Professional Documents
Culture Documents
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International
License subject to proper citation to the publication source of the work.
Disclaimer: The scholarly papers as reviewed and published by the OIRC JOURNALS, are the
views and opinions of their respective authors and are not the views or opinions of the OIRC
JOURNALS. The OIRC JOURNALS disclaims of any harm or loss caused due to the published
content to any party.
44 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
45 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
new Constitution, passed in 2010, provides a powerful over one’s life. This is also true for Kenyan women
framework for addressing gender equality. This although in some communities like Meru more women
Constitution provides that not more than two-thirds of than men are involved in small-scale businesses.
the members of elective as well as appointive bodies Randstad’s report (2018) notes that Women in the
should be of the same gender. United States earn on around 79 cents for every dollar
However, there is still public concern over women’s that men earn but this gap is much worse for women
continued discrimination in critical areas such as land of color. Overcoming this is critical for retaining
ownership and inheritance, as well as election to women in the workplace. Economic development is
political office (Kairu, 2017). Kenya is yet to meet the characterized by better physical infrastructure, more
constitutionally accepted political membership advanced technology and higher household income
threshold by both gender, especially in the major law Jayachandran (2015). Women in developing countries
making government organ,the National Assembly. report having relatively less control over their lives
Although the number of Kenyan women elected to than those in developed countries. There is particularly
parliament was better in the 2017 elections, compared little freedom of choice for women in India, the Middle
to those of 2013, the numbers still fell short of the East, and North Africa.
constitutional two-thirds gender requirement.
Currently, the number of women in the National Culture
Assembly to 76, still short by 41 to make 117 or one- Cultural practices all over the world have impacted
third of the 349 MPs — 290 elected, 47 woman greatly on lives of men and women. Culture has
representatives and 12 nominated members developed distinct roles for men and women in all
(Kairu,2017). societies. These have found their way into our modern
This study was carried out among 102 select workers workplaces. Many cultures practice patrilocality, in
belonging to 5 medium sized organizations in Meru which a married couple lives near or with the
County; two leading cooperatives, two institutions of husband’s parents. Once a woman gets married, she
higher learning and the county government staff. The essentially ceases to be a member of her birth family
study was keen to investigate organizations that had and joins her husband’s family (Letitia, 2003). Under
engaged more than a 100 staff members. The sample this system, parents potentially reap more of the
consisted of 62 female and 40 male respondents. returns to investments in a son’s health and education
I used a survey method of investigation to explore the because he will remain a part of their family
key factors in multi-sectorial organizations that (Jayachandran, 2015) financial mindset about
influence gender inequity at the workplace. An investing in daughters is encapsulated in an often-
interview schedule and a simple questionnaire were quoted Indian saying that “raising a daughter is like
utilized to collect personal opinions and information watering your neighbors’ garden.” This sentiment is
relating to causes of gender imbalance in the echoed in a Chinese proverb that describes raising a
organizations. daughter as “plowing someone else’s field.” In Kenya,
the government had to intervene in 2010 and unveiled
Causes of Gender Imbalance a new constitution that aimed at promoting the
Women in the developing countries still feel participation of women in economic development,
disadvantaged compared with their male counterparts anchored in affirmative action policies for all public
on several fronts. MWIA(2002) identifies gender- organizations.
specific factors that often disadvantage women, In a patrilineal system, names and property pass to the
including, women’s lower status and social value in next generation through male descendants. This
the households, Cultural factors, being excluded from system puts sons on a higher footing than daughters,
decision making organs and reduced access to and the specific feature of land inheritance is
opportunities like education and equal participation in especially likely to have effects on gender gaps (Joan,
economic development. 2008). Just like in African continent, there is a parents’
strong desire to have a son in China and India, which
Distribution of resources may make girls perceived as unloved or unwanted.
Women still feel disempowered economically. Although studies have shown that in general women
Jayachandran (2015) noted that women in developing have a longer life expectancy than men, this female
countries fare worse relative to men compared to advantage is somewhat smaller in poor countries
women in developed countries on a variety of (Jayachandran, 2015).
measures, ranging from college enrollment to control
46 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
Interpersonal relations reflect are a social construct – they vary across cultures
Interpersonal relations involves the way members of a and through time, and thus are amenable to change.
group relate with each other. Workplace (MWIA 2002).
discrimination is most directly attributable to HR All organizations should emphasize on developing
practices (Hopcroft, 2009). People's conceptions of equal opportunity policies to promote the interests of
masculinity and femininity, ideas concerning the the disadvantaged. Changing existing structural,
fairness of differential treatment or expectations of organisational and institutional practices is necessary
women and men, internalized schema that evoke in order to accommodate the needs of women with
different judgments of women's and men's actions, multiple roles. One issue is the need to give young
rules about proper male and female behavior applied mothers flexible working hours (Onsongo, 2006).
to children – all these and more concern the influence According to Jayachandran (2015), eliminating gender
of ideology on gender identities, differential treatment inequality might require explicit policy intervention.
of women and men, and the organization and Moreover, one might not want to wait patiently as the
persistence of gender inequality (Burns & Katherine, problem of gender inequality resolves itself through
2010). economic growth. One type of gender-progressive
In organizations just like in our wider society, men and policy is granting legal rights to women. A powerful
women find themselves performing certain roles in the example of this tool is India’s move to reserve political
workplace. For instance, in board meetings women seats for women. A limitation of legal reforms is that
enjoy serving snacks and drinks during break time. It enforcement is often weak. For example, the legal
naturally happens because of the societal expectations reform granting women rights to ancestral land. Thus,
placed on them. It is not forced on them, and it is another policy approach is to try to change women’s
unlikely for any of them to feel offended. Men also attitudes, whether by creating a cadre of role models
have certain roles that they play consciously or or by other means.
unconsciously in organizations. Gender roles are the
particular economic, social roles and responsibilities Discussion
considered appropriate for women and men in a given Distribution of resources
society. Gender roles and characteristics do not exist The study paid more attention to pay, leadership
in isolation, but are defined in relation to one another positions and representation in key decision making
and through the relationship between women and men, positions or careers.62% of respondents felt that there
girls and boys (MWIA 2002). was no disparity in pay for male and female employees
Organizations in Kenya use policy documents and working at similar level or grade. This is in contrast to
legal provisions to guide workers on interpersonal studies carried out in the developed world where
relations. Such policies should however guard against unequal pay dominates the cause of gender
gender-based tokenism or benevolent sexism, where discrimination (Randstad, 2018).
you reward one gender in order to satisfy policies and On representation in key decision making organs, the
legal provisions at the expense of quality performance. study observed that there exists some disparity in the
Jayachandran (2015) notes that concern for women’s two cooperatives although women are coming up quite
and girls’ safety and “purity” constrains their physical well. The male gender dominated the representation.
mobility in many developing countries. It is difficult For instance, more than two-thirds of the governing
to say how much of the limited mobility is out of organs(directors) were found to be of the male gender,
genuine concern for women’s welfare, aimed at This was supported by the respondents where 66% felt
protecting them from harassment and sexual violence, that male gender dominated key positions in the
and how much is simply a way to stifle female management of organizations; thus indicating that the
autonomy. other gender was under-represented in the leadership
Gender mainstreaming should be enhanced in all of the workplace. There was however a more balanced
organizations. This is a strategy for making women’s representation in the universities and the county
as well as men’s concerns and experiences, an integral government. On accessing key positions 86% of
dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring respondents indicated that male gender was accessing
and evaluation of policies and programmes, in all more key jobs than their female counterparts, in the
political, economic and social spheres (Onsongo, workplace. However, female employees had
2006). While sex and its associated biological dominated low-key jobs in the same organizations,
functions are programmed genetically, gender roles while managerial and technical jobs are largely
and power relations and the power relations they controlled by men in the organizations surveyed. A
47 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
male university worker observed that in the university negotiating for truce informally. A female respondent
where he worked, the number of female workers working for a university revealed, “Majority of casual
exceeded that of male workers.” It is only that most of workers in our university are young women. Men
them occupy low key jobs while only a few work hard easily find their way and get absorbed as permanent
to get top positions. You cannot blame men for this staff while we are left behind buoyed by the role of
situation.” taking care of our young families. Men at this time
outsmart us by attracting the eye of our supervisors. It
Culture therefore does not surprise us when male casuals are
The study further sought to understand the role of recommended for permanent jobs or extension of
culture in influencing gender equality.57% of the contract. Being a casual worker does not exempt us
respondents felt that family roles as prescribed by ladies from undertaking all household chores,
society influenced gender discrimination .To use the regardless of how tired we are.”
factor positively, 75% agreed with suggestion that no The study further used an interview schedule to
roles should be gender-based; The assertion being that investigate the opinions of various respondents in
society no longer prescribes some jobs as feminine or regard to the effect of gender equality in their
others masculine. Custom-based practices were found organizations. The benefits of gender equity at the
to influence the thinking of organizational members; workplace as envisaged by respondents were rated as
while outdated ideologies and beliefs were also said to follows: Gender equality would lead to expeditious
influence gender divide (66%).A female respondent growth of the organization (95%); gender equality
working for a SACCO confessed: “When time came would lead to higher Profitability (90%); gender
to make a decision to go for higher education, it was equality would lead to individual’s higher
natural that my husband had to pursue his performance (86%); gender equality would result into
undergraduate studies before me. None of our family peaceful coexistence (71%) and gender equality would
members suggested that I should go first. It was only increase the rate of staff retention (66%).
after he graduated that I got an opportunity to advance
mine. There were even some family members who felt United Nations Development Program (UNDP) report
that I did not need to go for more education”. has observed that the future of a Kenyan woman is
Family and kinship are potentially relevant to gender looking bright. Kenyan rich women are taking over the
inequality in varied ways (Brines, 1994) .Traditional man in the role of bread winning. Gender inequality
ideas about the roles of girls and women restrict their could soon be a thing of the past for the country. Most
contributions in the society. Some women have women today make more than what their husbands
succeeded in resisting these practices and have been make. Majority are going back to school to earn
able to change communities positively through this college degrees and doctorates. Gender equality and
resistance (Kathleen, 2009). It was noted that some the empowerment of women are central to UNDP’s
members of organizations have formed cartel-like work and mandate, and a mean for attaining
groups that manipulate members, including those in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). UNDP
management. The groups are for advancing personal works on improving lives of women and their access
and group interests. In this study, 46% of respondents to social, economic and legal rights. Globally, UNDP
felt that collusion between members of the dominant supports international and national efforts to
group was responsible for advancing their interest at mainstream gender and women’s empowerment,
the expense of the minority. Half of the surveyed making women’s and men’s concerns and experiences
respondents indicated presence of harassment in the an integral dimension into all our areas of work guided
organizations by few members. Most theoretical by our Gender Equality Strategy(UNDP,2017).
approaches to gender inequality suggest that violence
between women and men plays a role in sustaining Strategies employed by organizations to promote
inequality; some also point toward violence as an gender balance.
initial cause (Michael, 2005) However violence in the The study noted that the five organizations surveyed
organizations surveyed was only manifest in form of had written policy statements warning workers against
psychological harassment as opposed to physical all forms of discrimination against their subordinates.
violence. Most of the cases went unreported and Three organizations had established gender
victims of harassment handled the matter in various committees that regularly advised the management on
ways; including resigning and looking for jobs gender issues. Four organizations investigated had
elsewhere, letting the matter die naturally with time, or developed suitable policies that protected workers
48 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
against sexual harassment by senior or junior members equal opportunities to all members regardless of race,
of the organization. Further, 80% of the respondents religion, gender, economic background and social
believed that their managements were working status. It should provide a chance to every member of
towards meeting the government pronounced policy the organization to discover themselves and develop
on two-thirds gender rule on leadership positions. In their potential for personal and career growth. This
the top organs of decision making, the appointments in will benefit the organization in the long run.
these positions met this requirement by ensuring that More opportunities should be provided to any gender
neither gender exceeded two-thirds majority. These that feels disadvantaged in the organizations. This can
were university councils and senates for universities, be realized easily if the management team develops
while the county government had balanced gender in policies that are not discriminative. For instance, some
the boards of directors. The two universities, with a highly skilled working mothers face a dilemma when
population of over 600 staff had only 6 cases of sexual they are forced by circumstances to choose between
harassment reported. However one could not rule out taking up higher position offered by management and
a possibility of few unreported cases. The number of family roles. Quite a number decline to take up these
these cases therefore sounds insignificant, but the positions. However, if the management would be more
institutions policy on anti-sexual harassment may have flexible to accommodate the needs of this working
been responsible for this. mother, it would lead to a win-win situation. None of
There was an argument that the affirmative action on the organizations surveyed was keen on giving these
gender balance at the workplace could be working young mothers flexible-working hours arrangement as
against members of one gender, especially in cases you would find it happening in the west. Organizations
where one may feel more qualified than a member of sometimes find it difficult to accommodate some
the other gender who is promoted or given a new employee needs due to competitive nature of their
position on the basis of balancing the gender business, amount of work demanded from each job
representation in various positions of authority (Hyde, holder and pressure from shareholders or the
2005). A respondent in the cooperatives sector appointing authority. There are cases that have been
questioned the rationale of giving out positions on the reported in the country where managements refuse to
basis of gender at the expense of proven past accommodate back or renew contracts for young
performance. This assertion is supported by another female employees who find themselves expectant.
respondent who said: “Discrimination against the boy They are replaced with male counterparts the moment
child is now being extended to the workplace.” they leave the work station to have babies.
Another male respondent protested: “If a position is Drawing from a national perspective, the government,
given on the basis of representation and not ability, through affirmative action has been able to balance the
what is the use of good grades on our academic access to basic education between girls and boys in
certificates or commendation from our appraisal less than two decades. In some parts of the central
reports. It is unfair to resort to a tokenism culture on province and the northern part of Meru County, the
the basis of gender. Public organizations are at risk of number of girls enrolled in primary schools has
breeding mediocrity if this is not checked in good surpassed the number of boys. The same affirmative
time.” action has improved tremendously the access of higher
Probably the two most important general issues for education by female students, bridging the wide gap
consideration in our organizations involve the ways that existed in universities and tertiary institution up to
that women and men are unequal within families and early 1990s.The same affirmative action needs to be
the ways that family organization both contributes to institutionalized in the workplace.
and is influenced by gender inequality beyond the Empowerment programs targeting the disadvantaged
family institution (Kathleen,2009). gender need to be put in place. It is high time HR
departments engaged workers in mentorship programs
Conclusion to champion gender equity in their organizations. This
Workers in every organization bring in distinct, of course requires full support of the top
sometimes conflicting values into the organization. managements. Various training programs can be
There is need for organizations to develop initiated in-house to give an opportunity to all
organizational cultures that will help to deter all forms members of the organization to participate, re-discover
of gender discrimination which, to a large extent their potential and experience personal growth.
creates gender imbalance in the organization. Strong Training will create confidence in them and thus
organizational cultures have policies that provide turning them into great future leaders
49 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org
Africa International Journal of Management Education and Governance (AIJMEG)
ISSN: 2518-0827 (Online Publication) Vol. 3 (4) 44-50, November, 2018
www.oircjournals.org
50 | P a g e
Kubaison, (2018) www.oircjournals.org