GEOLOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY AND

GEOBIOLOGY OF SERPENTINITE BODIES OF

SRI LANKA
GL 310

K.M.P.A.K ULAPANE
S/14/597
What is Serpentine?

Serpentine is a rock composed of one or more serpentine group minerals, the name originating
from the similarity of the texture of the rock to that of the skin of a snake. Minerals in this
group are formed by the process serpentinization which involves hydration
and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earth's mantle. The mineral
alteration is particularly important at the sea floor at tectonic plate boundaries. Peridotite,
including dunite, at and near the seafloor and in mountain belts is subjected to serpentinization.
General formula- X2-3Si2O5(OH)4
Where X = Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni , Al, Zn, or Mn.
(One of the two Si atoms may also be replaced by an Al or Fe atom in a few rare members.)
This leads to a complete formula of (Mg,Fe,Ni,Al,Zn,Mn)2-3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4.

Physical properties

Table 1: Physical properties

Color White, yellow, green, gray, brown, black, purple; sometimes multicolored,
especially green and yellow.
Streak White
Hardness 2-5
Crystal Monoclinic
System
Crystal Antigorite crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system.
Forms Lizardite crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system.
and Amesite crystallizes in the triclinic crystal system.
Aggregates
Serpentine aggregates include massive, platy, fibrous (forming
tough, flexible and elastic fibers),botryoidal, columnar, earthy, platy, mica
ceous, in pyramidal groupings, in parallel bladed groups, and
as fibrous veins. Fibrous veins may be straight, but are more often in
curved, angled veins. Some fibrous forms are extremely soft and flexible
and resemble wool. Serpentine also pseudomorphous after many minerals.
(ex: olivine)
Transparency Translucent to opaque. Rarely transparent.
Specific 2.5 - 3.2
Gravity
Luster Greasy, waxy, or silky
Cleavage Usually not discernible because of crystal development.
Chrysotile may exhibit basal cleavage.
Fracture Conchoidal, splintery
Tenacity Brittle. Fibrous Serpentine is flexible and elastic.

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 Other ID 1) Has a greasy feel.
Marks 2) Yellow Serpentine often fluoresces a cream-white color
in shortwave ultraviolet light.
In Group Silicates; Phyllosilicates
Striking Greasy feel, soft compared to similar minerals, and may flexible and elastic.
Features

Serpentinization

Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature metamorphic process that involves the

hydrolysis and transformation of primary ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine
((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) and pyroxenes ((Mg,Fe)SiO3) to produce H2-rich fluids and a variety of
serpentine group minerals and other minerals.
 Lizardite,
 Chrysotile,
 Antigorite; depending on P-T parameters.
Other minerals include Magnetite (Fe3O4); Ni-Fe alloys; Talc ((Mg,Fe)6(Si8o20)(OH)4);
Chlorite ((Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)6AlSi3O10(OH)8); Tremolite/actinolite (Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(Si8o22)(OH)2);
and Brucite ((Mg,Fe)(OH)2),
Oxidation of Fe (II) in olivine and pyroxenes leads to the reduction of water and the formation
of molecular hydrogen.
A consequence of serpentinization and H2 formation is an increase pH values of related fluid
(typically>9) caused by the consumption of protons and release of free OH-. Also, the
production of H2 results in fluids that are extremely reducing. As a result, oxidized iron (Fe
(III)) is recovered, with Fe (II) to form the mineral magnetite (Fe3O4). However, upon
dissolution of Ni-containing rock-forming minerals, such as olivine, released Ni and Fe can
also react to form native metals and alloys under the prevailing extreme reducing conditions
imposed on the system by the serpentinization processes.

Related to mineral composition, the proportion of Fe and Mg in olivine and pyroxene plays a
central role with regard to mineral stability and the extent to which H2 may be produced.
Generally, Fe-rich primary minerals such as the Fe-rich olivine end-member Fayalite (Fe2SiO4)
provide a greater opportunity for Fe(II) to oxidize and ultimately form H2.

The final mineralogy depends both on parent rock and fluid compositions, temperature, and
pressure. Antigorite forms in reactions at temperatures that can exceed 600 °C during
metamorphism, and it is the serpentine group mineral stable at the highest temperatures.
Lizardite and chrysotile can form at low temperatures very near the Earth's surface. Fluids
involved in serpentinite formation commonly are highly reactive and may
transport calcium and other elements into surrounding rocks; fluid reaction with these rocks
may create metasomatic reaction zones enriched in calcium.

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Reactions

Chrysotile, Lizardite
and Antogorite
Magnetite

Ni-Fe alloy

Brucite

Chrysotile, Lizardite
and Antogorite
Magnetite

Ni-Fe alloy

Brucite

Carbonates

Figure 1: Serpentinization reactions

The serpentinization reaction is highly exothermic and rock temperatures can be raised by
about 260 °C (500 °F), providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic hydrothermal
vents.

Serpentinite bodies in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is composed of four major litho tectonic units: the Wanni, Highland, Kadugannawa
and Vijayan complexes, with important records of Neoproterozoic tectonic events including
subduction-related vertical and lateral continental growth associated with the final assembly of
the Gondwana supercontinent.
The geological boundary between HC and VC, which we define as the ‘eastern suture’ in Sri
Lanka has been considered as a mini-plate boundary due to the mineralization that occurred
along this boundary (Munasinghe and Dissanayake, 1980). A discontinuous belt of several
serpentinite bodies and their related serpentine soils mark the geological boundary between the
Highland and Vijayan Complexes (Dissanayake, 1982). Serpentinite ourcrops are found in,
 Ussangoda,
 Indikolapelessa,

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  Ginigalpelessa
 Yudganawa
 Rupaha. (Consists predominantly of medium-grained, dark brown and greenish-grey
serpentinites, with carbonate veins and are intensely sheared, Rohana Fernando, 2001)

Figure 2:Source: (Feranando, Dharmapriya, Baumgartner, 2017)

Table 2: Serpentinite outcrops in SL

Locality Extent of the Mineralogy and associated rocks

deposit (km2)

Indikolapelessa 7 Surrounded by charnockites, calcgneiss,

Migmatites, cordierite, and diopside bearing
Gneisses and calciphyres

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 Ginigalpelessa 1

Yudanganawa No geochemical
studies have been
conducted
Ussangoda 3 The
Soil has been described as hematite rich with very
finegrained
clayey sand, giving a lateritic reddish hue
Rupaha 5 charnockites, charnockitic gneisses and biotite
gneisses, which are mainly granodioritic to quartz
monzonitic in composition.
quartzites, quartzofeldspathic gneisses, marbles
and semi-pelitic gneisses (few), including garnet–
biotite gneisses, corundum–biotite gneisses
and khondalite with large
porphyroblastic garnets

Field relations of the Serpentinite bodies

Figure 3: source- vithanage, 2014

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A generallized cross section of the lateritic serpentinite deposit of Uda Walawe (Dissanayake,
1982) is shown below.

Figure 4:source- Dissanayake, 1982

 The lateritic iron cap at the top of a serpentinite body generally lacks vegetation and
can be easily recognized in the aerial photographs covering such lateritic terrains.
 Below the lateritic cap there are remnants of the highly weathered serpentinized
ultramafic rock which mostly retains the original reticulate or banded structure. This
zone is characterized by small black grains of magnetite and chrome spinel.

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Ni content of serpentinite has a relationship with the intensity of its green color. This can be
used as a guideline during exploration for nickeliferous laterites over serpentine bodies.
(Dissanayaka, 1982)
Dissanayake et.al 1982 stated that, according to textures and mineral associations the following
serpentinites can be distinguished.
 Oolitic serpentinite, with oolitic silica and the micaceous minerals (fuchsite, delessite)
 Fibrous serpentinite. Compact vesicular antigorite and silica with or without dispersed
carbonates
 Mesh-like serpentinite, with platy chrysotile and vesicular antigorite associated with
carbonate and delessite or fuchsite. (This textute points to an original peridotitic
composition)
 Micaceous serpentinite, mainly composed of delessite or fuchsite.

Figure 5:source- Google earth

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Serpentine soil chemistry

Serpentine soils are weathered products of a range of ultramafic rocks composed of

ferromagnesian silicates, common ultramafic rock types include peridotites (dunite, wehrlite,
harzburgite, lherzolite). Although physical features of serpentine soils can vary considerably
from site to site and within a site, serpentine soils are often found in open, steep landscapes
with substrates that are generally shallow and rocky, often with a reduced capacity for moisture
retention.
Serpentine soils are non-anthropogenic sources of metal contamination. Elevated
concentrations of metals are released from these soils into the surrounding areas and
groundwater have ecological-, agricultural-, and human health-related consequences.

Chemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, cation exchange capacity) for
four soil samples from Ussangoda, Yudhaganawa, Ginigalpelessa, and Indikolapelessa are
listed

Figure 4: chemical parameters: source- Vithanage,2014

 The highest EC and CEC is reported from the Ussangoda soil, potentially due to
deposition of salt spray from the sea.
 The highest organic carbon percentage is reported from Yudhaganawa soil which is
adjacent to a forested habitat.
 A considerable color difference was identified among the soil samples collected from
the four localities
 Lowest rhizospheric pH for soils at the Ginigalpelessa and Indikolapelessa sites (The
pH where the net electrical charge is zero is the zero point of charge (pHZPC), and it is
a parameter used to describe variable-charge surfaces)

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The lower (pHZPC) at these two sites may also contribute to the greater leaching capacity
documented. It is widely known that the solubility and mobility of Ni in soils increases as pH
decreases, at least within the pH range of physiological significance
Soil chemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, and cation exchange
capacity), surface titrations, EPMA, and SEM analysis of serpentine soils collected from
different localities in Sri Lanka are not significantly different. pH of the soil is near neutral and
the range of EC is indicative of relatively few dissolved salts and/or major dissolved inorganic
solutes.

Considering the geochemical results analyses reveal that antigorite ((Mg, Fe)3 Si2O5(OH)4) is
often the dominant mineral present with minor amounts of chrysotile (Mg3(Si2O5) (OH)4),
magnetite (Fe3O4), spinel and clay.

Even though antigorite is a dominant mineral in the soil, it has a relatively low surface area
compared to clays or organic matter and, therefore, would contribute/release less metal
compared to a high surface area/highly reactive mineral/phase in the soil.

Figure 5:source- Vithanage, 2014

The XRF results (Table 2) show that the serpentinite soils consist of Fe–Cr–Ni-rich
aluminosilicates. Additionally, Mn is high in the samples, especially in Yudhaganawa and
Ginigalpelessa. Nickel is the highest in Ussangoda soils while Cr is higher in Yudhaganawa
compared to soils from the other localities.

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Metal-bound phases

EPMA analysis maps reveal that Ni, Mn, and Cr are not homogeneously distributed in the
serpentinite soil, suggesting that the metals are bound in specific mineral phases. These heavy
metals are present as exchangeable or associated with organic matter, carbonates, Fe-Mn
oxides, and sulfides in the soil matrix fractions.
However, changes in soil pH, ionic strength, and other environmental factors may affect metal
mobilization in soil environments, especially with respect to time and land use.

Figure 6: soil samples at different locations :source- Vithanage 2014

Several differences are present among serpentine soils from different localities.
 The exchangeable fraction of Ni was higher in Ussangoda and Yudhaganawa soils
compared to Indikolapelessa and Ginigalpelessa soils, which may be due to the slightly
higher pH and lower organic matter content at the latter two sites.
 Considering Mn, all soils except those from Ussangoda show the second highest Mn
in the organic matter-bound fraction and third in the residual fraction. This difference
may be due to the changes in mineralogy.
 Similar to the other extraction results, Ussangoda and Yudhaganawa soils demonstrate
higher leaching capacities of Ni, Mn, and Cr than the other two soils. This directly
relates to the total metal concentration differences among soils from different localities.
 Low bioavailable Cr may be due to the higher affinity of Cr to adsorb to clay surfaces
and humic matter,
 Water and ionic strength extractable fraction of metals may be more representative of
soils being exposed to sea spray or what is available for water pollution and plant
uptake, including to those species shown to hyperaccumulate Ni at the Ussangoda site.

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Geobiology of Serpentinite bodies

All plants need water at some level and a substrate, like soil, to hold them in place. Plant
survival and growth depends on the soil’s fertility.
Serpentinite soils contain Fe, Mg, Si, Ni, Co, Cr in large amounts. Characteristically they have
high concentartions of exchangeable Mg and low concentartions of exchangeable Ca and are
usually deficient in nutrients such as N, P, K, B and Mo. These nutrients play a role in
development of plant tissue. Not only is the presence of these nutrients important, but
respective concentrations are also vital. Plants growing in these habitats often referred to as
“Metallophytes”. They are plants that grow on soils that have naturally elevated levels of heavy
metals, and, since high levels of some heavy metals often are associated with serpentine soils,
many metallophytes are found on these soils.
Plant growth and survival in serpentinite habitats are limited due to following factors,
 The low nutrient status
 Cation imbalances
 High metal concentrations
 High surface temperature effects
 Moisture stress
 Soil instability
 Resulting biotic conditions,

Plants growing on Serpentinite substrates are morphologically and physiologically adapted to

deal with their harsh environments. Adaptations include fleshy leaves, leaf hairs, and protective
pigments and possess enlarged root systems. The basal rosette growth form, a common form
of serpentine perennials, reduces the incidence of desiccation by locating its leaves close to the
ground surface out of the drying influence of the wind.
An important aspect of plants growing in serpentinite soils is their capacity to tolerate high
concentrations of heavy metals. By avoiding excessive uptake of ions, adopting excretory
mechanisms, binding metals with organic acids and proteins and developing storage devices,
metal-tolerent plants are able to survive in soils toxic to most plant species.

An exploration of soil and vegetation was done in four of five known serpentinite outcrops in
Sri Lanka (Rajakaruna and Bohm, 2002) and stated that Serpentinite soils often support
remarkable floras characterized by a paucity of species and high degree of endemisms.

During the investigation it was able to identify,

 3 dominant families- Poaccae, Asteracea, Fabaceae and altogether 21 families.
 Commonly found species- Leucas zeylanica

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 Figure 9: Poaccae Figure 10: Asteracea

Figure 11: Fabaceae Figure 12: Leucas zeylanica

All herbaceous species found in the Ussangoda and Yudhanganawa exhibited an extreme
prostrate growth habit. Some of the species found on the soils can also be found on non-
serpentinite substrates but they are generally larger. It is not known whether these size
differenecs are a results of morphological response to edaphic stress or whether they have
genetic basis. None of the species found identified was endemic to the island.
Ussangoda site differed the most from a typical serpentinite site. This may have resulted from
heavy laterization of soils, which normally results in loss of the divalent cations of Fe, Mn, Co
and Ni through solubilization and leaching.
Nitrogen fixation - Plants need N in relatively large quantities. In serpentine areas, nitrogen via
decomposition of organic material is likely limited due to the general paucity of organic
biomass in serpentine area.

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Atmospheric nitrogen is the more likely contributor in serpentine environments but it must first
be converted to a different form before plant uptake. This conversion or fixation is primarily
the work of bacteria living in nodules on the plants’ roots.

Plant accumulation patterns

The term “hyperaccumulator” denotes metallophytes that take up and sequester relatively large
amounts of metals in their above ground tissues.
Hyperaccumulator plants may concentrate metal in the soil under their canopies to create high-
metal habitats in which metal-resistant bacteria strains may be found. The following
hyperaccumulators and accumulators were found.
 Ni hyperaccumulators
 Cu hyperaccumulators
 Na accumulator
Hyperaccumulation of Cu in Serpentinite bodies are rare. Serpentinite soils are not high in Cu.

Environmental Health
Serpentine areas may negatively affect human health. First, elevated metal concentrations may
occur in water from serpentine watersheds.
There is concern about metal transfer through food webs of serpentine communities, but there
is little evidence this is a health threat.
Serpentinites can be easily worked and are used by many cultures for tool making, decorations,
jewelry, ceremonial carvings, and amulets, as well as for magic, such as for protection from
snake bites. Nickel, cobalt, chromium, and asbestos (e.g., chrysotile) are largely extracted from
serpentine-containing rocks.

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References

1) Rajapaksha, A., Vithanage, M., Oze, C., Bandara, W. and Weerasooriya, R. (2012).
Nickel and manganese release in serpentine soil from the Ussangoda Ultramafic
Complex, Sri Lanka. Geoderma, 189-190, pp.1-9.
2) Vithanage, M., Rajapaksha, A., Oze, C., Rajakaruna, N. and Dissanayake, C. (2014).
Metal release from serpentine soils in Sri Lanka. Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment, 186(6), pp.3415-3429.
3) Dissanayake, C.B (1982). The geology and geochemistry of the Uda Walawe
Serpentinite, Sri Lanka.National science council of Sri Lanka, 10(1), pp.12-19
4) Rajakaruna, N. and Bohm, B. (2002). Serpentinite and its vegetation: A preliminary
study from Sri Lanka. Journal of applied botany, 76(20-28), pp.21-23, 27,28.
5) Rajakaruna, N. and Boyd, R. (2014). Serpentinite soils. San Johe State University-
Faculty publications, pp.2-34.
6) Fernando, G., Dharmapriya, P. and Baumgartner, L. (2017). Silica-undersaturated
reaction zones at a crust-mantle interface in the Highland Complex, Sri Lanka: Mass
transfer and melt infiltration during high-temperature metasomatism. Lithos, 284-285,
pp.238,239.k
7) Fernando, R. (2001). Genesis of Metasomatic Sapphirine-Corundum-Spinel-bearing
Granulites in Sri Lanka, An Integrated Field, Petrological and Geochemical Study,
pp.2-4, 9-10.

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