Ptolemy’s Epicycles

• They worked pretty well…

 Claudius Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model – 100A.D
• Accepted for the next ≈1200 years
• What changed?
 Enter Copernicus!
•Developed the heliocentric model
• Though it still had flaws. What were they?

1473 –1543 AD
 Copernican Model Flaws
• Sun was center of the universe
• Used circular orbits
• Used epicycles
• Fixed stars on immovable sphere
• Was it a good model?
 Copernican Model – Good?
• Yes. He didn’t have a telescope!
•We achieved lots without them!
 Side Note: Old Astronomy Tools
• Utilized Angular Diameter
•We’ll look at the methods soon…

Sextant Armillary Sphere Quadrant Triquetrum

Ancient Observer: Aristarchus of Samos
• Copernicus: not the first to propose heliocentric model
• Aristarchus: 1800 years earlier
• Discussed ‘central fire’ of the Sun

310 – 230 BC
 A Strange man from Denmark…
• Tycho Brahe: known for accurate planetary logs
• Last notable naked-eye astronomer

1546 - 1601 AD
 A Strange man from Denmark…
• Had a great castle observatory on the island of Hven
• Lost nose in sword fight!
• Kidnapped aged two by uncle!

1546 - 1601 AD
 Brahe’s Tychonic System
• Combined Copernican (mathematical) and Ptolemaic (philosophical) systems
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6laRU_BzhvU
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
• Describe the main points of the Tychonic system. Where was it
correct/wrong? Is it an accurate model for the time? (8 marks)
 Possible Points for an Answer
• Geocentric (1) Earth at centre of universe (1)
• Moon orbits earth (1) Sun orbits Earth (1)
• But five naked-eye planets orbit sun (1)
• Fixed stars on rotating sphere, around Earth (1)
• All bodies with circular orbits (1)
• Accurate for the time, no telescopes (1)
• Not correct, not heliocentric (1) misses planets (1)
• Orbits are elliptical (1) Additional points (1)
 Brahe’s Tychonic System
• Geocentric
• Moon orbits Earth
• Sun orbits Earth
• But Five naked-eye planets orbit sun
• Circular orbits
• Fixed stars on rotating spheres
 The Current Heliocentric Model
• Who is to thank for correcting the orbit and epicycle mess?
 Johannes Kepler
• Developed three laws to refine heliocentric model
• Changed the circular orbit/epicycle parts of Copernicus’ theory
•

1571 – 1630 AD
 Johannes Kepler
• Published Mysterium Cosmographicum - 1596
• Defended Copernicun model
•

1571 – 1630 AD
 Kepler, Mars and Brahe
• Kepler became Brahe’s assistant in 1600 (in Modern day Prague)
• Tasked with helping prove the Tychonic model
• They didn’t get along well…
 Kepler vs Brahe
• Kepler thought the Tychonic model was silly
• Brahe was bossy and hid his accurate data
• But Brahe died in 1601… (poisoned?)
 Kepler
• Ditched Tychonic model in favour of Copernican
• Studied of Mars specifically. Separated Mars motion from Earth’s
• …Because he used Tycho Brahe’s accurate astronomical data
 Kepler’s First Law
• “Planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse”
 The Scientific Method
• First man to propose elliptical orbits
• Circular orbits did not match experimental observations.
 Further Experiments of Kepler (1)
• Plotted position of planets on their orbits, at number different times.
• Drew line from Sun to planet at given time. Repeated month later for planet’s new position
• Produced wedge-shaped area
 Further Experiments of Kepler (2)
• Procedure repeated when planet is on different part of orbit (for the same change in time)
• Another wedge-shaped area produced.
• He made an observation: What was it?
 Kepler’s Second Law
• The areas of the segment moved in a given time are always equal
• This lead to his second law:
 Kepler’s Second Law
◦ “The orbital speed of a planet changes, so that a line joining the Sun and
the planet will sweep out an equal amount of area in an equal amount of
time”
 Kepler’s Second Law – Put Simply
◦ A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times
◦ Planets move faster when closer to the Sun, and slower when further
 The Scientific Method – Part Two
• First man to propose planets change speed in orbit
• Constant speed orbits did not match experimental observations.
 Kepler’s First Two Laws
• Published in Astronomia Nova in 1609
• Hypothesised that planets moved due to ‘mystery force’ from Sun
 Kepler’s ‘Mystery Force’
• Later supported by Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)
• Coming soon (other events came first)
 Telescopes
• Kepler didn’t use a telescope until 1611 (disputed)
• Who invented the telescope?
 Not Galileo
• …But used them and increased magnification x30
• It was someone in the Netherlands (≈ 1608)
• Pointed one at Jupiter - 1610. Saw ‘three little stars’

1564 – 1642 AD
 Galileo – Telescope Observations
• Noticed a fourth a week later
• Noticed they orbited Jupiter
• What’s to conclude?

1564 – 1642 AD
 Galilean Moons
•Not everything revolves around the Earth
•Further support for Copernican heliocentric model
 Moon Questions – Group Task
• How do you clearly define a moon?
 Moon Definition
•A celestial body that orbits a planet/dwarf planet
•A natural satellite
•Orbits a body which orbits a star
 Moon Definition
• Any problems with these guidelines?
 Moon Definition – Problems
• Asteroids/Non-dwarf planets can have moons
• Moons can have moons! (moonmoons!)
• Mercury and Venus = no moons
 Moonmoons
• One could orbit our moon. Size = skyscraper
• Four moons in solar system could host:
• Earth's, Jupiter's Calisto, and two of Saturn's
 Jupiter’s Moons
• Current accepted estimate ≈ up to 79! (Saturn ≈ 62)
• Could be millions/billions in solar system depending on definition
 Moon consistency
• Ours is rocky/crater
• Some are geologically active!
 Moon Size
• Titan is bigger than Mercury and Pluto (A planet and dwarf planet)
• Many of Jupiter’s moons are tiny (≈ 2km)
• Pluto and Charon (the moon is half the size of Pluto!!)
 Moon Definition Problems
• Mercury and Venus don’t even have moons
• But Ida (a 19-mile asteroid) has one!
• Some are rocky, others aren’t
 Exam Question
Define what a moon is. Explain why this definition has problems
and can be ambiguous (6 marks)
 Example answer
A natural satellite (1) which orbits a celestial body that orbits a star/the sun (1) It could
orbit a planet, dwarf planet or asteroid (2) No agreed minimum size or shape (1) Could be
millions in the solar system (1) Can be geologically active or rocky (1) Some moons are
bigger than planets and dwarf planets (1) Some tiny celestial bodies can have moons (1)
while Mercury and Venus don’t even have one (1) Can be massive or tiny compared to the
body it’s orbiting (1)
 Exam Question
Define Pluto and Charon as celestial bodies. Explain why these
definitions are ambiguous (5 marks)
 Example Answer
Pluto is a dwarf planet (1) It passes the first two IAU guidelines for a planet (1)
Charon is a moon (1) since it does not directly orbit the sun (1) However, it is big
enough to be classified as a dwarf planet if Pluto wasn’t there (1) Charon orbits
Pluto (1) but actually the centre of mass falls outside Pluto (1) hence it could be
argued it’s a system of orbit, rather than one orbiting the other one (1)
 Big Moons
• Titan, Ganymede, the Earth’s moon, Charon (and more) are big
• Big enough to be dwarf planets
• But they aren’t. Why?
 Big Moons
• They orbit other bodies (Charon gets complicated)
 Side Note One: Io
• Most geologically active object in solar system (and least water!)
• 400 active volcanoes
• Source: Pioneer, Voyager and Galileo space probes 1973-2002)
 Side Note Two: Voyager I Probe
• Launched: September 5th, 1977 for Jupiter/Saturn flyby
• Still out there now! (Instruments will shut down ≈ 2025)
• NASA’s message to aliens: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVe72eMY_pk
Side Note Three: Voyager - Sense of Scale
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhb43EbnvpI
 Side Note Three: Edge of Solar System
• Where is it?
 Side Note Three: Edge of Solar System
• Hard to define/measure:
• Where sun’s light ‘ends’?
• Gravitational influence ends?
• Mark location of furthest orbiting object?
 Side Note Three: Edge of Solar System
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjoKQWJFPQ8
• 00:00 – 01:50