Specialised Tanker Training Programme – Gas BOIL OFF

RELIQUIFICATION
BOIL OFF

Vapour produced above the surface of a boiling cargo due to evaporation is called Boil
off and is caused by heat ingress or a drop in pressure.

WHY DOES BOIL OFF OCCUR

It occurs when heat is transferred to the cargo through the insulation and can be
produced as a result of the cargo moving or sloshing in the tank.

WHAT STEPS ARE TAKEN TO PREVENT THIS SITUATION

Vapour can be extracted from a tank, however if we reduce the pressure the vapour
pressure is also reduced and this encourages more vapour production. It can be
compared to opening a bottle of carbonated water. If vapour production were allowed to
continue then the safety valves would lift on the tank.

LNG

LNG is predominantly Methane. The critical pressure of this gas is 44.7 bar (absolute)
and its critical temperature is minus 82.5ºC. Thus the reliquification of Methane is a
difficult task. This leaves one option and that is to utilise the boil off and use it as fuel for
the propulsion of the vessel.

This is good from the shipowners point of view as the fuel used is clean but not from the
cargo owners point of view as he does not receive all the cargo being shipped, thus a
compromise is required and most LNG ships operate with an agreed tank pressure.

THIS GIVES TYPICAL BOIL OFF FIGURES OF 0.2% PER DAY LOADED AND 0.11 %
PER DAY IN BALLAST

The pressure is maintained in the tanks by a low duty compressor which removes the
excess vapour. The rate of boil off may also be increased towards the end of the voyage
if the terminal requires the cargo to be at a particular pressure or temperature. The
vapour is drawn from the top of the tank by a low duty compressor and passes it through
a heat exchanger to raise its temperature to + 25ºC before it is passed down to the
engine room where it may be burnt in a boiler, or used as a fuel for a gas turbine or
Diesel engine. There are various precautions to be taken to allow this to take place.

To avoid the leakage of vapour in the engine room the gas lines are mounted in a duct
which runs along the boiler front. Individual connections to the burners are provided with
a nitrogen purged jacket. Fans provide a negative pressure on the duct and jackets and
a canopy is mounted above each boiler front and any gas leakage is extracted by a fan.

When burning LNG it should be noted that any Nitrogen present in the cargo will tend to
boil off first, this has the effect of reducing the Calorific Value of the gas supply to the
engine room for the first few days of the voyage. Reliquification for LNG as explained
before is difficult but not impossible. A plant for achieving this is now in service.

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Provision is made for venting the boil off but if a vessel is in territorial waters then the
local regulations will be in force.

Schematic diagram of handling LNG boil-off

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LPG

Boil off on an LPG carrier is treated in a totally different manner and as with LNG heat
will transit the insulation and heat up the cargo this results in the production of vapour
and an increase in pressure in the tanks, in this case the boil off is not consumed but is
re-condensed and returned back to the cargo tanks.

Reliquification is carried out on board for the following operational reasons:

1. If the installation does not have the ability to handle vapour produced whilst
loading the liquid into the tanks.

2. Whilst at sea, to prevent the pressure rising in the tanks due to the cargo taking
in heat through the tank insulation, then the vapour can be condensed and
returned to the tank.

3. If the discharge port requires the cargo to be at a lower than carriage

temperature for operational reasons.

4. To maintain the cargo tanks at a low temperature on the ballast voyage, or,
cool them for loading.

Before examining reliquification we must first look at the Mollier chart for a gas.

That Mollier charts shows the line of interface between LIQUID and LlQUID/VAPOUR
mixtures in BLUE this is known as the saturated liquid line. The line of interface between
the liquid vapour mixture and the superheated vapour phase in RED this is known as the
saturated vapour line. The diagram shows also the lines of constant Entropy.

If we now superimpose the single stage reliquification plant on the Mollier diagram and
assign some typical values. At point A the boil off vapour is extracted from the tank at a

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pressure of 3 bar. And is then compressed to the point B on the diagram this
compression is considered to take place adiabatically with no heat added and follows
the lines of constant entropy up to the compressor discharge pressure which is 10 bar.

From B to C cooling takes place in the condenser at constant pressure. If a sea water
temperature of 15ºC is assumed we can expect the vapour to cross the saturated vapour
line and begins to condense, getting wetter as the heat is removed until all the vapour is
turned into a liquid as it crosses the saturated liquid line.

As further cooling takes place then the liquid is now said to be sub cooled as it reaches
point C. The cooled liquid is still at 10 bar, so now the liquid pressure is now lowered by
passing it through an expansion valve.

Log Pressure

This process again is considered to take place with no heat added or subtracted and so
the line on the Mollier diagram will be vertical to point D from which can be seen that the
final pressure is 3 bar or tank pressure. It will be observed that the final state of the LPG
at point D is 0.2 dry and the mixture has a temperature of about -7ºC.

This method is perfectly suitable for cargoes where the suction pressure of the vapour is
fairly high. But where the suction pressure is low and sea water cooled condensing is still
to be utilised then a two stage cycle is preferable. Because of the low suction pressure
the compression ratio of a single stage compression would have to be high in
order to obtain a suitable discharge pressure to allow the gas to be liquefied when

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cooled. This would lead to unacceptably high gas discharge temperatures.

By compressing the vapour in two stages, with intercooling between it is possible to

achieve a high discharge pressure but with reasonable discharge temperature. Before
the choice is made between single and two stage reliquification more information is
required. The pressure and temperature relationships between saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbon gases and if we use a standard sea water temperature of 30ºC
using SW as a coolant a line is drawn vertically upwards on the graph at the 30ºC
point the new line crosses the butane curve at about 2.8 bar

This means that provided the pressure of the vapour is above 2.8 bar then cooling to
30ºC will result in the gas being condensed into a liquid. Similarly Propane will have to
be compressed to above 10 bar to obtain liquid when cooled to 30ºC if we look at
ethane this requires 45 bar to liquefy; this requires 2 stage compression.

The figure below shows the circuit of a reliquification plant with two stage compression.
This shows that after leaving the first stage compressor, the hot gas is led into the liquid
side of a flash tank. The level in the flash tank controls the expansion valve which
supplies the flash tank from the condensed gas leaving the sea water cooled condenser.
Thus the temperature is reduced in the flash tank by the expansion of some of the
condensed gas from the second stage which cools the vapours from the first stage of
compression. This cool vapour is passed into the suction side of the second stage of
compression. As the inlet temperature is low then the temperature of the discharged gas
is not dangerously high and can be cooled in a sea water condenser. Most of the
condensed gas is passed via an expansion tank and expansion valve back to the cargo
tank.

The Mollier diagram shows that the gas has become superheated by crossing the
saturation line from 1 to 2 before it is picked up in the compressor and adiabatic
compression taking place between 2 and 3. Cooling of the discharged vapours
(intercooling) takes place between 3 and 4 and adiabatic compression 2nd stage takes
place between 4 and 5. Condensing by sea water cooling takes place between 5 and 6
with the intercooling condensate being bled off at this point. The condensate being
returned to the tank is under-cooled by passing it through the intercooler arriving at point
7 on the diagram. Return and flash off to the cargo tank takes place between 7 and 8.

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This leads directly on to the CASCADE SYSTEM which is more popular especially in
areas where high sea water temperatures may be encountered. Instead of using sea
water cooling the hot vapour discharge to the cargo condenser this duty is taken over by
A REFRIGERANT which is in turn condensed and cooled by sea water. Because the
coolant in use is a refrigerant, then significantly lower temperatures can be achieved. It
follows that if the condenser is cooler, then the discharge pressure will be lower. WITH
LOWER DISCHARGE PRESSURES THEN LOWER COMPRESSION RATIOS ARE
REQUIRED AND LESS POWER NEEDED TO OPERATE THE COMPRESSOR.

The cooling circuit, which is usually R22 is as a standard refrigeration circuit. The hot
refrigerant gas is compressed in a compressor, cooled in a sea water cooled condenser
where it is converted into a liquid. The liquid refrigerant is now passed through an
expansion valve before entering the LPG condenser. The liquid /vapour mixture extracts
heat from the incoming LPG so that the liquid refrigerant can vapourise and then
become superheated before returning to the compressor.

In a similar system the LPG vapour is drawn off from the tank top by the compressor,
pressurised and then discharged into the LPG condenser. The temperature of the R22
refrigerant is low enough (down to -20) and the pressure of the LPG vapour is such that
the vapour condenses and passes into the receiver. The flow from the receiver is
controlled by an expansion valve which is in turn controlled by the level in the receiver.
The liquid/vapour mixture is again either led into the bottom of the tank for cargo return

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and cargo cooling, or passed through spray bars at the top of the tank to provide tank
cooling.

1. THE BENEFITS ARE THAT A LIGHTER SYSTEM IS REQUIRED.

2. TO A GREAT EXTENT THE SYSTEM IS NO LONGER DEPENDENT ON SEA
WATER TEMPERATURE.

There are however disadvantages associated with this method of reliquification

1. THERE ARE TWO SYSTEMS TO RUN AND MAINTAIN.

2. THE INITIAL COST WILL BE HIGH.

One indirect system is by fitting an evaporator coil in the vapour space of the tank so
that expanding R22 chills down the coil enough to condense the LPG vapour and the
condensing vapour falls back into the liquid LPG.

Another indirect method is where the gas vapour is pumped from the tank, condensed in
a cooling section (cooled by refrigerant) and the condensate pumped back to the bottom
of the tank.

One method of transporting LPG was to carry spiked crude oil or crude oil which was
rich in gas and cooling the decks. A spiked cargo was one where a petroleum gas had
been dissolved in crude oil, in order to prevent cargo from becoming too hot in the sun
and the gas venting out through the PV valves a sea water spray was maintained over
the main deck / tank top during daylight hours to keep it cool.

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COMPRESSORS
The vapour supply compressors fitted to both LNG and LPG vessels are usually of the
centrifugal type. This type is chosen to move large volumes of gas and not for large
pressure increases. The compressors are high and low duty depending upon the volume
of gas to be transferred. The compressors can be single or multi stage depending upon
the compression ratio required. A cross section of a single stage compressor is shown in
the diagram also shown is the position of the controllable flap valve situated in the
suction side of the compressor.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

For refrigeration duties then the reciprocating piston and screw types of compressor are
favoured. The majority of reciprocating compressors are of the OIL FREE TYPE so that
incompatability between the cargo and oil in the compressor is no longer a problem. To
avoid contamination of the cargo by lubricating oil two design features are incorporated
into the reciprocating compressor these are.

1. THERE IS A DRY SPACE BETWEEN THE CRANKCASE AND THE

CYLINDERS TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION OF THE CARGO WITH OIL
AND CONTAMINATION OF THE CRANKCASE WITH CARGO. IT IS ALSO
LONG ENOUGH SO THAT THE OILY PART OF THE PISTON ROD DOES
NOT ENTER THE CYLINDER.

2. PISTONS CAN BE GROOVED TO GIVE A LABYRINTH EFFECT THUS

DISPENSING WITH PISTON RINGS. AND IN SOME CASES PTFE OIL FREE
PISTON RINGS ARE USED WHICH REQUIRE NO LUBRICATION.

SCREW COMPRESSORS
The screw compressors that are used for LPG cargoes can either be:

1. OIL FREE
2. OIL FLOODED

Oil free machines are used when the contamination of the cargo vapour cannot be
accepted and are fitted with timing gears on the drive and driven shafts to ensure
synchronisation of the rotors. When oil injected compressors are used oil helps to seal
the male rotors it drives the female rotor, oil injected compressors are capable of higher
discharge temperatures but an effective oil separator is required on the discharge side
to liberate the oil

The cross section through the compressor shows the driving rotor having FOUR LOBES
and the female driven rotor is cut away to give SIX FLUTES The flutes are cut away
helically and dimensioned so that they mesh like helical gears the action of the
compressor is shown in the sketches.

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The sketch illustrates a screw type compressor. The lobes intermesh and gas is
compressed in the chambers numbered 1, 2 and 3, which are reduced in volume as the
rotors turn the compressor casing carries the suction and discharge ports. In oil free
machines the speed is about 12,000 rpm this high speed is required to maintain a high
efficiency which tends to be lowered by leakage through the clearances between the
rotors.

In oil flooded machines oil is injected to the spaces between the rotors and this
eliminates the need for timing gears, drive power is transmitted from rotor to the other
by the injected oil, this also acts as a lubricant and coolant. Because the rotors are
sealed with oil gas leakage is much less and therefore oil flooded machines run at lower
speeds (3000 rpm). An oil separator on the discharge side of the machines removes oil
from the compressed gas.

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Examples of indirect cooling cycles

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RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The older types of compressors were sometimes not of the oil-free type. Many liquefied
gases can adversely affect the quality of the lubricating 011 used in the machines. In
using these older compressors very careful control is required. In particular f sump
heating systems are often fitted in order to evaporate any dissolved gases. In addition,
the changing of lubricating oil, between cargoes is usually necessary. Full data on the
operation of these compressors should be available from manufacturers' handbooks. For
these reasons the vast majority of reciprocating cargo compressors, now found on board
gas carriers, are of the so-called oil-free type.

1. The pistons surface is machined with

labyrinth groves, forming a succession of
throttling points for gas blow-by.

2. The cylinder is water-cooled or heated

and is similarly provided with grooves in
the bore.

3. The gland consists of a system of

graphite rings forming a labyrinth seal.
Gas leakage at this gland is usually
returned to the intake side of the
compressor.

4. The distance piece gives clear

segregation between the compression
space and crank gear and prevents the
part of the piston rod 9with a molecular oil
film) from entering the gland.

5. The oil wiper prevents oil creeping up the

piston rod into the neutral space and
thence into the gland.

6. The piston rod is guided very accurately

by a guide bearing and crosshead.

7. The guide bearing is lubricated and

water-cooled.

8. The crosshead is lubricated and water-

cooled.
Sulzer oil-free compressor
9. The crankshaft is lubricated.

NB:PTFE is used for piston rings

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