WRITING FORMAT

A COMMON FORMAT IN WRITING COMPRISES OF:

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Material & Methodology
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgement
• References

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 RESULT

PURPOSE
to present the results and make them meaningful to the reader.

WHAT THE RESULT SECTION INCLUDES

statement of results: the results are presented in a format that is accessible to the
reader (e.g. in a graph, table, diagram or written text). Notice that raw data is
usually put in an appendix, if it is included at all.

explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams and figures should be accompanied
by text that guides the reader's attention to significant results. The text makes the
results meaningful by pointing out the most important results, simplifying the
results (e.g. "nearly half" instead of "48.9%"), highlighting significant trends or
relationships (e.g. "the rate of oxygenation decreases as the temperature
decreases"), and perhaps commenting on whether certain results were expected
or unexpected. 2
 RESULT

COMMON PROBLEM

The text includes too much detail that simply repeats data presented in
graphs, tables, etc. without making the results meaningful.

Solution: remember that tables etc. are used to present a lot of

information efficiently, but that your job is to direct the reader's
attention to significant parts of this information.

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 RESULT

ORGANIZATION

There are two basic ways of organizing the results:

•Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different section)

•Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part then
giving a discussion, etc.

The method of organization you use will depend on the quantity and type of results you
obtain from your research. You should look for a method of presentation that makes the
information and ideas you are presenting as clear as possible to the reader.

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 RESULT

Task: read through the part of the results section below and try to find the
purpose of each sentence. The underlined statements are some ideas to help
you: explanation, reference to a figure, statement of results, making the results
meaningful, comparison.

Strategies of failure diagnosis in computer-controlled manufacturing systems: empirical

analysis and implications for the design of adaptive decision support systems
Konradt, U. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies (1995) 43, 503-521

SUMMARY (adapted from the abstract) Objective of the study: to investigate strategies
in failure diagnosis at cutting-machine-tools with a verbal knowledge acquisition
technique.

Method: semi-structured interviews with mechanical and electrical maintenance

technicians; protocol analysis was performed on the data. Analysis of strategies was
performed according to technicians’ experience, familiarity with the problem and the
problem complexity. The technicians were categorized by level of experience.
5
 RESULT

Results

Figure 2 shows that the most frequent

diagnosis strategies were “Historical 30
information” (29% of the 182 observed
strategies), “Least effort” (11.5%), 25 Historical
Information
“Reconstruction” (9.8%) and “Sensory check” Least Effort
20
(8.7%) (see Appendix). Strategies such as Reconstruction
“Historical information”, which check available Sensory Check
15
information about the failure history, and Systematic
“Least effort” are two low cost technical 10
narrowing
Signal tracing
checks which shorten the time needed for
diagnosis activities (see Appendix). Strategies 5
Split half

such as “Split half”, leading to a binary nformation

uncertainty
reduction of the problem space, and 0
Failure Diagnosis
“Information uncertainty” play only a minor Strategies
role in real-life failure diagnosis of machine Figure 2. Frequencies of Failure diagnosis strategies

tools (1.1%, see Figure 2).

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 RESULT

Results - text analysis

"Figure 2 shows"
Reference to a figure. Notice that the present tense is used ("shows"). Usually references
to figures, tables etc. are put in parenthesis rather than in the main body of the sentence
because they are of secondary importance to the results themselves.

"the most frequent diagnosis strategies were"

The writer is pointing out the significance of three of the results (i.e. that they were the
most frequent diagnosis strategies). Notice that the writers refers to the figure
containing the information ("Figure 2 shows"), and that detailed percentages are de-
emphasized by being included only in parentheses. In fact, this detailed information
does not need to be included in the text since it appears in the figure. For more
detailed information, the reader is referred to the appendix: "(see Appendix)." Notice
that this reference is in parentheses too as it is not part of the main body of the
sentence.

7
 RESULT

Results - text analysis (cont’d)

"are two low-cost technical checks which"

The writer is summarizing the benefits of two of the strategies in order to indicate why
they were most frequently used. Although this is in fact discussion, it is helpful for the
reader to have this information while looking at the results. A detailed discussion of the
results appears in the Discussion section of the same article.

"play only a minor role"

The writer is pointing out the least frequent strategies. In this case, the low
frequency of these strategies is of interest (see the Discussion section of the same
article) and therefore the reader's attention is directed towards them.

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 RESULT

ADVICE

References to the figure and to the appendix are generally put in parentheses,
e.g. "(see Appendix)" because this information is of secondary importance. Of
primary importance are the results themselves, so most of the sentences
focuses on them. Look at the following two sentences. Which one is more
effective? Remember the purpose of the text in a results section.

a) Table 1 shows the results from the laboratory experiment.

b) The results from the laboratory experiment indicate that the reaction proceeds
faster in the presence of this metal (see Table 1).

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 RESULT

"a) Table 1 shows the results from the laboratory experiment."

The point of this sentence is just to tell the reader to look at Table 1. It does not make the
results in Table 1 meaningful because it does not comment on them.

"b) The results from the laboratory experiment indicate that the reaction
proceeds faster in the presence of this metal (see Table 1)".
This sentence is more effective than a) because it makes the results in the table
meaningful by pointing out a relationship between the speed of the reaction and the
presence of the metal. Notice that the reference to the table is de-emphasized by being
put in parentheses because it is of only secondary importance.

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 WRITING FORMAT

A COMMON FORMAT IN WRITING COMPRISES OF:

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Material & Methodology
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgement
• References

11
 DISCUSSION

PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF THE DISCUSSION SECTION

The discussion section is for comment on and explanation of the results.

It includes:

Explanation of results: the writer comments on whether or not the results were
expected, and presents explanations for the results, particularly for those that are
unexpected or unsatisfactory.

References to previous research: comparison of the results with those reported in

the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim, hypothesis or deduction.

Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally (a conclusion
based on reasoning from the results, e.g. we fed fish a new feed, all the fish gained
weight, therefore the new feed causes fish to gain weight).

Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results (which
will be proved or disproved in later research).

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 DISCUSSION

COMMON PROBLEM

The discussion does not discuss - simply supplies more

detail about the results obtained.

Solution: remember that the discussion should explain

the results.

13
 DISCUSSION

ORGANIZATION

There are two basic ways of organizing the results and discussion:

1. Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different

section)

2. Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another

part then giving a discussion, etc.

The method of organization you use will depend on the quantity and type of
results you obtain from your research. You should look for a method of
presentation that makes the information and ideas you are presenting as clear as
possible to the reader.

14
 DISCUSSION

Refer to the article in the Result Section

Discussion

These strategies appeared in about 60% of the total observed strategies. The
primary strategy was “Historical Information”. This corresponds to the results
of Hoc (1989). In information theory, strategies such as “Information
uncertainty”, which eliminates the greatest number of failure causes, or “Split
half”, which results in a binary splitting of the problem space, are economical
ways to shorten the problem space. We found that in real-life failure diagnosis,
even maintenance experts with more than 20 years experience seldom used
these strategies. One reason may be that the use of this strategy requires
information about conditional probabilities and a fully described problem space
that cannot be supposed for troubleshooting in complex manufacturing
systems.

15
 DISCUSSION

Discussion - Text Analysis

"The primary strategy was “Historical Information"

Up to this point, the writer is providing a summary of the results by highlighting the
most significant findings.
"corresponds to the results of Hoc (1989)"
The writer supports the validity of the results by referring to similar results
obtained by another researcher.
"In information theory"
The writer summarizes relevant information from the theory. Notice
how this is important to put the writer's own research into context
(see the next sentence).

"We found that"

The writer summarizes the results in order to show that they differ from what the
theory would predict (the theory was summarized in the previous sentence).

"One reason may be"

The writer suggests why the results from this study do not correspond with the
theory, i.e. the writer is explaining the difference between theory and this study's
results outlined in the previous sentences
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 DISCUSSION

SOME ADVICE

If you are putting your discussion into a discussion section separate from the
results, you may want to provide a summary of the results to remind your
reader of your main findings.

Put your results in context (e.g. by comparing them with previous research, or
with existing theory) in order to explain them.

Give reasons to account for differences between your research and previous
research or existing theory, or to explain unexpected results.

Although there may be some repetition of information in the results and

discussion sections, it should be kept to a minimum.

Remember too that the focus should be different: while you are simply
presenting results and making them meaningful to your reader in the results
section, in the discussion section you are explaining them.

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 WRITING FORMAT

A COMMON FORMAT IN WRITING COMPRISES OF:

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Material & Methodology
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgement
• References

18
 CONCLUSIONS

PURPOSE

To give a summary of:

What was learned (this usually comes first)

What remains to be learned (directions for future research)

The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation)

The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of the research (evaluation), and

Recommendations.

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 CONCLUSIONS

COMMON PROBLEMS
Too long. The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion
section is as little as 2.5% of an entire piece of published research.

Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary
detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your
methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was
learnt from your research, this summary should be short, since the emphasis in
the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. that you make.

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues. Whereas in the

introduction your task was to move from general (your field) to specific (your
research), in the concluding section your task is to move from specific (your
research) back to general (your field, how your research will affect the world).
In other words, in the conclusion you should put your research in context.

Failure to reveal the complexities of a conclusion or situation.

Negative aspects of your research should not be ignored. Problems, drawbacks
etc. can be included in summary in your conclusion section as a way of
qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the negative aspects, even if they
are outweighed by the positive aspects).
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 CONCLUSIONS

Lack of a concise summary of what was learned. In order to be able to

discuss how your research fits back into your field of study (and the world at
large) you need to summarize it very briefly. Often the summary is only a few
sentences.

Failure to match the objectives of the research. Often research objectives

change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you
forget to go back and rewrite your original objectives in your introduction so that they
accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research (not what you
thought you might accomplish when you began).

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 CONCLUSIONS

Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match:

Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of
roadbuilding on villages on rural communities.

Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the
social and economic impact of road-building on villages in northern Laos.

If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a

model), it will fit the conclusion:

Rewritten objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a

model to predict the social and economic impact of road-building on rural
communities.

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 CONCLUSIONS

EXAMPLES 1
Read the texts below and see if you can decide the purpose of each highlighted sentence
(e.g. summary of research, major conclusion, problems/drawbacks and other negative
aspects, qualified conclusion, directions for future research, structure of the writing).

Analysis of coupled shear/core walls using a beam-type finite element

Kwan, A. K. H., and Cheung, Y. K. (1994) Engineering Structures. Vol 16 No 2.

Conclusions

The Sisodiya and Cheung beam-type element is found to be particularly suitable for the
analysis of coupled shear/core wall structures. However, it is not without problems. Firstly,
when connected with coupling beams, it yields large fluctuations of shear stresses which
are not realistic. Secondly, it gives only the average bending moments within the elements
but would not give directly the maximum bending moments needed for structural design.
Thirdly, the finite element method is computationally less efficient than many other
methods. These problems have been studied and the following remedies are proposed.

23
 CONCLUSIONS

To resolve the problem with shear stress evaluation, it is suggested that the
shear stresses in the element should be determined from the horizontal nodal
forces acting on the element instead of from the strain-displacement relation of
the element. This can eliminate all the unrealistic fluctuation of shear stresses
and produce shear stress results which are always in equilibrium with the
external loads. To resolve the problem with bending stress evaluation, it is
proposed to use the element in pairs in the form of a composite element and
apply linear extrapolation to determine the maximum axial and bending stresses.
Finally, in order to improve the computational efficiency of the method, the
number of unknowns to be solved is reduced by neglecting the lateral strains in
the walls which are generally insignificant. After these modifications, it is
believed that the improved beam-type element method is a better method than
most others for the analysis of coupled shear/core wall structures.

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 CONCLUSIONS

CONCLUSION – Text analysis

EXAMPLES 1

"The Sisodiya and Cheung beam-type element is found to be . . . ."

Major conclusion of the research. (The objective was the assess the suitability
of the Sisodiya and Cheung beam-type element for analysis of coupled
shear/core wall structures). Notice that this conclusion is very general - no
details are given here about research findings as they were given in the Results
section.

"However, it is not without problems."

Evaluation. The previous sentence concluded that the beam was suitable. Now
the authors moderate this conclusion by summarising their negative findings

"Firstly . . . Secondly . . . Thirdly . . ."

This helps the reader know the structure of the writing: notice how the authors
have clearly labelled the three drawbacks. By following the same order for the
solutions they propose, they make it easy for the reader to follow their
argument.
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 CONCLUSIONS

"These problems have been studied and the following remedies are proposed."
This indicates the structure of the writing: this sentence serves as a link
between the problems just listed and the solutions that follow in the next
paragraph. By using this sentence as a link, the writers make it clear to the
reader what will come next and why. Such links (or "transitions") make writing
easier to follow.

"After these modifications . . . ."

Qualified conclusion (evaluation). Taking into consideration its drawbacks, the
Sisodiya Cheung beam-type element method is still seen as the one of the
best methods for analysis. Notice that the authors have discussed the
problems involved in this method, making this qualified conclusion more
complex than the initial conclusion they drew at the beginning of their
conclusion section.

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 CONCLUSIONS

EXAMPLES 2

Buckling solutions for Mindlin plates of various shapes

Wang, C. M., Y. Xiang., S. Kitipornchai, and K. M. Liew (1994). Engineering Structures, Vol
16, No 2.

Conclusions

New buckling solutions for regular polygonal, elliptical, semicircular and annular Mindlin
plaes under isotropic inplane loads have been presented. It can be seen that the shear
deformation effect depresses the buckling loads more significantly with increasing plate
thickness and greater boundary restraint. Future research on such plate buckling problems
should be directed at considering: firstly, other loading conditions, such as shear loading,
partial loadings and non-uniform loadings at the edges; and secondly, boundary conditions
involving point supports, mixed edge conditions and elastic restraints.

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 CONCLUSIONS

CONCLUSION – Text analysis

EXAMPLES 2

"New buckling solutions . . . have been presented."

This is the short summary (or overview) of the research.

"It can be seen . . . greater boundary restraint."

This is the major conclusion. This is the main information learnt from
the research

"Future research on such plate buckling problems should be directed at. . . "
Directions for future research. The present research added to the body of
knowledge in this field, but other gaps still remain or have been discovered.
These gaps are identified as being in need of research.

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