The Effect of Gating System Design on the Quality of

Aluminum Gravity Castings

Ricardo Fuoco
Edison Roberto Corrêa
IPT – Technological Research Institute
São Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT

Main aspects of molten aluminum oxidation during mold pouring and the subsequent possible problems
in the aluminum cast parts are presented. The general guidelines for designing non-pressurized gating
systems for aluminum gravity castings are described. The critical regions of the non- pressurized gating
systems concerning turbulence generation and air aspiration are described.
New concepts on gating system design based on thin and wide cross section (“slim”) gates are presented
and a new improved gating system design method is discussed.
Some case histories of castings with problematic gating systems and respective successful redesign are
presented.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that liquid aluminum has a high susceptibility to the formation of oxides (1). Thus, solid
oxide films form within milliseconds after exposition to air (2).

The alumina or the spinel films acts as a protective layer against continuous oxidation, preventing a
catastrophic oxidation of the bulk melt (2,3).

However, the oxide film is weak and some stirring of the melt always occurs, leading to frequent
disruptions of the film. As a consequence, there is a very strong tendency to incorporate oxide films to the
bulk melt, followed by the formation of new oxide films on the melt surface.

The formation and incorporation of oxides are critical in some foundry operations involving metal
turbulence such as induction melting, melt skimming, melt transfer (loading) and mold pouring. After
these operations, the fragments of oxide films become dispersed in the melt and the natural sedimentation
of these oxide films occurs slowly, since their specific gravity is slightly higher than that of the liquid
aluminum (2,3).

If this “dirty” melt is poured into the molds, the resulting aluminum castings will have an abundance of
randomly distributed oxide films with different sizes, as presented in the Figure 1. In addition to a
reduced fluidity, this condition tends to produce castings with low ductility, low ultimate tensile strength
and fatigue resistance, as well as poor pressure-tightness (3-9).

In order to minimize these problems, the melt cleaning must be one of the very last foundry operations.
This is normally obtained by rotor impeller degassing in the holding furnace, causing the flotation of the
dispersed oxide films (9,10).

After cleaning, the melt transference from the holding furnace to the pouring ladle is considered a non
critical operation, provided the metal is spooned from the furnace with a casting ladle, without pouring.

The last operation, mold pouring, must be performed taking all precautions to guarantee that no oxide
films incorporate into the melt. This is one of the most difficult problems to be solved in the production of
aluminum castings, due to its high sensitivity to oxidation.
 125X
Figure 1 – Microstructure of aluminum part presenting the typical aspect of an old oxide film
formed due to turbulence during the transference of molten aluminum from melting furnace to
holding furnace.

In addition, the gravity pouring process normally involves high flow velocities, which tend to cause
turbulence and air aspiration. Turbulence and air aspiration will cooperate to form and entrain oxides.
Figure 2 presents the aspects of air bubbles and of oxide films formed during the casting of an aluminum
part. The role of a properly designed gating system is to prevent turbulence and air aspiration during the
mold filling.

Alternative foundry processes have been developed, in which the filling flow velocity is better controlled
than in simple gravity pouring, thus making the production of reliable parts easier (11). Examples are tilt
pouring, counter-gravity processes and squeeze casting. Alternatively, in vacuum assisted process, as in
vacuum-high pressure die casting, the turbulence is allowed, since there is no air in the gating system and
in the mold cavity to promote bubbles and oxide formation.

500X

Figure 2 – Typical aspect of a new oxide films formed due to turbulence during mold
pouring.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
CONVENTIONAL GATING SYSTEM DESIGN

The basic purpose of the gating system design is to allow the filling of the mold cavity with clean and
uncontaminated metal, assuring that the resulting casting has no defects caused by the metal flow (9,12).

According to the recommendations for conventional gating system design presented in the literature (9,13),
non-pressurized systems should be applied to alloys that are highly sensitive to oxidation, like aluminum
alloys.

In non-pressurized systems the flow-controlling constriction (“choke”) occurs at the sprue, with cross-
sectional areas widening in the order:

SPRUE:RUNNERS:INGATES

This type of gating systems has the advantage of reducing metal velocities in the gating systems as it
approaches and enters the cavity of the castings, contributing to obtain a non turbulent filling of the
casting cavity.

The general guidelines for gating system design for gravity casting aluminum alloys presented in the
literature (9,12) are:

1. use of tapered sprue;

2. application of a well at the sprue base;
3. abrupt changes in flow direction and cross section must be avoided;
4. adoption of non-pressurized systems, normally with ratios between the cross-
sectional areas of the sprue: runners: ingates like 1:2:2, 1:2:4 or 1:4:4;
5. combination of drag runners and cope ingates;
6. bottom filling of the mold cavity.

Following these guidelines, the typical basic components of a conventional gating system for a horizontal
parted mold are presented in the Figure 3.

(9,11)
Figure 3 – Conventional gating system design recommended in the literature for highly
oxidizing alloys, like aluminum. (a) pouring basin; (b) tapered sprue; (c) sprue well;
(d) drag runner; (e) cope ingate; (f) runner extension.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
However, some of these recommendations tend to produce the effects they are intended to avoid, for
example:
(i) The sprue base well represents an abrupt change in the sprue cross section,
probably generating turbulence, as presented in Figure 4;
(ii) Non-pressurized systems impose the use of enlarged runner and ingate sections
that promote some turbulence and back filling, as presented in Figure 5, mainly
when the gating system is incompletely filled at the beginning of the pouring.

Turbulent flow and air

aspiration

Figure 4 – Schematic illustration of the turbulent movement of the metal flow due to the
abrupt enlargement of the cross section area in the sprue well.

Figure 5 - Schematic illustration of the turbulent metal flow in non-pressurized gating

system showing the problem of back filling in the runner.

Thus, the non-pressurized gating systems guarantee non-turbulent filling of the casting cavity, but
may produce air bubbles and oxide inclusions entrapment in the sprue base well, runners and
ingates, impairing the quality of the castings.

NEW CONCEPTS APPLIED TO THE GATING SYSTEM DESIGN

During mold pouring some critical features apply:

(i) Melt pouring exposes large areas of liquid metal surface to oxidation, promoting the
generation of an oxide tube around the metal stream;
(ii) During pouring, as potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy, the metal
velocity increases, reaching its maximum, normally between 200 and 300 cm/s, at
the sprue base;
(iii) The high metal velocity must be reduced in runners and ingates, in order to fill the
cavity without turbulence.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
Depending on the flow velocity, the turbulence of the liquid stream may reach the surface, leading to the
collapse of the oxide tube, causing the fragmentation and entrapment of the oxide films into the liquid.

Recently, it has been shown (12) that during mold filling, the stability of the meniscus front must be
maintained in order to avoid entrained oxides due to surface turbulence. In order to achieve this stability,
it is necessary to control the liquid velocity under approximately 50cm/s.

It is important to note that this critical velocity (50 cm/s) would correspond to a sprue height of only
1,25cm. Therefore, in most gravity castings it would be "impossible" to produce aluminum castings
without oxide films entrapment (3).

Actually, a flow velocity higher than that critical velocity may be acceptable, since the metal flow is
constrained so that the metal does not detach from the mold wall. This is obtained by means of the proper
design of the runners and of the junction between sprue and runners, as will be described subsequently.

Since there is no mold wall to constrain the metal flow as it enters the casting cavity, the metal flow
velocity must be reduced to below the critical velocity (50 cm/s) before arriving at this point.

So, the conditions to design a gating system which guarantee the production of sound aluminum castings
by gravity pouring would be:

(i) Condition 1 - The metal stream must be constrained by the gating system walls,
without detachment of its surface, whenever the metal flow velocity is high (over
50cm/s);

(ii) Condition 2 - The metal flow velocity must be reduced to under 50cm/s before
reaching the casting cavity, to prevent turbulence and air aspiration during the
cavity filling.

Considering these conditions, guidelines for improving gating system design to produce aluminum parts
by gravity pouring should be as follows:

1. The pouring height between the ladle and the mold must be as low as possible. The use
of a pouring basin is recommended (3,9,12) , since the free-falling of the metal from the
ladle until the sprue base is divided in two smaller falls (between ladle and the pouring
basin and between pouring basin and the end of the sprue);
2. The metal stream should be maintained in contact with the mold wall, mainly when the
velocity is higher than the critical one, to prevent low pressure zones and air bubbles
formation (3) ;
3. The metal stream velocity must be reduced after the sprue, reaching the casting cavity
with velocities lower than the critical one, thus inhibiting the occurrence of turbulence
(13)
.
4. The position of the gates must be planned in order to minimize the metal fall inside the
mold cavity, giving preference to bottom filling(3,9,12). Any metal front confluence
should be avoided.

The second and third guidelines are the most difficult to be attained. The main problem is - how to
reduce the metal stream velocity without causing turbulence and without increasing too much the
filling time?

Inside the sprue, the free fall of the melt accelerates the stream velocity, reducing proportionally its
transversal area (Law of Continuity). Consequently, the sprue must be tapered, in order to compensate for
the reduction of the metal stream area (3,9,12). A schematic view of this situation is presented in Figure 6.
At the sprue base, the metal stream velocity is high (normally over 200cm/s). The reduction of the flow
velocities can be obtained through the enlargement of the runner area, but this implies air entrained due to
back filling in the runner, as shown in Figure 5.

Rezvani et al (14) proposed the application of a thin filling system in order to guarantee the enlargement of
the runner cross section area without the risk of rolling back-wave. The ingate joined the system at the

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
end of the runner, as shown in Figure 7. The thickness of the runner was 6mm while the ingate had
10mm.

Air aspiration
zone

Figure 6 - Schematic illustration of the advantages of tapered sprue over a straight-sided

sprue (11). (a) Natural flow of free-falling liquid; (b) Air aspiration induced by liquid
flow in straight-sided sprue; (c) liquid flow in tapered sprue.

Figure 7 - Schematic view of non-pressurized gating system using a “slim” runner (6 mm

thick) in order to minimize the back filling problem and to allow the enlargement of
(14)
the cross section area of the runner in relation to the sprue cross section area .

The thin and wide runner increases the frictional forces reducing the metal velocity and reduces the
turbulence described by Reynold’d number since it diminishes the value of d in equations 4 and 5, as
compared to a circular cross section channel with the same area.

The thin runner also reduces the risk of the air entrapment due to the change in the direction of the metal
flow from the sprue (vertical) to the runners (horizontal), as shown in the Figure 8. The maximum
efficiency to prevent the formation of this low-pressure zone occurs with runner gate thickness similar to
the curvature of a sessile drop of the molten aluminum, around 3mm.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 (a) (b)

Figure 8 – Schematic illustration showing the changing in the direction of the metal flow in
the junction between sprue and runner. (a) with thick runner (air aspiration) and (b)
with thin runner (without low pressure zone formation).

Unfortunately, while the gate assembly proposed in Figure 7 is feasible in the case of investment
castings, it is difficult to use in molds with horizontal or vertical parting lines.

In addition, the design concept that keeps the conventional geometry of the sprue, leaving all the task of
reducing the metal flow velocity to thin runners, results in some construction limitations. For example,
consider a mold with a sprue height of 20cm and a cross section area at the end of the sprue of 1.5cm2. In
this condition, the calculated metal flow velocity would be 200cm/s at the end of the sprue base. In order
to reduce the metal flow velocity to 50cm/s the runner cross section, starting with 1,5cm2 should be
enlarged to 6 cm2. The width of the resulting thin runner, 6mm thick, would be 100mm, which is difficult
to design in vertical parting molds due to the draft angle, as shown in Figure 9.

(a) (b)

Figure 9 – Schematic illustration of the cross section view of the runner with (a) low flow
rate and (b) high flow rate. The draft angle imposes an enlargement of the runner
thickness, decreasing the efficiency of the “thin runner”, allowing the occurrence of
air aspiration in the junction of sprue and runner.

In practice, the concept of simply using thin and wide (“slim”) runners is limited to gating systems with
low flow rates.

IMPROVED GATING SYSTEM DESIGN TO THE PRODUCTION OF MORE RELIABLE

CASTINGS

The development of “slim” runners allowed the use of non- pressurized gating systems without the risk of
turbulence or air aspiration inside the gates. Thus, it became possible to design runners and ingates with
gradually increasing cross section areas without those problems as well as problems with incompletely
filled gates, like back rolling waves.

The “slim gate” solution presents some construction difficulties, except for the investment casting
process. In order to permit the application of this concept to regular permanent mold aluminum castings,
without any flow rate restriction, two new improved gating system design methodologies were developed,
as follows:

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
Gating system with thin and wide sprue associated to thin and wide runners (15) – This methodology
is based on the thin and wide (“slim”) gates concept applied to all the gating system, starting from the
sprue. As a consequence, the acceleration due to gravity is reduced and the flow velocity at the end of the
sprue is lower, so decreasing the need for reduction of velocity in the runner and ingates.

The design of the sprue must maximize the effects of surface tension and frictional forces between metal
stream and mold wall, using a very thin rectangular cross section, as presented in Figure 10. If necessary,
an additional reduction of the metal velocity in the runner and ingates could be obtained through
enlargement of the cross section area (non-pressurized gating system), but the enlargement ratio is small
compared to systems without thin sprue.

Figure 10 – Schematic view of the tapered “slim” sprue associated to “slim” runner and
ingate, designed to maximize the effect of frictional forces and to reduce the metal
flow velocity.

Since this concept of gating system design is based on the use of frictional forces to reduce the metal
velocity, the flow rate will be reduced too, which can bring the problem of incomplete filling of the
cavity. So, practical application of this concept of gating systems must be accompanied by adjustments in
metal temperature and initial flow rate in order to allow the complete filling of the cavity.

The combination of “slim” sprue and runners was successfully tested in practical applications, some of
which are reported in this article.

Gating system with ceramic filter (15,16) - Another way to reduce the flow velocity is the use of ceramic
foam filters. However, most of the literature recommendations concerning filter usage suggest a cross
section expansion before the filter and a respective reduction after it. As a consequence, the flow velocity
is reduced before the filter and increased after the filter, creating a potential for turbulence during the
filling of the cavity. The associated problems required further development of the method.

This methodology is based on placing the filter in the runner or in the ingate, enlarging the gates after the
filter. The single application of a ceramic foam filter imposes some reduction in the metal stream
velocity. In addition, the runner cross section area after the filter can be designed to restrict the stream
velocity under 50cm/s, as can be seen in Figure 11.

High enlargement ratios of the cross section before and after the filter could produce turbulence due to
back filling in the very first portion of metal. However, practical application of this design concept in the
aluminum casting production resulted in reduction of leak-tightness defects.

For vertically parted molds, the use of a horizontally placed foam filter, positioned directly in the ingate,
as presented in the Figure 12, would reduce the problem of incompletely filled gates.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 Figure 11 - Schematic view of gating system with foam filter in the runner. The sprue is
tapered. The runner cross section area before the filter
(A) is similar to that of the sprue base. Just before the filter and after the filter (B),
the cross section area is designed to keep the metal flow velocity lower than
50cm/s. The maximum enlargement ratio angle before the filter is 30°.

Figure 12 - Schematic view of gating system with foam filter in the ingate. The sprue is
tapered, the runner cross section area is similar to that of the sprue base. The cross
section area of the ingate before and after the filter is designed to keep the metal
flow velocity lower than 50cm/s.

CASE HISTORIES ON IMPROVEMENTS IN GATING SYSTEM DESIGN

CASE HISTORY # 1

ν Part: Pistons for automotive gasoline engine.

ν Process: Vertical parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: Rectangular cross section straight sprue with fiber glass screen
at the bottom of the sprue and rectangular straight runners, as shown in Figure 13.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Large number of small air bubbles observed in the
head of the pistons (Figure 14), which promoted fatigue crack initiation during field
tests (Figure 15).
ν Improved gating system: Application of the concept of tapered “slim” sprue
associated with “slim” runners, without fiber glass screen (Figure 16 with vertical
straight thin runner and Figure 17 with tapered horizontal “slim” runner).

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
Figure 13 – Initial gating system applied to piston production in vertical parting line gravity
permanent mold. Rectangular cross section straight sprue with fiber glass screen at
the bottom of the sprue and rectangular straight runners.

250X

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 14 – Typical aspect of small air bubbles in the head of pistons after machining,
observed without magnification (a), in optical microscope (b) and in the scanning
electron microscope (c).

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 (a) (b)

Figure 15 – Aspect of the fracture surface of a broken piston during field test due to fatigue
crack propagation (a). The crack nucleated at an air bubble in the head of the piston,
as observed in S.E.M. (b).

Figure 16 – Improved gating system applied to the production of pistons in vertical parting
line gravity permanent mold. Tapered “slim” sprue associated to vertical straight
thin runners. No fiber glass screen is used.

Figure 17 – Improved gating system applied to the production of pistons in vertical parting
line gravity permanent mold. Tapered “slim” sprue associated to tapered horizontal
“slim” runners. No fiber glass screen is used.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
CASE HISTORY # 2

ν Part: Clutch case for truck diesel engine (Figure 18).

ν Process: Horizontal parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: Three rectangular cross section straight sprue connected to riser
and than to the part, as shown in Figure 19.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Large number of small air bubbles and oxide
inclusions near the ingate regions (Figure 20) observed after machining which could
reduce the mechanical performance of the case.
ν Improved gating system: Three tapered “slim” sprues associated with “slim” runners
designed to present similar flow rate than before (Figure 21).

Figure 18 – Aspect of the clutch case produced using horizontal parting line gravity
permanent mold.

Figure 19 – Initial gating system, comprising three rectangular cross section straight sprues
connected to risers and then to the part.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 125X

Figure 20 – Micrography showing the aspect of air bubbles and oxide inclusions due to
turbulent filling of the cavity.

Figure 21 – Improved gating system, constituted by three tapered “slim” sprues associated
with “slim” runners designed to maintain the flow rate as before.

CASE HISTORY # 3

ν Part: Clutch case cover for truck diesel engine.

ν Process: Vertical parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: Rectangular cross section straight sprue, connected directly to
the riser and then to the part, as shown in Figure 22 right.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Large number of small air bubbles and oxide
inclusions near the ingate region (Figures 23 and 24). The defect was observed after
machining and could reduce the mechanical performance of the part.
ν Improved gating system: Tapered “slim” sprue associated with vertical thin runner
designed to keep the flow rate unchanged (Figure 22 left).

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 Improved gating system Initial gating system

Figure 22 – Aspect of the clutch case cover produced using vertical parting line gravity
permanent mold. Initial gating system was constituted by rectangular cross section
straight sprue connected to riser and then to the part (right) and the improved
gating system is constituted by tapered “slim” sprue associated with vertical “slim”
ingate (left).

Figure 23 – Typical aspect of small air bubbles near the ingate regions observed after
machining.Figure 24 – Micrography showing the aspect of air bubbles and oxide
inclusions due to turbulent filling of the cavity.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 125X

Figure 24 – Micrography the aspect of air bubbles and oxide inclusions due to turbulent
filling of the cavity.

CASE HISTORY # 4

ν Part: Motorcycle wheel.

ν Process: Horizontal parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: One circular cross section straight sprue, as shown in Figure
25.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Oxide inclusions near the ingate regions (Figures
26), which nucleate fatigue crack during mechanical testing (Figure 27).
ν Improved gating system: Two tapered circular sprues associated with ceramic foam
filter in the runner (Figure 28).

BIZ

Figure 25 – Initial gating system applied to motorcycle wheel production uising horizontal
parting line gravity permanent mold. One circular cross section straight sprue that
works also as a riser.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 750X

Figure 26 – Typical aspect of new oxide inclusion formed due to the turbulent filling of the
casting cavity. The oxide film nucleates a fatigue crack during mechanical testing.
S.E.M.

2.000X

Figure 27 – Typical aspect of the fatigue surface of the wheel nucleated at the oxide
inclusion. S.E.M.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 Figure 28 – Improved gating system applied to the production of wheels using horizontal
parting line gravity permanent mold. Two tapered circular sprues associated with
ceramic foam filter in the runner.

CASE HISTORY # 5

ν Part: Engine bracket for automotive engine.

ν Process: Vertical parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: One rectangular cross section straight sprue associated with
runners with curves designed to reduce the metal velocity before reaching the mold
cavity, as shown in Figure 29.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Oxide inclusions (Figures 30), which nucleate
fatigue crack during mechanical testing.
ν Improved gating system: Same rectangular tapered sprue as before, with ceramic
foam filter in the bottom, associated to straight thin runners (Figure 31).

Figure 29 – Initial gating system applied to automotive engine bracket production using
vertical parting line gravity permanent mold. One rectangular cross section straight
sprue associated with runners with curves designed to reduce the metal velocity
before reaching the casting cavity.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 200X

Figure 30 – Micrography showing the aspect of air bubbles and oxide inclusions due to
turbulent filling of the cavity.

Figure 31 – Improved gating system applied to the production of automotive engine bracket
using vertical parting line gravity permanent mold. Same rectangular tapered sprue
as before (Figure 29), with ceramic foam filter in the bottom, associated to straight
thin ingate.

CASE HISTORY # 6

ν Part: Cover for boat rear engine.

ν Process: Vertical parting line gravity permanent mold.
ν Initial gating system: One circular cross section straight sprue, as shown in Figure
32.
ν Problem observed in the parts: Numerous small air bubbles (Figure 33 ) and oxide
inclusions near the ingate regions (Figure 34 ) observed after machining, which could
reduce the mechanical performance of the case.
ν Improved gating system: One rectangular tapered sprue associated with ceramic foam
filter in the runner (Figure 35).

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
Figure 32 – Initial gating system applied to boat rear engine cover production using vertical
parting line gravity permanent mold. One circular cross section straight sprue.

Figure 33 – Metallographic specimen showing the typical aspect of small air bubbles
observed after machining, near the ingate area.

250
Figure 34 - Micrography showing the aspect of air bubbles and oxide inclusions due to
turbulent filling of the cavity.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings
 Figure 35 – Improved gating system with one rectangular tapered sprue associated with
ceramic foam filter in the runner

REFERENCES

Turkdogan, E. T. - Physical Chemistry of High Temperature Technology - Academic Press, 1980.

Crepeau, P. N. - Molten Aluminum Contamination - Gas, Inclusions and Dross - Proceedings of 4th
International Conference on Molten Aluminum Processing, AFS, Orlando, Florida, November
12-14,1995.
Campbell, J. - Castings - Butterworth Heinemann, 1991.
Green, N. R. and Campbell, J. - Influence of Oxide Film Filling Defects on the Strength of Al-7Si-Mg
Alloy Castings - AFS Transactions, 1994, p.341-7.
Nyahumwa, C.; Green, N. R. and Campbell, J. - Effect of Mold Filling Turbulence on Fatigue Properties
of Cast Aluminum Alloys, Paper presented at 102nd AFS Casting Congress, Atlanta, Georgia,
May 10-13, 1998.
Polich, R.F.; Sounders, A. Jr. and Flemings, M.C. - Gating Premium Quality Castings, AFS Transactions
1963, p. 418-26.
Chandley, G.D. and Flemings, M.C. - Gating Premium Quality Castings, AFS Transactions, 1988, p.121-
8.
Askeland, D.R.; Patel, D.S. and Wolf, R.V. - The Effect of Gating on the Soundness of Aluminum Alloy
Permanent Mold Castings, AFS Transactions, 1975, p. 91-9.
Jorstad, J. - Aluminum Casting Technology – AFS 2nd Edition, 1993, p.353.
Gruzleski, J.E. and Closset, B.M. - The Treatment of Liquid Aluminum-Silicon Alloys, AFS, 1990, p.254.
Metals Handbook - Vol. 15 Casting, ASM, 1988.
Runyoro, J.; Boutorabi, S. M. A. & Campbell, J. - Critical Gate Velocities for Film-Forming Casting
Alloys; A Basis for Process Specification - AFS Transactions, 1992, p.225-34.
Gouwens, P. R. and Gouwens, L. A. - Controlled Pouring for Aluminum Casting Production - Proc. of
4th Int. Conf. on Molten Aluminum Processing, AFS, Orlando, Florida, November 12-14,1995.
Rezvani, M.; Yang, X. and Campbell, J. - The Effect of Ingate Design on the Strenght & Reliability of Al
Castings, Paper presented at 103rd AFS Casting Congress, Saint Louis, MO, March 13-16, 1999.
Fuoco, R.; Cabezas, C.S.; Corrêa, E.R. and Bastos, M.A. - Study on gating system design for aluminum
gravity casting using water models, Proc. Of the 1St International Conference on the Gating,
Filling and Feeding of Aluminum Castings, Nashville TN, October 11-13, 1999.
Sirrel, B and Campbell, J. - The Mechanism of Filtration in the Reduction of Casting Defects due
to Surface Turbulence During Mold Filling. Proc. Of the 101st AFS Casting Congress,
Seattle, WA, April 20-23, 1999.

The effect of gating system design on the quality of aluminum gravity castings