1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ROLE OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are static devices used practically in every sector of

electrical industry. Unseen and unnoticed, they make their contributions to the
welfare of human beings. Without capacitors we have no electronic wonders.
Capacitor has no moving parts and thus has a long life. It consists of two
electrodes either in foil or metallized form and a dielectric in between. In
certain designs, the capacitors are impregnated. Capacitors for commercial
installation came into being about 70 years ago when their principal use was
on telegraph and telephone circuits, operating on low voltages. Initially rag
based paper dielectric was used with tin foil electrodes with wax as the
impregnant. Later on, wax was replaced by mineral oils and the tin foils by
aluminium foils. The emergence of metallized technology in the 1970’s had
increased the energy density of capacitors (Hua et al 2008).

In the power sector, with the ever increasing demand for electrical
power, transmission losses have increased. Hence, to reduce the transmission
losses and to improve the power factor and the stability of the electrical power
system, capacitors are installed at specific nodal points in the distribution
networks. Apart from this, capacitors find their applications in motor start /
run, surge protection, direct current smoothening, commutation of
semiconductor devices, general purpose by-passing, electrical noise
suppression, impulse generation, voltage dividers, communication networks,
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line couplings, testing of switch gears, surge generators and pulse forming
networks.

Capacitors allow electrical energy to be stored over a long charging

time and then released as required during shorter periods. The insulating
media between the capacitor plates depend on the type of capacitor under
consideration and may be gas, air or organic films. Widely used films are
Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), Polyester (PET), Polyphenylene sulfide
(PPS) and Polypropylene (PP).

Many aspects are to be considered while designing the capacitors

and selecting the materials (Sarjeant 1990) and some of them are dissipation
factor, allowable limits of capacitance variation, insulation resistance,
temperature coefficient of capacitance, physical dimensions, methods of
connecting terminals, allowable temperature variation under service,
operating voltage, operating frequency, duty cycle under operation, wave
shape, vibration levels under energized condition and life expectancy.

1.2 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

In general, there are two types of capacitors, namely polarized

capacitors and non-polarized capacitors. In polarized capacitors, the insulating
media possess permanent dipole moment which is randomly oriented. The
external field tends to exert a torque on each dipole and tries to orient it in the
direction of the field (Sarjeant 1990). For the polar medium, the polarization
per unit volume due to permanent dipoles P per is given by equation (1.1),

P per = E (1.1)

where is the susceptibility due to permanent dipoles and E is the applied

voltage.
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In the case of non polarized capacitors, the insulating media does

not possess any permanent dipole moment. The external electric field tends to
attract the electron cloud towards the positive plate in the capacitor resulting
in induced polarization. For the non polar medium, the polarization per unit
volume due to induced dipoles Pind is given by equation (1.2),

P ind = E (1.2)

where is the susceptibility due to induced dipoles and E is the applied

voltage. The subdivisions of polarized and non polarized capacitors are shown
in Figure 1.1 below.

Figure 1.1 Classification of Capacitors

Based on the construction, film capacitors are further divided into

two groups, namely, foil/film capacitors and metallized film capacitors.

In foil/film construction, thin foils of aluminium are placed on both

sides of the dielectric film and rolled. The advantages of foil/film construction
are an easy and robust connection, lower contact resistance in the area of
schoopage and higher surge-current rating.
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However, the metal foil construction of film capacitor does not

possess the self-healing property and also a breakdown in the dielectric film
leads to a short circuit causing irreversible damage to the capacitor. Dielectric
thickness of less than 4 µm is not used for film/foil capacitors and metallic
foils cannot be produced below the thickness of 25 µm. Film/foil
construction is very expensive. .

In metallized capacitors, a thin electrode of zinc or aluminium of a

few tens of nanometer is evaporated under vacuum condition over the
dielectric film. Two such metallized films are co-wound to make a metallized
capacitor. The advantages of metallized capacitors are lower
dielectric/electrode thickness, possessing the self healing property and also
they are less expensive. Some of the demerits are degradation due to the
erosion/corrosion of the thin electrode, end contact degradation/disconnection
and catastrophic failure due to successive failures of self healing.

Among the metallized film capacitors, Metallized Polypropylene

Film (MPPF) capacitors are used in a wide range of power and electronic
circuit applications because of their higher volumetric density, low cost and
excellent frequency characteristics. Based on the impregnants used, the MPPF
capacitors are further divided into three categories, namely,

Oil impregnated self healing capacitors

Gas impregnated self healing capacitors

Molded self healing capacitors

The advantages of an impregnated system are filling up of voids in

the dielectric by the impregnant, increased permittivity, reduction in partial
discharge, dissolving of the gas generated in the system, improved heat
conduction and better resistance to corrosion.
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1.2.1 Oil Impregnated Self Healing Capacitors

Mineral oil is normally used for the impregnation of capacitors. The

drawbacks of an oil impregnated system are contraction/expansion of
dielectric film, cracking of metallization due to expansion/contraction,
increase in the electrode resistance due to expansion/contraction of film,
leakage of oil and corrosion of electrode resulting from impurities in the oil.

1.2.2 Gas Filled Self Healing Capacitors

The gas filled type was developed to meet the need for non
combustible capacitors. In gas filled capacitors, metallized film elements are
sealed in a container filled with sulpher hexa fluoride (SF6) gas. The partial
discharge inception voltage of the gas filled capacitor is higher compared to
the oil filled capacitors. Polypropylene film is suitable for oil impregnated and
gas filled self healing capacitors. Gas filled self healing capacitors are
intended for high capacity applications.

1.2.3 Molded Self Healing Capacitors

Molded self healing capacitors are used for high voltage coupling
applications. For the coupling capacitors, polypropylene film is used as the
dielectric because of its higher resistance to heat during the process of
metallization or metal spraying. A molded capacitor is advantageous to fit the
shape of the coupling capacitor to the equipment to which it is connected. To
ensure that the molded structure is crack-free in service, internal stress
calculations are made at the design stage and cracking resistance tests are
performed on the product samples.
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1.3 MPPF CAPACITORS

1.3.1 Construction and Manufacturing Process of MPPF Capacitors

Figure 1.2 shows the constructional details of MPPF capacitor

(El-Husseini et al 2002). Several stages are involved in the manufacturing of
MPPF capacitors. Film stretching is the initial process. To increase the
capacitance value, bi-axial stretching of the polypropylene film is carried out.

Figure 1.2 Construction of MPPF capacitor

Through the extrusion process, the film is drawn in both transverse

and longitudinal directions, as thin as possible practically. The thickness of
polypropylene film is in the range of microns. After the stretching process is
over, metallization is done during the process of which thin metal is coated
over the polypropylene dielectric.

Under high vacuum conditions, using a suitable evaporation

system, aluminium or zinc is evaporated onto the polypropylene film. The
evaporation is done at the rate of about 1015 to 1019 molecules per cubic
meter. By prohibiting the evaporation, a clear margin is provided for a few
mm on one edge of the film. After metallization, the winding process is
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carried out. Two metallized polypropylene films are rolled together into a
cylindrical winding over an insulating mandrel. The two metallized films that
make up a capacitor have clear margins of a few mm (i.e. unmetallized area)
at opposite ends.

The two lateral ends of the wound capacitor are sprayed with
liquefied zinc. The terminals of the capacitor are soldered on the end metal
contact layers of the schoopage. After making the terminal connections, the
wound elements are placed in cases and filled with epoxy resins. The
capacitors thus made are stressed with 1.25 times the rated voltage, in order to
burn away any existing defects. This process is known as pre-clearing.
Finally, all the capacitors are tested for the values of capacitance and
dissipation factor.

In a typical capacitor, the width of the clear margin is about 2.5

mm. The clear edge helps to prevent simultaneous connection of other strips
to the same end. During the winding process the strips may also be further
staggered in the axial direction by a few millimeters.

The capacitance of a wound capacitor is given by equation (1.3),

C= (1.3)

where is the permittivity of air, is the relative permittivity of

polypropylene which is 2.2, L and W are the length and width of the film
respectively and d is the thickness of the dielectric. The factor 2 arises
because of rolling of two metallized polypropylene films.

At the contact edge (opposite side of the clear edge) the aluminum
coating is made thicker in order to have a heavy edge which provides a robust
contact with higher conductivity for external connections. The surface
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resistivity of metallization is typically in the range of 2 to 10 ohms per square

and at the heavy edge the surface resistivity is one third of the electrode
resistivity.

Figure 1.3(a) Photograph of a wound element

Figure 1.3(a) shows the photograph of a wound element of MPPF

capacitor and Figure 1.3(b) shows the wound element with sprayed ends and
terminal connections. External connections are made to schooping ends by
soldering the wires. To reduce the net inductance value, one of the wires is
taken through the mandrel. Figure 1.4 shows the schematic view of MPPF
capacitor.

Figure 1.3(b) Photograph of a sprayed element

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Figure 1.4 Schematic view of MPPF capacitor

1.3.2 Polypropylene Film

In 1954 Propylene was first polymerized to a crystalline form by

Giulio Natta and Karl Rehn. This revolutionary discovery led to a large-scale
commercial production of polypropylene by Montecatinian, Italian firm since
1957. Figure 1.5(a) shows the polymer chain of the polypropylene film.
Figure 1.5(b) shows the micrograph of the polypropylene film.

Figure 1.5(a) Polymer chain of Polypropylene

Figure 1.5(b) Micrograph of polypropylene film (Courtesy – Guadagno

et al 2009)
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Polypropylene films are widely used as dielectrics because of their

excellent electrical and physical properties (Wakino et al 1990). Some of the
advantages of polypropylene are its low cost, easy availability, good
mechanical characteristics, good frequency characteristics, low dielectric
losses and high surface energy.

Polypropylene chain molecules are non polar and the dipoles are
oriented under the effect of electric field. It has the highest breakdown voltage
compared to the other film materials. The typical energy density achievable
with a polypropylene film at room temperature is 4 J/cm3. Table 1.1 compares
the film characteristics of PET, PEN, PPS and PP.

Table 1.1 Properties of various films used as dielectric

Film Characteristics PET PEN PPS PP

Relative permittivity at 1kHz 3.3 3 3 2.2
Minimum film thickness ( ) 0.7 0.9 1.2 2.4
Moisture absorption (%) Low 0.4 0.05 <0.1
Dielectric strength (V/ ) 580 500 470 650
Minimum temperature -55 -55 -55 -55
Maximum temperature 125 150 150 105
Dissipation factor at 1 kHz (×10-4) 50-200 42-80 2-15 0.5-5

Polymer chemistry is an important aspect in determining the

suitability of the self healing metallized capacitor system. Polymer structures
rich in oxygen clear better than those without oxygen. In materials with
oxygen deficiency, graphite is formed due to the decomposition of polymer
during the breakdown arc which produces conductive shorts leading to
catastrophic failures.
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The orientation changes occurring due to applied stress are another

vital factor in the breakdown event. Polymers with highly polar molecules
have a great orientation even at a low voltage level. The greater the
orientation of the molecules, the greater the graphite residues which
accumulate at the weak location during the self clearings resulting in a major
failure.

As the polypropylene material is non polar in nature, the molecules

clear as soon as the breakdown voltage of the weak spots is reached. During a
clearing of the weak spot, there is a loss of energy in the capacitor. With a
better selection of voltage, capacitance, resistivity and inter layer pressure, it
is possible to manufacture capacitors with very low discharge energy having a
limited decrease of capacitance during the capacitor’s life.

When exposed to heat and ultraviolet radiation, polypropylene is

liable to chain degradation. Oxidation usually occurs at the tertiary carbon
atom present in every repeat unit. A free radical is formed and reacts further
with oxygen, followed by chain scission to yield aldehydes and carboxylic
acids. In external applications, it shows up as a network of fine cracks that
become deeper and more severe with the time of exposure.

Failure of the polypropylene dielectric takes place in different

ways, namely, intrinsic failure, streamer failure, electromechanical failure,
electro chemical failure and failure due to partial discharges.

1.3.3 Metallization

Prior to metallization, the surface treatment of polypropylene film

is done to improve the adhesion of the metal. The surface treatment also helps
to improve the breakdown performance. The use of the air corona is a
standard method for the non-polar polymer polypropylene to which aluminum
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does not normally adhere readily. The heat treatment of films is a standard
practice carried out to avoid wrinkles during the metallization process and
thereafter in the service.

A very thin layer of metal, in the range of a few nanometers is

deposited on the polypropylene film by vacuum metallization (Park et al
1997). Aluminum is prone to electrochemical corrosion and hence, zinc is
usually co-deposited along with aluminium during the process of
metallization. The adhesion quality of zinc on polypropylene is poor and
hence zinc deposition is made after depositing the aluminium interlayer.
However, the resistivity of zinc is higher than that of aluminium and hence it
requires a thicker layer of deposition (Lacky & Donald 1992). Thicker layers
of metallization in turn affect the reliability of self healing which is a unique
feature of metallized capacitors. Metallization is done over the dielectric film,
in different forms; they are:

Constant thickness metallization

Mosaic pattern metallization

Shape optimized metallization

Double sided metallization

1.3.3.1 Constant thickness metallization

In the case of the constant thickness metallization, the electrode

metallization is provided by a uniform thickness over the dielectric film. The
thickness of metal is in the range of 10 to 50 nm. The accepted upper limit of
the metal film resistivity is around 10 ohms per square as per industry
standards. The resistivity of metallization is to be made not lower than 2 ohms
per square for achieving a reliable self healing.
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The current is distributed linearly along the width (W) of the

electrode and it is maximum near the contact edge (z = W) and minimum
near the clear margin (z = 0). Considering the constant metal thickness
expressed in terms of ohm/square, it is possible to express the dissipated
power, P in the metal film as,

P=

P=
/
= .
.

where i is the capacitor current and ohm/square is the electrode resistance per
unit square. The above equation allows the calculation of the equivalent
electrode resistance as given in equation (1.4),

/
R= = (1.4)

1.3.3.2 Mosaic pattern metallization

To improve the reliability of a capacitor of large capacitance,

electrodes are designed with pattern-metallization. Patterned electrodes help
to extinguish fault current easily. The patterned electrode films are also
known as safety films. Different types of safety films are available in the
market. Diamond, exotic and T-patterns are some of the commonly used
safety films (Horowith & Hill 1989).

Figure 1.6 shows the diamond shaped pattern metallization of the

safety film capacitor. The metallic film is divided into a mosaic of squares.
They are provided with thin connections to each other and to schooping.
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Figure 1.6 Mosaic pattern metallization (Diamond shape)

The thin narrow links provided between each segment act as fuses.
The parts of the metallization that have become shorted are isolated by the
fuses. When breakdown occurs in a particular segment, charges around the
segment flow to the failed segment. This results in high current and large heat
which melts the connecting fuses between the healthy and ill segments,
isolating the failure region. The advantages of pattern-metallization are:

Prevention of total destruction of the capacitor

Minimum loss of capacitance

Providing second protection to the capacitor

Though the application of a mosaic pattern film is beneficial in

many aspects, the unreliability of the fusing process and manufacturing
difficulties are their major draw backs.

1.3.3.3 Shape optimized metallization

The shape optimized electrode is one in which the electrode

thickness is varied along the width of the film capacitor. Figure 1.7 shows the
schematic view of the capacitor with the shape optimized electrode. The
equivalent electrode resistance for variable ohms/square (along the width) is
expressed as given in equation (1.5),
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Re = / (z) z2 dz (1.5)

where z is the distance from the clear margin. It is possible to select the
function ohm/square(z) in order to get low losses without reducing the voltage
stress.

Figure 1.7 Capacitor with shape optimized electrode

1.3.3.4 Double sided metallization

Another technique used to increase the surge current rating for film
capacitors is a double-sided metallization. Figure 1.8 shows the schematic
representation of a capacitor with double sided metallization. The advantages
of double sided metallization are increased peak current rating, halving the
total self-inductance of the capacitor (because in effect, two inductors are
connected in parallel), less-unimpeded passage of faster pulses and higher
surge current handling capability.
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Figure 1.8 Schematic view of capacitor with double sided metallization

1.4 SELF HEALING OF MPPF CAPACITORS

The metallized technology has highly improved the energy density

of capacitors. In case of breakdown of the dielectric, the thin electrode
around the defective region is rapidly evaporated due to the flow of a large
fault current through the faulty region (Picci & Rabuffi 2002). In the
following sections, the phenomenon of self healing and the parameters
affecting the clearing energy during self healing are briefed.

1.4.1 Phenomenon of Self Healing

The various stages involved in the process of self healing (Reed &
cichinowski 1994) are

Defects such as pin holes, embedded foreign particles or even

micro flaws in the semi crystalline polypropylene lead to a
localized breakdown of the film.

Such a breakdown event results in a discharge of a portion of

the stored charge with a consequent localized high
temperature and pressure build up.

At the same time, polypropylene dielectric gets punctured.

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Thin aluminum layer at the defect site is rapidly vaporized

and driven outwards from the breakdown site.

Breakdown arc is interrupted and the site becomes

electrically isolated.

The flaws are decomposed in the series of rapidly occurring

events and large scale damage and failure of the capacitor are
prevented.

The capacitors can now operate at even a higher voltage

level.

A schematic view of the cross section of a metallized film as it

undergoes a clearing event is shown in figure1.9. Figure 1.10 shows the SEM
image of the self healed film.

Figure 1.9 Self healing process (a) Dielectric film with defect
(b) Puncture of the dielectric film (c) Evaporation of
electrode and isolation of defective site
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Aluminium metallization
Cleared area
Pin hole in polypropylene

Figure 1.10 SEM image of self healed film(Courtesy – Brown 2007a)

1.4.2 Parameters Affecting Clearing Energy

The clearing energy is a function of both the applied voltage and

the thickness of the electrode (Shaw et al 1981). The clearing energy is given
by equation (1.6),

e C t1.8 E4.7 (1.6)

where E is the applied voltage, t is the thickness of the electrode and C is the
capacitance. The loss of energy per discharge in the capacitor generally has a
fifth power dependence of the applied voltage. At a given voltage, the
discharge energy depends linearly on capacitance. The safety film technology
helps the capacitor to improve its self healing properties to isolate a defective
area from its neighbours, thus clearing the faults. In this way, the capacitor
can tolerate many clearings, each one with low discharge energies. If the
metallization is made as thin as possible (from 5 to 200 ohms/square), it is
possible to increase the film’s dielectric strength and consequently the voltage
breakdown (usual industrial standard of metallization is 1 to 10 ohms/square).
But the disadvantage of using a film with high electrode resistivity is the
increase of the equivalent series resistance.
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Another important parameter to be considered is the mechanical

pressure on the individual layers of the capacitor. It is difficult to maintain a
fixed pressure on all the layers. All elastic films add compressive radial forces
to every wound wrap. The clearing energy is dependent upon the applied
total mechanical pressure. A high pressure on the film layer increases the risk
of a short circuit, because the discharge energy is completely absorbed by the
dielectric, causing a thermal damage in successive layers.

Capacitance is another important parameter determining the self

healing capability of capacitor. A large capacitance means a higher storage
energy which makes the self healing process difficult to accomplish. In the
case of very large self healing currents, it will be difficult to extinguish the
fault current. In metallized film capacitors, clearing is deliberately carried out
by the manufactures which is referred to as pre clearing. In service, clearing
may occur due to the presence of small flaws that did not clear during pre-
clearing which is referred to as secondary clearing.

1.5 MODES OF FAILURE IN MPPF CAPACITORS

1.5.1 Chronological Definition of Failures

Failures of MPPF capacitors are chronologically classified under

three broad categories, namely, early, random and aging failure. These failure
modes are depicted using the bath tub curve as shown in
Figure 1.11.

Early failure occurs during the first year of energization and is

usually caused by intrinsic defects due to poor materials, workmanship or
processing procedures, quality control and installation problems. The failure
during the first year is less than 0.5%. During the early failure period the rate
of failure decreases with time.
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Failure rate (%)

1 Life time (years) 20
Early Random failure Wear out
failure period failure
period period

Figure 1.11 Failure modes

Random failures are due to operating conditions, such as a failure

from switching surges or lightning. The rate of failure in this kind is very less.
During the random failure period the failure rate is around 0.2%. Wear out
failures are due to the wear out of the dielectric or electrode. This mode of
failure occurs after many years of operation. During the wear out failure
period, the failure rate increases with time.

1.5.2 Major Causes of Failure of MPPF Capacitors

Failures in MPPF capacitors are broadly classified as follows

(Brown 2007a):

i) Soft failure - Gradual reduction in capacitance without

obvious outward signs of degradation

ii) Disconnection failure – Destruction of electrical continuity

at the sprayed edges of the capacitor

The major cause for both soft and disconnection failures is the
partial discharge in the dielectric/sprayed ends. The direct degradation of the
polymer film under the influence of high electric stress is due to partial
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discharge. The deteriorating influence of partial discharge on polymer

surfaces has been studied extensively for decades. Any void (between the
electrode and insulation or formed internal to the insulation) is apt to yield
localized discharges under high electrical stress. The effect of partial
discharges on the life of insulation is well recognized and manufacturers
make intense efforts to eliminate their occurrence during normal conditions.
Discharges cause erosion, tracking and decomposition of the localized area,
setting the stage for a looming electrical breakdown.

1.5.2.1 Soft failure

Reduction in the capacitance is mostly caused by the erosion of the

electrode surface. In practice it is found that after the capacitor loses about
5% of its initial value of capacitance, the reduction in the capacitance
accelerates rapidly when stressed further. Hence, 5% of capacitance loss has
been chosen as the failure criterion for MPPF capacitors. Causes of electrode
erosion are self clearing due to defects in the dielectric, atmospheric corrosion
and electrochemical corrosion.

Any defect in the dielectric such as pin holes leads to the flow of a
heavy fault current and enormous heat resulting in the evaporation of the
electrode. This leads to the reduction in the effective plate area and in turn the
net capacitance.

Atmospheric corrosion is caused by the presence of water. The

corrosion phenomenon progresses usually from the ends of the capacitor in an
axial direction towards the middle. Water can easily penetrate into the outer
layers because the inter layer pressure of the outer layers is much lesser
compared to that of the inner layers. Atmospheric corrosion reduces the life of
a capacitor by 1% per day. Figure 1.12 shows the effect of atmospheric
corrosion in MPP film. Though water is prevented, water vapour penetrates
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into the epoxies, defeating the purpose of encapsulation. The corrosion of the
metal changes the direction of current flow resulting in an increased
equivalent series resistance and dissipation factor. The capacitor is forced to
have very poor high frequency response.

Figure 1.12 Photograph of an electrode with atmospheric corrosion

(Courtesy – Brinkman 1986)

Electrochemical corrosion is unique to aluminium film capacitors

and it produces circular holes whose diameter increases with time. The
aluminium in the holes is converted into Al 2O3 which is non conducting.
Under the processes of electrochemical corrosion, no damage is caused to the
polypropylene film. The application of ac voltage and concentration of the
electric field lead to electrochemical corrosion. Minute holes or sharp edges in
the metallized film cause the concentration of the electric field. At the edges
of the holes, a chemical reaction is initiated by sequential positive and
negative polarities. Figure 1.13 shows the circular holes caused by
electrochemical corrosion.

The electrochemical corrosion takes place around 3.5 kHz and does
not occur above 10 kHz. In case of DC, there is no electro chemical corrosion
at all. The generation of holes due to electrochemical corrosion increases the
ESR and reduces the overall capacitance of the capacitor.
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Figure 1.13 Photograph of electrochemical corrosion (Courtesy –

Brinkman 1986)

Zinc does not undergo electro-chemical corrosion and hence zinc is

co-deposited with aluminium to prevent electrochemical corrosion. The
problems that are faced while using zinc as an electrode are:

It is more susceptible to atmospheric corrosion

It has lower conductivity than aluminium

It requires thicker metallization, resulting in poor self healing

properties.

In some cases, the metal film is over-coated with acrylic to partially

prevent corrosion. Polypropylene has significant moisture present in its
surface and hence, the over-coating of the metallic film with acrylic cannot
totally prevent the corrosion.

1.5.2.2 Edge disconnection failure

Though the metallized capacitors can be operated in the range of

70% of the film’s dielectric strength and this technology provides great
volumetric energy density among high voltage capacitor technologies, the
primary limitation of this technology is the failure of the end connections at
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high discharge currents. The most frequent cause of MPPF capacitor failures
are the total disconnection of sprayed ends. Such an event rarely occurs in ac
steady state conditions, but it happens frequently in transient state conditions.
In the case of capacitors employed in automatic power factor correction, the
inrush current due to frequent switching operations results in the detaching of
the ends. Similar effects occur in impulsive conditions also.

Edge disconnection occurs due to thermal stresses, spark erosion or

electrodynamic forces. Progressive electro thermal failure of the contact spots
usually causes end connection failure. Partial disconnection has negative
consequences on the performance of the MPPF capacitors. Literature says that
the partial edge disconnection of MPPF capacitors causes increased
equivalent series resistance (ESR) and dissipation factor (DF). Normally,
three types of stresses act on the electrode edge contacts which initiate the
edge disconnections, namely electrical, thermal and mechanical stresses.

Under the influence of applied high pulse voltage, a series of

discharges occur at the sprayed ends of capacitors which lead to the
development of gas. The electric field intensity near the edges of the electrode
is much larger than the average value, because of the uneven distribution of
the electric field. Thus it gives rise to the higher possibility of partial
discharges at the end edge contact regions which leads to the degradation of
contacts by means of discharges and the expansion of the gas.

A large pulse current will flow through the electrode edge when the
capacitor is discharged. The temperature of the metal film near the end edge
rises due to the existence of the end edge contact resistance. When the
temperature increase reaches 30°C, the polypropylene film may shrink and
thus give rise to the degradation of the contact and the contact resistance may
increase. The temperature further rises resulting from the increase in the
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contact resistance, forming a positive feedback. In extreme conditions, the

sprayed ends get detached from the electrode edges completely.

The electrodynamic force between the sprayed end and the

electrode edges results in a mechanical stress on the end edge contact.
Theoretically, the resulting force results in strains that cause detachment of
the sprayed ends from the electrode edges. Another mechanical stress
originates from the gas development due to partial discharge. It is very
difficult to calculate these forces due to the irregular distribution of the
current along the different electrode layers. During switching transients,
when extremely high current peaks are generated, the elements of the
capacitors are subjected to mechanical stresses resulting in heavy
deformations. The electrode at the sprayed end contacts acts as a fixed joint
and tends to resist these deformations and hence, these contacts are subjected
to mechanical stresses that could damage the joints. If the mechanical stress is
high enough to produce large deformation, it may lead to a weakening of the
electrical contact between the electrode and the sprayed ends, thus giving rise
to an increased value of dissipation factor, equivalent series resistance and
inductance of the capacitor. The degradation level of the end edge contact
was found to be related to the peak voltage of the applied current pulses rather
than to their energy content. For numerous industrial applications of the
metallized film capacitor, there has been a fundamental need to improve their
energy density within an increasingly compact housing. Unavoidably, this
leads to a smaller and smaller design margin with which insulation
integrity and system reliability must be ensured. To this end, it is vital to gain
a thorough and quantitative understanding of the failure mechanism in a
metallized film capacitor.
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1.6 AGING IN METALLIZED FILM CAPACITORS

The aging of the metallized film capacitors are due to one or

combinations of the following:

aging from the after effect of pre-clearing

aging from electrode corrosion

aging from the presence of partial discharge

physical aging of the polymer film

aging from the contact problem at the schooping edges

Each of these aging phenomena can lead to a premature breakdown

of the capacitor during normal operation. The first aging process occurs when
the capacitor does not clear properly during the manufacturer’s pre-clearing
procedure. Secondary punctures take place in the surrounding film, resulting
in the generation of heat and eventually the capacitor will fail. The second
mode of aging failure is due to an unacceptably large reduction in
capacitance. When the electrode is too thin, an electrochemical corrosion
process begins leading to a steady loss of capacitance. The third mode of
aging failure occurs due to partial discharges. This type of aging occurs if the
construction is incorrect, if the outer turns are not tight enough or if an
incorrect heat treatment has been used resulting in a dramatic drop in
capacitance. Partial discharges cause the erosion of the metallization edges
where the electric field is large. Partial discharges induce clearing to occur
across the width of the film. The consequences may be an unacceptable loss
of capacitance causing the capacitor to be removed from service. Normally,
physical aging is not observed in metallized polypropylene capacitors,
because the polypropylene film is made under rigid quality control which is
essential for its major uses in power capacitors. The last mode of aging listed
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above is specific to problems associated with the quality of the bonding to the
edges of the metallization: first between the schooping and the electrode
material and second between the leads and the schooping.

1.7 EFFECT OF GEOMETRY OF MPPF CAPACITORS

The geometry of MPPF capacitor plays an important role in its

performance. A capacitor with higher film width (height) has many
drawbacks compared to an equivalent capacitor with lower film width. They
are:

higher equivalent series resistance

higher dissipation factor

higher surface current density

higher current density across the electrode

higher power density over the electrode

higher heat dissipation of electrode

higher electrostatic forces

higher diametral vibrations

The temperature encountered on capacitor films are referred as hot

spots. The hot spots temperature is a function of the sum of the power
dissipation due to displacement current and the power dissipation due to
conduction current.

The hot spot temperature can be expressed by equation 1.7,

hs= amb + Rth(Pd+Pc) (1.7)

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where hs is hot spot temperature, amb is ambient temperature, Rth is thermal

resistance of film at the ambient atmosphere, Pd is power loss due to
displacement current, Pc is the power loss due to conduction current.

In case of capacitors with higher film widths, the power loss in the
electrode is higher than that of an equivalent capacitor with lesser width and
hence, the former develops a higher temperature rise. For every 8 of
temperature rise, the life of the capacitor is halved. Hence, the geometry of
the MPPF capacitor is a vital factor in its life and performance.

1.8 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH WORK

The objectives of the present research work are:

Study of soft failure: An attempt is made to study the internal

current and power profiles in MPPF capacitor for soft failures of
different magnitudes at different locations.

Study of effect of asymmetrical partial edge disconnection: In

this work, an attempt is made to simulate the partially edge
(asymmetrical) disconnected capacitors, analyze the effect of
edge disconnection and experimentally validate the results
obtained.

Study of effect of geometry: It is proposed to study the effect of

geometry on the performance of the MPPF capacitor,
theoretically and experimentally.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

Chapter 1 gives the introduction, constructional details,

manufacturing process of MPPF capacitors and the process of self healing.
Different modes of failures are elaborated. The objectives of the present
research and the organization of the thesis are also presented.
 29

Chapter 2 gives the detailed literature review of MPPF capacitors

and studies made upto date on the failures of MPPF capacitors. Works related
to the geometry and aging process are reviewed.

Chapter 3 elaborates on the simulation of the electrode erosion of

MPPF capacitors. The effects of electrode erosion for different magnitudes at
various locations are studied. The current density and power profiles
computed using Double Ended Transmission Line Model (DETLM) are
presented.

Chapter 4 deals with the causes and effects of asymmetrical edge

disconnection. It presents the simulation and analysis of asymmetrically edge
disconnected capacitors. The results of accelerated life study of edge
disconnected capacitors are presented.

Chapter 5 gives the effect of geometry of MPPF capacitors. The

results of the life study of capacitors with different geometries carried out at
elevated stresses are statistically analyzed and presented.

Chapter 6 presents the major conclusions arrived at from the soft

failure analysis, asymmetrical edge disconnection analysis and analysis of
effect of the geometry of MPPF capacitors. The scope for future work is
suggested.