The relationship between environment and animal production

J. Boyazoglu1 and A. Nardone2

Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

ABSTRACT: The relationships between breeding and feeding and the global environment for an efficient
livestock production, are analyzed. The main questions concerning the use of biotechnology in the field of evolution
and development, in relation to the environment are discussed. The increasing intensification of production
systems and the implications for the environment, welfare of animals and humans is evaluated. Animal health
matters and resources depletion in respect to the world-wide problems resulting from the exponential growth of
both population and energy consumption are presented and the need of understanding the concept of sustainable
development and its implication within specific economic and regional environmental conditions is underlined.
The importance of the existing relationship between flock/herd and its direct milieu re. the Old World’s traditional
pastoral societies and the New World’s extensive animal agriculture is presented. Finally, the growing scarcity of
water availability, which will be - more and more - the factor limiting production and affecting livestock numbers
introduced.

Key words: Environment, livestock production, biotechnology, production systems

© 2003 ALPA. Todos los derechos reservados Arch. Latinoam. Prod. Anim. 2003. 11(1): 57-64

Relación entre medio ambiente y producción animal

RESUMEN: Se analizan las relaciones entre selección y alimentación con el medio ambiente global para una
producción animal eficaz. Vienen discutidas las principales cuestiones referidas al uso de la biotecnología en el
campo de la evolución y del desarrollo en relación con el ambiente. También se hace una evaluación del aumento
de la intensificación de los sistemas de producción y de las implicaciones que conlleva para el medio ambiente.
Viene presentada la reducción en los temas referidos a la salud animal y los recursos con respecto a los problemas
más amplios a nivel mundial, que resultan del crecimiento exponencial tanto de la población como del consumo de
energía. También se subraya la necesidad de comprender el concepto del desarrollo sostenible y sus implicaciones
dentro de un marco económico específico y particulares condiciones regionales. Se presenta la importancia de la
relación existente entre los rebaños y su entorno directo, como el caso de las antiguas sociedades mundiales de
pastoralismo tradicional y la producción animal extensiva en el nuevo mundo. Por fin, se presenta la creciente
falta de disponibilidad hídrica, que será cada vez mayor, y que resulta ser el factor limitante que más afecta a la
producción animal.

Palabras clave: Ambiente, producción ganadera, biotecnología, sistemas de producción

Introduction There have been a number of bibliographic reviews

This paper does not pretend to discuss exhaustively
or even report comprehensively on the vast sector of
research and development of animal production
variation in relation to the overall environment climatic
influences, nutritional availability, human inputs, etc.,
but simply gives a personal view based on the authors’
experience.
of the various fields composing this most important
research area of livestock farming that extend back to
the scientific and technical literature of the past half
century. This can, furthermore, not be separated from
the global considerations on the interaction of genetics
and the environment, nature and nurture (Boyazoglu,
2000).
When we speak nowadays of the relationship

Recibido Mayo 09, 2002. Aceptado Diciembre 10, 2002

1
Actual address: WAAP, Via Nomentana 134, I-00162 Rome, Italy; Email: boyazoglu@eaap.org waap@waap.it
2
Instituto di Zootecnia, Universita della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy

57
58 Boyazoglu y Nardone
between breeding and feeding for efficient livestock
production, we evidently refer to the possible
interactions between what are broadly called genotype
and the level of availability of nutrition, within the
context of the broader environmental considerations
and human inputs.
Evidently today, biotechnology throws a new light
on many of the questions posed by evolution and
development in relation to the environment; both natu-
ral and human made (Cunningham, 1999). The
question has always been to know how different the
molecules of different organisms basically are and how
they adapt and develop in particular environments.
We always supposed that these were totally different
e.g. goat molecules give to the goat its basic
characteristics and pig molecules relate to swine
characterisations, we now have evidence that this might
not be so simple. Furthermore, within many species,
we now find very similar and closely related structures
that are responsible for very different functions (Jacob,
2000). Surely the very recent scientific advances in the
study of the genome will also have a direct influence
on livestock production and feed efficiency in different
environmental conditions and should thus be studied
priority-wise by animal scientists.
On the other hand, consumption of foods of animal
origin will increase considerably worldwide and thus
the tendency will be for this production to be more and
more crop-based and concentrated around major urban
centres (Van der Zijpp, 1999). This change and
intensification to crop-livestock industrialised systems,
will have implications for the environment, welfare of
animals and human health.
Sustainability, livestock
production and the environment
The expression sustainability of agricultural
production or sustainable agriculture became a key
word in the field of international aid during the 1970s.
Later on, in the 1980s, a widespread interest was
expressed in development projects and programmes
which resulted in long-term growth of the agricultural
economy. More recently, this term played, in contrario,
an important role in guiding the swing away from large
capital-intensive operations, such as irrigation dams,
large-scale intensive animal production projects and
high-profile infrastructures, to greater emphasis on
projects aimed at improving local rural resource
exploitation and living conditions as well as increasing
food supplies in Third World countries.
In agricultural development difficult decisions are
to be taken, even more so in the livestock sector, not
merely regarding what is possible in Third World
development, but also the way we can adapt to the
stress brought about by resource depletion and
environmental degradation and to the world-wide
problems resulting from the exponential growth of both
population and energy consumption. This does not
imply the need for us to abandon technology, return to
nature or introduce some idealistic form of society, but
probably the exact opposite; the problems of an
overcrowded world and rampant over-
industrialisation can only be solved by logical analysis,
the application of the best available technology and
the dedicated involvement of professionals in the
agricultural, agro-industrial and human sciences
(Boyazoglu, 1992). The recent BSE and Foot and Mouth
crisis in Europe show that the society and the
environment as a whole, are directly implicated in such
cases and that the term rural/agricultural
sustainability can change its meaning overnight.
Paraphrasing the now famous Brundtland Report,
sustainable agricultural development is a development
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. This is evidently too concise a
definition of sustainability, as a result of which a set of
analyses and a mass of articles were suddenly
published in the 1980s and 1990s about what we are
doing and where we are going; in both developed and
developing countries. Indeed, sustainable agricultural
development has become an official policy for dozens
of organisations around the world, starting with FAO.
Such a definition is neither new nor clear or
exhaustive. In many cases it turned out to be our own
worst enemy; it failed to point out the side-effects that
both the true socio-economic aspects of development
and the actual implications of aggressive development
policies may have on the environment. In some cases,
this became a mere theoretical race towards growth!
There seems to be the need for us to realise that
sustainable development should be a fundamentally
progressive notion which we must learn to use properly
in our work. At the same time, it is a conservative notion
in that, within the traditional framework of economic
theory, it refers to alternative economics, not an
alternative to economics. Sustainable agricultural
development does not mean that economics should be
ignored, but simply looked at from a significantly
different point of view. As a result, many common ideas
about economic growth might seem to be denied, but
economic growth is never said to be completely wrong
(Boyazoglu, 1998; Nardone, 2000).
In fact, we are still learning how to introduce the
notion of sustainable development into specific
economic and regional environmental concepts. Thus,
it is still too early to state categorically how to apply it
to developing countries in general and to the animal
 The relationship between environment and animal production
agriculture sector in particular (Morand-Fehr and
Boyazoglu, 1998).
We must recall here that until very recently in the
developed world, animal production and its related
industries have been quite traditional activities. In this
framework, time and money were not so important as
to directly affect this sector. In the late 1990s we had to
face a situation of fast growth. Our countries are mo-
ved towards heavy investments and rising labour costs
just when privatisation became the a la mode economic
word. As for the developing world and the
environmentally marginal areas, scientific advances
and the present methodology for food preservation,
processing, transport and marketing, forced us to a fast
change over from traditional to modernity, sometimes
without the necessary willingness and readiness of the
people involved. Only time will show whether this
change has been so fast as to have devastating effects
not only on traditional animal production, but also on
the environment as a whole or whether it can be
planned as an evolutionary process allowing for the
adaptation of human beings and animals to the new
socio-economic conditions and environmental changes
they both must face (Boyazoglu, 1998; Nardone and
Ronchi, 2001).
Production systems and
environmental considerations
In the early 1990s the interaction was intensified
between consumers’ demands for animal origin
products, output from the livestock production sector
and advances resulting from research. From a technical
point of view we can say that the processes for the
conservation of food for animals, better housing,
milking, etc. were developed. Development of product
preservation, low temperature control, advanced
machinery and the broad use of electric power
stimulated the expansion of intensified livestock
farming and of the modern dairy and meat industries.
This was a clear stimulus for animal agriculture. The
green revolution of the 1950s boosted animal
productivity through the intensification of product on
systems. Even more impressive results were obtained
through genetic improvement as well as better rearing
and feeding techniques (Nardone and Valfré, 1998).
Over and above the all important development of
disease control, the husbandry practices that
dominated animal agriculture in more recent years
were characterised by the improvement of the farm
animals’ individual yield (Nardone and Gibon, 2000).
In the marginal regions (e.g. Mediterranean basin)
the production system concept stresses, even more than
elsewhere, the importance of the relationship between
59
the flock/herd and its milieu. Traditionally extensive
systems of animal production share in common
characteristics: limited number of animals per unit area;
relatively limited use of advanced technology; low
productivity per animal and hectare of land; feeding
mainly based on natural grazing and the use of
agricultural/farm by-products; reduced use of fossil
energy and at least some use of rurally produced non-
fossil energy. Nevertheless, world-wide, extensive
production systems range from those making optimal
use of specific advanced technology and scientific
knowledge, at least for some phases of the production
chain (e.g. wool production in Australia and South
Africa), to systems where the livestock farmer still
follows what can be called healthy protectionism: use
of traditional production practices based on indigenous
knowledge and handed down through the ages. Many
of these traditional forms of livestock farming (e.g. sheep
and goat raising in the Mediterranean basin) were and
in many cases still are either based upon extensive
grazing if not transhumance and even nomadic
operations or mixed farming on small holdings (eg Afri-
ca and Far East Asia). They all tend to demonstrate the
benefit of optimal and efficient use of local resources in
a marginal agro-ecological environment (Galaty and
Johnson, 1990); all need to be continuously monitored
and verified. In what concerns extensive animal
husbandry in less developed regions, the current glo-
bal body of scientific knowledge on rangeland
resources is adequate to deal with the technical aspects
of rangeland management in developing areas. There
remains a need to supplement the existing
understanding of the available natural resources and
their use with indigenous knowledge and remember
that the relevance of existing wisdom would be
increased by relating it to socio-economic
considerations on a case by case basis. Local
inhabitants, well versed with local conditions, should
be used more to interact with users to better capture
indigenous knowledge and reduce communication
gaps between scientists, bureaucrats and users
(Quinlan, 1995).
We should stress here the differences between the
Old World’s pastoral societies based on thousands of
years of activities, vis-à-vis the New World’s extensive
animal agriculture structures. Range farming in the
New World is considered as an economically viable
operation linked to the opening of relatively new
grazing lands for livestock farming while, on the other
hand, pastoralism in the Old World is a long established
way of life structured by human needs and tradition
and the existing potential resources, both of vegetation
and animals. The future utilisation of these marginal
rural spaces must take into consideration the increasing
and diversified needs of all the populations evolving
60 Boyazoglu y Nardone
around these pastoral areas; this includes sport,
tourism, recreation, hunting, fishing, summer
residences and the need to improve the consumption
of natural but also traditional local products. This last
point is of major importance particularly for Europe
and the Mediterranean animal sector and refers also to
the specificity and particularity of its products, as well
as the recognition of their origin and quality (Boyazoglu
and Flamant, 1990; Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001).
Factors influencing
production systems
A production system is an ensemble of interactive
factors. The number of these factors is generally high.
This is true for animal production systems. They result
from complex actions which implicate the
transformation of inorganic substances into organic
plant material and of the latter’s transformation, with
a small amount of inorganic substances, in organic
animal material. Each of the numerous processes which
make up these steps is influenced by a number of natu-
ral and human factors (Nardone, 2000).
Among the natural factors we have the soil with its
organic, inorganic and structural features; the climate
with its various characteristic variables; the cultivated
and spontaneous plant species; the animal species and
within these, the breeds better adapted to exploit the
specific plant resources and environments. These are
natural components but result from the influence of
Climate
Sall
Plan genolype
Tillages
Animal genolype
Animal production Human
Consumption
of animal products
Trade
Animal production
systems
Figure 1. Relationships among the principal components of animal production systems (Nardone, 2000).
different human factors: culture, tradition, organisation
and social structure, economic availability, market
organisation, technological development, religion and
food habits. Today, in fact, even the state of the soil,
results partly from human influences; this is true as
well, even if in a more limited measure, for the climate.
In the literature many different schematic
representations exist illustrating the relationship
between the numerous factors which constitute an ani-
mal production system (Bettini, 1987). Figure 1 shows
an attempt to summarise this, the thinking being mainly
oriented towards the analysis of the effects of the
climatic components and of the animal genetic types in
today’s Mediterranean production systems.
Climatic conditions have overall a strong influence
on livestock production systems. According to the value
of the parameters which define them, they discriminate
by species, breed and animal type by acting directly
depending on the animals’ temperature comfort zone
or indirectly through its effects on fodder production
and on the breeding and management systems. In
extensive systems, weather conditions can even deter-
mine the need to follow or not, transhumance or
nomadic animal movements. The climate also
influences the spreading of pathogens; for instance, it
quickly destroys in dry and strongly lighted conditions
the Foot and Mouth and Newcastle viruses but favours
instead their spreading in colder and rainy
environments (Nardone, 2000).
In an early study, Malachek (1982), demonstrated
General antropic traits
Social de velop
Economy availability
Alimentary
custom Culture
Tradition
Religion
Specife anthropic traits
in agriculture
Population
zize
Organization
Professinality
Education
Services
 The relationship between environment and animal production 61

that on a world-wide basis, land supporting extensive evidently recall the growing use of a less and less
sheep and goat operations and some mixed available water for intensive irrigated crops, mainly
autochthonous grazing enterprises are among the most horticulture, and the optimisation of irrigating
degraded in terms of plant community compositions techniques.
and the site stability. These lands are unlikely to receive
much concerted attention for improved management, Climate vegetation, land use and the
especially if such management costs are high. From the
animal factor
standpoint of economic and growth, investments in
land improvements are more easily justified in areas
The combination of rainfall and seasonal
where the potential for fast response is bigger. These
temperature averages in the various sub-climates of the
are mostly lands that support cattle production. Thus,
world, controls the length of the plant growth period,
a feasible alternative for forestalling further degradation
which can be as short as 50-60 days in the coldest and
is through land, water and grazing management.
most arid parts but more than 300 days in some of the
Fortunately, grazing management plans often require
most humid and hot parts. Natural plant growth and
relatively little capital to implement, although
crop production coincides therefore, mostly with the
implementing grazing management among small
autumn and spring periods (good rainfall and not too
holders is not without limitations. Some form of strong
low temperatures). The resulting important seasonality
central organisation (e.g. Hema systems in the Arab
of production of the natural vegetation (quality and
world) is required where land is held in state or
quantity) is the main constraint on the evolution and
communal ownership and incentives to producers are
development of extensive pastures (Boyazoglu and
necessary. Evidently, it is difficult to overcome the
Flamant, 1990).
attitude in many less-developed regions, that large
Specific environmental conditions induce specific
numbers of animals represent a source of cash reserve,
plant associations. This creates particular ecosystems
a symbol of wealth and a hedge against impending
that provide the forage resources available for grazing.
droughts when major livestock losses occur. Range
The first system of natural resources to retain is the
managers need the support of sociologists and
forest, traditionally used for roaming grazing animals
economists because effective land management cannot
and as a source of combustion for the family. The
proceed in a vacuum devoid of social, economic and
second typical plant association is shrubs and
political considerations, particularly in the context of
bushlands, the nature of which depends both on climate
collective versus individual land ownership
and soil characteristics. At the two extremes of the scale
(Boyazoglu, 1982 and 1996).
of plant systems, one finds truly steppelike conditions
An interesting attempt to comparatively classify and
and the grassy pastures of the cold and rainy
quantify livestock production systems world-wide was
mountainous areas. Man evidently also plays a major
undertaken in 1996 by Seré and Steinfeld.
role, either by extensive cereal or rice growing, which
Unfortunately, it only took into consideration the
can provide fallow land for animal feeding, or by
relevant agro-ecological factors but none of the social
irrigation development, which introduces the factor of
and cultural ones influencing production systems. As
permanent pastures and the production of hay. These
an example of a simple and comprehensive presentation
natural or created animal feed resources are, in gene-
of the typology of livestock production systems, we can
ral, unequally distributed and contrasting situations
refer to the regional classification made for the Old
can be observed. These impose varying conditions on
World with specific reference to Europe and the
animal production. It is characterised by a relatively
Mediterranean basin (Boyazoglu, 1998). This shows
low quantity of arable land. As an example we can
the major role played by temperature and rainfall in
mention the Mediterranean region with which the
relation to the animal species, type used and the
authors are most acquainted.
prevailing husbandry system (Table 1).
There are great differences from one part of the basin
Today the main factor limiting production is the
to the other and a distinct seasonality of pastures and
growing scarcity of water availability. Irrigation is still
grazing growth is observed (Figure 2). Globally, while
of major importance, particularly in Asia (China and
36 percent of the region is occupied by crops, rangelands
India) and the United States of America, but while in
and forests, the remaining 64 percent represents high
1900 the irrigated area world-wide was estimated at
mountain grazing and shrubland on the European side
some 45.000.000 hectares and increased to 94.000.000
of the basin and desert and wasteland in North Africa.
in 1950 and 260.000.000 in the 1980’s, it started to de-
On the northern (European) part of the basin,
cline rapidly in the 1990s. The FAO projections for 2020
permanent grazelands and pastures cover about a
show that it could, under pressure, diminish to
quarter of the total land, but grazing animals (small
100.000.000 hectares (FAO, 1999). Here, we should
62 Boyazoglu y Nardone

Table 1. The typology of animal production systems with special reference to the Mediterranean basin (Boyazoglu, 1998).

Climate Rainfall Production system

(mm)

Desertic 50 Occasional nomadic herding of camels and goats

Subarid 50-200 Camels and goats in nomadic systems of animal production; some fat-tail
sheep
Autoconsumption of milk, meat, and hides; subsistance level

Arid 200-400 Sheep, goats, and equines managed generally in transhumance livestock
production systems; some cattle
Meat, wool, hair, hides, and milk; mainly for auto-consumption
Mostly oasis-based plant production: cereals, dates, vegetables, some
fruit, fodder

Semiarid 400-600 Extensive grazing of small ruminants, sometimes in transhuming or village

flock situations and in combination with other species
Milk for the production of traditional dairy products, wool and hides for
the local crafts industries, and meat mostly for auto- or village consumption
Dry land production of cereals, legumes, and some fruit

Subhumid 600-800 Transhumance and sedentary sheep and goat production (meat, milk,
wool); triple-purpose cattle (beef, work, milk); equines (mules, donkeys,
horses) mostly for work purposes; grazing of local pigs for speciality
products; in recent years some specialised dairy herds (mostly brown,
black and white, and red spotted cattle)
Grapes, olives, citrus, and other fruit, vegetables, some cereals

Humid >800 Sheep and goats as well as local type of cattle herds kept mostly in tran-
shumance management systems, some sedentary production
Forestry

Irrigated land Most of the large intensively managed dairy cattle herds (black and white)
(particularly were introduced in the proximity of these areas (highly populated); some
developed intensive feeding units for both slaughter cattle and sheep; intensively
after the managed dairy goat flocks; higly intensified non-ruminant productions
Second Milk, meat and eggs for city consumption; agro-forestry transformation
World War) Cereals with special reference to rice and wheat, vegetables, sugar (beet
and cane), intensive fodder production (alfalfa, clover, barseem, etc.)

ruminants in particular) also make good use of a major
part of the available vegetation in what is classified as
forest and wasteland. In the southern part, where
permanent grazings can be considered to cover about
one-sixth of the territory, part of the desert is also grazed
by the mainly nomadic mixed flocks/herds of sheep,
goats, camels and equines. Traditionally, part of the
lower mountains (on the European side) and large
tracts of dry pastureland (on the African side) were
cultivated. With the major emigration in recent years
from the rural areas to the cities, a lower grade of natu-
ral vegetation (mostly a mixture of grazeland and
shrubs) is now taking over major parts of the abandoned
land. While natural grazing constitutes, all around, an
important part of the animal feed resources, the avera-
ge yearly production of dry matter per hectare is, even
in the best of conditions, relatively low. It is estimated,
quantity- and quality-wise, to be very variable from one
year to another, with about 2 kg dry matter/
mm rainfall/ha being produced each year (Le Houérou
and Hoste, 1977). Plant biomass matures very quickly
and the digestible protein content decreases rapidly.
In the world’s main grazing areas, important limiting
factors for animal production are prolonged droughts,
 The relationship between environment and animal production
Figure 2. Indicative seasonability of pasture growth in Mediterranean example (Vissac, 1988).
which are more or less severe according to different
climatic sub-zones, but also heat stress or prolongated
cold sprees (Lacetera et al, 1994; Finch, 1985). As a result,
the more ligneous vegetation is in general very
important as a source of natural grazing and scarce
water supplies restrict overall the development of both
natural and artificial pastures. In this context, livestock
numbers have changed considerably over the last
centuries. At this stage, it seems meaningful to give an
indication of livestock densities (cattle, sheep, goats,
buffaloes, pigs and poultry) per country and climatic
region (following the Köppen Climate Classification
System, 1936). These indicative data (FAO, 1999) can
be seen in Table 2.
Last but not least, the choice of the livestock to farm
with which constitutes a major element of the production
puzzle, is unfortunately not always reasoned and
planned well. The species, breed or type of animal
retained, as well as the production direction (meat, milk,
wool, etc.) chosen, must be decided upon as a function
of the climatic and global environmental characteristics
of the farm, but also in line with the management
capacities and the available feeding resources.
Whatever the husbandry system might be, the breeding
and reproduction plans should also be adapted to the
climate and feed resources, minimising the influence
of welfare and epizootic problems and the cost of
feedstuffs brought in from outside the farm unit
(Nardone and Ronchi, 2001).
63
Concluding Remarks
Heat and cold stress, soil quality, droughts and water
availability, feeding and genetic resources and the level
of affordability and easy access to technical know-how
are the main factors influencing and sometimes limiting
production potential.
Management capacity and feasibility of changing
and adapting the existing livestock production systems
are the tools of assuring survival and success; evidently,
without underestimating the importance of the product
and type of animal present and the cultural, technical
and natural means that man disposes of in a particular
environment.
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N

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Malacheck, J.C., 1982. Grazing management of goats in exten-
sive rangeland production systems. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on
3.661 12.001
6.419
235
0
1.680
2.533

Goat Prod. and Disease. Tucson (USA), 404-408 pp.

1.970
Milk

Morand-Fehr, P. and Boyazoglu, J., 1998. Present state and fu-

ture outlook of the small ruminant sector. Small Rum. Res.,
1.164
0
21
140
517
Goats

Meat

34, 175-188 pp.

487

Nardone, A., 2000. Weather conditions and genetics of breeding

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708.826
0
285.349
3.894
20.835
139.412

Società Italiana per il Progresso della Zootecnia, Ragusa (It.)

202 121.209

67-91 pp.
N

Nardone, A. and Gibon, A., 2000. Livestock Farming Systems,

Research and Development Issues. Proc. Symp. on Technical
Milk

7.913
0
5.515
488
2.507
2.318

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Nardone, A. and Ronchi, B., 2001. Gestione dei sistemi produttivi
Sheep

Meat

7.460
0
3.102
115
1.091
1.634
263

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Presunzione o consapevolezza” Accademia dei Georgofili,
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1.060.403
0
67.689

441.530
13.796
191.700
168.345

Nardone, A. and Valfré, F., 1998. Effects of changing production

N

methods on the quality of milk, meat and eggs. Proc. 8th

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246-264 pp.
42.211

0
227.010
486.282
35.606

Quinlan, T., 1995. Understanding development. Proc. 2nd Devel-

16.228
132.965
Milk

oping Areas Symposium of the Grassland, Society of South-

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Seré, C. and Steinfeld, H., 1996. World livestock production sys-
Cattle

22.474
0

55.954
1.357
8.577
2.191
10.349

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Meat

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Van der Zijpp, A., 1999. Animal food production: the perspec-
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602.121
1.336.541
0
21.525
101.404
127.087
352.105
world (based on FAO data)*

control. Livest. Prod. Sci., 59, 199-206 pp.

N

Vissac, B., 1988. Recherches sur les systèmes sylvo-pastoraux

du Sud de la France. (Conférence, Consiglio Nazionale delle
Richerche of Italy, Viterbo-Porano), 22 pp.
not included in this indicative presentation
population

1.138.361

2.091.234
5.978.396
56
138.886
385.711
428.220
Human
Agricultural

810.979

1.896.888
4.938.296
235
73.758
835.542
176.374
land
Countries

173
94

31
14
33
N

1
Temperate
Climatic

Tropical

World
zones

Polar
Cold

Total
Dry