16 PERSONALITY FACTORS INTRODUCTION

DEFINITIONS:
Personality is one of the most important topics in psychology. There is a separate field or
branch in psychology called Personality Psychology. In Roman times it was taken as the
particular character itself but also those aspects of individuals behaviour that set him or her
apart from other individuals.
The term personality is derived from the Latin word ‘PERSONA’ meaning
mask. Personality is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person
that uniquely influences his or her cognition, behaviour and motivations in various
situations.
Personality can be defined as “A certain consistency in the persons behaviour that remains
stable under various conditions. (Dvoretzky 1997)’’
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association
personality is defined as “The enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about
the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personality
contexts.”
According to Gordon Allport (1937) “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the
individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to
personality.”
In the year 1961, Allport redefined the definition of personality as “the dynamic
organisation within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his
characteristic behaviour and thought”

PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSONALITY THEORY

Psychoanalysis is highly popular approach to studying personality.

Sigmund Freud the father of psychoanalytic theories proposed psychic energy that could be
converted into the behaviour. He focused on unconscious psychological conflicts.
According to Freud human personality can be divided into three components namely, id
(works on immediate gratification, based on pleasure principle), ego (works on reality
principle, it meets the wishes of id according to outside world) and superego (works on
moral principle that follow parental idea). Another very important research proposed by
Freud was the five psychosexual stages of development namely oral, anal, phallic, latency
and genital stages. He proposed that any problems encountered in the stage may arrest
development leading to fixation that may have a long term effect in the person’s life. The
conscious that is awareness of one’s thoughts, actions, the preconscious includes mental
activity if attended closely the individual may become aware of it and lastly the unconscious
which includes mental activity that people are unaware of and in the unconscious are
instinctual drives, wishes, desires etc. These levels of consciousness are very popular
concepts that are contributing in the understanding of the personality. Anna Freud, daughter
of Sigmund Freud further elaborated the theory, especially as it relates to children and
development of defence mechanisms. In more recent times Heinz Kohut focused on the
object relation theory stating the different attachment styles.

BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner's work had a major influence on the development of behavior
therapy and his work introduced many of the concepts and techniques that are still in use
today.In behavioral therapy, the goal is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate
unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral therapy is rooted in the principles of behaviorism,
a school of thought focused on the idea that we learn from our environment. The techniques
used in this type of treatment are based on the theories of classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.One important thing to note about the various behavioral therapies is that it’s
action-based. Behavioral therapists are focused on using the same learning strategies that led
to the formation of unwanted behaviors.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Albert Bandura presented what came to be known as the Social Cognitive theory of
personality. Bandura, being a behaviourist himself, believed in the behaviourist principle
that all behaviour was learned. However, he was also of the opinion that behaviourism
disregarded the subjective internal forces that drive human behaviour.

Bandura believed that reinforcement or reward is a major driving force behind many human
behaviours. Children first learn acceptable ways of behaving from observing older adults
around them - siblings, peers, parents and teachers and how others in the environment
respond to these behaviours.In his famous Bobo doll experiment, children were shown
videos demonstrating violent treatment of a doll by a ‘model’ (person whose behaviour is
being observeded), a process behaviourists commonly referred to as “modelling.” The
model's behaviour might subsequently imitated by the children. Similarly even in daily life,
young children are surrounded by several people who are very significant influences in their
lives, such as parents, teachers, siblings, friends/peers. Models may also be inanimate, such
as fictional / cartoon television characters. Young children pay attention to and go on to
imitate the behaviours of these ‘models’ - often irrespective of whether or not the behaviour
is considered gender-appropriate in their society.
This led Bandura to the conclusion that, besides being learned through classical/ operant
conditioning (as was the behaviourists believed) , behaviour can also be imbibed through the
process of ‘observational learning’. i. e. Learning behaviour through watching someone else
demonstrate it.

Bandura established that 4 mediation processes influence whether or not the modeling
process would lead to actual repetition of the observed behaviour. They were as follows:

1. Attention : The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour. Any kind of
distraction would weaken this effect.

2. Retention: The observer must be capable of retaining the behaviour in order to repeat it
himself.

3. Imitation : The observer should have the capability to imitate an observed behaviour.

4. Motivation : Besides having memorised a behaviour and the ability to reproduce it, the
observer must also possess the motivation/will to perform the behaviour.

Certain key factors influence which models,among the several models around him/her the
child chooses to model his/her behaviour after. These factors are:

● Similarity: The child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as
similar to itself. eg. if the model is the same gender/age,the behaviour is more likely to
be imitated.

● Identification : A child is more likely to mimic the behaviour of models (real or

fictional) with whom he/she identifies more deeply, eg. The same sex parent's
behaviour is likely to be imitated, such as a girl wearing her mother's shoes and
makeup.

● Reinforcement / Reward: The people surrounding the child respond to his/her

behaviour by either rewarding/ reinforcement of the behaviour of by punishing it.

Reinforcement may be positive (eg. Getting additional play time for completing homework
in time,) or negative , through the withdrawal/withholding of rewards/privilege, (eg. Not
being permitted to play sports until the chores have been completed). Reinforcement could
also be external (such as the approval or compliments of parents and teachers) or internal
(intrinsic positive feelings that the actor experiences by engaging in the behaviour).

● Vicarious Reinforcement : When making the decision about whether or not to imitate
the model's behaviour, children will also take into account their past observations of
what happens to others when they engage in the same behaviour. eg. A behaviour is
likely to be repeated by a child if she observes her elder sister being rewarded with
praise from her parents. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
TRAIT APPROACH

Trait Approach is a way of studying the personality while putting emphasis on traits of
individuals as markers of Personality. A trait is a characteristic or disposition unique to
oneself.

Even though Trait Approach became famous with the work of Gordon Allport, Raymond
Cattell and Hans Eysenck yet it dates back to the Greek physician, Hippocrates who
distinguished between four types of people: happy, unhappy, temperamental and apathetic on
the basis of different types of internal bodily fluids, or “humors.”
In the 1940s, American physician William Sheldon (1899–1977) offered another
constitutionally based personality theory based on body build. Some personality
psychologists criticized this approach saying that if individual traits are sufficient to explain
personality, then people will behave consistently in all situations yet they don’t. But what
these psychologists fail to see is that the later trait theorists, notably Gordon Allport and
Raymond Cattell used the interactionist approach recognizing that behaviour is a function of
the interaction between both personal and situational variables.

Gordon Allport, in his work, emphasized on the uniqueness of the individual personality and
stated that we reflect both our heredity and our environment. He also proposed two types of
traits, namely, Common traits and Personal Dispositions; personal dispositions were further
broken down into three types: (a) Cardinal trait
(b) Central traits and
(c) Secondary traits.

Allport criticized approaches such as Freud’s that focused on unconscious and the past thus
proposing the ‘Functional Autonomy of Motives’ i.e. the idea that motives in the normal,
mature adult are independent of the childhood experiences in which they originally appeared.
Allport proposed two levels of functional autonomy:
(A)Perseverative functional autonomy (related to low-level and routine behaviour) and

(B) Propriate functional autonomy (related to our values, self-image and lifestyle). The word
propriate was derived from “proprium” which was Allport’s term for the ego or self.

And he also gave 7 stages for the development of the “proprium” from childhood to
adolescence.

HANS EYSENCK:

Hans Eysenck is best remembered for his work on personality and intelligence. He
had spent most of his career at the university of Maudsley hospital and institute of
psychiatry. He has written 79 books and 1097 journal articles.

PEN MODEL:
 1. EXTRAVERSION- INTROVERSION:

Extroverts tend to be more talkative, social, outgoing, engage in social activities, feel more
at ease in groups where as Introverts tend to be quitter, feel uncomfortable engaging with
strangers, instead they more likely enjoy contemplative exercises.

2. NEUROTICISM-EMOTIONAL STABILITY

Neuroticism measures tend to experience higher levels of stress and anxiety, feel envious
and jealous of others but at the same time they are also characterized as perfectionist and a
tendency to feel dissatisfied, angry or frustrated with others when their desires are not
fulfilled.

3. PSYCHOTICISM-NORMALITY:

Psychoticism is influenced by biological factors and was correlated with level of hormones
such as testosterone. Individuals are more likely to engage in irresponsible, miscalculated, or
criminal behaviors.

THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL:

The five-factor model is also represented by the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. The five
factors are:

1. OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE:Appreciation of art, emotion, adventure, unusual

ideas, curiosity creativity. High openness can be perceived as more likely to engage in
risky behaviors, drug taking, etc. whereas low openness can be perceived as data
driven, closed minded, dogmatic, etc.

2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS:Easy going, organized, dutiful. High conscientiousness is

often perceived as being stubbon and focused whereas low conscientiousness is
associated with flexibility and spontaneity but also lack of reliability.

3. EXTRAVERSION: Energetic, assertiveness, sociability. High extraversion is often

perceived as attention seeker and dominating whereas low extraversion causes a
reserved-reflective personality which can be preserved as aloof.

4. AGREEABLENESS:Friendly, cooperative, compassionate. High agreeableness is

often seen as naive or submissive whereas low agreeableness personalities are often
competitive or challenging people.

5. NEUROTICISM:Anger, aggression, depression, vulnerability. High stability

manifests calm and stable personality whereas low stability manifests as the reactive,
unsecure and unstable personality.
CATELL’S WORK

On the other hand, Cattell’s goal in his study of personality was to predict how a person will
behave in response to a given stimulus situation. Cattell’s theory of personality, then, did not
originate in a clinical setting rather his subjects were so-called normal people.

The hallmark of Cattell’s approach was his treatment of the data through Factor
Analysis. Factor analysis is a statistical procedure for reducing the redundancy in a set of
intercorrelated scores. One major technique of factor analysis, the principal-components
method, finds the minimum number of common factors that can account for an interrelated
set of scores. Cattell's goal was to empirically determine and measure the essence of
personality. Cattell used factor analysis to reduce thousands of psychological traits into what
he believed to be 16 of the basic dimensions, or source traits of human personality. As a
result, he created the 16PF personality test.

Cattell not just distinguished between common traits and unique traits but also found various
other ways to classify traits, namely, ability traits, temperament traits, and dynamic traits;
surface traits and source traits; constitutional traits or environmental-mold traits. He
developed several tests to assess personality, the most notable being the 16 PF.

Cattell's personality factors have been included in the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF) that is widely used today. It is used for career counselling in education
and vocational guidance. In business, it is used in personnel selection, especially for
choosing managers. It is also used in clinical diagnosis and to plan therapy by assessing
anxiety, adjustment, and behavioural problems.

Other credible work by Cattell are:

1. ESPQ- Early School Personality Questionnaire (ESPQ) is a personality test designed

for children ages 6-8. It was developed using Raymond Cattell's factor analytic
techniques and may be used to diagnose emotional and conduct disorders, and provide
information to teachers about emotional factors that affect classroom performance for
individual students.

2. HSPQ- The High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) is a self-report inventory

for children ages 12-18. It measures 14 personality characteristics that research has
shown to be good predictors of social, clinical, occupational, and school behaviour.

3. CPQ - The Children's Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) is a standardized personality

measure for children ages 8-12. It was designed to help educators identify children in
need of special help, to increase the accuracy of estimates of scholastic promise and
creativity, to assess candidates for scholarships and to measure the success of
treatment program for trouble children.
TEST DESCRIPTION

The 16PF (Conn & Rieke, 1994) was originally constructed in 1949 by Cattell, whose factor-
analytic research suggested to him that a set of 16 traits would summarize personality
characteristics. (As such, the 16PF is perhaps the only major inventory to have been
developed using the factor-analytic approach. Although other psychologists have decided
what traits to measure on the basis of factor analyses, they have usually used the rational
approach when actually constructing the scales of their inventories.) Earlier versions of the
16PF were often criticized for the low internal-consistency reliabilities of their scales, but the
scales have been improved in the most recent version of the 16PF (Conn & Rieke, 1994),
which contains nearly 200 items. The 16 scales of this inventory can be combined into five
broader factors that assess more general personality characteristics. More recent research has
found the 16PF scales to show considerable validity in predicting a variety of criterion
variables in contexts such as school and the workplace.

The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of
the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattel:.

Factor Personality Trait Interpretation

A Abstractedness imaginative vs practical

B Apprehension: worried vs confident

C Dominance forceful vs submissive

D Emotional Stability calm vs high strung

E Liveliness spontaneous vs restrained

F Openness to change flexible vs attached to familiar

G Perfectionism controlled vs indisciplined

H Privateness discrete vs open

I Reasoning abstract vs concrete

J Rule- consciousness conforming vs non-conforming

K Self reliance self sufficient vs dependent

L Sensitivity tender hearted vs tough minded

M Social boldness uninhibited vs shy

N Tension impatient vs relaxed

O Vigilance suspicious vs trusting

P Warmth outgoing vs reserved

The 16PF Form C consists of 105 items/statemnts with 3 alternatives to chose from.its a
forced choice questionaire where the participant has to choose between the three
alternatives.the personality traits are then representated by a arnge and the individual’s score
falls somewhere on the continum between highest and lowest extremes.

APPLICATIONS OF THE 16PF:

The 16PF is a widely recognised personality test that measures the core traits that influence a
wide range of aspects of a person’s behaviour. The test is used by psychologists for
vocational or career counseling. Mental health professionals and clinicians use this test for
diagnosis, assessment of prognosis as well as for planning the future course of therapy as it
provides a quantifiable measure of any existent maladaptive behaviour, anxiety and
depression.

The test also has applications in nonclinical settings to assess individuals’ aptitudes for
managerial or recruitment positions.

TWO RECENT RESEARCHES

1.Basing on career construction theory and self-verification theory, current research

examined the mediating and moderating models for the relations among self-esteem,
proactive personality, career exploration, future work self and career adaptability. A two-
wave survey study was conducted among Chinese university students (N = 305). The results
showed that both self-esteem and proactive personality (measured at time 1) positively
predicted future work self and career adaptability (measured at time 2), with these
relationships mediated by career exploration (measured at time 1). In addition, the results
further revealed that the positive effect of self-esteem on career exploration was stronger
among students who had a higher level of proactive personality. In support of the
hypothesized moderated mediation model, for individuals with a higher level of proactive
personality, the indirect effects of self-esteem on future work self and career adaptability
through career exploration were stronger. These findings carry implications for research on
career construction theory and career counseling practices.

2.A study by John Duckit(2012)t demonstrates that Theoritical considerations as well as

recent research suggest that the concept of social support, instead of being viewed solely as
stress buffer, should be seen as an important etiological factor in symptom development in
its own right. Consequently, the present study set out to examine the influence of six
personality factors, derived by a principal components analysis of the 16PF, on the
relationship between social support and symptoms of psychological distress in a student
sample (N = 139). The results indicated a significant interaction between extraversion and
social support; extraverts showed a substantially heightened sensitivity to social support
variations. These findings appears to emphasize the usefulness of an interactionist approach
that integrates person and context variables for the prediction of psychological distress.

STANDARDIZATION AND NORMS:

The test was standardized on University students and gender and age norms were
established. The norms were established on Form C separately, Form D separately and Form
C and D together, on males, females, and both genders together, among the general
population (age 30), college students (age 20) and high school juniors and seniors (age 17).

The test was standardized on a sample of 5,000 people, across 10 levels of community sizes,
10 levels of Socioeconomic Status, geographical location and race. 10 states were divided
among 10 regions along divisions used by US Census Bureau to get the sample. The final
norm sample consisted of people from 30 states. Race was stratified on the basis of
population congruent according to US Census Bureau.

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES:

RELIABILITY

Short interval test retest reliability was established for each factor of form C of the test 16PF.
Reliability for internal consistency was also established.

VALIDITY
Construct validity was established for forms C and D, applied on school, career and
counseling settiungs. This test is low on Face Validity.

ADMINISTRATION

SCORING

The scoring in 16P.F. is done by calculating the raw score on each factor, which can range
from 0-2 on each item. These scores are converted into sten scores using the following steps:

1. Obtain the raw score

2. Age correct raw scores using the norms of that age

3. Select appropriate norm table out of the 27 norm tables in total

4. Convert the raw scores into sten

16 P.F. also calculates the Motivational Distortion (MD) which calculates not just social
desirability, but responses of questionnaires as the function of observer’s perception and
situation. However its widespread application is not possible. It is done only on form C & D.

MD is the items that shift from anonymous to job seeking situation or correlates with the
participants change in the same situation. Thus a raw score is checked against a sten score to
obtain the MD. A score of 7+ sten, shows high MD. Thus retest or other measures must be
taken.

METHODOLOGY :

Sample Characteristics:

Name of Testtaker T. P.

Age 46 years

Sex Female
Educational Qualifications Graduate

Materials:

Test Booklet

Answer Sheet

Stationery

Test Manual

Answer Key

Profile Sheet

Procedure:

The test taker was called in and seated. Rapport was established with the test taker, who was then given
instructions from the test manual. Along with reading out the instructions printed on the response sheet, it
was emphasized that there are no "right" or "wrong"" answers and for an accurate interpretation, it would be
best to answer as honestly as possible. The participant was made to solve two examples and asked to clarify
if anything needed. The participant was asked to tick mark the option among 'a', 'b', and 'c' for every item.
The participant was also instructed to respond to all statements, and to choose only one option for each
statement. After the test-taker was done taking the test, the administrator made sure that all the items were
responded to. An introspective report was taken as well. The raw scores on each factors were then calculated
and converted to sten scores and interpreted accordingly. The test-taker was debriefed appropriately and the
test-administrator made sure that if anything came up for the test-taker, during the session, then that was
addressed effectively. The test-taker was then escorted to the door.

Scoring:

Factor Raw Score Sten Score

A: Warmth 6 3

B: Reasoning 2 3

C: Emotional 6 4
Stability

E: Dominance 4 5

F: Impulsivity 8 6

G: Group 4 3
 Conformity

H: Boldness 10 8

I: Tender- 7 5
mindedness

L: 6 6
Suspiciousness

M: Imagination 5 6

N: Shrewdness 5 6

O: Guilt 0 1
Proneness

Q1: Openness 7 6
to Change

Q2: Self 4 6
Sufficiency

Q3: 7 6
Compulsivity

Q4: Free- 6 5
floating Anxiety

Motivational Raw Score Sten Score

Distortion (MD)
gender:

Female 8 6

TEST INTERPRETATION:

Raymond Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor (16 PF) test is a self-report personality inventory
used to identify the strength of personality factors that exist within an individual. It can help
identify students with potential academic, social and emotional maladaptive behaviour and
related behaviour problems.

The test consists of 105 items each with 3 answer alternatives from which the testtaker must
select one that most closely reflects his/her own personality traits. Each of these three
alternatives is assigned a score from 0 to 2. The 16PF Form C was administered to the
testtaker and scores were obtained by summing up the scores for all the items under each
domain respectively with reference to the scoring key. The raw scores thus obtained for each
factor were then converted into sten scores which helps make meaningful interpretations of
the testtaker's score in relation to the average population scores. The norms utilised for the
purpose of conversion into sten scores was Form C - Female (Based on age 20 years).

The sten scores for each factor as obtained by the testtaker along with their interpretations
are as follows:

Factor A: Warmth

The testtaker has scored a sten score of 3 which indicates a below average score. This
indicates that the testtaker is approximately equivalent to the average person in terms of
sociability, emotional warmth and demonstrating affection and acceptance in interpersonal
relationships.

Factor B: Reasoning

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 3 on reasoning which is also a low score, indicating
that the testtaker may possess low scholastic ability, being prone to thinking in absolute,
concrete, all or none terms.

Factor C: Emotional Stability

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 4 indicating a moderate score on this dimension. This
indicates that the testtaker is usually calm, emotionally stable and tends to be less easily
overwhelmed by emotion or stressful events.

Factor E: Dominance

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 5 indicating an average score on this dimension. This
indicates that the testtaker is usually assertive and independent in the process of decision
making and also possesses the traits of being stubborn and aggressive when it comes to
changing them.

Factor F: Impulsivity

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 indicating a moderate score on this dimension. This
indicates that the testtaker has a happy-go-lucky approach towards life who is usually
impulsively lively and enthusiastic.
Factor G: Group Conformity

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 3 which is a low score which represents a relatively
weak superego which makes her less conscientious, preserving and rule-bound.

Factor H: Boldness

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 8 which is a high score on this dimension. This
indicates that she is bold, venturesome and spontaneous personality when it comes to
exploring something new.

Factor I: Tender-mindedness

The testtaker obtained a score of 5 which is an average score signifying the participant to be
a moderately self-reliant, tough-minded and a no-nonsense person. This reflects that the
testtaker is not tenderminded in fact she is realistic.

Factor L: Suspiciousness

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 which is an average score indicating that the testtaker
is moderately suspicious and thus, is very hard to fool.

Factor M: Imagination

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 indicating a moderate score on this dimension. This
reflects that the testtaker is frequently practical conventional and careful .

Factor N: Shrewdness

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 that is a moderate score which indicates shrewdness.
Reflecting that testtaker is usually calculative and smart in worldly affairs.

Factor O: Guilt Proneness

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 1 indicating an extremely low score on this dimension.
This is indicative of the fact that the testtaker is very self-assured placid and serene and not
apprehensive, worried or depressive.
Factor Q1: Openness to Change

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 which is an average score, indicating that the
participant is open to change, adventure, novelty and experimentation moderately.

Factor Q2: Self Sufficiency

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 6 which is moderate, indicating that the testtaker is
moderately independent, self-sufficient, shows little or no dependence on others and is
resourceful, individualistic and driven to achievement.

Factor Q3: Compulsivity

The testtaker has scored a sten score of 6 which indicates an average score. This indicates
that the testtaker is approximately equivalent to the average person in being careless of
protocol and tends to follow her own urges.

Factor Q4: Free-floating Anxiety

The testtaker obtained a sten score of 5 indicating a moderate score on this dimension. This
is reflective of the testtaker’s usual relaxed and unfrustrated approach in handling conflicting
situations.

MD: The participant's sten score on motivational distortion is 6, which is not very low thus,
not completely accurate. Thus the participant's score cannot be judged as very precise.
However the score on MD is not even too high that has to be restested.

CONCLUSION

The test results of the participant thus indicates that she has scored low on factors A, B, C, F,
G and O, which stand for warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, impulsivity, group
confirmity and guilt proneness respectively. Thus indicating that the participant stays low on
these factors. On the other hand, the participant has scored moderately on factors E, H, L, M,
N, Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4, which stand for dominance, boldness, suspiciousness, imagination,
shrewdness, openness to change, self sufficiency, compulsivity and free floating anxiety.
This indicates that the participant has moderate amounts of the mentioned factors.
The participant's sten score on motivational distortion is 6, which is not very low thus, not
completely accurate, however not high enough that has to be retested.

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