Energies 2014, 7, 6358-6381; doi:10.

3390/en7106358
OPEN ACCESS

energies
ISSN 1996-1073
www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Article

Development of Natural Gas Fired Combined Cycle Plant for

Tri-Generation of Power, Cooling and Clean Water Using
Waste Heat Recovery: Techno-Economic Analysis
Gowtham Mohan 1,2, Sujata Dahal 1,*, Uday Kumar 1,2, Andrew Martin 2 and Hamid Kayal 1

1
Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology, CSEM-UAE Innovation Center LLC,
Al Jazeera-Al Hamra, PO Box 31208, Ras Al-Khaimah, UAE;
E-Mails: uku@csem-uae.com (U.K.); hka@csem-uae.com (H.K.)
2
Department of Energy Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm 10044,
Sweden; E-Mails: gowtham@kth.se (G.M.); andrew.martin@energy.kth.se (A.M.)

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: sda@csem-uae.com;

Tel.: +971-7-244-6929; Fax: +971-7-244-6951.

External Editor: Dieter Brüggemann

Received: 30 June 2014; in revised form: 4 September 2014 / Accepted: 22 September 2014 /
Published: 8 October 2014

Abstract: Tri-generation is one of the most efficient ways for maximizing the utilization of
available energy. Utilization of waste heat (flue gases) liberated by the Al-Hamra gas
turbine power plant is analyzed in this research work for simultaneous production of:
(a) electricity by combining steam rankine cycle using heat recovery steam generator (HRSG);
(b) clean water by air gap membrane distillation (AGMD) plant; and (c) cooling by single
stage vapor absorption chiller (VAC). The flue gases liberated from the gas turbine power
cycle is the prime source of energy for the tri-generation system. The heat recovered from
condenser of steam cycle and excess heat available at the flue gases are utilized to drive
cooling and desalination cycles which are optimized based on the cooling energy demands
of the villas. Economic and environmental benefits of the tri-generation system in terms of
cost savings and reduction in carbon emissions were analyzed. Energy efficiency of about
82%–85% is achieved by the tri-generation system compared to 50%–52% for combined
cycles. Normalized carbon dioxide emission per MW·h is reduced by 51.5% by
implementation of waste heat recovery tri-generation system. The tri-generation system has
a payback period of 1.38 years with cumulative net present value of $66 million over the
project life time.
Energies 2014, 7 6359

Keywords: tri-generation; waste heat; steam cycle; air gap membrane distillation;
absorption chillers; flue gases; techno-economic

1. Introduction

Tri-generation is one of most promising technology integration practice for production of three
different outputs with a common primary energy source. Combined heat and power cycle (CHP) would
be transformed to poly-generation system by integrating heat driven cooling and desalination cycles
in the system. Poly-generation cycles effectively utilize energy and reduce the greenhouse gas
emission [1–5]. Combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP) is an extended version of CHP designed
for centralized production of cooling, heating and power generation as a large scale system with higher
efficiency [6]. In general, power plants in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region are
combined with desalination plants for recovering heat and producing clean water for meeting domestic
needs. However, since decentralized air conditioning systems in the region account for maximum
power consumption, tri-generation models with combined production of cooling, clean water and
power (CCCWP) would be more beneficial in terms of energy savings and economics.
Previously, several researchers investigated CCHP configurations with gas turbine, steam turbine
and organic rankine cycles by combining with absorption, adsorption or desiccant chillers. Ahmadi
et al. [7] conducted a detailed thermodynamic modeling of CCHP for providing cooling, hot water and
electricity. The system is modeled with combined cycles of gas turbine and organic rankine cycle for
power generation, single stage absorption chiller for cooling, and hot water through heat recovery.
The system is analyzed in terms of energy efficiency and environmental impact, exergy efficiency of
tri-generation system is improved by 20% compared to conventional CHP. Khaliq [8] simulated a gas
turbine based tri-generation system for combined production of power, cooling and heat (process steam).
Performance of the system is analyzed for different pressure ratios, turbine inlet temperatures, process
heat pressures and evaporator temperatures of absorption chiller. Ahmadi et al. [9] conducted a
detailed thermodynamic modeling and simulation of tri-generation system producing power through
combined gas turbine and steam turbine cycles. The steam driven absorption chiller utilized to provide
cooling, low pressure steam from the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is utilized as heat source
for absorption chiller and space heating.
Several concepts for the tri-generation system involving reciprocating internal combustion (IC)
engines for CCHP purposes were evolved for financial benefit. Temir and Bilge [10] studied the
performance of tri-generation systems for production of electricity by reciprocating engines,
absorption cooling using saturated steam from the boiler and process heat recovery from exhaust
outlets. Huangfu et al. [5] analyzed the performance of micro-scale CCHP for domestic and light
commercial applications using reciprocating internal combustion engines, absorption chiller and heat
recovery devices. Energy and economic analysis reported a short payback period of 2.97 years.
Sun [11] proposed a combined production cycle of electricity by gas engine and cooling by absorption
chiller, which provides primary energy savings of 37% compared to separate conventional power and
cooling systems with payback return in 4.52 years.
Energies 2014, 7 6360

Tri-generation or poly-generation systems integrating the desalination technologies for clean water
production is investigated by few researchers. Hussain [12] developed a tri-generation system for
simultaneous production of cooling, clean water and electricity and analyzed with different technologies
to provide cooling and clean water. The system is optimized based on its fuel saving potential. Out of
different combinations analyzed, a combination of reverse osmosis, absorption chiller with gas turbine
power cycle provides the highest economic benefits. Calise et al. [13] modeled a solar energy based
tri-generation for CCCWP applications. Multi-effect desalination unit and vapor absorption chiller are
integrated together with hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) collectors for combined production of
cooling, desalination and power. The transient simulations for different operational and design
parameters were conducted and optimized in terms of energetic efficiency and economic viability.
In this research work, combined cooling, clean water and power cycle (CCCWP) incorporated with
membrane distillation technology for clean water production as a part of a tri-generation system is
investigated. Membrane distillation is a promising thermal driven desalination technology, utilizing
low grade heat energy for production of clean water [14]. Previously, research was conducted on
integration of membrane distillation system for cogeneration applications. Liu [15] analyzed the
performance of two different cogeneration systems by integrating membrane distillation modules with
a gas engine as combined power and desalination cycles and with vapor compression chiller as a
combined cooling and distillation unit. Kullab [16] analyzed the performance of air gap membrane
distillation (AGMD) modules with different integration layouts. Burrieza et al. [17] conducted several
parametric studies on air gap membrane distillation modules to optimize the performance of the system
that produces a maximum distillate flux of 20 L/h per module.

2. System Description

A tri-generation system is proposed for effective utilization of the waste flue gases liberated by the
Al-Hamra gas turbine power plant based in Ras-Al-Khaimah, United Arab Emirates (UAE), as shown
in Figure 1. Reheat brayton cycle configuration is utilized in Al-Hamra gas turbine power plant. Air at
ambient temperature is compressed and passed to the combustion chamber (CC) for production of
super-heated gas. This super-heated gas is further expanded in a series of gas turbines which are
connected through reheat chamber (RH) for power production.

Figure 1. (a) Al-Hamra gas power plant; (b) Gas turbine in Al-Hamra power plant.

(a) (b)
Energies 2014, 7 6361

The proposed Tri-generation system comprises of steam turbine rankine cycle, single stage LiBr/H2O
absorption chiller plant and air gap membrane distillation units. The schematic layout of tri-generation
system is shown in Figure 2. The hot flue gases liberated after the expansion in the gas turbine is utilized
in the HRSG for production of process steam at higher pressure and temperature, which is further
expanded in a steam turbine for production of electricity. The steam is then condensed in a heat recovery
system using sea-water. The heat liberated in the heat recovery system is used to drive both the absorption
chiller and membrane distillation systems. The condensed steam (feed water) is circulated back to the
HRSG using the feed water pump. The stack flue gases leaving the HRSG is utilized to produce
additional hot sea water, which is integrated with the supply line of cooling and desalination systems.

Figure 2. Schematic layout of tri-generation system.

Energies 2014, 7 6362

3. System Modeling

3.1. Brayton Cycle

The reheat Brayton configuration is utilized in Al-Hamra gas turbine power plant as shown in
Figure 1. The energy balance of reheat brayton cycle is modeled as follows:
The air at ambient temperature enters the compressor at point 1, the temperature of air (T2) leaving
the compressor is calculated by:
γ−1
𝑇2 𝑃𝑟2 γ
=( ) (1)
𝑇1 𝑃𝑟1
where T1 and T2 are the temperatures of air entering and leaving the compressor; Pr1 and Pr2 are the
pressures of air before and after compression process; γ is the specific heat ratio. Work done by the
compressor is calculated by:
𝑊Compressor = 𝑚̇a 𝐶p,air (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (2)

where WCompressor is the work done by the compressor; 𝑚̇a is the mass flow rate of air and Cp,air is the
specific-heat capacity of air. The compressed air is supplied to the CC, where the compressed air is
combusted with addition of fuel. Energy balance of processes in CC is given by:
𝑄CC = 𝑚̇g,1 𝐶p,gas,1 𝑇3 − 𝑚̇a 𝐶p,air 𝑇2 (3)
𝑄CC = 𝑚̇f,1 · 𝐿𝐻𝑉 (4)
where QCC is the heat energy supplied by the combustion chamber; 𝑚̇g,1 is the mass of gas leaving the
combustion chamber; T3 is the temperature of gas leaving the combustion chamber; 𝑚̇f,1 is the mass
flow rate of fuel supplied to CC and 𝐿𝐻𝑉 is the lower heat-value of fuel. The gas at super-heated
temperature (T3) is expanded in the first gas turbine,
𝑄gt,1 = 𝑚̇g,1 𝐶p,gas (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) (5)
where Qgt,1 is the energy extracted from the first gas turbine and T4 is the temperature of flue gases
leaving the gas turbine. The flue gases liberated from the first gas turbine is further combusted in reheat
chamber, energy balance in the reheat chamber is:
𝑄RH = 𝑚̇g,2 𝐶p,gas,2 𝑇5 − 𝑚̇g,1 𝐶p,gas,1 𝑇4 (6)
𝑄RH = 𝑚̇f,2 · 𝐿𝐻𝑉 (7)
QRH is the heat energy supplied by the reheat chamber; 𝑚̇g,2 is the mass of gas leaving the reheat
section; T5 is the temperature of gas leaving the reheat section and 𝑚̇f,2 is the mass flow rate of fuel
supplied to RH. The reheated gas is expanded in the second gas turbine:
𝑄gt,2 = 𝑚̇g,2 𝐶p,gas,2 (𝑇5 − 𝑇6 ) (8)
where T6 is the temperature of flue gases leaving the system, which is utilized as the heat source for
driving the tri-generation system.
Energies 2014, 7 6363

3.2. Steam Cycle

3.2.1. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

In the tri-generation cycle, single pressure HRSG with economizer, evaporator and super heater
sections are utilized for the generation of super-heated process steam. The temperature profile of
HRSG is shown in Figure 3. The pinch point is the temperature difference between the gas and water
(at saturation temperature) at the point of entry into the evaporator. Pinch point plays a vital role in
energy modeling of HRSG. The approach temperature between the economizer exit and entry of
evaporator is considered as constant in the modeling. Approach temperature depends on the tube
layout of economizer circuit.

Figure 3. Temperature-Entropy (T-S) diagram of Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG).

Energy balance of individual sections of HRSG is modeled. Using pinch point temperature
difference, energy balance of the evaporator is analyzed:
𝑚̇w (ℎ9 − ℎ8′ ) = 𝑚̇𝑔 𝐶P,g (𝑇a − 𝑇b ) (9)
where 𝑚̇𝑤 is the mass flow rate of steam generation line; 𝑚̇g is the mass flow rate of hot flue gases;
CP,g is the heat transfer coefficient of hot flue gases; h8’ and h9 are the enthalpy of the saturated water and
steam, respectively; Ta is the temperature of gas entering the evaporator and Tb is the temperature of gas
leaving the evaporator. Energy balance of the super heater is shown below:
𝑚̇w (ℎ10 − ℎ9 ) = 𝑚̇g 𝐶P,g (𝑇6 − 𝑇a ) (10)
where h10 is the enthalpy of the super-heated steam and T6 is the temperature of hot flue gas entering
the HRSG. Energy balance of the economizer can be shown as:
𝑚̇w (ℎ8 − ℎ7 ) = 𝑚̇g 𝐶P,g (𝑇b − 𝑇Stack ) (11)
where h7 and h8 are the enthalpies of the hot water at the entry and exit of economizer and TStack is the
stack temperature of flue gases leaving the HRSG.
Energies 2014, 7 6364

3.2.2. Steam Turbine

High pressure super-heated steam generated in the HRSG is expanded to ambient pressure using a
steam turbine. Energy extracted (WST) in the turbine is calculated as follows:
𝑊ST = 𝑚̇w (ℎ9 − ℎ10 ) (12)
where h10 is the enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine.

3.2.3. Heat Recovery System

The steam liberated from the steam turbine is condensed in a heat recovery system, where steam
exchanges heat with sea water to drive both the absorption chiller and membrane distillation unit.
Additionally, a part of heat energy is recovered by sea water from the stack flue gases. It is integrated
with the supply line of refrigeration and desalination modules. Energy balance of the heat recovery
system is given by:
𝑄extract = 𝑚̇w (ℎ11 − ℎ7 ) + 𝑚̇g 𝐶P,g (𝑇stack − 𝑇ff ) (13)
𝑄extract = 𝑚̇SW 𝐶P,SW (𝑇SW,out − 𝑇SW,in ) (14)
where Qextract is the heat extracted from the steam; h7 is the enthalpy of water leaving the condenser at
100 °C; Tff is the temperature of flue gas leaving the heat exchanger; 𝑚̇SW is the mass flow rate of sea
water; CP,SW is specific heat capacities; TSW,in and TSW,out are the temperatures of sea water entering and
leaving the heat recovery system. The area of heat recovery system is determined by:
𝑄extract
𝐴HRS = (15)
𝑈HRS × Δ𝑇LMTD
where AHRS is the area of the heat recovery system; UHRS is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the
heat recovery system and ΔTLMTD is the logarithmic mean temperature difference.

3.3. Absorption Chiller

Absorption chiller considered in the tri-generation system is LiBr/H2O vapor absorption chiller.
The system is designed to provide district cooling to multiple duplex-villas in the region of Al-Hamra,
UAE as shown in Figure 4 [18]. The system is optimized based on cooling load requirements of villas.
Energy balance of vapor absorption chiller is calculated as:
𝑄ch = 𝑚̇ac,ch 𝐶p Δ𝑇ac,ch (16)
𝑄gen = 𝑚̇SW 𝐶P,SW Δ𝑇ac,h (17)
𝑄Ch
𝐶𝑂𝑃T = (18)
𝑄gen

where Qch is the chilling capacity of absorption chiller; Qgen is the heat supplied the generator of
absorption chiller; 𝑚̇ac,ch and 𝑚̇𝑆𝑊 are the mass flow rates of chilled water and hot water flowing
through the absorption chiller; ΔTac,ch is the temperature difference of inlet and outlet of chilled-water
circuit and ΔTac,h is the temperature difference between hot water inlet and outlet of the generator.
Energies 2014, 7 6365

Figure 4. Duplex villa in Al hamra.

3.4. Membrane Distillation

In the tri-generation system, membrane distillation module with air-gap configuration is considered
for clean water production. The membrane modules considered for the analysis is manufactured by
Scarab Development AB, Stockholm, Sweden. The hot sea water leaving the generator of the
absorption chiller is supplied to a large number of multi-effect membrane distillation modules
connected in parallel. Technical specifications of membrane distillation module are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Technical specifications of membrane module [16]. Copyright 2011 KTH Royal
Institute of Technology.
No. Specification Value
1 Membrane area 2.8 m2
2 Porosity (ф) 0.8
3 Membrane thickness (b) 0.2 mm
4 Air gap width (L) 1 mm
5 Height of the module 730 mm
6 Width of the module 630 mm
7 Thickness of the module 175 mm

The mass and energy balance of membrane modules are calculated based on experimental equations
developed through series of experiments conducted in Nyköping, Sweden [15]. The mass flow rate of sea
water supplied to hot and cold side is optimally selected as 1200 kg/h based on detailed experimental
campaign [15]. The experimental equations for mass and energy flux are derived in function of porosity,
air gap thickness, membrane thickness and inlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids. These equations
provide better approximations [15,16].
1 (1 − 𝑋c )
𝑀dis = 4.1 × 10−3 × × ln (19)
[𝑏⁄(ϕ × √𝑇MD,H,in )] + ( 𝐿⁄√𝑇MD,C,in ) (1 − 𝑋h )

where Mdis is the mass of distillate produced per hour for unit surface area of the membrane; b is the
thickness of the membrane; L is the air gap distance; Xc and Xh are the mole fraction of water vapor on at
Energies 2014, 7 6366

the condensation and evaporation surfaces; TMD,H,in, TMD,H,out, TMD,C,in and TMD,C,out are the temperature of
hot water inlet, hot water outlet, cold water inlet and cold water outlet of the AGMD:
𝑝𝑖,c
𝑋c = (20)
𝑃
𝑝𝑖,h
𝑋h = (21)
𝑃
12.03−4025
(𝑇 )
𝑝𝑖,c = 𝑒 MD,C,in +235 (22)
12.03−4025
(𝑇 )
𝑝𝑖,h = 𝑒 MD,H,in +235 (23)
where pi,h and pi,c are the partial pressures of the vapor at hot and cold sides; P is the total pressure,
Energy flux (EMD) of the AGMD is calculated by:
1.5 × 10−3 × (𝑇MD,H,in − 𝑇MD,C,in ) (1 − 𝑋c )
𝐸MD = × (1 + 1.41 × ln )
(𝑏⁄(γϕ√𝑇𝑀𝐷,𝐻,𝑖𝑛 )) + (𝐿⁄√𝑇𝑀𝐷,𝐶,𝑖𝑛 ) (1 − 𝑋h )
𝑏⁄(γϕ√𝑇MD,H,in ) (24)
×
(𝑏⁄ϕ√𝑇MD,H,in ) + (𝐿⁄√𝑇MD,C,in )

𝑘membrane
γ= (25)
ϕ × 𝑘air
ϕ is the porosity of the membrane material; kair is the thermal conductivity of air; kmembrane is based
on material type. The useful energy consumed by the membrane distillation is calculated as:
𝑄dis = 𝑀dis (λL ) (26)
where Qdis is the useful energy required for evaporation of vapor; λL is the latent heat of evaporation.

3.5. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is the ratio of useful energy produced by the system to the amount of energy
supplied to the system. In this study, efficiency of gas turbine power plant (existing), combined cycle and
tri-generation (power, cooling and desalination) are individually analyzed:
𝑊GT
ηGT = (27)
𝑚̇f × LHV
𝑊GT + 𝑊ST
η𝐶𝐶 = (28)
𝑚̇f × LHV
𝑊GT + 𝑊ST + 𝑄ch + 𝑄dis
ηTri = (29)
𝑚̇f × LHV
where WGT and WST are the work done by the gas turbine and steam turbine; 𝑚̇f is the mass flow rate
of the fuel; LHV is the lower heating value; Qch is the chilled energy produced in the absorption chiller
and Qdis is the useful energy utilized by membrane distillation unit.
Energies 2014, 7 6367

4. Results and Discussion

Thermodynamic modeling and optimization of complete tri-generation system for cooling,

desalination and hot water is analyzed and discussed in this section.

4.1. Brayton Cycle

The gas turbine cycle is numerically modeled with data and parameters provided by the Al-Hamra gas
turbine power plant [19]. The reheat-brayton cycle operated in the Al-Hamra power plant is optimized to
maintain a constant temperature of 1097 K, at the inlet conditions of both the gas turbines irrespective of
the air intake temperature. The pressure ratio and the rate of air intake at the compressor as well as the
rate of fuel intake in the combustion and reheat chambers were optimized to achieve 1097 K at the inlet
of gas turbines. The mean operational parameters of gas turbine are shown in Table 2. The performance
of brayton cycle is analyzed for varying the air inlet temperatures as shown in Figure 5.

Table 2. Technical specifications of gas turbine power plant.

Description Parameters
Gas turbine model (GE-manufacturer) Model: LM2500 PE, Avio, Italy
Gas turbine inlet temperature 824 °C
Mean intake air temperature 35 °C
Mean exhaust gas flow 64.1 kg/s
Mean exhaust gas temperature 550 °C
Lower Heating Value 47,000 kJ/kg

Figure 5. Performance of gas power cycle for varying inlet temperatures.

Energies 2014, 7 6368

The air intake temperature is an influential factor in augmenting the performance of gas turbine
cycle. Reduction in the air intake temperature can drastically increase the gas turbine power output.
However, on the contrary, reduction in air intake temperature increases the rate of fuel consumption in
order to provide the desired operating temperature at the inlet of gas turbine. The mass of fuel
consumption is derived based on the energy balances at the combustion and reheat chambers. Increase
in fuel consumption has direct impact on the exhaust gas flow rate. The temperature of flue gases
liberated from the gas turbine rises with the increase in air intake temperature. This results in reduction
of pressures ratios with increase in air intake temperature to provide designed gas turbine
inlet temperature.
The annual performance of the gas cycle in term of electricity generation and mass of fuel
consumption is shown in Figure 6. As discussed earlier, the air inlet temperature is the influential
parameter in the performance of the gas cycle. The electrical performance of the gas cycle reduces by
10% in peak summer months. Maximum productivity of 34 MW is achieved in winter months.
Annual variations in the amount of flue gases produced and its temperatures are shown in Figure 6.
In summer, the temperature of flue gases maximizes as the pressure ratio is reduced at higher air intake
temperatures. The mass flow rate of exhaust gases liberated from the gas cycle is reduced in summer
due to reduction in the amount of fuel consumption and rate of air intake.

Figure 6. Annual variations in power production, rate of fuel intake and exhaust gas
parameters in gas cycle.
Energies 2014, 7 6369

4.2. Steam Cycle

In HRSG, outlet conditions of the super-heated steam are optimized based on maximum permissible
temperature and pressure ranges of the steam turbine. HRSG system is simulated for different inlet
conditions of flue gases at feed pressure of 65 bar. Feed water flow rates are optimized for secure
operation of steam cycle. Limiting the temperature of super-heated steam below the maximum
acceptable temperature limit of the steam turbine is considered as the optimization criterion.
Maintaining constant feed water flow rate in the steam cycle allows uniform heat recovery to drive
cooling and desalination cycles throughout the year. Q-T profile of HRSG for the design conditions in
the month of July is shown in Figure 7. HRSG is simulated with a constant approach temperature and
pinch point difference of 10 K. Steam turbine is selected based on design conditions and requirements.
The parameters of the steam turbine are shown in Table 3.

Figure 7. Q-T profile of HRSG in July.

Table 3. Technical specifications of steam turbine [20] (Copyright 2014 Siemens AG).
No. Description Parameters
1 Steam turbine model (Siemens) SST-100
2 Power output 8.5 MW
3 Inlet steam pressure Up to 65 bar
4 Inlet steam temperature Up to 480 °C
5 Condensing pressure 1 bar
6 Exhaust area 0.22 m2

The performance of the steam cycle in the tri-generation system is analyzed for the variations of air
intake temperatures. The system is simulated for different inlet conditions of flue gases as shown in
Figure 8a. The electricity production and stack temperature of flue gases leaving the HRSG are chosen as
Energies 2014, 7 6370

the prime indicative parameters in this study. The electricity production in steam power cycle follows a
similar trend as the gas power cycle. Reduction in the quantity of flue gases at higher air intake
temperature is the major influencing factor for the decreasing trend of power production. Energy balance
in the economizer indicates that the stack temperature decreases with reduction in the mass-flow rate of
flue gases. Annual performance of steam cycle is shown in Figure 8b. The performance of the steam
cycle improves during winter months due to higher mass-flow rate of flue gases.

Figure 8. (a) Performance of steam power cycle for varying inlet temperatures; (b) Annual
performance of steam cycle.

(a) (b)

4.3. Absorption Chiller

In the district cooling network, duplex houses in the Al-Hamra region are considered. Duplex
houses are two identical houses sharing a common wall with a total floor area of 390 m2 (195 m2 for
single house). The cooling load requirement of a duplex house binding the ASHRAE standards is
estimated by modeling and simulating the duplex house in TRNBuilt software. The annual cooling
load distribution (hourly distribution) for maintaining indoor set point temperature of 22 °C is shown
in Figure 9. The building simulation is conducted with occupancy of five persons per building and
infiltration rate of 0.25 ACH. The enlarged peak cooling requirement of a duplex building is shown in
Figure 9. Cooling energy requirements in the summer reach up to 36.5 kW for a duplex house, this
peak cooling requirement is considered as the design condition for the distribution in the district
cooling network. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the chiller varies between 0.75 and 0.69,
as the system is operated with a hot water inlet temperature of 90 °C. The variation in COP is mainly
due to the temperature of cold water supplied to the condenser.
Based on the energy balances of the heat recovery system, the total hot sea water production rate is
determined to be 358 kg/s. This can be used to determine the chilling capacity of the absorption chiller.
As discussed earlier, the peak load requirement is considered as the design parameter for sizing the
distribution network. Performance of the absorption chiller plant during the peak load period with
varying inlet hot water temperatures is shown in Figure 10a. The chilled energy production of the
absorption chiller maximizes at higher temperatures. At the supply temperature of 90 °C, 4621.69 kW
Energies 2014, 7 6371

of chilled energy is produced. It is sufficient to meet the cooling demands of 124 duplex villas as the
peak cooling demand per villa is 36.5 kW with a COP of 0.69. Reduction in the inlet hot water
temperature by 10 °C affects the performance of chiller by 39%; steep decrease in performance of
absorption chiller is observed with reduction in supply temperature. Operation of the absorption chiller
is optimized based on the cooling demand requirements of the building. Month-wise cooling energy
production by the absorption chiller is shown in Figure 10b. The production maximizes in the month
of July as it corresponds to the cooling energy peak demand.

Figure 9. Annual cooling load in a duplex house.

Figure 10. (a) Performance of absorption chiller with varying inlet hot temperature;
(b) Month-wise cooling energy production.

(a) (b)

4.4. Membrane Distillation

Performance of two-stage membrane distillation system is evaluated by varying the temperatures of

hot and cold sides as shown in Figure 10. The system is simulated for hot side temperatures from
60–90 °C and cold side temperatures between 10 °C and 50 °C with an increment of 5 °C as shown in
Energies 2014, 7 6372

Figure 11. The distillate productivity improves with increase in hot side temperature and decrease in
cold side temperature. Maximum distillate productivity of a two-stage system is 41 kg/h with hot side
temperature of 90 °C and cold side temperature of 10 °C.

Figure 11. Distillate production for variation in hot and cold side temperatures.

Based on the energy balance in the heat recovery system, a total of 967 multi-effect membrane
desalination units can be connected in parallel, each unit containing two membrane modules connected
in series. The thermal energy supplied to the membrane distillation plant is optimized based on cooling
energy requirements. Year-round dynamic simulation of two-stage membrane distillation plant is
conducted, productivity is affected by the cold side temperature and cooling energy demands as shown
in Figures 12 and 13. Sea water at ambient temperature is supplied to the cold side of the membrane
distillation system. The productivity of desalination plant reduces gradually with increase in cooling
energy demand and ambient temperature. Productivity of the plant drops by 12% in the summer due to
higher cooling energy demands and cold side temperatures.

Figure 12. Effect of ambient temperature on distillate production.

Energies 2014, 7 6373

Figure 13. Effect of cooling load on distillate production.

4.5. Energy Efficiency

Month-wise energy distribution between different thermal cycles of the tri-generation system is
shown in Figure 14a. Useful energy produced by the tri-generation cycle is reduced in the summer
months due to higher air intake temperature in the gas cycle leading to lesser fuel consumption.
Month-wise energy efficiencies of gas cycle, combined cycle and tri-generation cycle is shown in
Figure 14b. The gas cycle efficiency and combined cycle efficiency reduces in summer months due to
lower power production, while the efficiency of tri-generation cycle increases by 4% during this period
due to full scale operation of absorption chiller plant as shown in Figure 14b.

Figure 14. (a) Month-wise energy distribution; (b) Annual distribution of cycle efficiencies.

(a) (b)

Energy flows during peak load conditions is represented in sankey diagram as shown in Figure 15.
About 25% of waste heat could not be recovered due to sulfur condensation issues, major part of waste
heat is been utilized for production of the fresh water.
Energies 2014, 7 6374

Figure 15. Sankey diagram of energy flows.

Membrane
Distillation (48%)
Waste Heat Waste Heat Recovered
Available 27.78 MW·h (75%) Electricity (25%)

Cooling (17%)
35.517 MW·h
Non-recoverable
heat loss (25%) Losses (10%)

4.6. Emission Analysis

Along with the energy benefits in terms of high thermal efficiencies, the tri-generation system also
has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Normalized emission of CO2 and NOx per MW·h
is reduced by implementing poly-generation cycles. Variations of emissions for all three cycles—gas
cycle, combined power cycle and tri-generation cycle—are shown in Figure 16. The CO2 coefficient
emission per kW·h of electricity production is utilized for determining annual CO2 emissions.
CO2 emission coefficient for UAE is 600 g of CO2 per kW·h of electricity production [21]. Normalized
CO2 emission of tri-generation system reduces by 51.5%, which proves the environmental
sustainability of the system. This reduction in normalized CO2 emission is achieved through total CO2
avoided by driving the tri-generation system using waste heat recovery. In tri-generation scenario,
production has been increased by 51.5% with same amount of fuel usage leading to lower carbon
emission. Along with CO2, other GHG emissions like NOx, SOx emissions were also reduced by
51.5%. In UAE, NOx contribute to 5% of total GHG emissions which leads to normalized production
of 38 g per kW·h [22]. With tri-generation, the NOx emissions are reduced to 18.4 g per kW·h.
Total CO2 and NOx emissions of the existing gas turbine power plant is estimated by:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (30)

Figure 16. Normalized CO2 and NOx emissions.

Energies 2014, 7 6375

4.7. Economic Analysis

Economic benefit of implementing the tri-generation system for the waste heat recovery is
discussed in this section. Lower operating costs are achieved in the tri-generation system as waste heat
is utilized in the complete operation. The cost of individual components and other necessary
parameters are shown in Table 4. Total investment, operation and maintenance costs and annual
benefits are estimated as shown in Table 5.

Table 4. Parameter and costs required for economic analysis.

Component Abbreviation Value
Heat recovery steam generator [23] CHRSG Equation (33)
Steam turbine [23] CST Equation (37)
Heat recovery unit [24] CHRS $2,000/m2
Feed water pump (Steam cycle) [25] CST,PUMP 881Wp0.4
Membrane distillation unit [26] CAGMD $1,375/unit
Membrane replacement cost [24] CMD,R 15% of CAGMD
Feed pump (Heat recovery) [25] CHRS,PUMP 881Wp0.4
Absorption chiller [27] CAC $400/kW
Hydraulics [26] CHYD 5% of component costs
Installation cost [26] CI 5% of component costs
Interest rate i 10%
Life time of the project n 20 years
Cost of electricity CF $0.12/kW·h

Table 5. Economic analysis of tri-generation system.

No. Parameters Values
1 Investment cost $11,079,548
2 Operating and maintenance cost $443,494
3 Annual benefits $9,413,460
4 Payback period 1.38 years
5 Net present value $66,102,281

The cumulative net present value (NPV) and payback period (PB) of the tri-generation system are
evaluated and shown in Table 5. Annual benefits by implementing tri-generation are estimated based
on total annual production of electricity, cooling and freshwater as shown in Table 6. The net present
value for the project is estimated by:
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1
𝑁𝑃𝑉 = −𝐶O + (𝐵 − 𝐶) [ ] (31)
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛

where CO is the total investment cost; B is the annual benefits; C is annual operation and maintenance cost;
i is the interest rate and n is the life time of the project. The payback period of the project is
determined by:
ln(𝐵 − 𝐶) − ln[(𝐵 − 𝐶) − 𝑖𝐶O ]
𝑃𝐵 = (32)
ln(1 + 𝑖)
Energies 2014, 7 6376

The investment of HRSG and steam turbine are determined by [23]:

𝑄 0.8
𝐶HRSG = 4131.8 (𝑓p . 𝑓T,steam . 𝑓T,gas ( ) ) + 13380(𝑓p . 𝑚̇steam ) + 1489.7𝑚̇1.2
gas (33)
Λ𝑇ln
𝑃r
𝑓p = 0.0971 + 0.9029 (34)
30 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑇out,steam − 830
𝑓T,steam = 1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (35)
500
𝑇out,gas − 990
𝑓T,gas = 1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (36)
500
0.7
0.05 3 𝑇in − 866
𝐶ST = 3880.5𝑃ST (1 +( ) ) . (1 + 5𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) (37)
1 − ηST 10.52

where Q is the heat transfer in HRSG; ΛTln is temperature difference across HRSG and Pr is the
pressure of feed water to the HRSG. The total investment of cost (CO) of the project is calculated by:
𝐶O = 𝐶HRSG (𝑃HRSG ) + 𝐶ST (𝑃ST ) + 𝐶HRS (𝐴HRS ) + 𝐶ST,PUMP (𝑃ST,PUMP )
+ 𝐶AGMD (𝑁AGMD ) + 𝐶HRS,PUMP (𝑃HRS,PUMP ) + 𝐶AC (𝑃AC ) + 𝐶HYD (38)

𝑃HRSG , 𝑃ST , 𝑃ST,PUMP and 𝑃HR,PUMP are the total capacity of HRSG, steam turbine and feed pumps
of the steam cycle and the heat recovery system. AHRS is the area of the heat recovery system and
NAGMD is the number of membrane distillation modules. The annual operation and maintenance cost
for tri-generation project includes electricity requirements for the feed pumps and membrane
replacement charges.

Table 6. Annual benefits.

Parameters Value Total benefits
Electricity production $0.12/kW·h $7,289,423.73
Cooling benefits $0.10/kW·h $1,582,854.46
Cooling demand charges $42.3/kW·year $211,500.00
Water production cost $1/m3 $329,681.90

The share of different equipment costs involved in the total investment is shown in Figure 17.
Investment costs of membrane distillation unit and steam turbine account for close to 46% of the total
investment cost.
In terms of current fuel cost in the region, the system has a short payback of 1.38 years and greater
cumulative profit of $66.10 million. Economic analysis with the possibility of changes in electricity
prices is shown in Figure 18. The annual cash flows of the project are simulated with an interest rate of
10% as shown in Figure 19. The cash flow decreases with number of years as the present worth factor
is considered.
Energies 2014, 7 6377

Figure 17. Distribution of investment cost.

Figure 18. Economic analysis for tri-generation system.

Figure 19. Cash flows of tri-generation system.

Energies 2014, 7 6378

5. Conclusions

A tri-generation system based on the integration of power, cooling and desalination thermal cycles
was presented. A detailed numerical case study was developed for the implementation in Al-Hamra area,
Ras Al Khaimah, UAE. The tri-generation system is modeled for maximizing the utilization of waste
heat by driving four thermal cycles based on quality and temperature of thermal energy. The absorption
chiller plant is optimized based on cooling energy requirement of duplex villas in the region. The
simulation results show that energetic efficiency of tri-generation system is maximized by up to 85%
in summer due to lower fuel consumption and full scale operation of absorption chiller. The thermal cycle
performances are largely affected by air intake temperature, but due to the lower cooling requirement
in winter, the overall thermal efficiency reduces with lower air intake temperatures. Other important
conclusions drawn from the project of recovering waste heat from existing power plants are as follows:
 The absorption chiller plant can provide district cooling for 124 duplex houses with a
production capacity of 4600 kW during peak requirements;
 The production capacity of membrane distillation plant varies between 33 and 37 m3/h based
on daily cooling requirements and ambient temperature;
 The normalized CO2 emission per MW·h is reduced to 291 kg/MW·h from an actual scenario
of 600 kg/MW·h by implementation of the waste heat recovery system;
 In terms of economy, the system has a rapid payback period of 1.38 years with a cumulative
saving of $66 million.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Ras Al Khaimah Investment Authority for
their financial support and Al-Hamra gas turbine power plant for the technical cooperation. Special
thanks to KTH Royal Institute of technology, Stockholm for the fruitful cooperation in the project.

Nomenclature

A Area (m2)
AGMD Air gap membrane distillation
B Benefits ($)
CP Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg·K)
CCHP Combined cooling, heat and power
CHP Combined heat and power cycle
E Energy flux (kJ)
NPV Net present value ($)
GHG Greenhouse gases
K Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
LHV Lower heating value
MENA Middle East and North Africa
P Power capacity (kW)
PB Payback period (years)
Energies 2014, 7 6379

Q Heat energy (kJ)

S Entropy (kJ/kg·K)
U Overall heat transfer coefficient
X Mole fraction of water vapor
ACH Air changes per hour
B Membrane thickness (mm)
C Cost ($)
CC Combustion chamber
CCCWP Combined cooling, clean water and power
COP Coefficient of performance
HRSG Heat recovery steam generator
I Interest rate (%)
H Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
L Air gap width (mm)
M Mass flow (kg/h)
𝑚̇ mass flow rate (kg/s)
P Partial pressure of vapor
Pr Pressure (bar)
RH Reheat chamber
T Temperature (°C)
VAC Vapor absorption chiller

Greek Letters

∆T Change in temperature
λL Latent heat of evaporation
Γ Specific heat ratio
Ф Porosity
Η Efficiency

Subscripts

A Air
C Cold side
Ch Chilled water
F Fuel
Gen Generator
H Hot side
LMTD Logarithmic mean temperature difference
RH Reheat chamber
ST Steam turbine
T Thermal
Ac Absorption chiller
Energies 2014, 7 6380

Cc Combustion chamber
Dis Distillate
G Gas
GT Gas turbine
HRS Heat recovery system
MD Membrane distillation
Stack Stack temperature
SW Seawater
Tri Tri-generation

Author Contributions

All the authors contributed in different ways during progress of the research work.
Gowtham Mohan designed and simulated the waste heat recovery system with guidance of
Sujata Dahal and Uday kumar. Sujata dahal developed the numerical codes for membrane distiller
models. Andrew Martin verified the results and manuscript. Hamid kayal involved in verification of
economics and managed the resources.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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