Chapter: Solid States

Introduction
What are Solids?
Solid are those substances which have fixed arrangement of
Constituent particles and strong binding forces.

What are the characteristics of Solids?

The following are the characteristic properties of the solid state:
i) They have definite mass, volume and shape.
ii) Intermolecular distances are short.
iii) Intermolecular forces are strong.
iv) Their constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) have fixed positions and can
only oscillate about their mean positions.
v) They are incompressible and rigid.
Important: Why a substance exist as solid?
Under a given set of conditions of temperature and pressure, the state of a given
substance depends upon the net effect of two opposing factors.
These are intermolecular forces which tend to keep the molecules (or atoms or ions)
closer, and the thermal energy, which tends to keep them apart by making them
move faster.
At sufficiently low temperature, the thermal energy is low and intermolecular forces
bring them so close that they cling to one another and occupy fixed positions.
These can still oscillate about their mean positions and the substance exists in
solid state.

Classification of solids on the basis of:

I. Nature

Property Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

Shape Definite characteristic Irregular shape
geometrical shape
Melting Point Melt at a sharp and Gradually soften over a range of
characteristic temperature temperature
Cleavage Property When cut with a sharp edged When cut with a sharp edged
tool, they split into two tool, they cut into two pieces
pieces and the newly with irregular surfaces
generated surfaces are plain
and smooth
Heat of Fusion They have a definite and They do not have definite
characteristic enthalpy of enthalpy of fusion
fusion
Anisotropy Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature
Nature True solids Pseudo solids or super cooled
liquids
Order in Long range order Only short range order.
arrangement of
constituent
particles
Anisotropy: It is defined as when physical properties like electrical resistance or
refractive index show different values along different directions within the same
crystal. Anisotropy in crystals is due to different arrangement of particles along
different directions.
Long range order: A substance is said to have long range order when there is a regular
pattern of arrangement of particles which repeats itself periodically over the entire
crystal.

Why glass objects from ancient civilizations are milky in appearance?

Glass objects from ancient civilizations become milky in appearance because of
crystallization.

Give example of an amorphous solid which is used as photovoltaic material and state
its use.
Amorphous silicon; it’s used for conversion of sunlight into electricity.

State three examples of amorphous solids.

Glass, rubber and plastics.

I. Nature of intermolecular forces or bonds

Type of Constituen Bonding/ Physical Electrical Meltin Examples
Solid t Particles Attractive Nature Conductivit g Point
Forces y
Molecula Molecules
r solids:
(i) Non Dispersion Soft Insulator Very Ar, CCl4,H2,
polar or London low I2, CO2
forces Low HCI, SO2
Soft Insulator
(ii) Polar Dipole-
dipole
interactions Hard Insulator Low H2O (ice)
(iii)
Hydrogen Hydrogen
bonded bonding

Ionic Ions Coulombic Hard but Insulators High NaCl, MgO,

solids or brittle in solid ZnS, CaF2
electrostati state but
c conductors
in molten
state and in
aqueous
solutions
Metallic Positive Metallic Hard but Conductors Fairly Fe, Cu, Ag,
solids ions in a bonding malleable in solid high Mg
sea of and state as
delocalized ductile well as
electrons molten
state
Covalent Atoms Covalent Hard but Insulators SiO2
or bonding a few are Graphite: (Quartz),
network soft Conductor SiC,
solids (Graphite C(Diamond)
) (exception) , AIN, C
(Graphite)

Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells

Crystal lattice: It is a three-dimensional structure of crystalline solid containing
constituent particles which can be atoms, ions or molecules.
Lattice points: Lattice points represent the different constituent particles of a crystal.
Unit cell: It is the smallest possible structure that repeats itself over and over again to
form a crystal.

How can a unit cell be characterized?

A Unit cell can be characterized by:
i) Its dimensions along the three edges a, b and c.
ii) These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular.
iii) Angles between the edges, α (between b and c), β (between c and a) and
γ (between b and a). Thus, a unit cell is characterized by six parameters a, b, c, α, β
and γ.

Types of Units cells

They are of two types:
Primitive/simple: When constituent particles are present only on the corner
positions of a unit cell, it is called as primitive unit cell.

Centered Unit Cells: When a unit cell contains one or more constituent particles
present at positions other than corners in addition to those at corners, it is called a
centered unit cell. Centered unit cells are of three types:
(a) Body-Centered Unit Cells: Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle (atom,
molecule or ion) at its body-center besides the ones that are at its corners.
(b) Face-Centered Unit Cells: Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle present
at the center of each face, besides the ones that are at its corners.
(c) End-Centered Unit Cells: In such a unit cell, one constituent particle is present at
the center of any two opposite faces besides the ones present at its corners.
Seven Primitive Unit Cells
Crystal system Axial distances Axial angles Examples
Cubic a=b=c = = = 90° NaCl, Zinc blende,
Cu
Tetragonal a = b c = = = 90° White tin, SnO2,
TiO2, CaSO4
Orthorhombic a b c = = = 90° Rhombic sulphur, ,
KNO3, BaSO4
Hexagonal a = b c = = 90° = Graphite, ZnO,
120° CdS,

Rhombohedral or a=b=c = = 90° Calcite (CaCO3),

Trigonal HgS
(cinnabar)
Monoclinic a b c = = 90° 90° Monoclinic
sulphur,
Na2SO4.10H2O

Triclinic a b c 90° K2Cr2O7,

CuSO4.5H2O,
H3BO3
Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell

I. Primitive Cubic Unit Cell

No. of atoms in unit cell: 8
Contribution of each atom: 1/8
No. of effective atoms in unit cell: 8*1/8 = 1 atom
II. Face-centered cubic (fcc) unit
cell
8 corners atoms × 1/8 atom per unit cell = 1 atom
6 face-centred atoms * 1/3 atom per unit cell = 3 atoms
Total number of atoms per unit cell = 4 atoms

III. Body-Centred Cubic (bcc) Unit

Cell
8 corners * 1/8 per corner atom = 1 atom
Body center atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom
Total number of atoms per unit cell = 2 atoms

A crystal has X atoms at all corners and Y Atoms at the center of the body of the unit
cell. Calculate formula of the crystal.
X atoms at all corners
Contribution = 1/8
No. of atoms = 8 * 1/8 = 1
Y atoms at center
Contribution = 1
No. of atoms = 1
X: Y= 1: 1
 XY

A crystal has A atoms at all corners and B atoms at all faces. Write the formula of the
crystal.
A atoms at all corners
Contribution = 1/8
No. of atoms = 8 * 1/8 = 1

B atoms at all faces

Contribution = 6 * 1/2 = 3
A: B = 1:3
 AB3
Atoms X at body center, Y at all corners and Z at all faces. Find the formula.
Y atoms at all corners
Contribution = 1/8
No. of atoms = 8 * 1/8 = 1
X at center
Contribution = 1
Z at all faces
Contribution = 1/2
No. of atoms = 6 * 1/2 = 3
X: Y: Z = 1:1:3
 XYZ3

Closed Packed Structures (Not too necessary)

In solids, the constituent particles are close-packed, leaving the minimum vacant
space. Let us consider the constituent particles as identical hard spheres and build up
the three-dimensional structure in three steps
a) Close Packing in One
Dimension
In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with two of its neighbors in a row. In
one dimensional close packed arrangement, the coordination number is 2.

Coordination number: The number of nearest neighbors of a particle is called its

coordination number.
b) Close Packing in Two
Dimensions
Two dimensional close packed structure can be generated by stacking (placing) the
rows of close packed spheres. This can be done in two different ways.
i. The second row may be placed
in contact with the first one such that the spheres of the second row are
exactly above those of the first row.

In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with four of its neighbors. Thus, the
two dimensional coordination number is 4. If the centers of these 4 immediate
neighboring spheres are joined, a square is formed. Hence this packing is called
square close packing in two dimensions
 ii. The second row may be placed
above the first one in a staggered manner such that its spheres fit in the
depressions of the first row.

Each sphere is in contact with six of its neighbors and the two dimensional
coordination number is 6. The centers of these six spheres are at the corners of a
regular hexagon hence this packing is called two dimensional hexagonal close
packing.

In this arrangement there is less free space and this packing is more efficient than the
square close packing.
c) Close Packing in Three
Dimensions
All real structures are three dimensional structures. They can be obtained by
stacking two dimensional layers one above the other. As close packing in two
dimensions can be of two types (Square close-packed and hexagonal close-packed),
different types of three dimensional close packing can be obtained from stacking
them.
i. Three-dimensional close
packing from stacking two-dimensional square close-packed layers: The
second layer is placed over the first layer such that the spheres of the
second layer are exactly above those of the first layer and the third layer
directly above the second layer in a similar manner and so on for the
following layers. In this arrangement spheres of all the the layers are
perfectly aligned horizontally as well as vertically. The lattice thus generated
is the simple cubic lattice, and its unit cell is the primitive cubic unit cell.
 ii. Three dimensional close
packing from two dimensional hexagonal close packed layers: Here we
obtain two types of arrangements: hcp (hexagonal closed packing) and ccp
(cubic closed packing)
hcp: The second layer of spheres is placed above the depressions of the first layer but
the third is placed in such a way that the its atoms are aligned with the atoms of the
first layer. Since the structure repeats itself after every two layers, the arrangement
for hcp is ABABAB.

ccp /fcc: The second layer of spheres is placed above the depressions of the first layer.
The third layer is stacked above the depressions of the second layer. The spheres in
the third layer are not in line with those in layer A, and the structure does not repeat
until a fourth layer is added. The fourth layer is the same as the first layer, so the
arrangement of layers is ABCABC.

Voids formed due to 3 Dimensional closed packing

Wherever a sphere of the second layer is above the void of the first layer (or vice
versa) a tetrahedral void is formed. These voids are called tetrahedral voids because a
tetrahedron is formed when the centers of these four spheres are joined.

When the triangular voids in the second layer are above the triangular voids in the
first layer, and the triangular shapes of these do not overlap. One of them has the
apex of the triangle pointing upwards and the other downwards. Such voids are
surrounded by six spheres and are called octahedral voids.

The number of these two types of voids depend upon the number of close packed
spheres.
Let the number of close packed spheres be N, then:
The number of octahedral voids generated = N
The number of tetrahedral voids generated = 2N
A compound has two elements X and Y. Y (Anions) make ccp arrangement and X
(Cations) occupy all octahedral voids. Write formula of compound.
Anion Y in ccp: Cation X in O.V.
We know No. of octahedral voids is equal to the no. of atoms in arrangement (ccp)
 X: Y = 1:1
=XY

Atoms of element B form hcp lattice and A occupy 2/3 tetrahedral voids. What is the
formula of compound formed by A and B
B in hcp: A in 2/3 of T.V.
No. of tetrahedral voids
= 2 * no. of O.V.
= 2 * no. of atoms
(Suppose no. of atoms = 1)
=2*1=2
 A: B =2/3 * 2: 1
 A: B = 4/3: 1
 A: B = 4: 3
 A4B3
A atoms in ccp arrangement B atoms in O.V. Find formula
No. of octahedral voids = No. of atoms = 1 (Supposing)
B is in octahedral voids
So B = 1
 A: B = 1:1
 AB
A atoms in ccp arrangement, B in 1/3 T.V. Find formula.
No. of tetrahedral voids = 2 * No. of O.V. = 2 * No. of atoms = 2 * 1 (Suppose) = 2
B is in 1/3 of T.V. of A, so B = 1/3 * 2 = 2/3
 A:B = 1: 2/3
 A: B = 3: 2
 A3B2
A compound is made up of element A and B. A is present at all corners as well as face
centered. B is present at edge center as well as at body centers. Find formula.
A = 8 * 1/8 + 6 * 1/2 = 4
B = 12 * 1/4 + 1 = 4
 A:B = 4: 4
 A: B = 1: 1 => AB
Packing Efficiency
Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space filled by the particles in a closed
packed structure

Packing efficiency = Volume occupied by spheres in the unit cell * 100 %

Total volume of the unit cell

Packing Efficiency in hcp and ccp/ fcc Structures

Let the side of an unit cell = a
And diagonal AC = b
Now, in ∆ ABC,
AB is perpendicular, DC is base and AC is diagonal

Packing efficiency of body centered cubic (bcc) structure:

In body centered cubic unit cell, one atom is present in body center apart from
4 atoms at its corners. Therefore, total number of atoms present in bcc unit
cell is equal to 2.
Let a unit cell of bcc structure with side a.
Let FD (diagonal) = b and diagonal AF = c
Let the radius of atom present in unit cell = r
Now, in ∆EFD,

After substituting the value of a from equation (vi) we get:

Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice

A unit cell of simple cubic lattice contains one atom.

Let the side of a simple cubic lattice is ‘a’ and radius of atom present in it is ‘r’. Since,
edges of atoms touch each other, therefore, a = 2r
Density of unit cell (Note: In numerical, convert a into cm or final answer must contain cm)
Consider edge length of a unit cell of a cubic crystal a, d the density of the solid
substance and M the molar mass.
Volume of a unit cell = a3
Mass of the unit cell = number of atoms in unit cell × mass of each atom = z × m
(Here z is the number of atoms present in one unit cell and m is the mass of a single atom )

Mass of an atom present in the unit cell:

m=M
NA
(M is molar mass)

Therefore, density of the unit cell

= mass of unit cell = z.m = z.M
Volume of unit cell a3 a3.NA
Or d = zM
a3.NA
An element has a body-centred cubic (bcc) structure with a cell edge of 288 pm. The
density of the element is 7.2 g/cm3. How many atoms are present in 208 g of the
element?
Volume of the unit cell = (288 pm)
Volume of 208 g of the element = mass = 208g = 28.88 cm3
Density 7.2 g cm3
Number of unit cells in this volume
= 28.88cm3 = 12.08×1023 unit cells
2.39 * 10-23 / unit cell
Since each bcc cubic unit cell contains 2 atoms, therefore, the total number of atoms
in 208 g = 2 (atoms/unit cell) × 12.08 × 1023unit cells
= 24.16×1023 atoms
X-ray diffraction studies show that copper crystallizes in an fcc unit cell with cell edge
of 3.608×10-8 cm. In a separate experiment, copper is determined to have a density of
8.92 g/cm3, calculate the atomic mass of copper.
In case of fcc lattice, number of atoms per unit cell, z = 4 atoms
Therefore, M = dNAa3
Z
= 8.92g cm * 6.022 * 1023 atoms mol-1 * (3.608 * 10-8 cm)3
-3

4 atoms
= 63.1 g/mol
Atomic mass of copper = 63.1u
Silver forms ccp lattice and X-ray studies of its crystals show that the edge length of
its unit cell is 408.6 pm. Calculate the density of silver (Atomic mass = 107.9 u).
Since the lattice is ccp, the number of silver atoms per unit cell = z = 4
Molar mass of silver = 107.9 g mol–1 = 107.9×10-3 kg mol–1
Edge length of unit cell = a = 408.6 pm = 408.6×10–12 m
Density, d = z.M
a3 NA
= 4 * (107.9 * 10-3 kg mol-1) = 10.5 * 103 kg m-3
(408.6 * 10-12 m)3 (6.022 * 1023 mol-1)
= = 10.5 g cm-3

Some Important relations between edge length a, radius of atom r, distance

between atoms d
Cubic unit cell Distance between Radius r No. of atoms
neighboring atoms
d
Simple d=a r = a/2 1
bcc d = √3 * a r = √3 * a 2
2 4
fcc d = a/√2 r= a 4
2√2

CsCl has bcc arrangement and its edge length is 400pm. Calculate interionic distance
d = √3 * a
2
= √3 * 400 = 346.4 pm
2
Li forms bcc arrangement. Calculate atomic radius of Li if length of side is 351pm
r = √3 * a
4
= √3 * 351 = 151.8pm
4
Gold r = 0.144nm crystalizes in fcc unit cell. What is the length of side of unit cell?
r=a
2√2
a = 2√2 * 0.144
=0.407nm

Imperfections in Solids or Crystal defects

Irregularity in the arrangement of constituent particles in solids is called crystal defect
or imperfection in solids. There are two types of crystal defects - Point Defects and
Line Defects.
Point Defects: Irregularities or deviation from ideal arrangement of constituent
particles around the point or atom in a crystalline solid is known as point defects.
Line Defects: Irregularities or deviation from ideal arrangement of constituent
particles in entire row of lattice is known as line defects.
Point Defects: Point Defects are divided into three types:
i. Stoichiometric Defects
ii. Non-stoichiometric Defects
iii. Impurities Defects
Stoichiometric defects
1. These are the point defects
that do not disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.
2. They are also called intrinsic or
thermodynamic defects.
3. Basically these are of two
types, vacancy defects and interstitial defects.
4. When some of the lattice sites
are vacant, the crystal is said to have vacancy defect. This results in decrease in
density of the substance. This defect can also develop when a substance is
heated.

5. When some constituent

particles (atoms or molecules) occupy an interstitial site, the crystal is said to
 have interstitial defect. This defect increases the density of the substance.

6. Vacancy and interstitial defects

are shown by non-ionic solids.
7. In case of Ionic solids which
have to always maintain electrical neutrality, rather than simple vacancy or
interstitial defects, they show these defects as Frenkel and Schottky defects.
a. Shottky defect
1. In order to maintain electrical
neutrality, the number of missing cations and anions are equal.
2. Holes are created in the crystal
lattice.
3. So it is also called vacancy
defect.
4. Density decreases due to
Schottky defect.
5. Conditions: The size of cation
and anion must be same.
The compound must have high coordination number.
6. Examples: NaCl, KCl, CsCl and
AgBr.

b. Frenkel Defect
1. The smaller cation is dislocated
from its normal site to an interstitial site.
2. It creates a vacancy defect at
its original site and an interstitial defect at its new location.
 3. It does not change the density
of the solid.
4. Frenkel defect is also called
dislocation defect.
5. Conditions: Compound must
have high coordination number.
Cation should be smaller than anion.
6. Examples: ZnS, AgCl, AgBr and
AgI.

Non-Stoichiometric Defects
I. Metal excess defect, which is of
two types
a. Anion Vacancy
1. In this case, anions leave their
lattice sites creating holes in which the electrons of their respective
anions are left behind to maintain the electrical neutrality.
2. This type of defect is observed
in those crystals which are likely to form Schottky Defects.

b. Cation Excess: In this case,

there are extra positive ions occupying interstitial sites and the
electrons occupy other interstitial sites to maintain electrical
neutrality. It is similar to Frenkel defect
 II. Metal deficiency defect
a. Cation Vacancy
1. The positive ions are missing
from their lattice sites. The extra negative charge is balanced by
adjacent metal ion acquiring two positive charges instead of one.
2. This type of defect is possible
in metals which show variable oxidation states. e.g.: Cu2+, Cu3+,
Fe2+, Fe3+

Fig.: Cation vacancy defect

b. Anion excess
1. In the case, the extra anions
may be occupying interstitial positions. The extra negative charge is
balanced by the extra charges on the adjacent metal ions.
2. Such type of defect is not
common because the negative ions usually very large and they
cannot easily fit into the interstitial sites.

III. Impurity Defect

This defect arises when we add certain impurities to the solid. This is also called
Doping. In these defects, the impurity ions have different valencies than host ions.
Example: Addition of SrCl2 as impurity in NaCl Crystal.
This defect leads to increased conductivity in the solid.

Name a crystal that shows both Frenkel and Schottky defect.

AgBr
Which type of defect is shown by alkali metal halides?
Schottky Defect, as the size of anion and cation are nearly same.

Why NaCl Crystals become yellow in color when heated in atmosphere of Na vapors?
When crystals of NaCl are heated in an atmosphere of sodium vapors, the sodium
atoms are deposited on the surface of the crystal.
The Cl– ions diffuse to the surface of the crystal and combine with Na atoms to give
NaCl.
This happens by loss of electron by sodium atoms to form Na+ ions. The released
electrons diffuse into the crystal and occupy anionic sites.
As a result the crystal now has an excess of sodium.
The anionic sites occupied by unpaired electrons are called F-centers.
They impart yellow color to the crystals of NaCl.
The color results by excitation of these electrons when they absorb energy from the
visible light falling on the crystals.

Why LiCl Crystals become pink in color when heated in atmosphere of Li?
Due to F- centers. Similar explanation as above.

Why Zinc oxide which is white in color turns yellow and conducting in nature when
heated?
Zinc oxide is white in color at room temperature. On heating it loses oxygen and turns
yellow.

Now there is excess of zinc in the crystal and its formula becomes Zn1+xO. The excess
Zn2+ ions move to interstitial sites and the electrons to neighboring interstitial sites.
These electrons are responsible for conductivity and color.

Electrical properties of solids

Solids exhibit a wide range of electrical conductivities varying from 10–20 to
107 ohm–1 m-1. Solids can be classified into three types on the basis of their
conductivities.
i. Conductors: The solids with conductivities ranging
between
10 to 107 ohm–1m–1 are called conductors. Metals have conductivities of
4

107 ohm–1m–1 are good conductors.

ii. Insulators: These are the solids with very low

conductivities ranging between 10–20 to 10–10 ohm–1m–1.
iii. Semiconductors: These are the solids with
conductivities in the intermediate range from 10–6 to 104 ohm–1m–1.

Conduction of Electricity in Metals

i. Metals conduct electricity in solid as well as molten
state.
ii. The conductivity of metals depend upon the number
of valence electrons available per atom.
iii. The atomic orbitals of metal atoms form molecular
orbitals which are so close in energy to each other as to form a band.
iv. There are two types of bands: Conductance and
valence bands.
v. If the valence band is partially filled or it overlaps with
a higher energy unoccupied conduction band, then electrons can flow easily
under an applied electric field and the metal shows conductivity.
vi. If the gap between filled valence band and the next
higher unoccupied band (conduction band) is large, electrons cannot jump
to it and such a substance has very small conductivity and it behaves as an
insulator.
vii. In case of semiconductors, the gap between the
valence band and conduction band is small. Therefore, some electrons may
jump to conduction band and show some conductivity.
What are intrinsic semiconductors?
An intrinsic semiconductor is the pure form of semiconductor. Example: silicon,
germanium.

Doping of intrinsic semiconductors

The conductivity of these intrinsic semiconductors is too low to be of practical use.
Their conductivity is increased by adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity.
This process is called doping. Doping can be done with an impurity which is electron
rich or electron deficient as compared to the intrinsic semiconductor silicon or
germanium.

a. n-type:
1. Silicon and germanium belong to group 14 of the
periodic table and have four valence electrons
each.
2. In their crystals each atom forms four covalent
bonds with its neighbors.
3. When doped with a group 15 element like P or
As, which contains five valence electrons, they
occupy some of the lattice sites in silicon or
germanium crystal.
4. Four out of five electrons are used in the
formation of four covalent bonds with the four
neighboring silicon atoms.
5. The fifth electron is extra and becomes
delocalized.
6. These delocalized electrons increase the
conductivity of doped silicon (or germanium).
7. Here the increase in conductivity is due to the
negatively charged electron, hence silicon doped
with electron-rich impurity is called n-type
semiconductor.
 b. p-type:
1. Silicon or germanium can also be doped with a
group 13 element like B, Al or Ga which contains
only three valence electrons.
2. The place where the fourth valence electron is
missing is called electron hole or electron vacancy.
3. An electron from a neighboring atom can come
and fill the electron hole, but in doing so it would
leave an electron hole at its original position.
4. If it happens, it would appear as if the electron
hole has moved in the direction opposite to that of
the electron that filled it.
5. Under the influence of electric field, electrons
would move towards the positively charged plate
through electronic holes, but it would appear as if
electron holes are positively charged and are
moving towards negatively charged plate.
6. This type of semiconductors are called p-type
semiconductors.
Application Of n-type and p-type
What do you mean by a Diode? What is its use?
Diode is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a rectifier.
What is a transistor? What is it used for?
Transistors are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of semiconductor between
two layers of the other type of semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are
used to detect or amplify radio or audio signals.
What is a photo diode?
The solar cell is an efficient photo-diode used for conversion of light energy into
electrical energy.
What do you mean by 13-15 or 12-16 compounds? Give their examples?
Germanium and silicon are group 14 elements and therefore, have a characteristic
valence of four and form four bonds as in diamond. A large variety of solid state
materials have been prepared by combination of groups 13 and 15 or 12 and 16 to
simulate average valence of four as in Ge or Si to imitate the characteristics of these
semiconductors
Typical compounds of groups 13 – 15 are InSb, AlP and GaAs. Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
semiconductors have very fast response.
ZnS, CdS, CdSe and HgTe are examples of 12 – 16 compounds.

What type of bonding is present in the above compounds?

In these compounds, the bonds are not perfectly covalent and the ionic character
depends on the electronegativities of the two elements.

Give examples of any three metallic oxides which behave as metals.

TiO, CrO2 and ReO3
Name the metal oxide which behave like copper.
ReO3
Name the oxides which show metallic or insulating properties depending on
temperature.
VO, VO2, VO3 and TiO3
Magnetic properties of solids
1. Every substance has some
magnetic properties associated with it.
2. The origin of these properties
lies in the electrons.
3. Each electron in an atom
behaves like a tiny magnet.
4. Its magnetic moment
originates from two types of motions:
i. Its orbital motion around the
nucleus.
ii. Its spin around its own axis.
5. Electron being a charged
particle and undergoing these motions can be considered as a small loop of
current which possesses a magnetic moment.
6. Thus, each electron has a
permanent spin and an orbital magnetic moment associated with it.
7. Magnitude of this magnetic
moment is very small and is measured in the unit called Bohr magneton, µB. It
is equal to 9.27 × 10–24A m2.
On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be classified into five
categories:
1. Paramagnetism: Paramagnetic
substances are weakly attracted by a magnetic field. They are magnetised in a
magnetic field in the same direction. They lose their magnetism in the absence
of magnetic field. Paramagnetism is due to presence of one or more unpaired
electrons which are attracted by the magnetic field. E.g. O2 , Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+

2. Diamagnetism: Diamagnetic
 substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field. They are weakly
magnetised in a magnetic field in opposite direction. All the electrons are
paired and there are no unpaired electrons. Pairing of electrons cancels their
magnetic moments and they lose their magnetic character. E.g. H2O, NaCl and
C6H6

3. Ferromagnetism: These are

attracted very strongly by a magnetic field and can be permanently
magnetised. In solid state, the metal ions of ferromagnetic substances are
grouped together into small regions called domains. Thus, each domain acts as
a tiny magnet. In an unmagnetised piece of a ferromagnetic substance the
domains are randomly oriented and their magnetic moments get cancelled.
When the substance is placed in a magnetic field all the domains get oriented
in the direction of the magnetic field and a strong magnetic effect is produced.
This ordering of domains persist even when the magnetic field is removed and
the ferromagnetic substance becomes a permanent magnet. E.G. iron, cobalt,
nickel, gadolinium and CrO2

4. Antiferromagnetism: These
have domain structure similar to ferromagnetic substance, but their domains
are oppositely oriented and cancel out each other's magnetic moment. E.g.
MnO, MnO2, MnO3.

5. Ferrimagnetism: In this type,

the magnetic moments of the domains in the substance are aligned in parallel
and anti-parallel directions in unequal numbers. They are weakly attracted by
magnetic field as compared to ferromagnetic substances. E.g. Fe3O4
(magnetite) and ferrites like MgFe2O4 and ZnFe2O4.

What happens when ferro- or ferri- magnetic substances are heated at 850K?
These substances become paramagnetic due to alignment of their spins.