1 Temporary Structures Set7

E.
Cofferdams
the
Cofferdams are temporary
enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and construction of the
permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed
include the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and
waves. Because cofferdams are typically constructed under adverse conditions in a marine
environment, and because significant deformations of elements may occur at various stages
of construction, it is difficult to maintain close tolerances. Ample provisions must be made for
deviations in dimensions so that the finished structure may be constructed according to plan.
The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations
must be considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the
structure itself. Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same
degree of care as its installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the
permanent structure must also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below
the permanent structure are often cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage
the foundation soils adjacent to the structure.
In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to

the hazard of flooding and collapse. Safety requires:
good design
proper construction
verification that the structure is being constructed as planned
monitoring the behavior of the cofferdam and surrounding area
provision of adequate access
light and ventilation, and
attention to safe practices on the part of all workers and supervisors.
Types of cofferdams:
Braced
Earth-Type
Timber Crib
Double-Walled Sheet Pile
Cellular
Braced Cofferdams
Formed from a single wall of sheet piling driven into the ground to form a box around
the excavation site.
The "box" is then braced on the inside.
Interior is dewatered
Primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water (9 10m depth)
Cofferdam Design Considerations
Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water

Stability against overturning or tilting
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Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting
Stability against vertical shear
Effects of forces resulting from:
ice, wave, water, active earth and passive earth pressures
Advantages of Cofferdam
Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment

Provides safe environment to work
Contractors typically have design responsibility
Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
Materials can typically be reused on other projects
Items needed for installation
Pile driving hammer

Vibratory or Impact
Crane of sufficient size
Steel sheet piles are typically used
H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for wales and stringers
Barges may be required
Types of imposed loads
(i) Hydrostatic pressure
The maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and the
water height inside the cofferdam during various stages of construction need to be
considered. These result in the net design pressure shown below:
Hydrostatic forces on partially dewatered cofferdam
(ii) Forces due to Soil Loads
The soils impose forces, both locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon
the structure as a whole. These forces are additive to the hydrostatic forces.
Local forces are a major component of the lateral force on sheet-pile walls, causing
bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts
(iii) Current Forces on Structure
With a typical cofferdam, the current force consists not only the force acting on the
normal projection of the cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides.
With flat sheet piles, the latter may be relatively small, whereas with z-piles it may be
substantial, since the current will be forming eddies behind each indentation of
profile, as shown below.
(iv) Wave forces
Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually the result of local winds acting over a
restricted fetch and hence are of short wavelength and limited to height.
Waves can also be produced by passing boats and ships, especially in a restricted
waterway.
(v) Ice forces
the force exerted by the expansion of a closed-in solidly frozen-over area of water
surface (static ice force)
(vi) Seismic Loads
These have not been normally considered in design of temporary structures in the
past. For very large, important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically active
areas, seismic evaluation should be performed.
(vii) Accidental loads
These are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside the
cofferdam and impacting on it under the action of waves.
(viii) Scour
Scour of the river bottom or seafloor along the cofferdam may take place owing to
river currents, tidal currents, or wave-induced currents. Some of the most serious and
disastrous cases have occurred when these currents have acted concurrently. A very
practical method of preventing scour is to deposit a blanket of crushed rock or heavy
gravel around the cofferdam, either before or immediately after the cofferdam sheet
piles are set. A more sophisticated method is to lay a mattress of filter fabric,
covering it with rock to hold it in place.
Cofferdam Components
Sheet piling
Bracing frame
Concrete seal
Bearing piles
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a bracing
frame and driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral support and to cut
off the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water.
Structural bracing frame
Sheet piles
Install Wale and Strut System for Framework /Template
The structure inside may be founded directly on rock or firm soil or may require pile
foundations. In the latter case, these generally extend well below the cofferdam. In order to
dewater the cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist hydrostatic uplift.
Placement of an underwater concrete seal course is the fastest and most common method.
An underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior to dewatering in order to seal
off the water, resist its pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the inward
movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift under the
hydrostatic pressure.
For a typical cofferdam, such as for a bridge pier, the construction procedure follow the listed
pattern.
1. Pre-dredge to remove soil or soft sediments and level the area of the cofferdam.
2. Drive temporary support piles
3. Temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles.
4. Set steel sheet piles, starting at all four corners and meeting at the center of each
side
5. Drive sheet piles to grade.
6. Block between bracing frame and sheets, and provide ties for sheet piles at the top
as necessary.
7. Excavate inside the grade or slightly below grade, while leaving the cofferdam full of
water.
8. Drive bearing piles.

9. Place rock fill as a leveling and support course.
10. Place tremie concrete seal.
Tremie concrete seal.
11. Check blocking between bracing and sheets.

12. Dewater.
13. Construct new structure.
14. Flood cofferdam.
15. Remove sheet piles.

16. Remove bracing.
17. Backfill.
Traditional Sheet Pile Shapes
a. Z-Type (Z) - Used for intermediate to deep wall construction
b. - Used for applications similar to Z - Type
c. Flat / Straight Type (SA), (S) - Used for filled cell construction
d. Arch shaped & lightweight - Used for shallower wall construction
Typical types of interlocks
i. Ball & Socket (BS)
ii. Single Jaw (SJ)
iii. Double Jaw (DJ)
iv. Hook & Grip (HG)
v. Thumb & Finger one point contact (TFX)
vi. Braced Cofferdam Construction
Install Wale and Strut System for Framework /Template
Tips for installing Sheet piles:
Always set-up a template system

Rule of thumb: Crane Boom length should be twice that of the sheets
Drive the Sheets with the "male" interlock leading in order to avoid soil plugs
If the "female" interlock must lead, place a bolt or other object at the bottom to avoid
debris filling the slot
Align and plumb the first two sheets and drive carefully and accurately
Drive sheets in pairs when possible placing the hammer in the center of the pair
Some contractors recommend not driving a sheet more than 1/3 its length before
driving the adjacent pile
Letting the sheets "freefall" and drop in order to aid in penetration will generally
cause the sheets to fall "out of plumb"
Cellular cofferdams require that all sheets are set and "closed" before any driving is
done
er rush the Pile Foreman!!
F. Tremie Concrete
Underwater concrete plays an important role in the construction of offshore structures. It may
be used to tie together various elements in composite action (i.e., to tie piling to the footing).
It:
Is a special mix with plasticizer

Is a high slump concrete with set retarders
Has smaller aggregate sizes
Has a four-hour workability
Is designed for placement under water via tremie pipe
The placement of tremie concrete is carried out through a tube, usually 250-to 300mm pipe.
The pipe may be sectional but joints should be flanged and bolted, with soft rubber gasket,
so as to prevent any in-leakage of water. The tremie pipe must have sufficient wall thickness
so that it negatively buoyant when empty.
Install a steel plate on the bottom end with a soft rubber gasket. The plate is tied with
twine to the pipe.
Breaking the tremie tube
Transition of the pipeline from vertical to horizontal.
The placement is started by placing the sealed pipe on the bottom and then partially filling it
with the tremie concrete mix. When tremie has been filled to a reasonable distance (distance
required to overcome the -2 m) above the balancing head of fresh concrete
versus surrounding liquid, the pipe is raised 150 mm, allowing the concrete to flow out. The
lower end of the pipe is kept embedded in fresh concrete, but no deeper than where the
concrete has taken the initial set (with retarder to prevent the initial set, the depth of
embedment becomes less sensitive).
The tip of the tremie pipe should always be immersed about 1 m as a minimum so as to
prevent water inflow into the pipe. The flow of concrete should be smooth, consistent with
the rate at which concrete can be delivered into the hopper at the top. The method of
delivery should provide relatively even feed to the hopper rather than large batches being
suddenly dumped. When large areas are to be covered, multiple tremie pipes should be
used. The distance tremie can flow without excessive segregation is between 6 and 20 m.
G. Jump form or slip form systems
Fully mechanised public housing construction in some countries like Hong Kong involves the
following features:
i. the use of a climbing formwork system (sometimes referred to as self-climbing or

self-lifting) to construct the central core walls,
ii. precast facades and steel panel formwork (or alternatively climbing formwork) to
construct the residential wings,
iii. aluminium system soffit formwork to construct the floor slabs.
The central core is typically constructed ahead of the residential wings by using a climbing
formwork system. The wings then "spiral" around the central core.
The jump form illustrated here is a climbing formwork system developed by Leighton
Contractors (Asia) Ltd.
The use of climbing formwork (jump form) to construct the cores. Precast facades
and steel panel formwork are used in the construction of residential wings.
The use of climbing formwork (jump form) to construct the cores. Precast facades and jump form are also used in
the construction of the residential wings .
The animation illustrates the process. A frame is constructed from structural steel members
over the central core. Steel formwork panels are hung from this frame, some supported on
rollers. After the concrete walls are poured, the formwork is released and rolled back from
the concrete face. Jacks then lift or climb the whole frame up one level. All the formwork
panels are attached to the frame. This process takes approximately one and a half hours.
Once the climbing formwork is in position, the formwork panels are closed and the next
concrete wall is poured. The cycle continues, which is normally four days. Faster times have
been achieved. However, the limiting factor to faster times is usually the construction of the
floor slabs, which are done as a separate process.
Go to website below for animation
http://www.cityu.edu.hk/CIVCAL/production/advanced/jump_form.html
Slip Forms
Self climbing electro-hydraulic slipform system may be defined as a method of continuously

moulding or forming concrete with the use of a moving formwork. The rate of movement, or
slipping, is controlled by the setting or curing rate of the concrete, which must be capable of
supporting at least its own weight when exposed by the moving formwork. This is
undoubtedly the most unique aspect of slipforming: the ability of concrete to stand safely and
unsupported within two to four hours after being placed into the formwork in a plastic state.
Slipforming as a method of construction was first used in the early 1930s for the erection of
storage silos and similar structures. The system involved the use of manually operated jacks
and timber formwork. Since then, the technique has evolved and is widely used in
rapid construction of reinforced concrete wall structures such as silo complexes, chimneys,
reservoirs, medium to highrise housing, office buildings, hotels, hospitals, bridge piers,
inground shafts, caissons, dam structures and power stations. Recently, the method has
extended to reinforced concrete offshore oil production platforms.
The apparent simplicity of the slipform concept tends to camouflage the actual complexities
that need to be thoroughly understood in the practical application of the system. Concrete is
placed inside the forms in shallow and regular layers of around 150-200mm, and each layer
is vibrated with high frequency immersion-type vibrators. Within 2½-3 hours of initial
placement of the concrete the vertical slipping of the formwork can commence. The
formwork at all times must be kept as full of concrete as possible to allow the concrete the
maximum period of time in the forms to gain strength before being exposed beneath the
sliding forms. As the forms are slid or jacked upward, concrete continues to be layered into
the top of the forms.
The speed of jacking is determined by the setting characteristics of the concrete rather than
by the speed of the jacking system. If jacking is too fast, plastic concrete will fall out as it is
exposed from the bottom of the forms. Conversely, if jacking is too slow, the concrete
surface will become dry, generating considerable friction between the sliding faces of the
formwork.
Jacks are used to lift the formwork and they climb on jack rods, which are located centrally in
the wall and cast into the concrete, the concrete providing lateral restraint against buckling of
the rods. Additional jack rods are added with the aid of screwed-end couplings as the
formwork rises.
Vertical reinforcement is located by guides fixed to the slipform. The horizontal

reinforcement has to be threaded beneath yoke heads as the slipform rises. Penetrations
are formed by fixing blocks of material such as polystyrene, precast weak concrete or timber
frames to the reinforcement.
Slipforming is normally undertaken on repetitive work, where speed or economy through the
maximum reuse of the same formwork is possible. The method can be carried out
continuously, 24 hours a day until the structure is completed; alternatively, slipforming can
be done on a non-continuous basis during daylight hours only.
Continuous Slipforming
Continuous slipforming is normal for the construction of silos or water retaining structures
where monolithic walls are required. On such projects, slipforming can be carried out at an
average speed of 300 to 400mm in height per hour.
Discontinuous slipforming
Discontinuous slipforming is preferred when building multi-story structures such as

apartment building and commercial offices. For projects of this type, it is normal to slipform
one full floor height per day (i.e. 3 to 4 metres). The following day is used to install window,
door and floor blockouts, fix all vertical reinforcement, install stairs and generally make ready
for the next floor height pour which would be completed the following day. This arrangement
gives a repetitive 2 day cycle per floor.
There are many factors which will influence the decision to slipform continuously or
discontinuously. For instance, where a slender or complicated structure is to be slipped, the
rate of strength gain of the concrete and stability considerations, particularly where strong
wind conditions are encountered, will dictate that a discontinuous or intermittent slipform
approach be adopted.
Structural design considerations will often dictate that discontinuous slipforming be used.
This will occur frequently when constructing service cores for high rise buildings. The core
itself may not be stable if erected to its full height without some inter-action with the
remainder of the structural frame of the building. Where this situation exists, it is normal to
stage Slipforming at no more than 3 or 4 floors ahead of the construction of the remainder of
the building.
Custom assembled to your specifications
It is possible to slipform quite complex shapes. Almost any rectangular, cellular, curved or
convoluted shape can be slipped. Generally, for economic reasons, the plan shape of a
structure to be slipformed should remain constant throughout its full height. Whilst this is a
desired requirement, it should not be taken as a limiting factor as it is quite possible to
change wall thicknesses and to add to or remove walls from a slipform during construction.
Since the formwork must slide past the face of the concrete wall it is essential that any
horizontal projections from this face be eliminated or at least minimised. This requirement
calls for special attention to floor slab and beam connections to slipformed walls. Where
projections from the wall face have to be provided as an essential part of the structural
design, such as corbels or haunches to provide seating for precast beams or panels, then
these can be formed integrally with the slipformed wall by the use of static formwork panels.
These remain stationary in place as the slipform rises. This type of detail tends to complicate
a slipform and as such should only be used where no alternatives are structurally or
economically possible.
Jumpformed concrete silos on the left and slipformed concrete mainhouse at an elevator
facility
Concrete Pavement constructed by Slip Form Paver
Rigid - Slipform Paving
Slipform paving is defined as a process used to consolidate, form into geometric shape and
surface finish a Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) mass by pulling the forms continuously
through and surrounding the plastic concrete mass. Slipform paving is most appropriate for
larger jobs that require high production rates. Particular advantages of slipform paving are:
Uses low-slump PCC. Low-slump PCC (on the order of 0 - 75 mm (0 - 3 inches)) is

necessary so that the fresh PCC is able to hold its shape once the slipform paver has
passed. Low slump PCC can be made with less water and usually has higher
compression and flexural strengths than comparable high slump mixes.
High productivity. Large jobs generally require high production rates in order to be
profitable. Slipform paving production rates are typically in the range of 65 - 100
m3/hr (85 - 131 yd3/hr) for mainline paving. That translates into between 70 - 90 m/hr
(230 - 300 ft./hr) of 3.66 m (12 ft.) wide, 250 mm (10 inch) thick PCC surface course.
Smooth riding surface. Automation and computer control allow slipform pavers to
produce very smooth riding surfaces
Pavement slipforming involves PCC placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as it is

typically done in slipform paving. Most often, these steps are accomplished by three pieces
of equipment: the placer/spreader (used for rough placement), the concrete paver (used for
final placement, consolidation and initial finishing), and the texturing and curing machine.
These machines usually travel together in series down the length of the project.
Placer/Spreader
Although not always used, placer/spreaders are quite common. They place a metered
supply of PCC in front of the paver using a series of conveyor belts, augers, plows and
strikeoff devices (see Figures (a) and (b) below). Using a placer/spreader allows the
contractor to receive material from transport vehicles and place a uniform amount of PCC in
front of the entire paver width, while minimizing segregation.
(a) Large Placer/Spreader (b) Smaller Placer/Spreaders
Paver
The paver usually performs screeding, consolidation and initial finishing. A typical track-
mounted, self-propelled paver operates at speeds between 1 and 2.5 m/minute. Some
pavers are equipped to place reinforcing steel (if needed), dowel bars and tie rods as well.
Figure (a) shows the basic slipform paving process as it occurs underneath the paver. First,
an auger spreads the PCC in front of the strike off plate. Second, the strike off plate
(screed) removes excess portions of the auger-placed PCC and brings the slab near its final
elevation. Third, the PCC is consolidated by a group of vibrators. Fourth, a tamper (typically
operating between 0 and 150 strokes per minute), if present, pushes large aggregate
particles below the slab surface. Finally, the profile pans level off the slab at the right
elevation and provide initial finishing. The remainder of this section describes this process in
more detail.
Screeding
Slipform pavers first use an auger to perform any final material spreading and then strike off
the PCC at the correct elevation using a simple strike off plate, or screed.
Consolidation
After screeding, the paver consolidates the fresh PCC using a series of vibrators (see Figure
(c)). Typically, the most effective vibrator position is after the strike-off mechanism and at
the final slab elevation. Depending upon mix design and slab depth, vibrators are usually
set in the 7,000 - 9,000 vibrations per minute (VPM) range. Vibrators are positioned next to
one another such that their influence zones overlap by about 50 - 75 mm (2 - 3 inches) at
normal paver speed (ACPA, 1995). Gaps between the influence zones (caused by incorrect
vibrator settings or excessively fast paver operation) can cause segregation (ACPA, 1995).
Most pavers use fully adjustable vibrator spacing to account for different conditions and mix
types, while still providing adequate influence zone overlap.
Figure (c): PCC Vibrators on the Underside of a Paving Machine
Initial Finishing
Initial finishing is accomplished by

extruding the PCC mass through a
moving form made up of the base
course (bottom), the side forms
(vertical edges of the paver) and the
profile pan (flat paver pieces mounted
behind the vibrator) (see Figure (d)).
Extruding PCC through the resulting
rectangular shape provides the final
slab dimensions and also serves to
imbed larger aggregate particles
below the surface, which results in a
smooth finish. Some pavers are also
equipped with a hydraulic tamper bar Figure (d): Sideforms and Profile Pan
(sometimes called a "jitterbug"),
located just behind the vibrators. By
moving up and down, the tamper bar
is thought to:
1. Assist in consolidation and

finishing by tamping large
aggregate particles below the
slab surface.
2. Keep the large aggregate
moving in an area where it
may have tendencies to stop
or stick.
3. Keep the material moving
around the vibrators so as not
to collect and cause flow
problems.
Figure (e): Hand Finishing Behind the Paver
However, a tamper may not be necessary on many jobs. Although it forces the coarse
aggregate away from the surface, making finishing easier, it can also creates a mortar-rich
surface layer which could scale or craze. Usually, a tamper is not necessary with a well
designed PCC mixture, however, it may be helpful when finishing a harsh, low-slump
mixture.
Additional finishing, when needed, occurs just behind the profile pan and is usually
accomplished using simple floats (see Figure (e). Microtexturing is usually accomplished by
dragging a section of burlap (see Figure (f)) or artificial turf (see Figure (g)) behind the paver.
Figure (f): Burlap Drag Figure (g): Artificial Turf Drag
Texturing and Curing Machine
The texturing and curing machine follows the paver and is used to impart macrotexture
(usually by dragging a tined instrument across the fresh pavement - see Figure (h)) and
apply a curing membrane over the pavement. Sometimes the paver is equipped with a
tining machine, while a separate machine is used for applying the curing membrane.
Although it used to be quite common, slipformed PCC pavement is rarely if ever water cured
due to the high material and labor costs. Figures (i) and (j) show curing machines in
operation.
Curing is typically done once finishing of an area is complete and the original wet sheen has
nearly disappeared. On tined pavements, curing is usually specified to occur in two passes,
one forward and one in reverse, to ensure both sides of the texture ridges are coated with
curing membrane.
Figure (h) (left): Tined Texturing Carriage
Figure (i): Spraying the Curing Membrane Figure 7.141 (below right): Spraying Curing
Membrane Close-up
The Features are;
As it paves sliding attached forms, no works of setting up forms beforehand and

removing them afterward is needed.
As laying, compaction and smooth finishing are done by one machine, it requires
fewer machines as compared to conventional set form type of paving.
As the machine steers by itself and has automatic height control unit, high accuracy
of construction is achieved.
As it has electric driven vibrators, it can compact the concrete as tight as method of
paving done by conventional equipment.
As the paving depth can be as thin as 5 cm, it is applicable to Thin Layer Overlay as
rehabilitation method of existing concrete pavement.
It is also applicable for conventional set form type of paving.
By attaching special attachment, it can construct other type of concrete structures
such as concrete barriers.
Applicable to Structures described below
Concrete Pavement : ordinary roads, agricultural roads, piers of harbors, apron of

airport, yards in factories
Ditches : site constructed U and V shape ditches
Barriers : site constructed center barriers
H. Excavations and Excavation Supports

In many construction jobs deep excavations must be made before the structure can be built.
When excavations have the potential to endanger lives or adjacent properties, bracing to
support the soil must be designed. The Occupational Safety and Health regulations requires
that all trenches exceeding 1.5m in depth be shored. In large construction areas, excavation
walls may be sloped, instead of providing structural support.
Slope Failure Mechanisms
Translational slice in cohesionless sand or gravel
Slip along plane of weakness
Rotational Slump in homogeneous clay
Slope Stability
Driving forces: the component of soil weight down slope (forces causing instability).
Resisting forces: the soil strength acting in the opposite direction (resisting forces).
Mechanism of failure: When driving forces exceed the resisting forces.
Factor of safety (FS): the ratio of resisting forces (or moments) to the driving forces (or
moments).
If FS 1, the slope will fail
If FS > 1, the slope is theoretically stable.
The usual FS required is between 1.3 and 1.5
To estimate the factor of safety for a slope, the following information is required:
The soil and water profile
The kinematics of potential slope failure
The strength and weight of soils, and
The proposed slope geometry.
This estimate is for homogeneous materials.
Theoretical Safe Heights for Homogeneous Clay Cut Slope with Vertical Sides
Soil consistency* Safe height (m)

Very soft <1.5
Soft 1.5 3.0
Medium 3.0 6.0
Stiff 6.0 12.0
Very stiff 12.0 24.0
Hard >24.0
Soil consistency* based on unconfined compressive strength and cohesion values
The slope failures are probable in shallow excavations only for very soft to medium
homogeneous clays. By flattening the slope angle from 90° to 45°, significant improvement
in the factor of safety for a slope of a given height can be achieved.
Temporary slope protection should be provided to prevent sloughing of soil materials into the
excavation, such as coating or other impervious material applied to the slope. To prevent
slope erosion in rainstorms, spray-on product are used on silty soil materials to bind the soil
particles on the surface. Plastic covering can be used to prevent changes in moisture
content on the surface of the slope to maintain stability. Chain link fence can be draped over
a slope surface, when the slope contains significant amount of loose large rocks.
Shallow Trenches
Cross-trench bracing are used in utility trench excavations.
Intermittent sheeting and bracing
Trench shielding
Continuous sheeting and bracing
Deep Cuts
Excavation depths exceeding 3m to 6m, require specialized planning for support. Lateral
earth pressure is proportional to the vertical pressure. As a cut is made, the soil at the face
tend to expand and move into the cut area. If a support is placed against the excavation
surface to prevent the soil movement, then the pre-excavation stress is maintained.
Soldier beam and lagging
Pairs of soldier beams are driven to a depth slightly below the final excavation. Their spacing
is in the order of 1.5m to 3m so that available timber can be used for lagging. The lagging
timber, which is slightly shorter than the spacing but on the order of 50mm to 100mm thick,
are installed behind the front flange to retain the soil as excavation proceeds. Some hand
excavation is usually required to get the lagging into the place.
Soldier piles are installed with conventional pile-driving equipment or in augured holes. The
horizontal sheeting or lagging is installed behind the flange closest to the excavation (inside
flange). The sheeting can be installed on the inside face of the front flange and held in place
by various methods such as clips, welded studs, or bars, etc.
The soldier pile and lagging method is inappropriate for perfectly cohesionless soil. For
cohesionless soils sheeting must be used.
Workers install lagging The soldier beam and lagging retaining wall
Soldier beam and lagging retaining wall Close up of soldier beam and lagging
Soil Nailing
Soil Nailing is an insitu reinforcing of the soil while it is excavated from the top down. An
array of soil nails which are passive inclusions are installed in a grid that functions to create
a stable mass of soil. This mass of reinforced soil functions to retain the less stable material
behind it. In the right soil conditions, soil nailing is a rapid and economical means of
constructing excavation support systems and retaining walls.
In many applications soil nailing can be the least disruptive way to construct a retaining wall.
Soil nailing requires an unusual amount of hand work, craftsmanship and geotechnical
knowledge to construct. The typical construction sequence begins with the excavation of a
shallow cut. Then shotcrete is applied to the face of the cut and soil nails are drilled and
grouted. This sequence is then repeated until subgrade is reached.
Soil Nailing Examples
NorthWest Animal Facility, UC Berkeley, CAL.
Construction of an underground laboratory at the UC Berkeley, required temporary shoring on all four
sides of the excavation. The tolerances for the shoring was specified to be no more than plus or
minus one inch. The excavation depth varied from 4.5 to 11m, and was constructed in colluvial soils,
consisting of stiff sandy clays and dense clayey sands with gravel and some cobbles. Approximately
2
1,300 m of area was soil nailed.
Chemistry Building, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
The 12m deep excavation at this site was made in stiff to hard, slightly clayey silt, with
standard penetration resistances ranging from 15 to 45. At one corner of the site, a two
story brick auditorium was located ten feet behind the soil nailed wall. Eight rows of soil nails
were designed to support the excavation.
Excavation Bracing
For narrow excavations, internal struts are most appropriate. Before struts are installed, a
horizontal member called waler is placed against the soil support. Intermediate struts are
then installed from waler to waler across the excavation. Cross-lot struts are not feasible for
very wide excavations.
For very wide excavations, raker bracing is used. The support for the rakers (driven piles or
footings) are installed at the bottom of the excavation.
Construction of the soil support and removal of the remainder of the excavation then begins.
Compared to cross-lot bracing, in raker bracing system the central portion of the work area is
relatively uncluttered.
wale
raker
temporary foundation
Raker bracing
Tiebacks (or anchors) are a structural system which acts in tension and receives its support
in earth or rock. The system consists of:
o the earth or rock, which provides the ultimate support for the system
o A tension member (or tendon) which transfers the load from the soil-retention
system to the earth or rock.
o A stressing unit which engages the tendon, permits the tendon to be stressed,
and allows the load to be maintained in the tendon.
Tieback Systems
Earth anchors are usually installed at an angle of 10 to 20° down from horizontal. If the
acceptable soil is not encountered at these levels, it is necessary to change the angle to
engage the proper soil stratum.
Anchors or tiebacks eliminate obstructions in the excavation inherent in rakers or struts.
They consist of rods that extend well beyond any potential failure surface into firm
undisturbed soil or rock. Some tiebacks are made with high tensile cables grouted into rock
and prestressed against a wale, and others utilizing ordinary steel rod or reinforcing steel.
Tieback systems are generally very successful in preventing movements of the excavation
walls. Usually, the excavation wall is left in place after the permanent construction inside the
braced excavation is complete. Its is often used as the back form for the permanent
basement of the structure. Tiebacks, if left in place, are always cut to relieve tension when
the permanent structure can safely carry the load.
Tieback Example
Two Renaissance Square, Phoenix, AZ
This is a 19m deep tiedback excavation. The subsurface material through which this major
excavation was installed consisted of 7.5m of medium dense to dense sands and gravel,
underlain by very dense sand, gravel and cobbles (SGC). The SGC contained a large
percentage of cobbles up to 18 inches in diameter. The job consisted of 6000m2 of shoring
and 500 tiebacks.
Glossary of terms
Waler: Horizontal timber used to hold close sheeting in position.
Lagging: Lengths of sawn hardwood timber planks used to support the sides, walls or roof as necessary of shafts and drives and to
prevent material from those faces falling into the excavation. The term is also sometimes used when referring to the layer of poling boards
doing the same duty in trenches. The lagging is supported in turn by walkings, legs, caps, sets or frames, as applicable. (See also "lathes"
below).
Lathes: Short lengths of hardwood timber usually split and about 1.25 to 1.5 metres long used to support the side walls (and roof in
drives) and supported in turn by walings, legs or caps as applicable.
Strut: Hardwood timber (usually horizontal) in compression resisting thrust or pressure from the face or faces of an excavation.
Soldier: Vertical upright hardwood timber used for supporting a trench wall, taking the thrust from horizontal walers and supported by
struts.

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E.

In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to

Cofferdam Design Considerations

Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water

Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment

Items needed for installation

Pile driving hammer

Types of imposed loads

(i) Hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic forces on partially dewatered cofferdam

(ii) Forces due to Soil Loads

(iii) Current Forces on Structure

(iv) Wave forces

(v) Ice forces

(vi) Seismic Loads

(vii) Accidental loads

Structural bracing frame

Install Wale and Strut System for Framework /Template

8. Drive bearing piles.

10. Place tremie concrete seal.

11. Check blocking between bracing and sheets.

15. Remove sheet piles.

a. Z-Type (Z) - Used for intermediate to deep wall construction

b. - Used for applications similar to Z - Type

d. Arch shaped & lightweight - Used for shallower wall construction

Typical types of interlocks

i. Ball & Socket (BS)

ii. Single Jaw (SJ)

iii. Double Jaw (DJ)

iv. Hook & Grip (HG)

v. Thumb & Finger one point contact (TFX)

vi. Braced Cofferdam Construction

Tips for installing Sheet piles:

Always set-up a template system

Is a special mix with plasticizer

Transition of the pipeline from vertical to horizontal.

i. the use of a climbing formwork system (sometimes referred to as self-climbing or

Go to website below for animation

Self climbing electro-hydraulic slipform system may be defined as a method of continuously

Vertical reinforcement is located by guides fixed to the slipform. The horizontal

Discontinuous slipforming is preferred when building multi-story structures such as

Rigid - Slipform Paving

Uses low-slump PCC. Low-slump PCC (on the order of 0 - 75 mm (0 - 3 inches)) is

Pavement slipforming involves PCC placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as it is

(a) Large Placer/Spreader (b) Smaller Placer/Spreaders

Figure (c): PCC Vibrators on the Underside of a Paving Machine

Initial finishing is accomplished by

1. Assist in consolidation and

Texturing and Curing Machine

Figure (h) (left): Tined Texturing Carriage

The Features are;

As it paves sliding attached forms, no works of setting up forms beforehand and

Applicable to Structures described below

Concrete Pavement : ordinary roads, agricultural roads, piers of harbors, apron of

H. Excavations and Excavation Supports

Slope Failure Mechanisms

Translational slice in cohesionless sand or gravel

This estimate is for homogeneous materials.

Soil consistency* Safe height (m)

Cross-trench bracing are used in utility trench excavations.

Intermittent sheeting and bracing

Continuous sheeting and bracing

Soldier beam and lagging

Soil Nailing Examples