9/25/2018

CE 403
By
Dr A K Maurya

Parking

In case of roadway transportation, parking is terminal.

Provision of parking is an essential consequence of the movement of people and goods into and
within urban areas.
(terminal is a location where vehicle of a mode stop for various reasons including boarding,
alighting of passenger, loading or unloading of goods, resting when not in use, refueling,
maintenance, etc.)

Since parking is terminal or destination of a trip, the availability and price of parking effects:
• attractiveness of destination
• Mode of transportation
• Encourage or discourage the short term parking

On – street: On-street parking facilities are basically the spaces near the sides of the roads where
vehicles are allowed to park.
Off – street: Off-street parking facilities are parking spaces away from the main thoroughfare and
connected to it through a service road. These spaces, unlike the on-street parking spaces, are
developed solely for the purpose of parking

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On-Street Parking:

Issues related to on-street parking:

• Whether requirement for on-street parking exists in a particular location
• Whether the capacity of roadway is enough (after the on-street parking is provided) to cater to
the traffic on road,
• Whether on-street parking will increase safety hazards substantially?
• What kind of on-street parking should be provided?

Requirement for on-street parking:

• Given the land use in an area, one can determine the parking space required for that area
• If, adequate, off-street parking is not available in the vicinity, then on-street parking is
requirement exists
• On-street parking requirement= total parking requirement – off-street parking space available
• It may pointed out, if on-street parking space is available then driver may be biased towards the
on-street parking as it offer less walking distance to the intended destination

Effect of on-street parking on capacity and safety:

• On-street parking adversely effect the capacity and safety
• Reasons for reduction for capacity:
•Reduction of carriage width available for traffic
•Parking maneuvers on the road caused frequent interruptions to the traffic.
(IRC code does not speak about it, while HCM& AASHTO talks about it)
• On-street parking increase the frequency of accidents

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On-street parking

Parallel on-street parking

3 to 3.6 m
By AASHTO

• Vehicle occupied less carriage width when parked parallel

• But over a length of road less no. of vehicle can be parked in comparison of angle parked
• Parallel parking involves difficult driving maneuvers (specially when parked between two
parked vehicles) and hence caused interruption on the thoroughfare
• Vehicle of large length can be easily parked

Angle on-street parking

• Vehicle occupied more carriage width when parked at an angle

• But over a length of road more no. of vehicle can be parked in comparison of parallel parked
vehicles
• Driving maneuvers is less complicated
• It has been observed that angle parking caused more accidents than parallel parking. This is
possibly due to the fact that drivers are sometimes blinded by other parked vehicle while
backing out on to the road from a parked position.
• Large vehicle length can cause special problem in angle parking

It is generally suggested that parallel parking should be the first considered and only in special cases
angle parking should be used.
If, however space is available, the carriage width is large then angle parking may be a better choice
since more vehicles can be parked over a smaller length.
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Off-street parking
Off-street parking facilities are facilities built solely for the purpose of parking.
Type of off-street parking facilities based on design – open paved surface, multistoried parking,
park-and ride facility, etc.
Each of these must concentrate to provide the space for:
• Allow easy and independent parking
• Allow easy vehicle circulation
• Utilized the space most effectively
• Special requirement, if any, like elevator for drivers on multistoried parking

Parking Studies includes:

• Demand studies
• Financial feasibility
• Function design
• Structural design

A major objective is to estimate demand for parking.

• Survey conducted in order to assess the demand for parking: both the need and preferred location
for parking.
• Future parking demand is estimated with the use of forecasting modeling, which includes the
population growth, demographic, social and economic trends, as well as trends of local economy
and use of transport modes.

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Parking duration: length of time a vehicle remains in one parking space

Long term parking: parking with a duration of three or more hours
Parking accumulation: the total number of vehicles parked in a specific area at a specific time
Parking load: area under parking accumulation curve.. Generally represented in veh-hour
Parking demand: no. of vehicles desiring to park at a specific location or in a general area. It is
expressed in no. of vehicles during peak-parking hours
Parking volume: no of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of time
Turnover : no. of vehicle utilizing the same space/stall over a given period of time
Occupancy: ration of no. of spaces occupied divided by total no. of spaces available, expressed in %

To determine the parking demand

In case of existing parking:

Method for collecting data for parking:

• Ins and out survey
• Fixed period survey
• License plate survey

Ins and out:

• All the vehicles present in the parking space are counted at the beginning
• The vehicles entering and exiting from the area is counted
• At the end, another count of all the vehicles present in the area is conducted to cross
check.
This survey give – parking accumulation and occupancy
Does no give – average parking duration, turnover

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In case of existing parking:

Fixed period survey:

• All the vehicles present in the parking space are counted at the beginning
• Count all the vehicles present in the area after a fixed interval
One can missed short term parking
This survey give – parking accumulation and occupancy
Does no give – average parking duration, turnover

License plate survey:

Gives most accurate and realistic data collection
• All the vehicle’s license plate no., present in the parking space, are note down at the
beginning
• Note down the license plate no. of vehicle present in the area after a fixed interval
One can missed short term parking
This survey give – parking accumulation , occupancy, average parking duration, turnover
Quite expensive and laborious.

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In case of new parking design:

User Information Surveys:

Individual users can provide valuable information which is not attainable with
license plate surveys.
• Parking interviews
• Postcard studies
Parking Interviews:
• Driver are interviewed right in the parking lot
• Information about origin and destination, trip purpose, and trip frequency
Postcard Studies:
• Postage paid postcard request the same information as in parking interviews
• Return rates average about 35%
Biasness
• overestimate their parking need to encourage the surveyors to recommend
additional parking.
• they file false reports that they feel are more socially acceptable
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In case of new parking design:

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In case of new parking design:

Regression relationship can be developed based on data collected from existing

similar facilities:

Office building (weekdays) :

ln P = 0 .93 ln X + 1 .253
Movies theaters (weekdays): P = 0 .32 Y − 174 .0
Movies theaters (weekend):
P = 0 . 50 Y − 322

X= in multiple of 1000 ft2 floor area of office buildings

Y= no of seats in movie theaters

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Parking Facility Design Process:

• Goal of parking design to maximize the no. of spaces provided which allows vehicles
to park with only one distinct maneuver
• Step by step procedure is not simple. Parking design requires balancing a variety of
concerns like- you might decide on a nice layout for parking but have not provided
the space for disable persons

Rules for optimizing the parking spaces:

• Use rectangular area where possible
• Make the long side of parking areas parallel
• Design such that parking stalls are located along the parking lot’s perimeter

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List of maneuvers in parking:

• Vehicle enter from street (space provided by entry driveway)
• Vehicle searches for a parking stall (space provided for circulation/ or access
aisle)
• Vehicle enters the stall (space provided access aisle)
• Vehicle is parked (stall design to accommodate the vehicle length and width)
• Pedestrian access the building or destination
• Vehicle exits the parking stall (space provided by access aisles)
• Vehicle searches for exit (space provided by access and circulation aisle)
• Vehicle enters the street network (space provided by the exit driveways)

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Entrance considerations:
• During high demand time many vehicle wants to enter in the parking facility roughly at
the same time
• Which force vehicles to wait out side of entrance

Internal considerations:
• Vehicle searching for stall requires space for maneuvering
• Two type of parking operation: (i) self parking, (ii) attendant parking
• tollbooth and other restrictions require space for waiting vehicles

Parking stall layout considerations:

• Parking stall should be flexible enough for future expansions
• Stall and aisle dimensions should be compatible with the type of operation planned
•Critical dimensions are width and length of stall, width of aisle, angle of parking
and radius of turns

Aisle and stall combination is called as modules.

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As the parking angle reduces the aisle width is also reduces.

Arrangement of parking stalls: (a) 900 parking stalls with two-way aisles, (b) 600 drive-through
parking stalls with one-way aisle, (c) 600 parking stalls with two-way aisles, and (d) 450
herringbone stalls with one-way aisles.

In general:
Stall Width=205 m
Stall Length = 6 m
Aisle width=4 m for 450 and
600 parking stall
=6 m for 900
=7 m for two way aisle
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Various examples of vehicle circulation: (a) one-way circulation, (b) one-way

circulation, (c) two-way circulation, (d) one-way ramp circulation with adjacent
parking for multistoreyed garages, and (e) clearway, external spiral ramp circulation
for multistoreyed parking garages.

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Design of parking lots

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Design of off-street facilities:

Elements of good design:

• Elements of customer service, convenience, and safety with min. to street traffic
flow
• Accessibility, ease of entering, circulating, parking, unparking, and exiting are
important factors
• Good dimensions and internal circulation are more important than a few additional
spaces.
• Better sight distances, maneuverability, traffic flow, parking ease and circulation

Site characteristics:
• Site dimension, topography and adjacent street profiles affect the design
• Relation with surrounding system will affect the location of entry and exit points and
internal circulation pattern

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Access location:
• External factors such as traffic controls and volume on adjacent streets must be
considered

Layout alternatives:
• Layout of parking lot seeks to strike a balance among maximizing capacity,
maneuverability and circulation.

Advantage of 90 degree parking

• Most common and understandable
• Sometimes better fitted into buildings
• Generally most efficient if site is sufficiently large
• Uses two-way movement (can allow short and dead end aisle)
• Allows unparking in either direction (minimize the travel distances)
• No need to aisle directional sign or marking
• Required wide aisle which help in pedestrian walking on aisle
• Fewer total aisle 22

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Several advantage and disadvantages of angle parking:

• Easiest in which to park
• Can be adopted to any width of site by varying angle
• Requires slightly deeper stall
• Unused triangle space at the end of parking aisle
• Generally to avoid long travel, additional cross aisle for one way travel are required
• Generally aisle are one way

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At the corner of Missouri Boulevard and McCarty Street

Andheri east, Mumbai 24

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Traffic signs

• Proper road signs aid the drivers in reaching their destinations safely and efficiently.

• Properly designed road signs improves by:

• Instructing drivers on safe speeds (i.e. signs like curve ahead)

• Informing drivers on impending changes in road geometry (i.e. narrow bridge ahead)

• Reducing the driver confusion through clear signs on allowable traffic movement pattern
(like no entry, no U turn)

• Road signs (static like painted signs and dynamic signs like electronic message signs)
have three design elements:
• The text of sign

• The lettering, letter sizes and colour combination of the sign

• The placement of sign

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The text of the sign:

• In general, road signs should not use text and should convey
the relevant message through pictograms and shape of the
road signs.
• Because text has to be read (which requires time) whereas
pictograms and shapes convey the message faster and require
much less attentions of the driver towards the sign
• However, certain signs like speed limit signs, directional signs,
definition plates needs to use text
• Design guideline for text in a sign (if no codal suggestion
exists):
• Text should be brief and to the point – a driver should not
required to spend more than a second or two to read the
sign

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Lettering, Letter sizes and colour

• Main concern while deciding the colour is the VISIBILITY and
CLARITY.
• IRC specifies the range of letter sizes that should be used in signs
• The letter height should be so chosen that the design driver is
able to read the sign from the a distance as required by the
placement of the sign. Letter size is depend on where the sign is
placed.
• Like a person of normal vision can see a letter of height 8.5 mm
from approximately 6 m distance
• As the distance increases the letter size should be increases
proportionally.
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Placement:
Lateral placement:
• Signs are placed generally places slightly away from the main roadway at about
right angles (93- 95 degree) to the direction of travel.
• Lateral offset distance should not too less to pose a hazard to traffic not should be
too far.
• Sign should be placed in the cone of 10 degree.
• When sign cannot be posted on the side , it can be provided overhead.

Longitudinal Placement:
• Longitudinal position of sign – the distance of the sign from the feature or point of
action that the sign indicate
• Position must take into account two factors – safety and clarity
– Should not place much ahead of feature

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Traffic signs divided logically into a number of broad types or

categories:
• Mandatory sign: Inform road users of certain rules and
regulations to improve safety and free flow traffic. The includes
signs like speed limits, no entry, banned movements, etc.
Violation of these rules and regulation are legal offence.
• Cautionary/warning signs: these signs are used to caution the
road users of existence of certain hazardous conditions like
some features such as low bridge, left hand curve, etc.
• Informatory signs: provide information to the drivers

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Mandatory Signs:
announce and enable
traffic regulation, like
speed limits, banned
movements, etc.

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Mandatory Signs: announce and enable traffic regulation, like speed limits,
banned movements, etc.

Straight Prohibitedor no Vehicles prohibited in both

One way signs-vehicles prohibited in one direction All vehicles prohibited
entry direction

Bullock carts and hand

Trucks prohibited Cycles prohibited Horns prohibited Bullock carts direction
carts direction

Tongas direction Hand carts direction Pedestrians prohibited Right turn prohibited Left turn prohibited

U- turn prohibited Overtaking prohibited No Parking No stopping or standing Speed limit 36

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Mandatory Signs Contd..:

Width limit Height limit Length limit Load limit Axle load limit

Compulsory bus stop Restriction ends sign Compulsory cycle track Compulsory sound horn Compulsory keep left

Compulsory turn right Compulsory ahead or Compulsory ahead or turn

Compulsory turn left Compulsory ahead
ahead turn right left

Stop Give way

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Cautionary Signs: provided advanced warning of some features such as low

bridge, left hand curve, etc.

Right hand curve Left hand curve Right hair pin bend Left hair pin bend Right reverse bend

Left reverse bend Steep ascent Steep descent Narrow road ahead Road wideness ahead

Narrow Bridge Slippery Road Loose Gravel Cycle Crossing Pedestrian Crossing

School Ahead Men at Work Cattle Falling Rocks Ferry

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Cautionary Signs Contd..:

Cross Road Gap in Median Side Road Right Side Road Left Y-Intersection

Y-Intersection Y-Intersection T-Intersection Staggered Intersection Staggered Intersection

Major road ahead Major road ahead Roundabout Dangerous dip Hump or rough road

Barrier ahead 200 meters 50-100 meters 200 meters 50-100 meters
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Informatory Signs

Advanced direction sign Re-assurance sign Destination sign

Direction sign Place identification sign First aid post

Public telephone Petrol pump Hospital

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Resting place Eating place First-aid post

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Informatory Signs Contd..:

Park this Side Parking both sides Parking lot Scooters and motorcycle

Parking lot Cycles Parking lot Taxis Parking lot Auto rickshaws

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Q1. On a freeway a sharp horizontal curve exists. The speed limit on the curve is 40 kmph. The speed
limit on the expressway is 75 kmph. A sign is to be posted, warning drivers of the impending curve and
advising them to slow down to the speed limit. Determine the longitudinal placement of sign and the
letter size for the sign. Assume that the perception-reaction time is 1.5 s, the coefficient of friction is
0.3, the road has 0% grade, and a design driver has 6/9 vision. Also assume that the perception-reaction
time includes the time taken to read the sign.
IRC specifies that letter size on expressways should not be greater than 25 cm and greater than 8 cm.

Sol. : Assume letter size is h. sign can be read by a 6/6 vision person from a distance of 6h/8.5 m.
Then a 6/9 person can see this sign from = 6 × 6h = 0.4705h
9 8 .5

Now for a driver to reduce the speed safely from 75 kmph (20.83 m/s) to 40 kmph (11.11 m/s) the
distance required, d
vi2 − v 2f 20.832 − 11.112
d = vi tr + = 20.83 × 1.5 + = 84 m
2g ( fr + G) 2 × 9.81(.3 + 0)

Therefore, the total distance required between the point at which the sign become ligible to the
driver to the start of curve should be 84 m. If x is the distance (in m) between the sign and the start
of curve, then
0.4705h + x = 84
x = 84 − 0.4705h

This relation gives the designer the choice to choose the letter height, h, based on x.
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So , if assume the letter height is 250 mm (25 cm), then x = -33.625 m

This shows that sign should be placed after the 33.625 m from the start of the curve.
However, it cannot be allowed since (i) visibility may be restricted because the road is bending and
(ii) it is not a sound practice to place a sign concerning the driver restrictions on curve and that too
after that curve has started. This implies that x should not be allowed to become negative.

Generally the letter heights on such road should not be less than 80 mm. So if 80 mm is used
Then x = 46.36 m before the curve.
Now check whether the sign is legible to the driver for period at least equal to the time taken to
read the sign.
If assumed that within 1.5 s perception-reaction time, 1 s is required to read the sign. Then sign
should be legible from the a distance of about 20.83 m. Sign is legible from a distance of 0.4705 h =
0.4705x80= 37.64 m. So it is ok.

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Road Markings

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Road Markings
• Road marking is defined as Line, patterns, words, Except Signs,
attached to the carriageway, or kerbs, or objects within or adjacent to
the carriageway for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the
users.

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Classification of markings
• Carriageway Markings
• Longitudinal marking: centre line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, edge
line, bus lane marking, cycle lane marking, etc.
• Marking on Intersections: stop lines, pedestrian crossing, cyclist
crossing, marking on approached to the intersections, directional
arrow, marking on rotary, etc.
• Marking on hazardous locations: carriageway width transition,
obstruction approaches, rail-road grade crossing, check barriers, etc.
• Marking for parking: parking space limits, parking restrictions, bus
stops
• Word message: Stop, Slow, right turn only, school, exit only, etc.

• Object markings: Objects within the carriage way, object

adjacent to carriageway, marking on kerbs

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Classification of markings
• Longitudinal marking:
• Placed along the direction of traffic
• All longitudinal marking shall be white except the
following should be yellow: line indicating parking
restrictions, obstruction approach marking, no over taking
zones
• Broken line (permissive in character, if traffic permits)
• Solid line (restrictive in character)
• Double line (maximum restriction)

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Road Markings
• Transverse Markings (Control Signs)
• STOP Lines
• Yield Lines
• Zebra Markings
• Directions (Arrows & Messages)

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No passing zones
• Provided on
• Summit curves
• Horizontal curves
• Where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited

• Marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a double yellow line

No passing zones
Barrier line marking for a four lane road

Barrier line marking for a four No passing zone marking at

lane road horizontal curves

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No passing zones

Examples

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Examples

Examples

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Channelizing lines

Warning lines
• Broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap

Warning line marking for a two lane road

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Transverse markings
• Across the direction of traffic
• At Intersections

• Stop line markings

• Markings for pedestrian crossing
• Direction arrows

Transverse markings
• Stop line

Stop line marking near an intersection

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Transverse markings
• Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian marking near an intersection

Examples

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Examples-Yield

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Object marking
• Objects within the carriageway
• Traffic islands, raised medians etc.
• Marked by not less than five alternate black and yellow stripes
• Stripes should slope forward at an angle of 45 with respect to the direction of
traffic
• Uniform stripes with not less than 100 m width to provide sufficient visibility

Object marking
• Objects adjacent to carriageway
• Subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls
• Alternate black and white stripes at a forward angle of 45 with respect to
direction of traffic
• Poles close to carriageway painted up to a height of 1.25 m above road level

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Object marking

Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

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