Practical # 1

Electrical Safety & precaution

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the basic electrical safeties for home and industrial.

THEORY:

Electrical Safety Principles

 When planning and performing work on electrical Home wiring systems and
equipment, keep these principles in mind:
 Understand the procedure completely before starting the work.
 Use good quality footwear/shoes in order to provide maximum resistance.
 Never energize any circuit unless you are sure that no one is working on
the circuit. Give electric supply to the wiring system only after thorough
verification.
 Before replacing a blown fuse always remember to put the switch off.
 Do not touch switch boards, main switches, holder points etc with wet hands.
Do not use broken switches, sockets or plug.
 Use non-conductive tools whenever possible.
 Before putting the plug pins in socket put off the plug switch and
disconnect the plug by pulling the plug pin and not by pulling cable.
 Take utmost care while handling lamps, lamp holders, switches etc, because
these materials are brittle.
 Never drape electrical cords over heat sources
 Before beginning work, tie back long hair, and roll up loose sleeves.
 Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or circuit
breaker panels. Use these devices to shut off equipment in the event
of a fire or electrocution.
 Study of safety devices

Important of safety devices:

 The safety features are inbuilt with electric power distribution. The current
is to flow through the path it is expected to pass and should not take another
path through which it is not expected to pass. Conductors made of copper or
aluminum are provided across the path for carrying the current and insulators
like PVC, paper or rubber are provided across the path through which the
current is not expected to flow.
 Under abnormal condition there can be failure of insulations and current
will flow through the undesired path which can cause damage to
equipments and more important the safety of the user. Sometimes the user
may inadvertently touch a live conductor and cause electric shock. The circuit
may also carry under short circuit condition much more than normal value of
the current. The inbuilt safety features will isolate the faulty circuit from the
rest of the supply.
 The very high currents caused by short circuit situation can cause lots of
damage to electrical installation. Protective devices are needed to break
short-circuit and overload currents.
 Circuit breakers and fuses are protective devices that control the power
going to a particular route of wiring. In case of an overload or a short on that
circuit, the breaker or fuse trips and automatically shuts off power to that
circuit. Fuses are the commonly used protection devices to protect
components like wires, transformers electronics circuit modules against
overload. The general idea of the fuse is that it "burns fuse link" when
current gets higher than its rating and thus stops the current flowing.

Types of safety devices

Fuse
Circuit breakers (MCB, MCCB & ELCB)
Earthing.

Basically two types of protections are provided in the power supply system of domestic
consumers.
a. Protection from over current.
b. Protection from leakage current due to failure of insulation or inadvertent contact
with live conductors by the user.
Over current and Short circuit
One type of situation that wiring needs to be protected against is over current. The
electrical wiring is rated for certain maximum current. If you try to pull more
current through it, the wiring will heat considerably. When the wiring heats too
much, it will cause the melting of cable insulation, cause fire if there is something
flammable near cable and even melt the copper conductors in the cable. So
protection is needed to guarantee that in case of something tries to pull too much
current through mains wiring, this cannot happen for any long time until the fuse
blows and stops the current.
Many people are familiar with a "short circuit", which is a type of fault that
occurs when two conductors of an electric circuit touch each other. The current
flow caused by a short circuit is usually high and rapid and is quickly detected
and halted by conventional circuit protective devices, such as fuses or circuit
breakers. Ground faults are one type of problem when the insulation fails.

Protection against over current

Every electrical circuit shall be protected against over current by suitable over current
devices. These devices could be
a. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
b. Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
c. Semi enclosed rewirable fuses
d. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses

Typical breaking capacities of protective devices are as follows:

HRC fuses - 80 kA
MCB - 16 kA
Rewirable fuses - 1 to 4 kA

Protection against electrocution

The use of exposed, substandard, badly wired, wrongly connected or damaged

equipment as well as frayed or badly repaired cables reduces the safety of an
installation and increases the risk of person receiving an electric shock.
Electrocution is a passage of current through human body, which is dangerous. The
flow of current through human body effects vital functions.

a. Breathing
b. Heartbeat
A correctly chosen RCCB can detect small currents flowing to earth and reduces the
risk of electrocution. Effect of electric current through human body has been well
researched and following chart summarizes the results:
Human sensitivity to electricity

However, electrocution should not be viewed in terms of current alone but in

terms of contact voltage. A person gets electrocuted by coming in contact with an
object that has a different potential from his/her own. The difference in potential
causes the current to flow through the body.

The human body has known limits:

- Under normal dry conditions, voltage limit = 50V.
- In damp surroundings, voltage limit = 25V.

FUSES
Fuse is a wire of short length having low melting point which gives protection against
excessive current. This excessive current may be due to over load or short circuit. Under
normal working condition the current flowing through the circuit is within safe limit. But
when some faults such as short circuit occurs the current exceeds the safe limit value,
the fuse wire gets heated and melts. This will cause breaking of the circuit. After one
fusing operation, fuse wire must be rewired with the same size wire.
This basic guide will help you decide which fuse to fit to ensure the safe use of your
household appliances.

 Appliances up to 700 Watts = 3 Amp fuse

 Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts = 5 Amp fuse
 Appliances over 1000 Watts = 13 Amp fuse
COMMON FUSE TYPES
1. Rewirable fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. HRC fuse

1. Rewirable fuse:
This is the cheapest method for protecting a circuit from short circuit. Wires of
different diameters made of lead and tin are used in the circuit. When large
currentflows these wires melts and disconnects the faulty circuit from the rest of the
supply.
There are different types of fuses. The usual type is the rewirable type in which the
fuse wire is carried in a removable fuse link (Fig. a). The fuse link is made of
porcelain or other suitable insulating material. The fuse carrier is push-fitted to the
fuse base to make the connection through. An advantage of this type is that the
blown fuse wire can be replaced with negligible cost. But there is a chance ofselecting
a wrong size of fuse wire. Another disadvantage with rewirable fuse is that it may
sometimes lead to fire hazards, when the fuse wire blows.

Fig. (a) Rewirable fuse

The semi enclosed rewirable fuses has the following drawbacks:

 It normally melts on 50 % to 100 % excessive overload. The melting
current cannot be accurately predicted.
 It takes time to rewire the fuse.
 Standard fuse wire should be always made available.

However it is the cheapest mode of protection from short circuit.

2. Cartridge fuse
Cartridge fuse consists of a tube with metal end caps at both ends (Fig. b). The tubeis
usually made of glass with no filling material. The fuse wire is placed inside
thetube, connected between the end caps. Since the tube is made of glass, the
fuseelement can be easily inspected for breakage. When the fuse is blown, the
wholecartridge has to be replaced. The advantages of cartridge fuses are, quick and
easy replacement and the fuse rating is marked on the end cap of the cartridge
itself.

Cartridge fuses are mainly: used in various electrical and

electronic equipment.

3. High Rupturing Capacity Fuse (HRC):

This is a completely enclosed cartridge type of fuse. These fuses are screwed or
linked in the circuit. Generally it is used in the high power circuits. High Rupturing
Capacity (HRC) fuse consists of a porcelain tube! with metal end caps and fixing tags
(Fig. c). The fuse element is held inside the tube between the end caps and the tube is
filled with silica sand or granulated quartz. When the fuse element blows, the silica inside
the tube prevent the formation of an arc, and thus avoids the possibility of fire hazards.
HRC fuse links are available in a range of 10A to 800A.

The HRC fuse has the following advantages:

 It is very reliable.
  It has an enclosed fuse wire, therefore no chance its arc doing any
damage to the surroundings.
 It has low temperature rise at rated load.
 Maintenance free.

The drawbacks are:

 It is costly.
 Take time to replace the fuse.

Circuit breakers

MCB and ELCB

MCB is miniature circuit breaker. It is automatic in action. When excessive current passes
through the circuit, handle of MCB will moves down and thus trips the circuit. After one
such an operation we can manually reset the supply by solving the fault in that circuit.
Thus rewiring fault size fuse wire in the case of fuse can be avoided by using MCBs.

ELCB is earth leakage circuit breaker. It protects the circuit from any leakage of
current. It protects the circuit from lightning and thunder.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Miniature circuit breakers are compact devices used in distribution boards for
protection against overload and short circuit. The overload protection is achieved by a
thermal trip mechanism using a bimetallic strip. An electromagnetic trip mechanism
is also incorporated for instantaneous tripping in the event of a short circuit.
When there is a sudden increase in current due to a short circuit, the circuit should
open immediately, but the bimetallic strip does not
respond quickly. In this case, the solenoid
attracts the plunger and thus triggers the trip
mechanism. After clearing the fault, the MCB
can be switched on manually.
 Earthing
What is earthing /grounding?

Earthing or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of
earth. Equipment or a system is said to be 'earthed' when it is effectively connected
to the ground with a conducting object. Earthing provides protection to personal
and equipment by ensuring operation of the protective gear and isolation of faulty
circuit during:

 Insulation failure
 Accidental contact
 Lightning strike

Importance of earthing

Earthing is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipments. Earthing is done

also for preventing the operating personal from hazardous shocks caused by the
damage of the heating appliances. Consider an electric heater connected to the
supply using two-pin plug and socket. If by some chance the heating
elementcomes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the body of the
heater being a conducting material will be at the same potential as the heating
coil. If a person comes and touches the body of the heater, current will flow through
his body, which will result in an electric shock.To avoid unnecessary accident, it is
recommended that electric heater beconnectedto a 3-pin socket using a 3-core
cable. (Note: To see a three-core cable, open aplug of an electric iron. There will
be three wires, red, blue and green. The greenwire connected to the body of the
iron is the earth wire) In this case the body of theelectric heater is connected to the
green wire of the cable, which is connected to theearth through the earth terminal.
Besides the body of the electric heater, bodies ofhot plates, kettles, toasters,
heaters, ovens, refrigerators, air conditioners, coolers,
electric irons etc could be earthed using three pin plugs. The resistance of the
pathto the earth terminal through the earth wire is very low. Hence, even if the
heatingelement comes in contact with the metallic body and a human being
comesincontact with the metallic body, major part of the current will flow only
through theearth wire (usually the green wire in a 3 core cable). Moreover
because of the lowresistance path, a large current will flow through the phase
wire and the fuse willblow off. For large current to flow, earth resistance should
be low. To achieve this proper earthing has to be done.
Earthing is classified as:

a. System earthing
b. Equipment earthing
System earthing:
It is the earthing of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is
employed to limit the voltage of live conductors with respect to potential of
general mass of earth. This is necessary to prevent failure of insulation.

Equipment earthing:
Is earthingof noncurrent carrying metal parts of electrical equipments. As per
Rules 33 and 61 of Indian Electricity Rule 1956 non-current carrying metal parts
must be earthed with two separate and distinct earth continuity conductors to an
efficient earth electrode. However equipments with doubleinsulation need not be
earthed.

Some Definitions:
Earthing:
A tower/equipments connecting to the general mass of earth by means of an
electrical conductor.

Earth Electrode: Connection to earth is achieved by electrically connecting a metal

plate, rod or other conductors or an array of conductors to the general mass of
earth. This metal plate or rod or conductor is called as "Earth electrode".

Earth lead: The conductor by which connection to earth is made.

Earth loop impedance: The total resistance of earth path including that of
conductors, earth wire, earth leads and earth electrodes at consumer end and
substation end.

Factors affecting the value of earth electrode resistance

 Electrode material.
 Electrode size.
 Material and size of earth wire.
 Moisture content of soil.
 Depth of electrode of underground.
 Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.

Earth resistance consists of following components

  Resistance of metal electrode
 Contact resistance between electrode and soil
 Resistance of soil away from electrode surface.
The resistance decreases with the presence of moisture and salt in soil. To increase
the effectiveness of earth, the total earth resistance should be reduced. Efforts
should be made to reduce the resistance contributed by each of above three
components.
Earth Electrodes

Earth electrodes can be following shapes

 Driven Rods or pipes

 Horizontal Wires
 Four Pointed Stars
 Conductive Plates
 Round Vertical plates
 Square Vertical Plates
 Buried Radial Wires
 Spheres made of metal
 Water Pipes

Water pipe as earth electrode

As water pipes exist extensively and these are most of the time embedded in
earth,they can make a good earth electrode. Such earthingis not
objectionablewithalternating currents. But with direct currents, the flow of fault
currents in pipesproduces electrolysis and results in heavy corrosion of pipes.
This electrolysis process makes the water also harmful to certain extent. If water
pipes are proposedto be used as earth electrode, then only main water supply pipe
should be used asan electrode. The water supply main pipe should have
metal-to-metal jointsbetween its segments. A perfect electricalconnection should
be made betweenwater pipe & earth conductor. Pipe should be cleaned thoroughly
with emery paper.Earth conductor also should be cleaned thoroughly. The cleaned
conductor should be wrapped 4 to 5 times and ends clamped by nuts &bolts. The
earth resistance achieved by such an arrangement is usually a fraction of an ohm.
Low resistance of
such systemis due to long length of water pipe and the fact that it is mostly
embedded below earth. This method is mostly used for grounding in telephone
services. Electrodes should be made of a metal, which has a high
conductivity.Normally copper is used. The size of the electrode should be such, that
it is able toconduct the expected value of stray equipments. For example a 3 phase
star woundgenerator must have its neutral point at earth potential.
The salts commonly used for chemical treatment of soil are

 Sodium Chloride
 Calcium Chloride
 Sodium Nitrate
 Magnesium Sulphate

Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil

1. Pipe Earthing:

Fig. Cross section of pipe earthing

Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe can be
made of steel, galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m
and an internal diameter of 38mm are used. The pipe should not be painted or coated
with any non-conducting material.
Fig. shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed at
least 1.25m below the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate layers of
charcoal and salt for a distance of around 15 cm. This is to maintain the moistureLevel
and to obtain lower earth resistance. The earth lead of sufficient gauge should be
firmly connected to the electrode and it should be carried in a Gl pipe at a depth of
60cm below the ground level. A funnel with a wire mesh should be provided to pour
water into the sump. Three or four bucket of water should be poured in a few days
particularly during summer season. This is to keep the surroundings of the electrode
permanently moist.

2. Plate earthing

Fig. E (2) Plate earthing

A typical illustration of plate earthing is shown in Fig. E (2). The plate electrode should
have a minimum dimension of 600x600x3.15mm for copper plate or 600x600x6.3mm
for Gl plates. The plate electrode should be placed at least 1.5m below the ground level.
The earth conductor is to be securely connected to the plate by means of bolts and
nuts. The bolts and nuts should be of the same material as that of the plate. The
earth conductor should be carried in a Gl pipe buried 60 cm below the ground level.
The plate electrode should be surrounded by a layer of charcoal to reduce the earth
resistance. A separate Gl pipe with funnel and wire mesh attached is provided to pour
water into the sump.

3. Strip earthing

For all places having a rocky soil bed, this type of earthing is suitable. On this
system, wires or strips made of GI of size 25 mm x 4 mm or made of copper of size
25 mm x 1.6 mm are embedded 0.5 m, below the soil in the form of a network. The
length should not be less than 1.5 m as per ISI specification. Detail is given in figure
below.

Effect of Soil Properties in Earthing

While it is not possible to change the fundamental nature /properties of soil at a

given location, but local variations of soil conditions do occur even in a small area.
When a location for making earthing pit has to be selected, preference should be
given to location, which is likely to give minimum electrical resistance. In the list
below, soils have been arranged in ascending order with regard to their electrical
resistance.

 Wet marshy lands, or lands containing ashes

(Avg Resistivity 2400 ohm cm)
 Clay, loamy soil, arable land clay
 Clay & loam mixed with varying proportion of gravel & sand
(Avg Resistivity 15,800 ohm cm)
 Damp & wet sands
 Dry sand
 Gravel & Stones
OBSERVATION/OPINION: