Physics Gce o Level Syllabus 2010 2

Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010 1
PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Resultant Force/Net Force Vectors

THEME 1: GENERAL PHYSICS 1. Parallel and same direction vectors
Name: ________________________________ Class:__________ E.g. A person pushes a box with a force of 50N. At the same time, a force of 60N
CHAPTER 1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, UNITS AND MEASUREMENT is pulling the box to the direction the man is pushing. What is the magnitude
1.1 UNITS AND SYMBOLS of the net force and state the direction of the net force.
Unit Prefixes Magnitude = 50N + 60N
Prefix/Abbreviation Power Prefix/Abbreviation Power = 110N
nano/n 10-9 deci/d 10-1 Direction = To the right
-6
micro/ 10 kilo/k 103
milli/m 10
-3
mega/M 10
6
110 N, right
-2 9
centi/c 10 giga/G 10
2. Parallel but opposite vectors
1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS E.g. Two opposite forces to the right and left, 40N and 60N respectively, are
Scalars are quantities that have magnitude only. pulling a box. State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
SCALAR QUANTITIES VECTOR QUANTITIES
mass weight
distance displacement
speed velocity The direction of resultant force is the direction of the force which is the
time acceleration greatest which, in this case, is left. The magnitude of the resultant force is
pressure force the difference between the larger force and smaller force, 60N – 40N = 20N.
energy moment
volume
3. Two forces of different directions and magnitude
density
E.g. A kite of weight 4.0N was flown from point X to Y. There was an upward
SI Units force of 6.0 N by the wind perpendicular to the line XY. Draw a scale vector
We use 0.1 precision when we write or round off to 3 significant figures diagram. You should state the magnitude of the resultant force and the
Measurement of Small unit (e.g. 0.xx) Large units (>2) direction (angle between horizontal to the net force).
Time Seconds/s
Length Millimetre/mm; Centimetre/cm Metre/m
Mass Grams/g Kilogram/kg
Current Milliampere/mA Ampere/A
Power Watts/W Kilowatts/kW; Megawatts/MW
Force Newton/N Newton/N Step 1: Draw a parallelogram, scaled, with same length as the forces.
Pressure Pascal/Pa with standard form Pascal/Pa
Energy Joules/J Kilojoules/kJ; Megajoules/MJ
Step 2: Draw a diagonal across the parallelogram, connecting the point between Step 1: Draw the scaled lines of forces, with each starting points MUST start from
the force 6.0N and 4.0N. This is the resultant force, FR (the upward the END point of EACH previous line of force. Then draw the resultant
force pulling kite up and also the direction of the force) force from the VERY START of the force (from barge) to the VERY END
of the force. Determine the magnitude and direction (from horizontal to
net force), which in this case is 1o but we round it off as right. The
direction MUST follow the direction of the GREATEST FORCE.
*NOT TO SCALE. THE SCALE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. WHEN
YOU DRAW, USE REAL SCALE!*
Step 3: Measure the length of the diagonal. Then with your measurement,
compare with the scale. This is the magnitude of the resultant force.
Then to find the direction, draw a horizontal line, parallel to the ground,
and measure with a protractor between horizontal to net force.
Scale = 1cm:1N 1.3 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Length
Metre Rule
Metre rule is used to measure length of 0 – 1m with 0.1cm precision
To read the length of the object:

Look vertically above the metre rule to avoid parallax error (error in reading due to
incorrect position of the eye),
*NOT TO SCALE. THE SCALE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. WHEN

YOU DRAW, USE REAL SCALE!*
4. More than 2 forces of different directions and magnitude

E.g. A barge is pulled by 3 forces. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force (direction where the barge would move)
Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers used to measure small length of 0 – 15cm with 0.01cm precision
The main scale is up to 0.1 cm precision. It’s in cm. The vernier scale is up to 0.01 Micrometer Screw Gauge
cm precision. It’s in cm too. Add the reading of vernier scale with main scale. Micrometer gauge used to measure small length of 0-2.5cm with 0.01mm precision
To read a vernier calliper: (e.g. for wire diameter, paper thickness, etc that is very fine)
STEP 1: Look where the zero mark of the vernier scale coincide with the main
scale. This is your centimeter length on the main scale, correct to 0.1cm.
In this case, it’s 3.1 cm.
STEP 2: Look where the marking on vernier scale coincide with the marking on the
main scale. This is your centimetre length too, but correct to 0.01 cm. In
this case, the 4th marking on vernier scale coincides with the marking on The main scale on the sleeve is up to 0.1 mm precision. It’s in mm. The circular
the main scale. Hence, the reading of vernier scale is 0.04 cm. scale on thimble is up to 0.01 mm precision. It’s in mm too. Add both readings to
get the length in mm.
To read a micrometer gauge:
STEP 1: After placing the object between anvil and spindle, look where the mark of
STEP 3: Add the reading from vernier scale with the reading on the main scale. the main scale coincide with the circular scale. This is your millimeter
READING = (3.1 + 0.04) cm length on the main scale, correct to 0.1mm. In this case, it’s 4.5 mm.
= 3.14 cm
Preventing zero error:

When the jaws of vernier touch each other, the zero markings on both vernier scale
and main scale should coincide each other. However, if they don’t coincide, we
have to deduct our reading, with object inserted, with the zero error.
STEP 2: Look where the marking on the circular scale coincides with the horizontal
line on the main scale. This is your millimetre length on the circular scale,
correct to 0.01mm. The 12th division coincides with the length and
therefore, the thimble reads 0.12mm.
STEP 3: Add both readings. This is length of the object in mm, correct to 0.01mm
READING = (4.5 + 0.12) mm
=4.62 mm
Preventing zero error Ticker Tape Timer

When the anvil touch each other but the zero marking on the circular scale do not A ticker tape timer is an electrical vibrator which oscillates by marking a dot on a
coincide with the main scale and the main scale doesn’t coincide at 0.0mm, then paper 50 times a second. The faster the paper moves, the further apart the dots. If
we have to deduct our reading, with our object inserted, with the zero error. there are 10 dots marked on paper, then time taken to mark 10 dots is 10 x 0.02 s
= 0.2 s. Between each dot, it represents 1  50 oscillations = 0.02 seconds.
Time
Time is measured in seconds. A motion which is repeated is oscillation (e.g. a
pendulum from rest swings to displaced position then back to its rest position is
one oscillation). The time in which one oscillation occur is period.
Watch
Watches are used to measure long time intervals (e.g. every 1 minute for 10
minutes). Usually, we use minutes.
END OF CHAPTER 1
Stopwatch
Stopwatches are used to measure short term intervals. Digital stopwatches has
0.01 s precision while analogue stopwatches has 0.1 s precision. The reaction time
affects the reading of the stopwatch, that is the time when you press the start and
stop button of the stopwatch, might be late for a few hundredths of a second.
PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Velocity

THEME 2: NEWTONIAN MECHANICS Velocity is the distance travelled per unit time in a particular direction (rate of
Name: ________________________________ Class:__________ change of displacement). The unit is m/s or km/h.
CHAPTER 2: KINEMATICS v=
2.1 SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION where: v = velocity; d = displacement; t = time taken
Distance and Displacement E.g. What is the velocity of the student walking from A to D with the path below if
Distance is the total length of travel, irrespective of direction of motion he reaches D in 2h and that his velocity is constant? Find the average speed.
Displacement is the distance moved in a particular direction
E.g. 1. A person walks from A to B and returns to A. The distance AB is 1.5km.
State the distance walked and the displacement of the boy from A
1.5km
A B
Distance = 2 (1.5 km) Displacement = 0 km (because he didn’t
= 3.0 km move from original position)
Velocity = Speed =
E.g. 2. A student walks from A to B, then B to C and finally from C to D. The
diagram below shows the plan of the path of the student. What is the = =
distance travelled by the student and state his displacement from A to D. = 0.25 km/h from A = 2.25 km/h
2km
D C Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The unit is m/s2
0.5km
a=
Displacement
where: a = acceleration; v = final velocity; u = initial velocity; t = time taken
E.g. A car moves from rest and reaches point B with velocity of 25 m/s in 10
A 2 km B
Distance = (2 + 2 + 0.5) km Displacement = 0.5 km, North seconds. State its acceleration from rest.
= 4.5 km a=
2
Speed = 2.5 m/s
Speed is the distance moved by an object per unit time (rate of change of distance) The driver now at B sees a child crossing across the road. He starts to apply
s= the brakes. The car retards/decelerates (indicated by negative acceleration)
where: s = speed; d = distance moved; t = time taken until it comes to rest 5 seconds later. State the deceleration.
This gives you the CONSTANT SPEED, with unit in m/s or km/h a=
= -5.0 m/s2
2 2
whereas for NON-UNIFORM SPEEDS, to find the AVERAGE SPEED, we use We can write as deceleration = 5.0 m/s OR acceleration = – 5.0 m/s
s=
2.2 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION Speed-time Graph

Distance-time Graph The gradient of speed-time graph gives the acceleration
The gradient of distance-time graph gives the speed The area under the graph of speed-time graph gives the distance moved.
Solving a Speed-Time Graph (v) The total distance travelled by the car from t = 0s up to t = 35s.
The graph represents the motion of a car along a straight road. Determine: d = 192m + (5.5 x 28) m + ( x (28+12) x 7.5) m + ( x (28+12) x 6) m + 28 m
= 192m + 154m + 150m + 120m + 28m
= 644m
(vi) The way the car comes to rest at t = 40s.

The car comes to rest with a non-uniform increasing deceleration (gradient)
CHAPTER 3: DYNAMICS
(i) The deceleration of the car when it enters the town. CHAPTER 4: MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY
The deceleration of a speed-time graph = gradient CHAPTER 5: TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES
a = CHAPTER 6: DEFORMATION
CHAPTER 7: PRESSURE
=
a = – 3.47 m s-2
deceleration = 3.47 m s-2
(ii) The acceleration of the car as it exits the town.
a=
=
a = 4.33 m s-2
(iii) The time taken for the car being inside the town with a constant speed.
t = (28 – 12) s
= 16 s
(iv) The distance between the entrance and exit of the town.
Distance = area under the graph
 d = 16 s x 12 m s-1
= 192 m
CHAPTER 8: ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY Non-Renewable energy

8.1 FORMS OF ENERGY - Will run out soon and takes many years to form
Energy – the capacity to do work
Unit: Joules (J) Renewable energy
STOP LIGHT! - Can be made and renewed. It’s a clean source of energy
When a system does work, the energy content decrease, while the system on
which work has been done increase in energy content. Problems with the energy we use everyday
Example: ball dropped from a high place will lose Ep and gain Ek. - Burning of fossil fuels produces fumes which contributes to air pollution
- Waste gases of burnt fuel such as sulphur dioxide contributes to greenhouse
Kinetic Energy (Ek) effect and acid rain.
Is the energy a body possesses due to its motion. - Non-renewable energy cannot be replaced
2
Formula: Ek = mv
Solutions:
Where m = mass, v = velocity
- Use renewable energy sources as they don’t contribute pollution
Potential Energy (Ep)
8.2 ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION
Is the energy stored in object due to its position, state or shape.
Energy Conversion
Types of Potential Energy:
The change of one form of energy into another form of energy
Elastic potential energy:
- Possessed when an object is compressed / stretched e.g: a boy kicks a ball: Chemical potential energy  Kinetic energy
Gravitational potential energy:
- Energy a body possesses due of its position relative to the ground Energy Conservation
Chemical potential energy: Principle of conservation of energy:
- In substances that can be burnt Energy can’t be created/destroyed; change from 1 form to another.
Gravitational Potential Energy = mgh  The total mechanical energy stays the same
m = mass, g = gravitational field strength, h = height E,g. In power stations, energy from coal...
Thermal Energy 8.3 WORK

 The total kinetic energy of atoms / molecules in the body W= Force x Distance moved
No acceleration/movement = no work
 Occur when temperature > 0 Kelvin
Unit – Joule (J)
 Thermal energy of a body = Absolute temperature of body
8.4 POWER
The Energy We Use Everyday
Power is rate of doing work
Renewable Energy is energy resource that can be replaced
Non-renewable Energy is energy resource that cannot be replaced P=
SI Unit – WATTS (W), 1 W = 1 J/s PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010

1 hp (horsepower) = 750W THEME 3: THERMAL PHYSICS
Name: ________________________________ Class:__________
Example: CHAPTER 9: TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY
An elevator with load weighing 1600kg takes minutes to elevate from ground floor 9.1 STATES OF MATTER
to 4th floor. Given the height of a floor is 4m and the elevator has same height as 3 states - solid, liquid and gases
each floor, what’s the power of elevator’s motor to do the work?
Take gravity = 10 N/kg
∴ F = mg Power =
= 1600 kg x 10 N/kg =
= 16 000 N = 5 688.89 W
Work done = F x d = 5.69 kW (3 s.f.)
= 16 000 N x (4 x 4m)
= 256 000 J
Example:
Table 8.1: Different properties of matter
A pulley pulls a trolley consisting goods weighing 40 kg in total, up a ramp as
shown in the illustration below in 12 seconds. Calculate the power of the motor.
Solids Liquids Gases

Diagram 8.1: Different states of matter
8.2 BROWNIAN MOTION
- Observed first in 1827 by Robert Brown when he saw pollen grains moving
randomly when suspended on water.
F = mg Power = - To prove the existence of particles of matter moving randomly.
= 40 kg x 10 N/kg =
Smoke particles move continuously and haphazardly when floating in air in random
= 400 N = 333.3 W directions as the particles are bombarded by unseen, fast-moving air particles.
= 333 W (3 s.f.) Temperature increase  vigorous movement of smoke particles
Work done = F x d (vertical distance)
Smaller smoke particles  vigorous movement of smoke particles
= 400 N x 10 m
= 4 000 J
8.3 KINETIC MODEL CHAPTER 9: TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Kinetic theory of matter – All matter is made up of large number of 9.1 CONDUCTION
atoms/molecules in continuous motion. Conduction – the process whereby thermal energy is transmitted through a
medium from one place to another.
Motion of Molecules and Temperature
Higher temperature  vigorous movement of particles How Conduction Works
 Surrounding air molecules move faster and hit surrounding particles with When one rod end is heated molecules there gain energy and vibrate faster and
greater force because thermal energy is transferred to the molecules and gain would collide with their next less energetic neighbours. With this, some energy is
more kinetic energy. transferred to the neighbouring molecules to gain kinetic energy, thus thermal
energy is passed on by vibrating molecules and this continues until the cold end
Motion of Molecules and Pressure reaches same temperature as the hot end.
When gas particles hit walls of container, they exert pressure on wall. THERE IS NO NET MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES!
∵P = , force acting on container rises gas pressure
Why Solid Conducts Better Than Liquids or Gases?
Solid molecules are closer together so kinetic energy is transferred quickly
Temperature Increases  Pressure Increases
When temperature of gas in container increases, molecules move faster and hit Why metals act as better conductors?
walls more frequently and violently, rising the pressure. This is because metals have free electrons.
 When heated, free electrons gain energy and move faster. They can travel
Temperature Increases  Volume Increases
between spaces within molecules before colliding with other electrons &
When temperature of gas in container increases, molecules move faster. To molecules, thus transferring energy to them more.
maintain same pressure (less frequent hitting of walls), volume  increased.
Poor Conductors - INSULATORS
Volume Decreases  Pressure Increases
When a container volume is halved, the number of molecules per unit volume is 9.2 CONVECTION
doubled, so the hitting frequency to the wall is doubled  more pressure. Convection – the process whereby thermal energy is transmitted from one place
to another by movement of heated particles of gas or liquid.
CHAPTER 8 ENDS HERE
PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 12.3 WAVE TERMS

THEME 4: WAVES Wavefront – the line joining all crests of a wave / all identical points on a wave.
Name: ________________________________ Class:__________  The direction of wave travel is always perpendicular to wavefront
CHAPTER 12: GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
12.1 DESCRIBING WAVE MOTION
Wave is the transfer of energy through vibrations
Water Waves
The Ripple Tank
Circular wavefront Plane wavefront
 Horizontal dipper is dipped up and down by motor, generating continuous waves.

 CREST is the highest point of a wave; TROUGH is the lowest point of a wave
 Light iluminates white screen through the ripples, casting image of ripples on it.
 AMPLITUDE is the maximum displacement (height) measured from the rest
 Ripples represented by dark and bright fringes; Dark – troughs, Bright – crests
position (indicated with straight line)
 WAVELENGTH () is the distance between 2 crests/troughs. The distance any of
12.2 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Transverse Waves the two identical points is the same throughout the wave
Waves which travel in perpendicular direction to the direction of the vibrations
Longitudinal Waves
Waves which travel in parallel direction to the direction of the vibrations
High Frequencied Wave Low Frequencied Wave
 FREQUENCY (f) is number of crests/troughs that pass a point per second. Unit: Hz
 PERIOD (T) is the time taken to generate one complete wave (or wavelength)
 Formula: T =
 SPEED (v) is the distance moved by a wave in one second

 Formula: v = or v = f 
12.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF WAVES CHAPTER 13: LIGHT

Displacement-Position Graph 13.1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT
You’ll be able to find out the: (i) wavelength, (ii) amplitude Light rays from object make us see the object when the rays enter our eyes
 Luminous objects – give off light by their own
 Non-luminous objects – does not give off light; reflects light from a light source
The Laws of Reflection

 Incident ray, Normal and Reflected ray lie on the same plane
Displacement-Time Graph  Angle of incidence is equal to Angle of Reflection
You’ll be able to find out the: (i) amplitude, (b) period, (c) frequency
Angle of incidence – angle between incident ray and normal
Angle of reflection – angle between reflected ray and normal
Tsunami is a series of waves with extremely long wavelength and period

generated in a lake or sea by impulsive disturbance
 When crosses deep ocean, wavelength may be hundred km or more but the Diffuse and Regular Reflection
amplitude is 1 km or less – cannot be felt or seen. Speed = 1000km/h Rough Surfaces (e.g. table)
 When reacehes shallow waters, velocity diminishes and the amplitude increases,  When light rays strike different parts of tiny protrusions on the surface, rays are
therefore creating devastation reflected in many directions – diffuse reflection. Each ray obeys the law of i = r.
Smooth Surfaces (e.g. mirror)
WAVE REFLECTION  There are no up-and-down surfaces so all the rays reflect in the same manner –
regular reflection.
The Image in a Plane Mirror

 Virtual (cannot be formed on screen / light rays cannot pass through it like mirror)
 Upright (Erect)
 Same size as object
 Laterally inverted (left-to-right inversion)
 Distance between object and mirror = Distance between image and mirror
END OF CHAPTER 12
Ambulance is written backwards so that drivers can see by rear-view mirror
Ray Diagrams and Mirror  Light waves from air into glass block slows down. Glass is optically denser than
To draw an object reflected to the mirror to be seen to the eye: air as it slows down the speed of light
When light travels from a lighter medium to a denser medium, refracted ray bends
towards the normal.
When light travels from a denser medium to a lighter medium, refracted ray bends
away from the normal.
When light travels enters another medium of different densitiy at perpendicular
from the normal, there is no ray deviation (no refraction).
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY: Investigating refraction of light into glass block
STEP 1
Draw a line from Object (O) to Mirror (M) then continue from Mirror (M) to Image (I).
Make sure the lines are perpendicular to M and OM = MI.
STEP 2
Draw lines from the image to the eye to represent reflected rays. Behind the mirrror Place glass block on paper and draw the outline of it. Shine a ray source from an
should be in dotted lines while when reaching out the mirror use solid lines. angle, then draw points on the incident ray and emergent ray. Connect the points
STEP 3 on incident ray, and then connect another points on emergent ray. At point of
Draw lines from the object connecting to reflected rays in front of the mirror incidence and point of emergence, draw perpendicular line to the glass block
outline to represent the normal line. Inside the outline join the point of incidence
Using Reflection and point of emergence with a straight line, and then measure the angle of
Periscope incidence, refraction and emergence.
Two plane mirrors are placed at 45o to stem of periscope
Laws of Refraction
 Incident rays from object enter the periscope
1. Incident ray, refracted ray and normal at point of incidence lie on the same plane.
 The ray strikes the first mirror and the image is laterally
inverted. The inverted ray strikes the second mirror 2. For the two media, ratio is constant, where i is angle of incidence while r is
which re-inverts the ray to normal and reach the eye angle of refraction (Snell’s Law) Constant ratio is known as refractive index (n),
where the formula is n = . The greater n, the more refraction towards normal
Mirror in Meter Example:
A mirror is placed directly under the pointer so that the eye will look at the correct A ray of light travels from a liquid of refractive index 1.33, into the air. The angle of
position disregarding parallax error incidence is 30o. State the degree of the angle of refraction.
Note: since ray travels in same manner when shone from air, the formula is n =
13.2 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The bending of light when it passes from one medium to another – refraction
anl = (a = air, l = liquid; means equation when light ray is FROM air TO liquid)
1.33 =
o
sin r = 1.33 x sin 30
= 0.665
r = 41.7o
Refractive Index and Speed of Light
refractive index (n) = (a) Light ray enters the block at normal (angle of incidence = 0), there’s no deviation
Example:
(b) Angle of incidence increases, hence angle of refraction increases too
Light ray in the air when enters diamond of refractive index 2.42 retards from its
8 -1
original speed 3.0 x 10 m s . State the speed of light in diamond.
(c) Refracted ray now passes exactly along air-glass boundary – the angle of
n=
incidence is the critical angle
2.42 =
(d) Angle of incidence > critical angle – ray doesn’t leave glass; reflected internally
v=
= 1.24 x 108 m s-1 Critical Angle and Refractive Index
From above: Higher medium optical density  slower light speed From the formula of refractive index, to find critical angle:
n= (refer example law of refraction)
Floating Brick?
The brick appears floating as light from the brick is =
refracted at water-air boundary and bent away =
from normal. Our eye receives light in a straight
sin critical =
line, therefore we see the brick higher than the
actual point. The formula for refractive index of Example: Find the critical angle for a glass block of refractive index 1.50
this phenomenon is n = sin critical =
critical = sin-1 ( )
o
= 48.7
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
Total Internal Reflection Diagram 13.1
Criterias for occurance of total internal reflection:
 Light travels from an optically denser medium to optically less dense medium
 Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle (angle of incidence in denser
medium when the angle of refraction in the other medium = 90o)
Binoculars and Periscope Converging Lenses

 Light enters the lens and gets inverted (for binoculars)
 When the (inverted) light strike the series of prisms at an angle greater than 42o
(critical angle), it gets reflected internally and turned around; the image become
upright and then the light emerges out of prism and enters observer’s eyes. This
reduces the length of instrument and produces erect image of the object.
Optical Centre (C) is the point in the middle of lens surfaces on the principal axis.
Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera  Light ray passing this point is not deviated.
- When light enters lens, it gets inverted and the Principal axis is line passing through optical centre of lens, perpendicular to lens.
mirror reflects it onto pentaprism in the SLR camera Principal focus (F) is the point on principal axis where deviated incident parallel
as laterally inverted light. light ray is made to converge.
- In pentaprism, light ray turned around inside the  Principal focus occur on both sides of the lens with same focal length
camera, thus the image is erect. Focal length (f) is the distance between optical centre and principal focus.
Focal plane is a vertical plane passes through principal focus; perpendicular to
principal axis.
Fibre Optics (Diagram 13.1)
Transmit data from one place to another, used in telecommunication & endoscope Ray Diagrams – To construct one
 When light ray or pulses of laser enters the fibre, it’s internally reflected from the
sides. These signals are usually sent in bundles of optical fibre. Advantages are:
 They are thinner and lighter
 They are made of glass which is cheaper than copper cable transmission lines
 They high quality information transmission over very long distances with no
significant signal loss
 They carry greater volume of telephone calls, computer data & TV pictures
 Ray (1) leaves the tip of object parallel to principal axis, and refracted by lens
13.3 THIN LENSES and will ALWAYS passes through principal focus (F) on the opposite side.
Lens are used in spectacles, cameras, telescopes, microscopes, human eyes, etc.  Ray (2) leaves the tip of object and passes through optical center undeviated.
 Converging Lenses are thicker in the middle than at the edges  Ray (3) leaves the tip of object and passes through principal axis on the same
 They bring light ray passing through it together side, and refracted by lens parallel to principal axis
 Diverging Lenses are thinner in the middle and broader at the edges NOTE:
 They spread out light ray passing through it  The point where all the rays meet is where the object is formed. Two rays will do.
 The numbered rays are construction rays (rays that determine where the object
will be formed).The actual rays is the shaded one (light cone), on which it
ALWAYS passes the lens, and will not be out of the lens.
:::SOME RAY DIAGRAMS::: (4) O at F

(1) O between 2F and infinity (behind 2F)
Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications

Same side:
Real (I other side of O)
Could be at same side spot light
Virtual (I same side as O)
Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications as O or opposite side of
Upright
O; both at infinity Other side:
Real Magnified
I at opposite side of O – Camera telescope’s eyepiece
Inverted
between 2F and F Human eye
Diminished
(5) O between C and F
(2) O at 2F

Real Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications
I at opposite side of O – Virtual
Inverted Photocopier Magnifying glass
at 2F Upright I on same side as O
Same size Long-sighted spectacles
(3) O between F and 2F Magnified
Applications of Converging Lenses
Camera

 Converging lens can be moved so that real, inverted, sharp and diminished
Real
I at opposite side of O – Projector image can be formed on the light sensitive film
Inverted
between 2F and infinity Microscope’s objective lens  Shutter controls how long film is exposed to light and its intensity; diaphragm
Magnified
controls how much light pass through aperture
Slide Projector CHAPTER 14: ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

14.1 PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Concave mirror in light guide reflects light from lamp to condenser lenses so that
there’s no converging of light, where it directs light through reticle(slide) and
converge to the projection lens.
 Projection mirror is moved forth and back to produce sharp, real, magnified
image on screen. As the image is going to be inverted when it passes the
projection lens, the film is set upside down and the image is projected upright.
Magnifying Glass
Characteristics:
 Transfer energy from one place to another
 It produces virtual, magnified, upright image.  Transverse waves
 The image appears larger and more distant.  Can travel through vacuum
 The image cannot be formed on a screen.  Travel at the speed of light
 They have wave properties, i.e. refraction, reflection
 Have the equation v = f 
The electric and magnetic fields are
END OF CHAPTER 13
perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of travel of wave
14.2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Shorter wavelength  higher frequency  more energy
Radio Waves
Produced by oscillating electric currents in transmitter and received by another
aerial antenna at the other end
 LW, MW and SW are used for AM radio communication  Remote control

 VHF is for high quality FM stereo radio & terrestrial television communication Infra-red is produced by Light Emitting Diode (LED) in the unit which sends the
 UHF is for terrestrial television communication instruction signal by amplifying it to the LED which later translates it into infra-
red radiation. The receiver’s sensor detects and analyses the signal.
Microwaves
Are very short wavelength radio waves produced by klystron tube, used for:  Passive infra-red (PIR) intruder alarm
Intruder’s body heat triggers the alarm as he passes the field view of the
 Satellite communication – mobile phone sends microwave signals to space while detector, which also causes sharp increase in infra-red energy. Gradual infra-
calling by aerial dish to communication satellites orbiting the Earth which later red energy increase will not trigger the alarm as it only detects rapid increase.
relay signals to the call destination
Visible Light
 Live telecast – same way as mobile phones Is the electromagnetic spectrum visible to human eye classified by colours ranging
from violet to red.
 Microwave – water particles in foods greatly absorb the waves carrying the heat
energy which later heats up the food and cooks it very quickly
Infra-red Radiation LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, used for:
Waves beyond red end of spectrum, possessed by all objects  Weld and cut hard materials
 The hotter the object, the wavelength gets shorter, red visible spectrum is seen  Spot-weld detached retina
 Cooler object, the wavelength is longer, ordinary eye cannot detect infra-red  Seal blood vessels
 Measuring a piece of road over large distances
They are used in:  Sending digital signals by short laser light pulses through optical fibres.
 Infra-red camera
Hot parts of objects emit more infra-red radiation of shorter wavelength Ultra-Violet Radiation
affecting the camera film more. Therefore temperature difference can be Waves beyond violet end of visible spectrum; main source: sunlight. Used for:
detected by difference in brightness. Applications in:
 check healthy crop-sick ones emit different infra-red radiation to healthy ones  Stimulation of vitamin D production in body for healthy bones
 checking missile installation-missile plants changes surface temperature  Excess may cause skin cancer and retinal damage
 Ozone absorbs substanial amount of UV rays to prevent excess UV
 Thermogram
Infra-red radiation emitted by the body is detected as hot spots by thermogram  Sunbed
 Malignant growth, i.e. cancer, arthritis – higher temperature, more radiation UV rays carry sunlight energy which carries extra rise for suntans
 Killing bacteria and viruses  To kill cancerous cells

 Operating rooms use UV to sterilise them and the surgical instruments  To sterilise equipments
 Checking welds in metals
 Low intensity UV lamps set above meat counters preventing meat going bad
DISADVANTAGE OF GAMMA RAYS:
 Forgery checking They penetrate very deeply and seriously damage when absorbed by living tissues.
 Notes and bank signatures contain glow ink when exposed to UV radiation
14.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ON CELLS AND TISSUES
 Fluorescent lamps coating Exposure causes heating effects; Over-exposure causes pain sunburn/skin cancer
 Electric current causes gas inside the lamp tube to emit UV radiation. The  EM wave consists of very small energy packets – photons.
UV is absorbed by chemical coating and white light is emitted.  Shorter wavelength  higher frequency  more energy in each photon.
X-Rays
Short electromagnetic waves produced when high energy electrons lose energy
after striking metal target. Uses are:
 Diagnostic tool in medicine and dentistry – to show structure of bones & teeth
 Treatment for cancer
 Examine hidden flaws and cracks of metal parts during welding END OF CHAPTER 14
 Inspecting appliances whether they have been properly assembled
 Safety inspection in airports
 X-ray photographs on painting pigments for forgery checking
DISADVANTAGE OF X-RAYS:
High penetrating power could destroy living tissuesand organisms
Gamma Rays
Very short electromagnetic waves emitted by radioactive nuclei/during nuclear
reactions. Uses are:
CHAPTER 15: SOUND Speed of sound differs in gases, liquids and solids – they have different inter-
15.1 SOUND WAVES atomic forces strength and atom arrangement.
Sound is energy propagated in longitudinal wave such that the particles of medium,  Speed travels fastest in denser media. So, sound travels best in solids.
i.e. air, vibrate forth and back in a direction parallel to the direction of wave.
 It is produced by vibration of objects Audible Frequencies
Range for human ears: 20 Hz – 20 kHz
Propagation (Way A Wave Travel) of Sound Range sensitivity lowers as human grows older
Sond waves are produced when vibrating object alternately pushes and pulls the
air adjacent to it, causing rapid small changes in air pressure. Sounds over the hearing limit – ultrasound
Sounds below hearing limit – infrasound
 Dog has higher audible frequency and can hear ultrasonic whistles
 Bats (10kHz – 120kHz) locate obstacles and prey in the dark by producing
sound waves which echoes on any obstacles which is then heard by bats
15.2 SPEED OF SOUND

Velocity (v) =
(b) When prongs move outwards, layers of air are pushed close together so that a Example:
compression of air particles is formed. The disturbance is passed from particle Two observers are at A and B 1000m apart. A steady wind blows from B to A.
to particle, causing compression move outwards. When a pistol is fired from A, observer at B recorded the interval between the time
(c) When prongs move inwards, layers of air are pulled apart causing he saw the flash and the time he heard the sound as 2.34 s. When it’s fired at B,
decompression of air particles called rarefaction. the time interval was 2.11 s. Calculate the speed of sound in air and the speed of
wind BA.
Compression – high pressure region in air caused by disturbance of air particles Sound speed = v, Wind speed = vw
close together. On sinusodial wave is the crest. v - vw =  sound speed subtracted to wind as wind reduces the sound speed
Decompression – low pressure region in air caused by layers of air pulled apart. = 427.3504 m s-1............................................................(1)
On sinusodial wave is the trough. v + vw =  sound speed added to wind as wind increases the sound speed
= 473.9336 m s-1.............................................................(2)
Transmission of Sound Through a Medium
(1) + (2)  2v = 901 m s-1
Sound must travel in a meduim as there should be a material to be compressed or
stretched. So, sound cannot travel in vacuum V = 451 m s-1  sound speed
(2) – (1)  2vw = 46.5832
The bell is rung in vacuum. Will you hear it? vw = 23.2916 m s-1 wind speed
15.3 ECHO 15.5 ULTRA SOUND

Echo is the reflection of sound when it hit large hard surfaces, heard after an It is a sound wave with frequency greater than 20kHz. Applications of ultrasound:
interval of silence.
Reverberation is the prolonged sound of source due to the reflected sound follows  Ultrasonic scanning of women’s fetus and abnormal growths
closely behind the original sound, and is affected by close position of source  Ultrasound is sent into patient’s body and it is then reflected
 Reflected ultrasound is detected and monitored, and the computer constructs
Using Echoes to Find Distances – Echolocation the image of the reflected signals. Internal tissues and organs are shown.
Velocity of sound (v) =
 Measurement of speed of blood flow with ultrasonic flow meter
Example:
Observers A and B stand 50m in front of an obstruction and A claps 50 times  Shock wave lithoripsy for breaking kidney stones
continuously every time he hears an echo. B records the time and finds that the
interval for first to fifty claps is 14.5 s. What is the speed of sound?  Locating object distances by sonar
 Ultrasound pulses are generated by sonar apparatus and then echoed and
picked up by detector. To measure the distance, use echoloctaion formula.
Time interval between each clap: = 0.29 s
 Used in: ships to detect fishes or sunken ships; autofocus cameras
 velocity = measuring distance for focus adjustments
= 345 m s-1
 Cleaning of small, intricate items
15.4 PITCH AND LOUDNESS OF SOUND  Small items are placed in liquid and ultrasonic high-frquency vibrations loose
Pitch and Frequency out dirt and corrosion
Pitch is a sound property which distinguishes the way a sound sounds.
 Higher frequency = higher pitch  Steel rollers
 Ultrasound is emitted and change is detected by detector, representing
Pitches in musical instruments change in steel thickness.
 Guitars, pianos and violins – the longer the string, the lower the frequency  Detector send signals and adjusts gap between rollers for suitable thickness
 Flute – the more holes closed, the lower the frequency
 The air column vibrates longer when the holes are closed END OF CHAPTER 15
 Drums – smaller drum surface, higher frequency produced
Loudness and Amplitude

The more an object vibrates, the higher the amplitude, the louder the sound,
although they are all of the same frequency.
PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Charging by Induction

THEME 5: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Induction – production of electric charge on surface of conductor under electric field
Name: ________________________________ Class:__________ influence. Two types – Induction and Earthing
CHAPTER 16: STATIC ELECTRICITY Induction
16.1 LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS
Two charges – negative and positive
Negatively-charged Positively-charged
Amber rubbed with fur
Glass rubbed with silk
Rubber rubbed with fur
Polythene rubbed with wool Perspex rubbed with wool
Basic Law of Charges

Cause and Effect Example (a) The spheres are neutral and in contact with each other.
Like charges repel (charged amber with charged rubber) (b) When negatively-charged rod brought near sphere P, electrons from P are
Unlike charges attract each other (charged glass with charged amber) repelled and conducted up to the other end of sphere Q. On the other hand,
positive charge from Q and P are attracted to end of sphere P closer to the rod.
SI Unit – coulomb (C) Thus P possesses positive charge while Q possesses negative charge.
Equation: (c) Sphere Q is moved away from P in presence of rod to keep position of charges.
Charge (Q) = Current (I) x Time (t) (d) Rod is removed. P and Q possess same number of opposite charge.
16.2 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROSTATICS Earthing

Charging by Rubbing Obtaining Positive Charges by Earthing Process
- First, both objects neutral (number of positive and negative charges are same).
- When polythene rod is rubbed with wool, electron is transferred from wool to
polythene rod, due to movement of electrons with the help of friction. (a) Negatively-charged rod brought near Q; repelling electrons to the other side of
- Electrons that were originally part of wool are separated from their atoms and Q, leaving positive charges attracted to the rod at the end of Q nearer to the rod.
deposited onto polythene. (b) By earthing by touching Q, electrons are further repelled to the Earth.
- Wool, in return, lost the same number of electrons, therefore negatively charged. (c) Hand is removed in presence of rod P to keep the charges.
- Atom loses electrons – positive ion; atom receives electron – negative ion (d) P is removed after hand is taken away, leaving the conductor positively charged.
Obtaining Negative Charges by Earthing Process -q +q

- For a positive point charge, the lines moves radially outwards to all directions.
- For a negative point charge, electric field lines moves radially towards the charge.
*The nearer the lines to the charge, the stronger the electric field*
ELECTRIC FIELD LINE RULES

- Must begin from a positive charge moving outwards and end on negative charge.
- Number of lines drawn leaving positive charge or ending negative charge is
(a) Positively-charged rod brought near Q; repelling positive charges to the other proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
side of Q, leaving electrons attracted to the rod at the end of Q nearer to the rod.
(b) By earthing by touching Q, the circuit is closed, allowing electrons flow from
Earth to neutralise positive charges at Q.
(c) Hand is removed in presence of rod P to keep the charges.
(d) P is removed after hand is taken away leaving the conductor negatively charged.
- No field lines cross each other.
WHAT IF? What if only one body is induced without earthing? Different responses of the meeting of 2 charges
- When charged perspex rod brought near a neutral paper,
negative charge is induced at the end of paper near rod,
while positive charge is repelled to other end.
- The attraction creates upward force F1 while repulsion
creates downward force F2
- Attraction is greater than repulsion, thus F1 greater than
F2, moving the paper towards the rod.
- As paper touches rod, negative charges are induced to Nasty Electrostatics
rod, making paper positively-charged. REFUELLING AIRCRAFT
- Same positive charges repel, thus paper now repelled Look at the picture below of a jet being refuelled. A thin copper wire is attached
from the rod. from aircraft body touching the ground. Why would there be such a wire?
* Vice versa happens when rod is negatively charged, yet
paper will still attracted then repelled.
16.3 ELECTRIC FIELD

Electric field is a region which electric charge experiences a force
Electric field line is the path a positive charge would take if it is free to move
- The direction of the line means the direction of force acting on positive test charge.
- As fuel is transferred to aircraft with hose, it rubs against hose and acquire lots of
negative charges. The hose transfers electrons to the petrol and hence acquire LASER PRINTER
positive charges. When these two charged objects are in contact, the opposite
charges may recombine and produce sparks which easily ignites the petrol.
- Charges are discharged by earthing with a thin copper wire which carry electrons
from ground to neutralise the charges on the hose before charges are built up
and cause sparks.
PANTS ON FIRE Is the same process as photocopier but step 2 is different. After that all the same.
- Synthetic fibres in clothing are insulators which are easily charged by rubbing. In - In step 2, command is sent from computer to printer to shine laser beam onto
case of dry air blowing, these fancy distro may catch fire. rotating drum to “draw” exact patterns from document as electrical charges.
Helpful Electrostatics ELECTROSTATIC PAINT SPRAYING

PHOTOCOPIER Aim: To evenly coat car parts even to the most inaccessible parts.
- Paint droplets from aerosol is charged by rubbing againts spray nozzle.
- Car body is earthed, paint droplets will be attracted onto metal body.
- Since all droplets have same charge, they repel and distribute themselves evenly.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
- Selenium drum is positively charged by rotating it near highly charged metal wire
- Strong light is reflected off the page and projected onto drum.
 White parts of the paper reflect intense light on drum. Since selenium becomes
electric conductor when receive light, the part receiving light conducts
electricity and become discharged.
 Other coloured parts of paper receive no light and since selenium becomes
insulator when it’s in darkness, the positive charges remain in position. The Aim: To clean smoke out from chimney by collecting ash and dust in precipitator.
position of these charges creates the same pattern as the original document. - When smoke particles move past negatively-charged grid, they become
- Negatively-charged toner is sprayed onto the drum and gets attracted to the negatively charged and get attracted to the positively charged plates. As a result,
positive charge pattern. This creates the image of the original. only waste gases are out of chimney. This method efficiently collect 99% smoke.
- The toner which has been patterned is transferred onto paper as drum rotates. Note: Only smoke are collected but harmful gases are still free.
- Heat is applied to paper to melt toner so that it is fixed onto the paper surface. END OF CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 17: CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY Cells arranged in series has:

17.1 CONVENTIONAL CURRENT AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE - Total current the same across all cells in each branch, i.e. 0.6A
Conventional Current - Total voltage is the sum of V1, V2 and V3, and in this instance is 4.5V
Electric current – the flow of electric charge from one place to another Cells arranged in parallel has:
Current (I) is the rate of flow (t) of charge (Q) - Total voltage the same across all cells in each branch (i.e. 1.5 V)
I= - Total current is the sum of I1, I2 and I3, and in this instance is 1.8A
SI Unit for current = Coulomb per second (C s-1) (or) Ampere (A)
Measuring:
Current is measured by ammeter in series in the circuit. Unit is ampere(A)
Flow of charges can be positive, negtive or both
EMF is measured by voltmeter directly across the d.c. source in a circuit. Unit is
 Conventional current moves to the direction of the flow of positive charge
volt (V)
 In electrical circuitry, there is no positive charge but electron flow so the
direction of conventional current is opposite ti the direction of electron motion.
Example:
A charge is created by a Van de Graaf machine which
takes 10-3s to flow past a galvanometer. The
galvanometer reads a current of 1A (nanoamperes).
Calculate the total charge created by the machine and
the number of electrons passing through
galvanometer/second (charge/electron=1.6 x 10-13C)
Charge: Q = It N= 17.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
-6
= 10 A x 10 s
-3
= 6.25 x 10
-3 Potential Difference(V) – work done (W) to drive a unit charge (Q) across a
= 10-9C component
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)

E.m.f.(E) – work done (W) by source driving a unit charge (Q) around the whole
circuit
E=
SI Unit for current = joule per coulomb (J C-1) (or) Volt (V) V=
CURRENT AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.) SI Unit for potential difference = joule per coulomb (J C-1) (or) Volt (V)
Arrangement of Cells
Potential Difference Across a Circuit (i) the current,

The sum of potential difference across the whole component in a circuit must be (ii) the voltage,
equal to the sum of e.m.f of the cells as potential energy gain from cells lose the (iii) the resistance,
energy as pass through a component to convert into other form of energy. of F1 after the installation of F2.
E1 + E2 + ... = V1 + V2 + ...
Example: 2. A student installed component X across a circuit. He then judged that this
The potential difference across a light bulb in a circuit is 5V. Calculate the current component did not obey Ohm’s law.
flowing throught the bulb if the time for the current to pass the bulb is 0.8s and the (a) Define Ohm’s Law.
energy dissipated was 30J. (b) Suggest, by illustrating an experiment, how the student came to the
V= conclusion of component X.
(c) The graph of p.d. against current of X looks like Figure 17.8. Suggest
From Q = It,
component X.
V=
W = Vit
30J = 5V x I x 0.8s
I=
= 7.5A
17.3 RESISTANCE
Resistance (R) – the ratio of potential difference (V) across a component to the
current (I) flowing across it.
R=
SI Unit for resistance = ohm ()
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. A filament bulb, F1, has a resistance of 1 . It’s was connected solely across a
circuit with a 3.0V d.c. supply.
(a) (i) Briefly explain the meaning of “...has a resistance of 1 ”.
(ii) State the potential difference across the filament bulb. Explain your
answer.
(iii)Hence, calculate the current flowing past the bulb.
(b) Another filament bulb, F2, was placed in a circuit, but now parallel across F 1.
Explain, if any, the differences in
CHAPTER 18: D.C AND A.C. CIRCUITRY CHAPTER 19: MAGNETISM

19.1 MATERIALS AND MAGNETS
Magnetic materials are materials which attract to magnets, e.g. iron, cobalt, alnico,
steel
Non-magnetic materials are materials which aren’t attracted to magnets, e.g.
copper, wood
Permanent magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism for a long time
Temporary magnets are magnets that lose their magnetism easily
19.2 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

1. Poles of a magnet are each located at the ends of a magnet.
2. When a bar magnet comes to a rest, one end of the magnet will face North,
called North-seeking pole/North Pole, while the other end faces South, called
South-seeking pole/South Pole.
3. When S-pole of a magnet is brought towards N-pole of another suspended

magnet, they will attract. But if N-pole is brought towards the N-pole of the
suspended magnet instead, the suspended magnet will move away from the
incoming magnet, showing repulsion. This is an important law “unlike poles
attract, like poles repel”.
Testing whether one is a magnet / magnetic material

To test if the subject is a magnetic material
When brought near magnet, subject will be attracted to both N-pole & S-pole of the
magnet.
To test if the subject is a magnet
When brought near magnet, subject will be attracted to one end and at the other
end, it will be repelled.
To test if the subject is a non-magnetic material

When brought near magnet, subject will remain stationary when brought to either
poles.
Induced Magnetism arrangement of tiny magnets. To prevent this we use two soft-iron keepers placed
across a pair of magnets.
MAGNETISATION AND DEMAGNETISATION

MAGNETISATION
When an unmagnetised magnetic material is brought near a permanent magnet, it
is attracted to either poles of a magnet and becomes a magnet itself, with the pole
near to the point of contact with permanent magnet induced with opposite pole to
pole of permanent magnet at the point of contact while the other end of the
magnetic material has same pole as the pole on the magnet at the point of contact.
This is induced magnetism. 1. Stroking method
The unmagnetised bar is stroked the same way several times with permanent
When another magnetic material is brought near the induced magnet, it will have magnet with magnet lifted up high enough at end of each stroke. The end of
the same polarity (i.e. polar position) as the induced magnet above it. To test this bar where stroke finishes has opposite pole to the end of the magnet in contact.
theory, bring a magnet with its pole the same as the polarity of the permanent 2. D.C. method
magnet at the point of contact brought near to the magnetic material and it will A solenoid (cylindrical coil) is wound around a cardboard roll and the steel bar
bring about reflection. is inserted inside the cardboard roll. Polarity of the steel bar can be found by:
(i) Direction of current at the ends of solenoid
Theory why magnetism occur Look at one end of solenoid and if the current is flowing in anti-clockwise
If we cut a piece of magnetised steel bar into pieces, each piece will still be a direction, it’s the N-pole. If the current is flowing in clockwise direction, it’s
magnet with N-S pole the same position as each other. This is because the magnet the S-pole. Repeat the experiment for the other end of the solenoid.
is made up of lots of tiny magnets with the N-poles pointing the same direction. At (ii) Right-hand grip rule
the ends of the bar, the tiny magnets spread out due to repulsion of between poles. By using right hand gripped onto solenoid, the fingers show the direction of
current flow in solenoid and the end of steel bar thumb points to is N-pole.
DEMAGNETISATION
In an unmagnetised steel bar, the arrangement of tiny magnets points at random
1. Heating
direction causing the polar effect by the tiny magnets cancel each other out.
Heat a magnet until red hot and lay it east-west. Heating increases vibrations
The more tiny magnets aligned in the same direction, the stronger the magnet is.
of atoms of magnet causing the tiny magnets to lose their alignment. Hence
Also, if we put magnets side by side, the magnets weaken faster because the free
magnetisation is lost.
repelling poles near the ends of the magnet repel each other, hence distrupting
2. Hammering In (b) and (d), when two magnets of equal strength are placed with same poles
Hammer magnet & lay east-west direction. It destroys tiny magnets alignment facing each other, magnetic field effects are cancelled out, forming a point where
3. A.C. method there are no magnetic effect on X, called the neutral point. Compass placed here
Place the magnet in solenoid with low voltage a.c. supply. Slowly remove the points in uncertain direction.
magnet from the solenoid in east-west direction while current still flows.
19.3 MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is the region around magnet where magnetic force is exerted
Plotting Magnetic Field
Place magnet on a paper so that N-pole directs to North and S-pole directs to 19.4 TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT MAGNETS
South. Place a small plotting compass at A near the pole of magnet. Mark the ends Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel
of the compass needles with dots 1 and 2. Compass is then moved to B with one
end of compass needle, in diagram is South end, exactly on dot 2. Dot 3 is marked
on the other end of compass needle. Repeat the steps until the compass reaches
the other pole of the magnet. Join the dots formed to obtain magnetic field lines
and the direction is from N to S pole.
Laws of magnetic field
1. Magnetic field lines should NEVER cross each other
2. Outside magnet, magnetic field lines start from N-pole to S-pole. Inside magnet,
magnetic field lines continues from S-pole to N-pole, forming continuous loops. A steel bar and iron bar of same dimensions are placed to be magnetised by bar
3. The lines which are closer to each other represent stronger magnetic field. magnet on top of them by induction. Iron bar attracts more iron filings than steel bar,
Straight parallel lines of force represent uniform magnetic field. indicating it’s magnetised easily and stronger than steel bar. However, when bar
Magnetic field patterns magnet is removed, iron filings from the iron bar all fall off, but only some iron
When two magnets are brought close to each other, the field produced is the result filings from the steel bar fall. This proves iron loses magnetism more easily
of combined effects of the magnets. Magnetic materials which are harder to magnetise but retains its magnetism longer
In (a) and (c), when two magnets of equal strength are placed with opposite poles are hard magnetic materials.
facing each other, magnetic field becomes stronger. Magnetic materials which are easier to magnetise but loses its magnetism easily
are soft magnetic materials.
Applications of Magnets CHAPTER 20: ELECTROMAGNETISM

1. Magnetic shielding Before we start
When a soft magnetic material (e.g. iron) is used to cover an object sensitive to Electromagnet consists of solenoid of many turns wound on core of soft magnetic
magnetic field is placed in areas of strong magnetic field, instead going through material
object, iron provides path for magnetic field to move through its volume and
exits via other edge. Hence no magnetic field inside iron. Iron used because it’s The strength of a magnetic field is increased by:
easily magnetised. - Increasing the number of turns of solenoid
- Passing larger current through solenoid
- Inserting soft magnetic material as a core
For creation of force by current source, we use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
2. Galvanometer For creation of current source by force, we use Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
Coil suspended in magnetic field of permanent magnet in galvanometer will be Current flowing out of page is denoted byʘ but into page is by .
moved due to deflection created by turning effect produced in coil when current For determining the magnetic field across a solenoid, we use Right Hand Grip Rule.
flows into and out of the coil.
20.1 MAGNETIC FIELD BY CURRENT
When a compass is placed under current-carrying wire, it deflects and when placed
above the wire, it also deflects, but to opposite direction. This shows magnetic field
is produced.
Magnetic Field Due to Long Straight Wire
By placing a wire vertically through a horizontal card and place iron filings around it,
we know the pattern of magnetic field around a straight wire. The iron filings are
3. Magnetic door catch closer to each other when placed nearer to wire, showing stronger magnetic field. It
Magnetic strips fitted to doors of refrigerators keeps the doors closed by is thus known that when we increase the current, more magnetic field lines are
attraction. formed, creating stronger field. To find out the direction of magnetic field, we use
plotting compass placed along line of magnetic field. Diagrams below illustrate this.
4. Also used in: D.C. motors, loudspeakers, resetting metal index in Six’s
thermometer, removal of small metal objects from eyes, memory chips
We can also deduce the direction of magnetic field by using the right-hand grip rule. It consists of 2 circuits – one consisting of electromagnet to switch on another
It is known that when the current is reversed (e.g. from into page to out of page), circuit. When first circuit is closed, current flowing through solenoid magnetises
the direction of magnetic field is also reversed. the iron core which then attracts the soft-iron armatur. The upper part of armature
swings up and touches the contact hence closing the second circuit. The second
Magnetic Field of a Flat Coil circuit may need large current to operate, hence an electromagnetic relay can
Magnetic field due to current by flat coil is stronger inside coil than outside because activate the second circuit by just using a small current for the first circuit.
field from each wire side are concentrated in a small area. They’re also straight and
perpendicular to plane of coil. 2. Reed Switch
A reed switch is a pair of soft iron strips, known as reeds, housed inside glass
tube, containing inert gas (to prevent oxidation of the reeds), with a gap between
reeds. When magnetic field from bar magnet/electromagnet is brought near, say
the glass is wound, reeds become temporarily magnetised and attract each other,
Right Hand Grip Rule closing contacts and allows current flowing in circuit connected to the reed switch
Use your right hand fingers to curl around the wire
and your thumb pointing towards the direction of 3. Electric Bell
current. The direction of the curled fingers is the When switch’s on, circuit’s closed & current
direction of magnetic field. flows through electromagnetic coil. Soft iron
cores are magnetised & armature is attracted
to the cores so that the hammer strikes the
bell. As soon as the armature moves towards
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid the core, the circuit breaks and hence the
The magnetic field lines resembles that of a bar magnet. Inside the solenoid, it armature returns to original position as cores
resembles field lines in flat coil. It even has poles. To determine the polarity, look at lose their magnetism. The return of armature
one end of solenoid and if current is flowing in anti-clockwise direction, it’s N-pole. closes the circuit and therefore current flows
If current is flowing in clockwise direction, it’s the S-pole. Repeat the experiment for again and repeats process. The bell continues
the other end of the solenoid. Otherwise, use right-hand grip rule in FIGURE 19.5. to ring as long as switch is kept on.
It is known that if we reverse the current, the polarity will also be reversed.
4. Circuit Breaker
Applications of Electromagnets Circuit breakers are used to cut circuit when current exceeds specified value.
1. Magnetic Relay When usual current’s flowing, strength of electromagnet is insufficient to separate
contacts. When current’s too high, strong magnetic force pulls contacts & breaks
circuit. Spring keeps contact while fault’s repaired. Contacts stay apart unless
contacts are pushed back by pressing reset button.
Magnetic field will combine when the direction of the magnetic field is the same to
produce stronger field. Contrawise, they repel to produce weaker field. Magnetic
field created by wire has one side which coincide with the direction of the magnetic
field. This side attracts the magnetic field to take this path, producing stronger
magnetic field. Otherwise, the sides which don’t coincide has weaker magnetic field.
Force is exerted on the conductor from the region where field is now stronger to the
5. Audio/Video Tapes region where field is now weaker to balance the unequal fields.
The tapes are coated with magnetic material. Sound/pictures are represented as
varying currents. The currents causes electromagnet at the head of the tape to Force Between Two Parallel Current-Carrying Conductor
magnetise tape according to the picture or sound. Just remember:
Like current directions attract.
Force on Current-Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field Unlike current directions repel.
The direction of force on conductor can be determined using Fleming’s Left Hand ...and also apply the theory on force on current-carrying conductor in magnetic field.
Rule. Look at the diagram below. Thumb shows direction of force, first finger shows
direction of magnetic field and second finger shows direction of current. Position
the first finger to direction of magnetic field and your second finger to direction of
current flow. The thumb will show you where the force directs the conductor.
An explanation
A current-carrying conductor produces a circular magnetic field. Between two
magnets there is a magnetic field produced from North to South pole. When the
current-carrying conductor (e.g. wire carrying current) is brought between the 20.2 MAGNETIC FLUX OF D.C. CIRCUITS
magnetic field of the 2 magnets, the magnetic fields created will combine to form a Turning effect on Current-Carrying Coil
stronger magnetic field.
We have learnt force between two parallel current-carrying conductor is due to When circuit is closed, conventional current flows from positive terminal of battery
attraction/repulsion between magnetic fields created by both wires. towards X through P, then through coil and back to battery through Y and Q. To
determine the direction of turn of d.c. motors, we use FLEMING’S LEFT HAND
Now, that there’s a magnet by the side of these two current-carrying conductor, RULE on EACH SIDE OF THE COIL, then UPWARD-SIDE OF COIL TURNS
flowing in opposite direction and affiliated by coil, what would happen? TOWARDS DOWNWARD-SIDE OF COIL.
Look at Figure 20.12. In (a), two parallel current-carrying coil placed between a
horseshoe magnet create circular magnetic field for each side. Applying Force on For example, in the diagram, upward force is experienced on right side of coil while
Current-Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field, the side of each fields coinciding left side of coil experiences downward force. The coil hence turns anticlockwise
with magnetic field of horseshoe magnet will merge and create an equal but until it reach vertical position, where at this point current is cut because split-ring is
opposite force on each side of the coil, which is called catapult field. The not in contact with carbon brush. However, the momentum of the coil continues the
combination of these forces will rotate the coil. rotation until the split-rings is, again, in contact with carbon brush.
D.C. Motors Note that half-ring Y is now in contact with P while X is now in contact with Q, The
process is then repeated. Note also that the current in coil reverses each time coil
passes vertical position, i.e. the right side of coil flows towards the battery at first,
but now it’s on the left side and current now flows away from the battery.
Turning effect can be increased by:

1. Increasing number of turns in coil, e.g. giving extra force to increase period
2. Increasing magnitude of current
3. Inserting soft iron core within coil to concentrate magnetic line of force.
This will create a radial field which keeps the pair of forces acting on coil constant
and increases magnetic field strength hence increasing turning effect in coil,
D.C. motors works only with direct current. It consists of a coil of wire, which spins
on an axle, placed between two N-pole and S-pole of a permanent magnet, and
connected to a split-ring commutator, which, each half of the ring rubs against
carbon brush as the coil turns to allow flow of current.
20.3 CURRENT BY MAGNETIC FLUX
20.4 MAGNETIC FLUX OF A.C. CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 21: INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

21.1 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
21.2 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 22 – ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS NOT Gate

22.1 Logic Gates A NOT gate will produce an opposite output value from the input.
RECALL!
OR Gate
Mathematics “D” Chapter - PROBABILITY
An OR gate produces high output level when either inputs are high. The input on
We use “1” to indicate that the action is “true” and “0” if the action is “false” any input slots must be greater than zero to achieve high output.
Generally, A and B are represented as inputs while Q is represented as output
Gate Name Symbol Truth Table Definition in words AND Gate
A Q Output is the opposite of An AND gate only produces high output level if both inputs are greater than 0
NOT Gate 0 1 input, i.e. when input is
1 0 high output is not high NAND Gate
A B Q This is a combination of NOT gate and AND gate. In other words, we can imagine
0 0 0
Output is high if one OR that this is NOT an AND gate and the output of the gate is opposite to the AND
OR Gate 0 1 1
more inputs are high gate, i.e. Output is high if both inputs are NOT greater than 0.
1 0 1
1 1 1
A B Q NOR Gate
0 0 0 Output is high if input This is a combination of NOT and OR gate. We can say that this is NOT and OR
AND Gate 0 1 0 „A‟ AND input „B‟ are gate and that the values of outputs are the opposite to that of an OR gate, i.e.
1 0 0 high Output is high if any input slots are NOT greater than 0.
1 1 1
A B Q
0 0 1 Output is NOT high if EXERCISE:
NAND Gate 0 1 1 input „A‟ AND input „B‟ A connection is made from a circuit to the inputs A and B of a NAND gate and the
1 0 1 are high output of the NAND gate is connected to an LED and a resistor as shown in the
1 1 0 figure below.
A B Q
0 0 1 Output is NOT high if
NOR Gate 0 1 0 one OR more inputs are
1 0 0 high
1 1 0
In electrical circuitry, “1” means a high input/output level of voltage (+5V) while
“0” means a low input/output level of voltage (0V).
A Logic Gate produces a single logic output from one or more logic inputs.
(a) Draw the truth table for a NAND gate. [2] CHAPTER 23 – ATOMIC PHYSICS
(b) The LED now lights up. State the inputs A and B of the gate and explain 23.1 Radioactivity
why the LED lights up. [2] Radiation has an ability to ionize gases.
(c) Metal conductor X is slowly heated to a very high temperature. At a Radioactive substances emit 3 kinds of radiation:
certain temperature, the LED is switches off. Explain why this happens[2] (a) Alpha(α) –rays
[Physics GCE O Level Oct/Nov 09] (b) Beta(β) –rays
(c) Gamma(γ) –rays
Detection of Radioactivity
1. Gold-leaf electroscope
As a radium source is brought near cap of negatively-charged electroscope,
radiation emitted by radium source ionizes air molecules above cap. As cap is
negatively-charged, negative ions are repelled while positive ions are attracted
to cap. These ions neutralize negative charges on the cap and the gold leaf thus
collapses.
2. Diffusion cloud chamber

Air containing alcohol vapour in a chamber is cooled with dry ice placed below
a thin black metal plate. When radioactive source is introduced into the
chamber, the radiation produced passes through the vapour leaving white tracks
on black plate in the dense vapour due to condensation of alcohol vapour on
ions formed.
The table shows how the tracks tell what kind of radiation was introduced.
Radiation Tracks made Characteristics
α–particles Tracks are straight, short and thick; proving

that radiation is strongly ionizing
Tracks are twisted, thin and long; proving that

the radiation is less ionizing than α–particles.
β–particles
The twisted nature is because β–particles are
easily deviated by collisions with vapour
molecules.
γ–particles Tracks are short, thin and irregular; proving

that the radiation is least ionizing.
The characteristics of 3 kinds of radiation
3. Geiger-Müller (GM) tube Types of Radiation α-particles β-particles γ-particles
When ionizing radiation enters the tube by penetrating the thin mica window, argon Positively-charged High-energy Short EM wave
Nature of radiation
atoms will ionize to electron and argon ion pairs. The free electrons will accelerate helium nucleus electrons (neutral)
towards fine wire anode placed parallel between 2 cylindrical cathodes. The Large amount of Negligible
Small amount of
Ionising effect ionization (many amount of
accelerating electrons will cause further ionization of argon atoms by colliding with ionization
ions are dissociated) ionization
them, producing many electrons collected on anode. Positively-charged argon ions 100 – moderate 10000 – very
will attract towards cathode and the collection of electrons and argon ions at the 1 – Least penetrating
Relative penetration penetrating
electrodes produces pulse which is amplified and fed to a ratemeter (Refer OCR for (Can be stopped by
penetration (can be stopped (can be stopped
a sheet of paper)
link of pulse) which has grids marked in counts per second from which average by 5mm wood) by 2cm lead)
pulse rate can be read. Deflected due to
Deflection in Deflected due to like
When the radioactive source is removed, a continuing register but low pulse rate is like negatively- Undeviated
magnetic and positively-charged
charged (neutral)
read on the GM tube, which is called background count caused by background electric field particles
particles
radiation.
A little less than
Background radiation is caused by contamination of detector or its surrounding; Speed 107 ms-1 3 x 108 ms-1
3 x 108 ms-1
or by the cosmic radiation entering Earth atmosphere from outer space. In Ionization is the removal of electrons from a neutral atom to dissociate into
experiment, we omit the low reading of background count. electrons and positively-charged ions.
23.2 Half-Life 26.3 Radiation: Applications, Hazards, Precautions

Radioactive Decay The applications
It is the process when a group of unstable nuclei disintegrate to become more stable. 1. Tracers
The ability of detectors to measure small concentration radioactive material can
Since it is not affected by chemical combinations or external conditions, be used to:
radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time, i.e. we cannot - Find out the function of thyroid as the rate of radioactive iodine-131 applied on
predict which nucleus and when electrons will disintegrate. the thyroid to accumulate in it.
To show that radioactive emission occurs randomly over space - Find torn parts in moving components of machinery by applying radioactive
Position a few GM tubes, all equidistant from a radioactive source. The count rates isotope on surfaces of moving parts to find out how much of the radioisotope is
on each GM tube will not be the same. rubbed off.
To show that radioactive emission occurs randomly over time - Find leaks in underground pipes as leaks emit an unusually high count rate on
Place a GM tube near a radioactive source with long half like and determine the GM detector at area of leak.
disintegration over a minute, which will tell us count rate. Repeat experiment a few
times and since radioactive has long half life, the count rate should be same but the - Find how well plants absorb phosphate by radioactive phosphorus-32.
readings show slight fluctuation.
2. Penetrating radiation
Half-Life - Gamma rays can photograph deep inside engine to check any faults.
Half-life is the time taken for half of the unstable nuclei to decay.
Let‟s compare ten million radioactive sodium nuclei with half-life of 15 hours with - Gamma rays can be used to check constant thickness of rolled metal sheets.
ten million radioactive radium nuclei with half-life 1600 years. It will take 15 hours The rays is radiated from a source at one side of the moving sheets and on the
for 5 million sodium nuclei to decay but 1600 years for radium nuclei to decay other side, there‟s a ratemeter to find out count rate which depends on amount
(half the amount) of radiation passing through steel plates. When plates are thick, low count rate
The table shows sample count rate of a radioactive substance. Half-life is 7.5 hours. and vice versa. The count rate is constant when the steel plates have equal
Count rate/min 5000 2500 1250 625 312.5 thickness.
Time/h 0 7.5 15 22.5 30
- High penetrating power of gamma rays is used to kill bacteria in frozen or pre-
packaged foods to sterilize food and prevent food poisoning.
3. Power sources
- Uranium-235 is used as fuel in nuclear power stations (Refer chapter 24)
- Some fire alarms emit α-particles to keep air around them slightly ionized so The Precautions
that any changes in level of ionization caused by smoke can be detected and the To prevent overexposure/accidents, the following measures must be taken:
alarms go off. (i) Workers working with γ-rays must wear film badges or pocket dosimeters to
keep track of accumulated dose of radiation they are exposed at a time.
4. Medical uses (ii) Always keep radioactive sources in lead-lined boxes kept in storage rooms
Gammatron decays radioactive cobalt-60 to emit β-particles and γ-rays. When built with lead bricks of 1m thick labeled with “Radioactive Material” as
properly shielded, γ-rays can be brought to bear on deep cancerous growths in a radioactive radiation do not penetrate thick lead.
cancer patient and the radiation kills the cells of tumor.
(iii) Radiation symbol must be displayed whenever radioactive radiation
5. Archaeological dating experiment is conducted.
Radioactive carbon-14 isotope is present in air. When animals breathe in these,
they become slightly radioactive. When they die, the carbon inside them will start (iv) Persons doing experiments should use special protective coating such as lead-
to decay. The half-life of carbon-14 is almost 5500 years, so the age of dead lined suits and lead-lined gloves, holding the radioactive source with tweezers.
animals can be found by comparing activity of carbon-14 in dead animals with a At the end of the experiment, the contaminated clothing MUST be changed.
living one. The activity of the carbon in living animals is constant as it‟s
continuously replenished while the carbon in dead animals is not replenished. (v) Food and drinks are prohibited when radioactivity experiment is made as
radioactive dust contaminating food may be taken into the body.
The hazards EXERCISE
1. Overexposure Below is half-life curve for mercury. The count rate is given in percentage.
- Radioactive radiation overexposure result in radiation burns, lead to sores &
blisters for long time. Sometimes, this cause radiation sickness leading to death.
- Radioactive radiation can lead delayed conditions, e.g. eye cataracts/leukemia
may appear many years later.
2. Genetic mutations
- The ionizing radiation cause genes to be destroyed or mutated leading to
offspring with physiological and other abnormalities.
3. Radioactive leakage
- Accidents which may cause leakage of radioactive materials into the air can
pose health problems to people, livestock and plants.
(a) Calculate the half-life of mercury-203 CHAPTER 24 – NUCLEAR PHYSICS

(b) 120g of this mercury sample was left from January 1 until June 30. What is the 24.1 Discovery of Nuclear Atom
approximate mass of mercury on June 30 as it decays? Geiger-Marsden experiment
(c) Will the mercury be totally used up over time? Explain your answer. Geiger and Marsden conducted an experiment by aiming a beam of α-particles at a
thin piece of gold foil. Most of them passed straight through gold foil while a small
Two radioactive radiations, alpha-particles and gamma-rays, are emitted from a fraction of α-particles bounced back towards the source or deflected and struck
radioactive source. Explain onto ZnSO4 screen mounted on rotatable microscope for detecting α-particles (It
(a) how a Geiger-Muller tube calculates the count rate of this radiation. shows a small flash of light whenever α-particles strike the screen.)
(b)how you would prove that the radioactive radiation emitted were alpha-particles
and gamma-particles. Conclusion: Rutherford Atomic Model
Rutherford proposed an atomic model that shows an atom is made up of dense core
A 200 g sample of lawrencium is left in a container from 8:00 AM one morning called nucleus, where positively-charged particles and most mass of the atoms are
until 2:00 PM the next afternoon. If the mass of the sample was one-eighth its concentrated in here. It is surrounded by a circular orbit of equal number of
initial mass, what is the half-life of lawrencium? electrons as the positively-charged particles since the charge of an atom is
electrically neutral, i.e. 0. The nucleus and electrons occupy only 1 x 10-12 volume
END OF CHAPTER 23 of atom, therefore an atom is mostly empty space.
Explanation
A small number of α-particles (positively-charged) are deflected as they are
repelled by strong repulsive force of positively-charged nucleus when they pass
through the atoms too close to the nuclei. Since most part of atoms is empty spaces,
most of the particles can pass through undeviated.
24.2 The Structure of an Atom Nuclide notation is a symbolic way to represent unique features of a particular
Atomic Model atomic nucleus in the form .
An atom contains: Isotopes
- Nucleus, consisting of protons (positively-charged) and neutrons (no charge). Isotopes are atoms with same proton number but different nucleon number.
- Electrons (negatively-charged), surrounding the nucleus E.g. Hydrogen isotopes are: ; Uranium are .
Nucleon number: total number of constituents in nucleus (protons + neutrons)

Nucleons: constituents of nucleus (A nucleon can be either proton or neutron)
Proton number: the number of protons in an atomic nucleus
Protons are responsible for the nucleus to be positively-charged. It exists, with the
same number of electrons, in the nucleus.
Isotopes have same chemical properties as they have same number of electrons
which are the particles involved in chemical reactions.
27.3 Nuclear Energy

Let E = the energy (J)
m = the mass (kg)
c = speed of light (m/s)
E = mc2
which means that energy is directly proportional to mass.
A change in energy will therefore lead to corresponding change in mass.

Nuclide Notation
Let X = the element
Y = nucleon number where Δm = change in mass
Z = atomic number ΔE = change in energy
Then an atom of an element is represented symbolically as: Example
What is the increase of mass when 4200J heat energy is absorbed by 1 kg of water
to cause an increase of 1 K of temperature?
For example, the helium atom on Fig. 27.3 is represented by .
Mass of product particles is lower than reactant. WHY?

Energy is directly proportional to mass (Einstein‟s law), therefore the more energy
released, the more mass is lost.
= 4.7 x 10-14 kg
The product (fission fragments) increases in temperature. WHY?
Nuclear Fission
The 2 fission fragments, i.e. Barium-141 and Krypton-92, gain kinetic energy from
It is the process where heavy, unstable nucleus breaks up to produce energy. This
energy released thus move faster and collide with surrounding atoms effectively,
process is carried on in nuclear reactor to generate energy.
raising their kinetic energy leading to heat produced.
HOW NUCLEAR REACTORS MAKE ENERGY FROM URANIUM
Nuclear Fusion
It is the process where lighter nuclides fuse together to form heavier nucleus with
the release of energy. The energy released is due to loss of mass which is given by
total mass of lighter nuclides minus mass of heavier nucleus formed. The
temperature needed to start is about 100 million degrees Celsius. The Sun produces
energy by fusion of hydrogen isotopes.
Fusion Fission
Fragments of explosion are
Cause of energy Reduction in mass when light
much lower than original
to be created? nuclei is fused.
nucleus.
Break-up of heavy unstable
Two light nuclei fuse to form
The isotope uranium-235 is bombarded by neutrons to form Uranium-236: nucleus by bombardment with
single nucleus by raising
+  Process temperature; nuclei are
neutrons; Chain reaction
enables process to carry on as
brought together at high
fission produces enough
Uranium-236 is unstable and breaks down, splitting into 2 nearly equal radioactive speed to overcome repulsion.
neutrons to cause more fission.
nuclei, usually barium-141 and krypton-92, with production of 3 neutrons and Rate of reaction Difficult to control Easy to control.
energy, accompanied with increase in temperature: Table 27.1 Summary of differences between fission and fusion
 + +3 + energy
Each neutron produced creates further fission by colliding with uranium-235 to 27.4 Nuclear Reactions
form uranium-236 which again undergoes the fission and generates more fission An unstable parent nuclide X will disintegrate to a more stable daughter nuclide A
fragments (products of fission), neutrons and energy, setting up chain reaction with emission of α-particles, β-particles or γ-rays.
leading to extreme energy release and heat for generating power.
1. α-decay Radioisotope
In α-decay, the parent nuclide has atomic number Z decreased by 2 and Artificial radioactive isotope can be made by bombarding lighter molecules with
nucleon number Y decreased by 4 to form daughter nuclide . protons, neutrons or α-particles. An example is nuclear power plants.
In general, the equation is:
 + + energy END OF PURE PHYSICS SYLLABUS
Parent nuclide  Daughter nuclide + Helium (α-particles) + energy
Example:
 + + energy
Radium parent nuclide  Radon daughter nuclide + α-particles + energy
2. β-decay
In β-decay, the parent nuclide has atomic number Z increased by 1 and
nucleon number Y unchanged to form daughter nuclide .
 + + energy
Parent nuclide  Daughter nuclide + Electron (β-particles) + energy
Example:
 + + energy
Sodium parent nuclide  Magnesium daughter nuclide + β-particles + energy
3. γ-decay
A parent nuclide is in excited state (having more amount of energy than it
usually has) and will emit γ-rays due to its spare energy released and its daughter
nuclide isotope unchanged.
( )*  + γ-rays
Excited parent nuclide  Daughter nuclide + Gamma rays

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PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Resultant Force/Net Force Vectors

To read the length of the object:

*NOT TO SCALE. THE SCALE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. WHEN

4. More than 2 forces of different directions and magnitude

Preventing zero error:

Preventing zero error Ticker Tape Timer

PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Velocity

2.2 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION Speed-time Graph

(vi) The way the car comes to rest at t = 40s.

CHAPTER 8: ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY Non-Renewable energy

Thermal Energy 8.3 WORK

SI Unit – WATTS (W), 1 W = 1 J/s PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010

Solids Liquids Gases

8.3 KINETIC MODEL CHAPTER 9: TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 12.3 WAVE TERMS

Circular wavefront Plane wavefront

 Horizontal dipper is dipped up and down by motor, generating continuous waves.

12.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF WAVES CHAPTER 13: LIGHT

The Laws of Reflection

Tsunami is a series of waves with extremely long wavelength and period

The Image in a Plane Mirror

Binoculars and Periscope Converging Lenses

:::SOME RAY DIAGRAMS::: (4) O at F

Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications

Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications

Image Characteristics Location of Image Applications

Slide Projector CHAPTER 14: ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

14.2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 LW, MW and SW are used for AM radio communication  Remote control

 Killing bacteria and viruses  To kill cancerous cells

 Treatment for cancer

 Inspecting appliances whether they have been properly assembled

 Safety inspection in airports

 X-ray photographs on painting pigments for forgery checking

15.2 SPEED OF SOUND

15.3 ECHO 15.5 ULTRA SOUND

Loudness and Amplitude

PHYSICS GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Charging by Induction

Basic Law of Charges

16.2 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROSTATICS Earthing

Obtaining Negative Charges by Earthing Process -q +q

ELECTRIC FIELD LINE RULES

16.3 ELECTRIC FIELD

Helpful Electrostatics ELECTROSTATIC PAINT SPRAYING

CHAPTER 17: CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY Cells arranged in series has:

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)

Potential Difference Across a Circuit (i) the current,

CHAPTER 18: D.C AND A.C. CIRCUITRY CHAPTER 19: MAGNETISM

19.2 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

3. When S-pole of a magnet is brought towards N-pole of another suspended

Testing whether one is a magnet / magnetic material

To test if the subject is a non-magnetic material

MAGNETISATION AND DEMAGNETISATION

19.3 MAGNETIC FIELD

Applications of Magnets CHAPTER 20: ELECTROMAGNETISM

Turning effect can be increased by:

2. Increasing magnitude of current

20.3 CURRENT BY MAGNETIC FLUX

20.4 MAGNETIC FLUX OF A.C. CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 21: INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

CHAPTER 22 – ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS NOT Gate

2. Diffusion cloud chamber

α–particles Tracks are straight, short and thick; proving