if aligned and disobey if not

Physical Changes and Aging

o Decline in reproductive system ending at age 50 w/ menopause or ceasing of ovulation and

menstrual cycle
o Andropause – gradual changes in sex hormones of male

Theories on Aging

o Wear and tear theory – repeated use of body’s tissues cause it unable to repair damage
o Free radical theory – oxygen molecules goes around and bumps other internals
o Activity theory- old people should remain active to adjust to aging
o Cellular clock theory – cells can only reproduce so much due to telomere shortening

Integrity versus Despair (60 onwards)

o Challenged whether to develop wisdom in acceptance of life

Stages of Death

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance