BOILER

A boiler is a device for heating water and generating steam above atmospheric
pressure. The boiler consists of a compartment where the fuel is burned and a
compartment where water can be evaporated into steam. The hot water or steam is
used to transfer heat to a process

STEAM TO PROCESS

EXHAUST GAS VENT

STACK DEAERATOR

Economizer
PUMPS

VENT

BOILER BURNE
R WATER
SOURCE
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR FUEL

BRINE

CHEMICAL FEED
SOFTENERS

Figure: Schematic overview of a boiler room

Boiler Mountings and Accessories

 Fitting and devices which are necessary for the safety and control are knows as
boiler mountings
 Fitting or devices which are provided to increase the efficiency of the boiler and
help in the smooth working of the plant are knows as boiler accessories
• Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a
boiler.
• Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler,
also known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column is provided.
• Bottom blow down valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates
that condense and lay on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is
 usually located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to
use the pressure in the boiler to push these particulates out.
• Continuous lowdown valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape
continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated
with dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to
be carried over with the steam - a condition known as priming.
• Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.
• Steam drum internals, A series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
• Low- water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used
to turn off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once
the water goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without
water in it) it can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.
• Surface blowdown line: It provides a means for removing foam or other
lightweight non-condensable substances that tend to float on top of the water
inside the boiler.
• Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has
expelled some of its heat.
• Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A no return stop valve in the feed water
line. This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to
the top of the boiler. A top-mounted check valve is called a top feed and is
intended to reduce the nuisance of lime scale. It does not prevent lime scale
formation but causes the limescale to be precipitated in a powdery form which is
easily washed out of the boiler.
• Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundle of tubes, in the
water drum but sometime in the steam drum that De-superheated steam. This is
for equipment that doesn't need dry steam.
• Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feedwater
pH.

Steam accessories

• Main steam stop valve:

• Steam traps:
• Main steam stop/Check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.

Combustion accessories

• Fuel oil system:

• Gas system:
• Coal system:

Other essential items

• Pressure gauges:
• Feed pumps:
• Fusible plug:
 • Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
• Name plate:
• Registration plate

WATER TUBE BOILER

A water-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated
externally by the fire. Water-tube boilers are used for high-pressure boilers. Fuel
is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats up water in the steam-
generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in
the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up
the walls of the furnace to generate steam. Interior to the boiler tubes is the fluid
medium to be heated or physically altered; thus the name "water tube"

WORKING
Many water-tube boilers operate on the principle of natural water circulation (also known
as 'thermo-siphoning'). This is a subject that is worth covering before looking at the
different types of water-tube boilers that are available. Figure A helps to explain this
principle:
 Fig. A Natural water circulation in a water-tube boiler

• Cooler feed water is introduced into the team drum behind a baffle where,
because the density of the cold water is greater, it descends in the 'downcomer'
towards the lower or 'mud' drum, displacing the warmer water up into the front
tubes.
• Continued heating creates steam bubbles in the front tubes, which are naturally
separated from the hot water in the steam drum, and are taken off.

However, when the pressure in the water-tube boiler is increased, the difference between
the densities of the water and saturated steam falls, consequently less circulation occurs.
To keep the same level of steam output at higher design pressures, the distance between
the lower drum and the steam drum must be increased, or some means of forced
circulation must be introduced.

Water-tube boiler sections

The energy from the heat source may be extracted as either radiant or convection and
conduction.

The furnace or radiant section

This is an open area accommodating the flame(s) from the burner(s). If the flames were
allowed to come into contact with the boiler tubes, serious erosion and finally tube failure
would occur. The walls of the furnace section are lined with finned tubes called
membrane panels, which are designed to absorb the radiant heat from the flame.
Fig B Heat transfer in the furnace or radiant section

Convection section
This part is designed to absorb the heat from the hot gases by conduction and convection.

Large boilers may have several tube banks (also called pendants) in series, in order to
gain maximum energy from the hot gases.

Fig. C Heat transfer in the convection section

TYPES OF WATER TUBE BOILER

Water-tube boilers are usually classified according to certain characteristics, see Table E.

Table E Water-tube boiler classifications

 Longitudinal drum boiler
The longitudinal drum boiler was the original type of water-tube boiler that
operated on the thermo-siphon principle (see Figure 1).

Cooler feed water is fed into a drum, which is placed longitudinally above the
heat source. The cooler water falls down a rear circulation header into several
inclined heated tubes. As the water temperature increases as it passes up through
the inclined tubes, it boils and its density decreases, therefore circulating hot
water and steam up the inclined tubes into the front circulation header which
feeds back to the drum. In the drum, the steam bubbles separate from the water
and the steam can be taken off.

Typical capacities for longitudinal drum boilers range from 2 250 kg/h to 36 000

kg/h.

Cross drum boiler

The cross drum boiler is a variant of the longitudinal drum boiler in that the drum is
placed cross ways to the heat source as shown in Figure2. The cross drum operates on the
same principle as the longitudinal drum except that it achieves a more uniform
temperature across the drum. However it does risk damage due to faulty circulation at
high steam loads; if the upper tubes become dry, they can overheat and eventually fail.

The cross drum boiler also has the added advantage of being able to serve a larger
number of inclined tubes due to its cross ways position.

Typical capacities for a cross drum boiler range from 700 kg / h to 240 000 kg/h.
 Fig.2 Cross drum boiler

D-type boiler

This is the most common type of small-medium sized boilers, similar to the one
shown in the schematic diagram. It is used in both stationary and marine
applications. It consists of a large steam drum vertically connected to a smaller
water drum (a.k.a. mud drum) via multiple steam-generating tubes. These are
surrounded by walls made up of larger water filled tubes, which make up the
furnace.

Babcock & Wilcox boiler

This has a single drum, with feed water drawn from the bottom of the drum into
a header that supplies inclined water-tubes. The water tubes supply steam back
into the top of the drum. Furnaces are located below the tubes and drum. This
type of boiler was used by the Royal Navy's Leander class frigates. The Y160
variant used on the Batch 3 Leanders (e.g. HMS Jupiter) also incorporated
steam atomisation equipment on the fuel supply so that the diesel fuel entering
the boilers via the three main burners was atomised into a fine spray for better
flame efficiency. The superheat temperature of the Y160 was controlled
manually by the Boiler Room Petty Officer of the Watch between 7500F and
8500F and the steam supplied to the main turbines was at a pressure of 550 psi.
Bent tube or Stirling boiler

This type has three upper drums connected to two lower drums by water tubes.
These are mainly used as stationary boilers. There are also Stirling's that are
two drum, a steam drum and a mud drum. These are used mostly in industrial
settings (Paper Mills, etc). These are also a type of boiler you will see that will
burn multiple fuels, such as bark, bagasse, etc.

Cooler feed water enters the left

upper drum, where it falls due to
greater density, towards the
lower, or water drum. The water
within the water drum, and the
connecting pipes to the other
two upper drums, are heated,
and the steam bubbles
produced rise into the upper
drums where the steam is then
taken off.

The bent tube or Stirling boiler

allows for a large surface heat
transfer area, as well as
promoting natural water
circulation.
 Advantages of Stirling construction, which eliminates fire brick entirely, are:

• 100% water cooled

• 100% gas tight
• Full protection from dew point corrosion
• Ease of maintenance
• Maximum safety
• Maximum structure rigidity
• Minimum weight
• Fast erection

Yarrow Boiler
This type has three drums in a delta formation connected by
water tubes as shown in fig 9. The drums are linked by straight water tubes,
allowing easy tube-cleaning. This does however mean that the tubes enter the
drums at varying angles, a more difficult joint to caulk. Outside the firebox, a pair
of cold-leg pipes between each drum act as down comers. Due to its three drums,
the Yarrow boiler has a greater water capacity. Hence, this type is usually used in
older marine boiler applications. Its compact size made it attractive for use in
transportable power generation units during World War II. In order to make it
transportable, the boiler and its auxiliary equipment (fuel oil heating, pumping
units, fans etc.), turbines, and condensers were mounted on wagons to be
transported by rail.
Thornycroft Boiler
A single steam drum has
two sets of water tubes
either side of the furnace.
These tubes, especially the
central set, have sharp
curves as shown in fig11.
Apart from obvious
difficulties in cleaning
them, this may also give
rise to bending forces as
the tubes warm up, tending
to pull them loose from the
tube plate and creating a
leak. There are two
furnaces, venting into a
common exhaust, giving
the boiler a wide base
tapering profile.

A, D and O type Water tube Boiler

Water tube package boilers are subdivided into three classes based on the
geometry of the tubes. The .A. design has two small lower drums and a larger
upper drum for steam-water separation. In the .D. design, which is the most
common, the unit has two drums and a large-volume combustion chamber. The
orientation of the tubes in a .D. boiler creates either a left- or right-handed
configuration. It is used in both stationary and marine applications. It consists of a
large steam drum vertically connected to a smaller water drum (a.k.a. mud drum)
via multiple steam-generating tubes. These are surrounded by walls made up of
larger water filled tubes, which make up the furnace. For the .O. design, the
boiler tube configuration exposes the least amount of tube surface to radiant
heat. Rental units are often .O. boilers because their symmetry is a benefit in
transportation. FiguresA*-C*show tube configurations for each of these water
tube package boiler designs.
 Fig. A*. Configuration of tubes for Fig. B*Configuration of tubes for
.A. package watertube boiler. D. package watertube boiler.

Fig C* Configuration of tubes for .O.

package watertube boiler.

USES OF WATER TUBE BOILERS

Water-tube boilers are used in power station applications that require:

• A high steam output (up to 500 kg/s).

• High pressure steam (up to 160 bar).
• Superheated steam (up to 550°C).
• Again, their ability to work at higher pressures has led to marine boilers being almost
entirely water-tube. This change began around 1900, and traced the adoption of turbines
for propulsion rather than reciprocating (i.e. piston) engines - although water-tube boilers
were also used with reciprocating engines.
Advantages of water-tube boilers
• They have small water content, and therefore respond rapidly to load
change and heat input.
• The small diameter tubes and steam drum mean that much higher steam
pressures can be tolerated, and up to 160 bar may be used in power
stations.
• The design may include many burners in any of the walls, giving
horizontal, or vertical firing options, and the facility of control of
temperature in various parts of the boiler. This is particularly important if
the boiler has an integral super heater, and the temperature of the
superheated steam needs to be controlled.

Disadvantages of water-tube boilers

• They are not as simple to make in the packaged form as shell boilers,
which mean that more work is required on site.
• The option of multiple burners may give flexibility, but the 30 or more
burners used in power stations means that complex control systems are
necessary
• Lower tolerance for water quality and needs water treatment plant

FIRE TUBE
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat energy from
the gases passes through the sides of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating
the water and ultimately creating steam. A fire tube boiler can be either horizontal
or vertical. A fire-tube boiler is sometimes called a "smoke-tube boiler" or "shell
boiler" or sometimes just "fire pipe".

Lancashire boilers
The boiler on display in the Power Hall is a modified Lancashire boiler. It was
made by W. & J. Galloway & Sons of Knott Mill, Manchester. One side has been
cut away to reveal the internal furnace tubes.
The high efficiency of the modified Lancashire boiler was the result of more than
100years of continuous development The first Lancashire boiler was developed
in 1844 by William Fairbairn. His Lancashire boiler had twin furnace tubes side-
by-side, which gave it a much larger heating surface than that of the Cornish
boiler. The addition of 'Galloway tubes', patented in 1848, brought a further
improvement in heat transfer and fuel efficiency. These were metal tubes that
crossed the hottest part of the furnace. They improved water circulation and
increased the area of the heating surface. Galloway tubes also acted as
stiffeners and greatly strengthened the main flues against collapse.
To produce steam, coal was
shovelled through the fire doors
at the end to maintain a fire in
each of the furnace tubes. A
typical Lancashire boiler would
consume around six tons of coal
per day. The level of the water in
the cylinder which surrounded
the internal fire tubes could be
monitored by checking the glass
gauges on the front of the boiler.
The water level would be
maintained by opening the water
feed valve, as required, to
replace the water that had been
converted to steam. The steam
pressure in the boiler was
indicated by the steam pressure
gauge, which is positioned just
above the water level gauges.

Lancashire boilers were surrounded by brickwork flues. This meant that the hot
flue gases produced by burning coal could circulate under and along the sides of
the boiler before reaching the chimney. Thus, instead of escaping straight up the
chimney and being wasted, the flue gases helped to heat the water in the boiler
Vertical Fire tube boiler
Vertical Fire tube boiler (VFT) is internally fired fire-tube boiler, it consists of vertical
cylindrical shell, containing a cylinder firebox and a number of small fire tubes.

The
vertical boiler is a simple type which consists of a firebox at the bottom and a
copper barrel with a smoke tube. It typically is used to drive stationary engines
and boats. Firing is accomplished by alcohol or solid fuel pellets.
Before selecting a vertical fire-tube boiler, you must know how much overhead
space is in the building where it will be used. Since this boiler sits in an upright
position, a room with a high ceiling is necessary for its installation.

Locomotive boiler
A locomotive boiler has three main components: a double-walled firebox; a
horizontal, cylindrical "boiler barrel" containing a large number of small flue-
tubes; and a smoke box with chimney, for the exhaust gases. The boiler barrel
contains larger flue-tubes to carry the super heater elements, where present.
Forced draught is provided in the locomotive boiler by injecting exhausted
steam back into the exhaust via a blast pipe in the smoke box

In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a firebox to produce hot combustion

gases. The firebox is surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the
long, cylindrical boiler shell. The hot gases are directed along a series of fire
tubes, or flues, that penetrate the boiler and heat the water thereby generating
saturated ("wet") steam. The steam rises to the highest point of the boiler, the
steam dome, where it is collected. The dome is the site of the regulator that
controls the exit of steam from the boiler.

Schematic diagram of a "locomotive" type fire-tube boiler

Scotch marine boiler
A "Scotch" marine boiler is a design of steam boiler used for many years, mostly on
ships. The general layout is that of a squat horizontal cylinder. One or more large
cylindrical furnaces are in the lower part of the boiler shell. Above there is a large
number of small-diameter fire tubes. Gases and smoke from the furnace pass to the back
of the boiler, and then return through the small tubes and up and out of the chimney. The
ends of these multiple tubes are capped by a smoke box, outside the boiler shell.
The portable unit can
be moved easily and requires only a minimal amount of foundation work. As a complete
self-contained unit. Its design includes automatic controls a steel boiler, and burner
equipment. These features are a big advantage because no disassembly is required
when you must move the boiler into the field for an emergency.
It also has an internally fired furnace with a cylindrical
combustion chamber. Oil is the primary fuel used to fire the boiler; however. it can also
be fired with wood, coal, or gas. A major advantage of the Scotch marine boiler is that it
requires less space than a water-tube boiler and can be placed in a room that has a low
ceiling. It differs
from the Lancashire in two aspects: the notion of smaller diameter tubes to increase the
ratio of heating area to cross-section is taken even further to use a great many small
return tubes (typically 3 or 4 inches diameter each). Secondly the overall length of the
boiler is halved by folding the gas path back on itself.
Horizontal Return Tubular Boiler
In addition to operating portable boilers, such as the Scotch marine and vertical fire-
tube boilers. the Utilitiesman must also be able to operate stationary boilers, both
in the plant and in the field. A STATIONARY BOILER can be defined as one
having a permanent foundation and not easily moved or relocated. A popular type of
stationary fire-tube boiler is the HORIZONTAL RETURN TUBULAR (HRT)
boiler shown in figure 1-4

Figure 1-4.—Horizontal return tubular (HRT) fire-tube boiler.

The gas flows in the HRT boiler from the firebox to the rear of the boiler. It then returns
through the tubes to the front where it is discharged to the breaching and out the stack.
The HRT boiler has a pitch of 1 to 2 inches to the rear to allow sediment to settle toward
the rear near the bottom blow down connection. The fusible plug is located 2 inches
above the top row of tubes. Boilers over 40 inches in diameter require a manhole in the
upper part of the shell. Those over 48 inches in diameter must have a manhole in the
lower, as well as in the upper, part of the shell. Do not fail to familiarize yourself with the
location of these and other essential parts of the HRT boiler. The knowledge you
acquire will definitely help in the performance of your duties with boilers.
Cornish Boiler

The simplest form of flued boiler was Richard Trevithick's "high-pressure"

Cornish boiler of 1812. This is a long horizontal cylinder with a single large flue
containing the fire. The fire itself was on an iron grating placed across this flue,
with a shallow ashpan beneath to collect the non-combustible residue. Although
considered as low-pressure (perhaps 25 psi) today, the use of a cylindrical boiler
shell permitted a higher pressure than the earlier "haystack" boilers of
Newcomen's day. As the furnace relied on natural draught (air flow), a tall
chimney was required at the far end of the flue to encourage a good supply of air
(oxygen) to the fire.
For efficiency, the boiler was commonly encased beneath by a
brick-built chamber. Flue gases were routed through this, outside the iron boiler
shell, after passing through the fire-tube and so to a chimney that was now
placed at the front face of the boiler.
Advantages of fire tube boilers
Advantages of this design are not often realized intuitively when compared to the
water tube. The volume of fluid in the unit is roughly half the physical volume of
the entire boiler, thus control of water levels and chemistry is much more
forgiving and in need of less precision than for the typical water tube. Another
advantage is found in the ease with which a unit is manufactured and serviced.
The heat transfer tubes of the water tube boiler vary across the circumferential
span of the drums: there may be eleven or more differing tube types to assemble
in a single water tube unit. In the fire tube, each heat transfer tube is identical to
its counterparts. Manufacture and service are readily accomplished with a stock
of a single tube type. It is this simplicity which contributes to the profound
difference in life-cycle and capital cost of the fire tube

Disadvantages of the fire tube

Disadvantages of the fire tube are attributable only to ability. The limits of design
pressure, supplemental firing rates, and capacity are realized more acutely with
the fire tube than with the water tube. Design pressures above 400 psig begin to
move fire tubes outside the realm of cost-effective design as do capacities above
80,000 lb/hr and supplemental firing temperatures above 1,600 deg F. While
there are project-specific particulars which may or may not affect the overall
project feasibility of the fire tube design, the water tube often becomes the more
reasonable option as operating parameters become more adverse.
The basic difference between fire tube boilers and water tube boiler are given below
Water Tube Boilers
Suitable for high steam pressure (above 500
psig) and temperature(to 1000 F) and large
capacities exceeding millions of lb/h of steam.
Extended surfaces can be used in waste heat
applications to make the boilers compact if the
gas stream is clean.
Various types of fuels can be fired with ease
including solid, liquid and gaseous. The water
cooled membrane wall construction makes an
excellent furnace.
If the gas stream is dirty(as in MSW
applications)provision can be made for cleaning
using soot blowers or rapping mechanisms.
Wide spaced tubes can be used at the gas inlet
to minimize bridging of slag deposits and tube
spacing can be decreased as the gas is cooled.
This flexibility does not exist in fire tube
designs.
Super heaters if used can be located at the
optimum gas temperature region shielded by
any number of screen tubes. In fire tube boiler
the choice is at the gas inlet or exit.
Due to low water volume, the startup time is
lesser and response to load changes is faster
compared to fire tube boilers.
If the gas pressure is high, say above 5 psig
,the shell/casing design gets complicated and
expensive though it can be done.
Due to higher heat transfer coefficients
surface area required is lesser and hence gas
pressure drop is also lower.
For multiple pressure designs as in gas
turbine exhaust applications, water tube is the
only choice.
Fire tube Vs water tube Boiler
Fire Tube Boilers
Ideal for low pressure steam. As seen above in
the table, the tube thickness increases
significantly at high pressures if the pressure is
applied externally. The pressure can be nearly
twice in water tube designs for the same tube
thickness.
Suitable for high pressures as gas is contained
inside tubes. Hence you see more of them in
hydrogen, ammonia plants, where the gas
pressures can be in the range of 500 to 3000
psig.
When a large duty has to be transferred at a
low log-mean-temperature-difference as in gas
turbine exhaust HRSG applications, surface
area required gets enormous and very long
tubes are required, adding to the gas pressure
drop. The shell diameter becomes huge; hence
unsuitable except in very small gas turbine
Horses generating low pressure saturated
steam.
Economizer and superheated can be added but
the location for superheated is either at the gas
inlet or exit, making it difficult to come up with a
good design if corrosive conditions are present.
If slagging is a concern, then fire tube designs
are generally not suitable as the tube inlet can
be plastered with slag. The gas inlet
temperature has to be reduced through flue gas
recirculation or the gas can be cooled in an
external water cooled furnace, making it a
difficult design.
Cleaning the tubes is easier if there is no
slagging.In the case of water tube, the deposits
can be formed on both the tubes and the
casing, while in the fire tube it is only inside the
tubes.
A separate steam drum with internals is
required if good steam purity(0.05 to 1 ppm)
has to be achieved.
  Fire tubes boilers has a large volume of water, therefore more flexible and
can meet the sudden demand of steam without much drop of pressure.
 Fire tubes boiler is rigid and of simple mechanical construction, so greater
reliability and low in first cost.
 Fire tube boilers can be made in smallest sizes therefore simple to
fabricate and transport, occupies less floor space but more height.
 Due to mostly externally fired water tubes boiler so furnace can be altered
considerably to meet the fuel requirements.
 Water tubes boilers are more readily accessible for cleaning,inspection
and repairs, compared to the fire tube boilers.
 Modern trend is in the favors of water tube boiler due to continuous
increase in capacities and steam pressures.

FUELS
Many different solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels are fired in boilers. Sometimes,
combinations of fuels are used to reduce emissions or improve boiler performance. Fuels
commonly fired in boilers include fossil, biomass, and RDFs as well as other types of
fuels and fuel combinations.
Coal, petroleum-based oils, and natural gas are fossil fuels commonly fired in ICI boilers.
However, other forms of solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from these fossil fuels are
sometimes included in this category. One of these fuels, which is referred to as tire-
derived fuel (TDF), consists of shredded vehicle tires.
Another boiler fuel is referred to as biomass. Biomass is renewable organic matter.
Examples of biomass include fast-growing trees and plants, wood and wood waste,
agricultural crops and residue, aquatic plants and algae, animal wastes, and organic
municipal and industrial wastes.
RDF is a potentially valuable energy source. It consists of MSW that has been processed
using size reduction and material recovery techniques to eliminate materials such as
aluminum, steel, glass, plastic, and rock.
Common types of fuels fired in boilers are listed in Table A*.
Fuel Description
Any liquid or gaseous substance produced at chemical manufacturing plants or
By-product/waste petroleum refineries (except natural gas, distillate oil, or residual oil) and combusted in
a steam generating unit for heat recovery or for disposal.
Organic matter that is used as fuel is called biomass; biomass is a nonfossil fuel that
Biomass includes materials such as wood, biogases, nut hulls, rice hulls, corncobs, coffee
grounds, and tobacco stems
Coal is a brown-to-black combustible sedimentary rocklike material composed
Coal principally of consolidated and chemically altered plant material that grew in
prehistoric forests; it includes all solid fuel classified as anthracite, bituminous,
subbituminous, or lignite coal, coal refuse, or petroleum coke.
Waste products of coal mining, physical coal cleaning, and coal preparation operations
Coal refuse containing coal, matrix material, clay, and other organic and inorganic materials
Distillate oil Fuel oils that contain 0.05 wt % nitrogen or less and comply with the specifications for
fuel oil
Refuse, more than 50% of which is waste containing a mixture of paper, wood, yard
Municipal-type waste, food wastes, plastics, leather, rubber, and other noncombustible materials such
solid as metal, glass, and rock, which are usually removed prior to combustion
waste and RDF
A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases found in geologic formations,
Natural gas beneath the earth’s surface, of which the principal constituent is methane, or LP gas
Oil Crude oil or petroleum or a liquid fuel derived from crude oil or petroleum, including
distillate and residual oil.
Propane Propane is a heavy gaseous fossil fuel processed from crude petroleum and natural gas.
Residual oil Crude oil and fuel oil Nos. 1 and 2 that have nitrogen content greater than 0.05 wt %,
and all fuel oil
Any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from solid fuel for the purpose of creating
Solvent-derived useful heat and includes, but is not limited to, solvent-refined coal, liquefied coal, and
fuel gasified coal.
Oil that contains no more than 0.5 wt % sulfur and that, when combusted without SO2
Very low sulfur emission control, has a SO2 emissions rate equal to or less than 215 ng/J (0.5 lb/MBtu)
oil heat output.
Wood, wood residue, bark, or any derivative fuel or residue thereof, in any form,
Wood including, but not limited to, sawdust, sander dust, wood chips, scraps, slabs, millings,
shavings, and processed pellets made from wood or other forest products.
Wood residue Bark, sawdust, slabs, chips, shavings, mill trim, and other wood products derived from
wood processing and forest management operations.
Nuclear energy Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam.