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Parts of trees

Beech leaves

Tree roots anchor the structure and provide water and nutrients. The ground has
eroded away around the roots of this young pine tree

The dark lines between the centre and the bark are medullary rays, which allow
nutrients to flow across the tree trunk

The parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems
are mainly made of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood
consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to
the vascular cambium.

Growth of the trunk

As a tree grows, it may produce growth rings as new wood is laid down around the
old wood. In areas with seasonal climate, wood produced at different times of the
year may alternate light and dark rings. In temperate climates, and tropical climates
with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of
light and dark rings being one year of growth. In areas with two wet and dry
seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in
some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new
growth ring with each rainfall.[2]
In tropical rainforest regions, with constant year-round climate, growth is
continuous. Growth rings are not visible and there is no change in the wood
texture. In species with annual rings, these rings can be counted to find the age of
the tree. This way, wood taken from trees in the past can be dated, because the
patterns of ring thickness are very distinctive. This is dendrochronology. Very few
tropical trees can be accurately dated in this manner.

Roots

The roots of a tree are usually down in earth. They provide anchorage for the parts
above ground. They take in water and nutrients from the soil. Roots can be above
ground or deep underground. Some are short, some are meters long. Most trees
need help from a fungus for better uptake of nutrients: this is mycorrhiza. Most of
a tree's biomass comes from carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere (see
photosynthesis). Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches,
competing with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the order of the
branches makes exposure of the leaves to sunlight better.

Exceptions

Not all trees have all the organs or parts as mentioned above. For example, most
palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional
leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size,
all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Trees can vary very much.
A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks
and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub (or a bush). Even
though that is true, no precise differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible.
Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one
should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of
individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all
spruces are trees.
Classification

A sweet chestnut tree in Ticino, Switzerland

A tree is a plant form that can be found in many different orders and families of
plants. Trees show many growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark traits and organs.

The tree form has changed separately in classes of plants that are not related, in
response to similar problems (for the tree). With about 100,000 types of trees, the
number of tree types in the whole world might be one fourth of all living plant
types.[3] Most tree species grow in tropical parts of the world and many of these
areas have not been surveyed yet by botanists (they study plants), making species
difference and ranges not well understood.[4]

The earliest trees were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests
in the Carboniferous period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving
horsetails and lycophytes are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period,
conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently
flowering plants in the Cretaceous period. Most species of trees today are
flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers.

A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape
covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined
largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see
ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually
grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna. A forest of great age is
called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK). A very young tree is
called a sapling.

Records
Height

The coast redwood: 115.85 metres (380.1 feet), in Redwood National Park,
California is believed to be the world's tallest tree.[5]

The tallest trees in Australia are all eucalypts, of which there are more than 700
species. The so-called 'mountain ash'. with a slim, straight trunk, grows to over 300
feet.

Stoutest trees

The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter is the African baobab: 15.9 m
(52 ft), Glencoe baobab (measured near the ground), Limpopo Province, South
Africa.[6] This tree split up in November 2009 and now the stoutest baobab could
be Sunland Baobab (South Africa) with diameter 10.64 m and circumference of
33.4 m.

Some trees develop multiple trunks (whether from an individual tree or multiple
trees) which grow together. The sacred fig is a notable example of this, forming
additional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which
then thicken up when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single
sacred fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks.

Age of trees

The life-span of trees is determined by growth rings. These can be seen if the tree
is cut down or in cores taken from the edge to the center of the tree. Correct
determination is only possible for trees which make growth rings, generally those
which occur in seasonal climates. Trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates
are always growing and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible
for trees which are solid to the center of the tree; many very old trees become
hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age
estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but
the results are usually little better than guesses or speculation. White proposed a
method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in the United Kingdom by
correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character and age.[7]

The verified oldest measured ages are:

Great Basin bristlecone pine (Methuselah) Pinus longaeva: 4,844 years[8]

Alerce: 3,622 years[8]

Giant sequoia: 3,266 years[8]

Sugi: 3,000 years[9]

Huon-pine: 2,500 years[8]

Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus
baccata (probably over 2,000 years[10][11]) and western redcedar Thuja plicata.
The oldest known European yew is the Llangernyw yew in the Churchyard of
Llangernyw village in North Wales which is estimated to be between 4,000 and
5,000 years old.

The oldest reported age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha
Bodhi sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka;
this is said to be the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.

Tree value estimation

Studies have shown that trees contribute as much as 27% of the appraised land
value in certain markets.[12]
Basic tree values (varies by region)[13]

diameter

(inches) value

(1985 US$)

10 $1,729

14 $3,388

18 $5,588

26 $11,682

30 $15,554

These most likely use diameter measured at breast height (dbh), 4.5 feet (140 cm)
above ground—not the larger base diameter. A general model for any year and
diameter is:

{\displaystyle {\text{Value}}=17.27939\times ({\text{diameter}})^{2}\times

1.022^{{\text{year}}-1985}} {\text{Value}}=17.27939\times
({\text{diameter}})^{2}\times 1.022^{{\text{year}}-1985}

assuming 2.2% inflation per year.[14]

Tree climbing

Tree climbing is an activity where one moves around in the crown of trees.[15]

A tree climber
Use of a rope, helmet, and harness are the minimum requirements to ensure the
safety of the climber. Other equipment can also be used depending on the
experience and skill of the tree climber. Some tree climbers take special hammocks
called "Treeboats" and Portaledges with them into the tree canopies where they can
enjoy a picnic or nap, or spend the night.

Tree climbing is an "on rope" activity that puts together many different tricks and
gear originally derived from rock climbing and caving. These techniques are used
to climb trees for many purposes, including tree care (arborists), animal rescue,
recreation, sport, research, and activism.

Damage

El Grande, about 280 feet high, the most massive (though not the tallest)
Eucalyptus regnans was accidentally killed by loggers burning-off the remains of
legally loggable trees (less than 280 ft) that had been felled all around it

The three big sources of tree damage are biotic (from living sources), abiotic (from
non-living sources) and deforestation (cutting trees down). Biotic sources would
include insects which might bore into the tree, deer which might rub bark off the
trunk, or fungi, which might attach themselves to the tree.[16]

Abiotic sources include lightning, vehicles impacts, and construction activities.

Construction activities can involve a number of damage sources, including grade
changes that prevent aeration to roots, spills involving toxic chemicals such as
cement or petroleum products, or severing of branches or roots. People can damage
trees also.

Both damage sources can result in trees becoming dangerous, and the term "hazard
trees" is commonly used by arborists, and industry groups such as power line
operators. Hazard trees are trees which due to disease or other factors are more
susceptible to falling during windstorms, or having parts of the tree fall.

The process of finding the danger a tree presents is based on a process called the
quantified tree risk assessment.[17]

Trees are similar to people. Both can take a lot of some types of damage and
survive, but even small amounts of certain types of trauma can result in death.
Arborists are very aware that established trees will not tolerate any appreciable
disturbance of the root system.[18] Even though that is true, most people and
construction professionals do not realize how easily a tree can be killed.

One reason for confusion about tree damage from construction involves the
dormancy of trees during winter. Another factor is that trees may not show
symptoms of damage until 24 months or longer after damage has occurred. For that
reason, persons who do not know about caring for trees may not link the actual
cause with the later damaged effect.

Various organizations have long recognized the importance of construction

activities that impact tree health. The impacts are important because they can result
in monetary losses due to tree damage and resultant remediation or replacement
costs, as well as violation of government ordinances or community or subdivision
restrictions.

As a result, protocols (standard ways) for tree management prior to, during and
after construction activities are well established, tested and refined (changed).
These basic steps are involved:
Review of the construction plans

Development of the related tree inventory

Application of standard construction tree management protocols

Assessment of potential for expected tree damages

Development of a tree protection plan (providing for pre-, concurrent, and post
construction damage prevention and remediation steps)

Development of a tree protection plan

Development of a remediation plan

Implementation of tree protection zones (TPZs)

Assessment of construction tree damage, post-construction

Implementation of the remediation plan

Trees in culture

The tree has always been a cultural symbol. Common icons are the World tree, for
instance Yggdrasil,[19] and the tree of life. The tree is often used to represent
nature or the environment itself. A common mistake (wrong thing) is that trees get
most of their mass from the ground.[20] In fact, 99% of a tree's mass comes from
the air.[20]

Wishing trees

A Wish Tree (or wishing tree) is a single tree, usually distinguished by species,
position or appearance, which is used as an object of wishes and offerings. Such
trees are identified as possessing a special religious or spiritual value. By tradition,
believers make votive offerings in order to gain from that nature spirit, saint or
goddess fulfillment of a wish.

Tree worship
Tree worship refers to the tendency of many societies in all of history to worship or
otherwise mythologize trees. Trees have played a very important role in many of
the world's mythologies and religions, and have been given deep and sacred
meanings throughout the ages. Human beings, seeing the growth and death of
trees, the elasticity of their branches, the sensitiveness and the annual (every year)
decay and revival of their foliage, see them as powerful symbols of growth, decay
and resurrection. The most ancient cross-cultural symbolic representation of the
universe's construction is the 'world tree'.

World tree

Yggdrasil, the World Ash (Norse)

The tree, with its branches reaching up into the sky, and roots deep into the earth,
can be seen to dwell in three worlds - a link between heaven, the earth, and the
underworld, uniting above and below. It is also both a feminine symbol, bearing
sustenance; and a masculine, phallic symbol - another union.

For this reason, many mythologies around the world have the concept of the World
tree, a great tree that acts as an Axis mundi, holding up the cosmos, and providing
a link between the heavens, earth and underworld. In European mythology the best
known example is the tree Yggdrasil from Norse mythology.[19]

The world tree is also an important part of Mesoamerican mythologies, where it

represents the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west). The concept of
the world tree is also closely linked to the motif of the Tree of life.

In literature
In literature, a mythology was notably developed by J.R.R. Tolkien, his Two Trees
of Valinor playing a central role in his 1964 Tree and Leaf. William Butler Yeats
describes a "holy tree" in his poem The Two Trees (1893).

List of trees

There are many types of trees. Here is a list of some of them:

Apple tree

Coconut Tree

Cottonwood Tree

Gum tree

Fir

Horse chestnut

Mangrove

Maple

Oak

Palm

Pine

Redwood Tree

Rubber Tree

Willow

Yew

Birch
Related pages

Wattezia is the earliest tree in the fossil record.

References

"Mangrove Trees". Naturia.per.sg.

Mirov, N.T. 1967. The genus Pinus. Ronald Press.

"TreeBOL project". Retrieved 2008-07-11.

Friis, Ib, and Henrik Balslev. 2005. Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local,
regional, and global dimensions : proceedings of an international symposium held
at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in Copenhagen, Denmark,
25–28 May 2003. Biologiske skrifter, 55. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of
Sciences and Letters. pp 57-59.

"Sequoia sempervirens". Gymnosperm Database. Retrieved 2007-06-10.

"List of Champion Trees published for comment, 2005, South African Department
of Water Affairs and Forestry". Retrieved 2010-01-18.

White J. 1990. Estimating the age of large and veteran trees in Britain. Forestry
Commission Edinburgh.

Gymnosperm Database: How old is that tree?. Retrieved on 2008-04-17.

Suzuki E. 1997. The dynamics of old Cryptomeria japonica forest on Yakushima

Island. Tropics 6(4): 421–428. online

Harte J. 1996. How old is that old yew? At the Edge 4: 1-9. Available online

A book is both a usually portable physical object and the body of immaterial
representations or intellectual object whose material signs—written or drawn lines
or other two-dimensional media—the physical object contains or houses.

As a physical object, a book is a stack of usually rectangular pages (made of

papyrus, parchment, vellum, or paper) oriented with one longer side (either left or
right, depending on the direction in which one reads a script) tied, sewn, or
otherwise fixed together and then bound to the flexible spine of a protective cover
of heavier, relatively inflexible material so that, when the opened front cover has
received a massy enough stack of sheets, the book can lie flat.[1] The technical
term for this physical arrangement is codex (in the plural, codices). In the history
of hand-held physical supports for extended written compositions or records, the
codex replaces its immediate predecessor, the scroll.

As an intellectual object, a book is prototypically a composition of such great

length that it takes a considerable investment of time to compose and a still
considerable, though not so extensive, investment of time to read. This sense of
book has a restricted and an unrestricted sense. In the restricted sense, a book is a
self-sufficient section or part of a longer composition, a usage that reflects the fact
that, in antiquity, long works had to be written on several scrolls, and each scroll
had to be identified by the book it contained. So, for instance, each part of
Aristotle's Physics is called a book, as of course the Bible encompasses many
different books. In the unrestricted sense, a book is the compositional whole of
which such sections, whether called books or chapters or parts, are parts.

But the intellectual content in a physical book need not be a composition, or can be
called a book. Books can consist only of drawings, engravings, or photographs, or
such things as crossword puzzles or cut-out dolls. In a physical book the pages can
be left blank or can feature an abstract set of lines as support for on-going entries,
i.e., an account book, an appointment book, a log book, an autograph book, a
notebook, a diary or day book, or a sketch book. Some physical books are made
with pages thick and sturdy enough to support other physical objects, like a
scrapbook or photograph album.

Books may be distributed in electronic form as e-books and other formats. In its
"Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of
Statistics on the Production and Distribution of Books, Newspapers and
Periodicals" of 1 November 1985, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) stated that it was "convinced that it is desirable
that the national authorities responsible for collecting and reporting statistics
relating to the production and distribution of printed publications should be guided
by certain standards in the matter of definitions, classification and presentation,"
and so "in order to improve the international comparability of statistics," it defined
a book as "a non-periodic publication of at least 49 pages exclusive of the cover
pages, published in the country and made available to the public" (11(a)), so that
books statistics could be collected on "(a) Government publications, i.e.,
publications issued by public administrations or their subsidiary bodies, except for
those which are confidential or designed for internal distribution only; (b) School
textbooks, books prescribed for pupils receiving education at the first and second
level as defined in the revised Recommendation concerning the International
Standardization of Educational Statistics adopted by the General Conference; (c)
University theses; (d) Offprints, i.e., reprints of a part of a book or a periodical
already published, provided that they have a title and a separate pagination and that
they constitute a distinct work; (e) Publications which form part of a series, but
which constitute separate bibliographical units; (f) Illustrated works: (i) Collections
of prints, reproductions of works of art, drawings, etc., when such collections form
complete, paginated volumes and when the illustrations are accompanied by an
explanatory text, however short, referring to these works or to the artists
themselves; (ii) Albums, illustrated books and pamphlets written in the form of
continuous narratives, with pictures illustrating certain episodes; (iii) Albums and
picture-books for children; (iv) Comic books" (9-10).[2] A single sheet in a codex
is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page.

Although in ordinary academic parlance a monograph is understood to be a

specialist academic work, rather than a reference work on a single scholarly
subject, in library and information science monograph denotes more broadly any
non-serial publication complete in one volume (book) or a finite number of
volumes (even a novel like Proust's seven-volume In Search of Lost Time), in
contrast to serial publications like a magazine, journal, or newspaper. An avid
reader or collector of books or a book lover is a bibliophile or colloquially,
"bookworm". A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore.
Books are also sold elsewhere. Books can also be borrowed from libraries. Google
has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been
published.[3] In some wealthier nations, the sale of printed books has decreased
because of the use of e-books,[4] though sales of e-books declined in the first half
of 2015.[5]

Kinmonth F. 2006. Ageing the yew - no core, no curve? International Dendrology

Society Yearbook 2005: 41-46 ISSN 0307-332X

"Protecting Existing Trees on Building Sites" p.4 published by the City of

Raleigh, North Carolina, March 1989, Reprinted February 2000

"How Valuable Are Your Trees" by Gary Moll, April, 1985, American Forests
Magazine

based on 1985 to 2009, using NASA inflation calculator

"Benefits of Tree Climbing".

Wiseman, P. Eric 2008. Integrated pest management tactics. Continuing Education

Unit, International Arboricultural Society 17.

Ellison M.J. 2005 Quantified tree risk assessment used in the management of
amenity trees. Arboric. International Society of Arboriculture. 31:2 57-65

Schoeneweiss D.F. Prevention and treatment of construction damage. Journal of

Arborculture 8:169

Mountfort, Paul Rhys (2003). Nordic runes: understanding, casting, and

interpreting the ancient Viking oracle. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. p. 279.
ISBN 978-0-89281-093-2.

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