Review on the response of wheat (Triticum aestivum L) to foliar and soil

application of nitrogen fertilizer

By some body

A Senior Seminar Paper

Submitted to Jimma University College of agriculture and veterinary medicine
Department of Horticulture and Plant Sciences,in partial fulfillment of the course
senior seminar (PLSC.)

ADVISOR:-Mihrete (Msc)

January, 2017

Jimma,University
Acknowledgements

It is our pleasure to acknowledge the contribution of individuals for the accomplishment of our
work. First and foremost, we would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to our advisor
Mr.mihrete; for his unlimited effort and commitment in giving constructive comments and
moral support. Mostly would like to thanks our backbone and lovely family for their economical
and psychological support to reach this achievement next to God. Also we would like to express
our deepest pleasure to all our respondents for their permission to give us information and
devotion of their time.finally
Table of content

Content page

Abstract

INTRODUCTION
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Adaption of wheat
2.2 Wheat production in Ethiopia
2.3 Nitrogen fertilizer in wheat

2.4 Nitrogen Supply

2.5 Nitrogen uptake:
2.6 Foliar nitrogen application
2.7 Placement and Time of Application of Nitrogen Fertilizer
2.8 Nitrogen deficiency symptom

2.9 Effect of Nitrogen on Wheat Growth

2.1o Factors Influencing Wheat Response to Nitrogen Fertilizer
5. Summary

5.1 Recommendations

6. References
Abstract

Foliar and soil nitrogen (N) application is considered an important factor affecting phenology,
growth, yield, and yield components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Wheat is considered as
the major cereal crop in the world in respect of the cultivated area and total production. It
provides an almost 20 % of food calories for people in the world as well as in Egypt.
Increasing wheat production is the ultimate goal to reduce the wide gap between
production and consumption. Balanced nutrition of the plants is one of the main factors
that affect the yield and quality of the plants.

According to the limitations of soil and foliar spraying or leaf feeding usage is one of the
effective ways in resolve plants food requirement to N nutrients. Exogenous application
through foliar spray of essential elements like N was found promising to enhance the
growth at different parameters.In this respect, it was found that foliar application of
nutrients on wheat crop has had significant positive effects on plant growth and yield
parameters.
1. INTRODUCTION

Wheat ((Triticum aestivum L) is one of the cereal crops produced in the world today. In most
area of the world it is principal food of man.The properties of gluten such that it produces bread
stuffs, generally superior to those from any of the other cereal grains (Clark 1936). Because of its
baking quality wheat has become the most important source of carbohydrates in most countries
in the temperate zones. Small amount of wheat is also used in manufacture of dextrose, alcohols
and certain breakfast foods.

The cultivation of wheat spread from its center of origin to India, Pakistan and china in the east
of Mediterranean country and other European countries in the north. Some 5000 years the early
immigrations brought wheat to Ethiopia (Efrem.etal 2000). Wheat is one of the annual cereals
and it is the second leading crop next to rice in the world (Jerman G.L 1979). Millions of peoples
depend on wheat for their daily food in Africa as well as world. It is stable food and one of the
main sources of carbohydrates and protein (Abera 1991). The area of cultivated land annually in
Ethiopia ranged from 7000, 000 – 750,000 hectare during 1987 – 89 (Hailu 1991). Wheat can be
grown successfully under a wide range of rain fall and temperature conditions.

In most high land of Ethiopia low soil fertility is the result of water erosion, followed by less
utilizations of input like inorganic fertilizers etc. This low soil fertility resulted in low yield. Also
indicate that wheat varieties grown on vertisoil are affected by high water logging. Furthermore
weeding is the major problems in wheat producing area and reduces the production and
productivity up to about (34 – 40%) Hailuetal (1991). Lack of good agronomic practices such as
sowing date and land preparations, control and pest management, storage and harvesting quality
are affect wheat production and productivity.

The growing of wheat began very early in per historic time. Nevertheless the origin of wheat is
still of matter of speculation. Records from ancient china show that it was cultivated there in
2700 BC and it was known also to Egyptians and to inhabitants of Switzerland as early as Stone
Age (Hanson et.al 1982)

De Candolle believed that wheat originated in valley of Euphrates and Tigris and Spread from
there to China, Egypt and other parts of the world. Some American investigators believed that
wheat probably originated in Syria and Palestine mainly (Rajarman 2003).
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1climatic requirement and production status in Ethiopia

Wheat is grown from the tropics 60o north and40o south ward. Though wheat is a temperature
region cereal, it is grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. In tropics wheat is
grown at higher altitude where suitable conditions exist in the low land. In east Africa most of
wheat is grown at altitude between 1600 and 3000m. In the northern region of West Africa it is
growing during the dry (winter) season with irrigations.

Wheat can be grown under mid-range of rain fall and temperature conditions. Wheat requires
250 – 750mm of annual precipitations. The optimum mean daily temperature for germination
ranges from 20 – 25C0. Wheat can be grown successfully under a wide range of soil conditions
but it is best adapted to fertile, well drained silt and clay loam soils. Although it often produces
satisfactory yields on clay soils and sandy loams it is poorly suited to poorly drained soils (I.
Comnuenet and T.D Sinha, 2005).

Some 5000 years ago wheat was taken to Ethiopia by the early immigrants. The greatest
diversity of Tritium durum L. (wheat species) is founds in Ethiopia in very recent past. This crop
was in produced to the Americas and Australia to day. Wheat is grown in most temperate and
sub-tropical countries and in many tropical countries.

Ethiopia is the second largest wheat producers in sub Saharan Africa next to South Africa. Wheat
is mainly grown in high land planted in summer before the main rainy season and harvested sin
October up to November (Yirga 2013).

The largest proportion of wheat is grown in states of Arsi Bale and Shewa a belt stretching from
just North of Addis Ababa to the south east. Most of wheat grown in Ethiopia is bread wheat.
There is some durum wheat grown, but this is commonly mixed with other cereals a relatively
largest percentage of wheat (10-75) is produced on large scale farms. These large scale farms
established as state owned farms in the communist military Derg regime of 1974 – 1991 are
located in the Arsi bale wheat belt. There are around has about 207 flour mills in Ethiopia with
total production capacity of 3.2 million tons of flour a year. Almost third of these mills are
located in Addis Ababa means are able to obtain wheat through two channels.
The state owned Ethiopian grain trade enterprise control commercial wheat imports and makes
this available to millers at a subsidized price. This accounts about quarter of what market. The
rest market is supplied from domestic productions; whole price is not controlled and is higher
than imports.

About 60% of grains stocks are held by the Ethiopian mergence food security reserve
administration (EFSRA) for use in an emergency requirement. Durum wheat has been cultivated
in Ethiopia for thousands of years, though it is gradually being displaced by bread wheat (Alex
Rank 2013).

2.2 Nitrogen fertilizer in wheat

Nitrogen fertilizer is crucial in crop nutrition for achieving higher yields and growth (Raun&
Johnson, 1999). Nitrogenous fertilizers play a vital role in modern farm technology, however
only 20-50% of the soil applied nitrogen is recovered by the annual crops (Bajwa, 1992). The left
over nitrogen is lost from the soil system through denitrification, volatilization and leaching. The
partial and in-efficient use of nitrogen results in lower crop growth and harvests. Moreover,
fertilizers are energy intensive to produce and are very expensive. Thus efforts are needed to
minimize its losses and to enhance its economic use. Foliar fertilization, that is nutrient
supplementation through leaves, is an efficient technique of fertilization which enhances the
availability of nutrients. It has been observed that utilization of fertilizers especially urea applied
through soil is not as effective as when it is supplied to the plant through foliage along with soil
application (Mosluh et al., 1978). It also ensures the ample availability of nutrients to crops for
obtaining higher yield (Arifet al.,2006). Several researchers justified the idea that nutrients (like
N) may be taken up through roots and leaves and may spread within the plant (Ahmed & Ahmed,
2005; Hassanein, 2001). The efficiency of N assimilation through foliage, however, depends
upon several factors including varieties or genotypes. The study under report was initiated to
investigate the efficiency of foliar application of urea for yield and yield components of wheat
when applied at different growth stages.

2.3 Nitrogen Supply

There is a number of sources from which wheat plants can obtain nitrogen:
 1. Available nitrogen stored in the soil at planting.
2. Nitrogen released from soil organic matter breakdown during the growing season.
3. Nitrogen may be released from the breakdown of plant residue following a legume crop.
4. Addition of inorganic commercial fertilizer or animal manure.
5. Up to 20 kg/ha of N during the growing season can be added from rainfall primarily from
lightning storms.

Soil organic matter is the major reservoir for N and many other essential plant nutrients. The
early farming systems commonly used across the prairie provinces involved summerfallowing
and frequent tillage operations. As a result of these management practices, a large and rapid
decline in soil organic matter occurred with correspondingly large losses in reserve supplies of
important nutrients such as nitrogen. Many prairie soils have now lost much of their ability to
supply large amounts of nitrogen to crops. Available nitrogen in the soil varies from field to field
and from year to year. The release of nitrogen from soil organic matter is controlled by soil
micro-organisms. During the decomposition of organic matter, soil micro-organisms convert
organic nitrogen to the ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-) forms of nitrogen, which plants
utilize. As the changes are controlled by micro-organisms, they are largely affected by factors
such as soil temperature, moisture content and pH. Under cool, water logged or excessively low
pH (acidic) conditions the microbial processes can be very slow.

Cultivation stimulates organic matter decomposition because mixing the soil improves aeration
and supplies micro-organisms with fresh organic matter. Therefore, any switch to reduce
mechanical disturbance of the soil may reduce organic matter depletion and potentially may even
result in an increase of organic matter and total nitrogen levels.

Less nitrogen builds up on continuously cropped fields as compared to summer fallowed fields.
However, on summer fallowed fields with excessive weeds or fields with low organic matter,
there may not be sufficient nitrogen available for optimum wheat growth.

2.4 Nitrogen uptake:

The enhanced growth and yield of a wheat is often associated with optimum nutrient uptake
particularly N. It has been observed that mixed application of N through soil and foliage
facilitated the higher N uptake in plants. There was a substantial increase in N uptake in
plants sprayed with soil as compared with soil.

Wheat crops normally absorb the majority of nutrients from the soil through root absorption, but
above ground plant structures, especially leaves, are capable of absorbing limited amounts of
some nutrients. Because of this, most supplemental nutrients supplied to crops as fertilizer are
applied to the soil, and soluble nutrients in the soil contact root hair surfaces, where they are
absorbed into the roots and transferred to other parts of the growing plant for metabolic use.
However as noted, leaves and also to a lesser degree stems, and flowering plant tissues, can
absorb limited amounts of nutrients. It is important to understand which nutrients can practically
be supplied by foliar applications, if the soil supply is inadequate for optimum crop growth.

Nutrient supplementation using a foliar application may be considered more effective than soil
application: because;

 Only a small amount of N is required, and due to low soil mobility of the nutrient it is
actually more efficient to supply the small amount of needed nutrient as a foliar
application. There can also be soil conditions that cause a nutrient to be less available to
crop roots. One example is cool excessively wet conditions on an alkaline soil (e.g., pH
>8.0) where N is less available to certain crops (e.g., iron chlorosis), even if supplemental
N fertilizer has been applied to the soil before or at planting.
 The crop is late in its life cycle and there may not be sufficient time or rainfall to move a
soil mobile nutrient into the soil to be absorbed by the roots, and transferred from the
roots to the growing points where it is needed .An example of this can be foliar nitrogen
(N) applied as a liquid urea solution to high protein bread wheat in the early heading
growth stage. The added N (N)as urea solution at a lower rate, e.g., 10 lb N/A, is
sufficient to moderately increase grain protein, e.g. up to 1 percent. A broadcast granular
urea application even at three times the rate (i.e., 30 lb N/A) may not be available to the
crop in time to have the desired grain protein enhancement, especially if little or no
rainfall is received after broadcasting the urea as a late in-crop application.
Foliar applications of nutrients can be effective, but there are many factors to consider before
making a decision including both mobility of the nutrient in the crop foliage and mobility in the
soil, the amount of required nutrient to improve crop growth, and the economic cost of both the
form of fertilizer and its application.

2.5 Foliar nitrogen application

Nitrogen in liquid form has been foliar applied at heading to the soft dough stage with some
success to increase wheat protein content. Applications are generally in the range of 7 to 15
kg/ha of N. Rates above 20 kg/ha can potentially cause some tissue burning resulting in crop
injury.
Foliar feed should be applied in the early morning when the air is cool. Spray plants until you see
the mixture dripping from the leaves. To help the foliar application stick to plants, add a small
amount of insecticidal soap or horticultural oil. Do not forget to spray the underside of leaves as
well. Foliar spray fertilizer is an excellent short-term solution for plants experiencing stress.
However, it is always best to build up your soil with plenty of organic matter.

Advantages:

i. Foliar spraying is useful to correct the nutrient deficiency growing crops.

ii. In extremely dry weather condition where the plants are not able to take up nutrients from soil
because of low moisture contents of soil, foliar spray is useful.

iii. When quick response of fertilizer (especially nitrogenous fertilizer) is required.

iv. When the widely spread foliage of plant poses difficulty, for soil application.

Disadvantages:

i. Marginal leaf burns or scorching may occur if strong solutions are used.

ii. As a solution of low concentration, only a small quantity of nutrients can be supplied at a
time.

iii. Several applications are needed. This increases the cost of application unless it is combined
with other spraying operations.

iv. It cannot be recommended as a sole method of application of fertilizer.

v. Only urea and micro-nutrients can be applied through this method.

2.7 Placement and Time of Application of Nitrogen Fertilizer

The method of placement and time of application can have significant effect on the efficiency of
nitrogen fertilizer by increasing yield. Methods of application include:

1. Drilling in with the seed

2. Sideband placement
3. Banding into soil prior to seeding
4. Broadcast and incorporated into the soil
5. Broadcast without incorporation
6. Pocket or nest fertilizer
7. Foliar application

There are a number of factors which will influence the magnitude of wheat response to N
fertilizer and its placement. These include:
A. Rate of fertilizer - the higher the rate, the less impact placement will have.
B. Soil test levels - the higher the soil test level, the less impact placement will have.
C. The higher the rainfall, the less impact placement has.
D. Ammonium nitrate is less sensitive than urea based fertilizer to placement. Anhydrous
ammonia (NH3) has to be banded.
E. Crop rotation - legumes in rotation with cereals can reduce the impact of placement.

The relative efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers as affected by time of application and method of
placement varies greatly from year to year due to environmental conditions.

Generally, nitrogen applied in the spring at seeding is usually more effective for increasing
wheat yields and/or protein content than adding nitrogen in the fall. However, there are
exceptions. In dry areas, where seedbed quality and moisture conservation are a major concern,
spring applications have the disadvantage of deeply working the soil and resulting in a loss of
soil moisture. Alberta research has shown the dry areas, such as the brown and dark brown soil
zones, there is little difference between fall and spring applications with anhydrous ammonia.
Studies with ammonium nitrate (34-0-0) have shown that losses of nitrate through denitrification
and immobilization in decomposing crop residues are appreciable in soils of northern Alberta.
Therefore, it is recommended that the practice of fall application of ammonium nitrate should be
discontinued in favour of fall applied urea or NH3 or applying N shortly before seeding in
spring.
Spring and fall broadcast and incorporated nitrogen fertilizers have similar nitrogen efficiencies
under low rainfall conditions of the brown and dark brown soils (Table 6). Fall or spring banded
N has relatively similar efficiency and both are better than broadcast and incorporated N which is
the least efficient.

Under dry conditions, which are most frequently encountered in the brown, dark brown and
some degraded soils of the Peace River region, research has shown that fall broadcast N can be
75 - 100% as effective as urea nitrogen broadcast in the spring of the year and fall application of
nitrogen by banding is 90 - 105% as effective as spring banding. If the soil is very dry in the
spring, the tillage associated with deep banding could desiccate the soil further, making it
significantly less effective than fall banding, as a result of soil moisture losses.

In wetter areas of the province, broadcast incorporated nitrogen is 50 - 75% as effective as spring
broadcast nitrogen under these same conditions. Fall banded nitrogen is 85 - 95% as effective as
spring banding application.

When the soil is very wet, and even saturated for several weeks in the spring, fall broadcast
incorporated nitrogen can be 20% or less, as effective as spring broadcast nitrogen. Under these
conditions, fall banded nitrogen can be 75 - 85% as effective as spring banded nitrogen.
Under dry conditions, sufficient moisture is not available to adequately move surface nitrogen
that was applied at flowering into the soil for plant uptake. It is therefore not surprising that
increased yields did not result when nitrogen was applied at flowering stage. However, foliar
applied N at flowering may offer potential to increase grain protein content.

Work in southern Alberta with irrigated wheat, found that nitrogen was more efficient in
increasing protein content when applied as a urea spray at the flowering stage than when applied
to the soil before seeding. In addition, about the same protein content (18.8%) was obtained with
a 5 kg N/ha (4 lb/ac) applied as urea spray, as with 100 kg N/ha (89 lb/ac) of granular fertilizer
(34-0-0) applied to the soil.

2.8 Nitrogen deficiency symptom

The most easily observed symptom of nitrogen deficiency is the yellowing (chlorosis) of leaves
due to a drop in chlorophyll content. This symptom is usually noticed first in the more mature
leaves, and last in the upper actively growing leaves, because the N is translocated from older to
new leaves to sustain growth. Thus, the older leaves will wither and result in poor plant growth
and yield reduction. Generally growth is slowed, stunted and firing of the leaf tips and margins is
evident.

2.9 Effect of Nitrogen on Wheat Growth

Nitrogen (N) is often the most deficient of all the plant nutrients. Wheat is very sensitive to
insufficient nitrogen and very responsive to nitrogen fertilization.

The most important role of N in the plant is its presences in the structure of protein, the most
important building substances from which the living material or protoplasm of every cell is
made. In addition, nitrogen is also found in chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of leaves.
Chlorophyll enables the plant to transfer energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. Therefore, the
nitrogen supply to the plant will influence the amount of protein, protoplasm and chlorophyll
formed. In turn, this influences cell size and leaf area, and photosynthetic activity.

Plants grown with an adequate supply of nitrogen make rapid and thrifty growth and are dark
green in color. Leaf and stem development is stimulated. Insufficient nitrogen results in lighter
green color reduced tillering, and disturbance of normal cell growth division, and a decrease in
rate, and extent of protein synthesis. Because of this crop yields may also be greatly reduced.
Excessive nitrogen causes lush succulent growth, resulting in greatly increased danger of
lodging, delayed maturity and greater susceptibility to diseases such as rusts,septoria and
powdery mildew.

Plants contain more nitrogen than any other essential elements derived from the soil. Plants take
up nitrogen from the time the roots begin to function until all uptake of nutrients ceases with
maturity. However, the largest amounts are taken up during early stages of growth, held for later
use and translocated within the plant where needed, for example, to the kernels from the leaves
and stem during maturation.

On average a 40 bu/ac wheat crop at maturity will contain approximately 95 kg/ha (85 lb/ac) of
nitrogen in the seed and straw.

Generally, 70% of the fertilizer nitrogen is contained in the seed, with the remaining 30% being
in the straw (Table 1).
Table1. Nitrogen used by wheat

Crop Yield Crop Part Nitrogen

Kg/ha (lb/ac)

Wheat seed 67 60
2690 Kg/ha straw 28 25
(40 bu/ac) total 95 85
AdaptedfromSimplot,1986.

2.1o Factors Influencing Wheat Response to Nitrogen Fertilizer

The utilization of applied nitrogen fertilizer depends on the availability of soil nitrogen and the
potential losses of applied nitrogen. Various other agronomic factors can cause a poor response
to applied nitrogen including:

Wheat cultivar
Wheat varieties with higher yielding potential will respond to higher rates of applied nitrogen
than those with lower yield potential, providing that other factors are not limiting.
Available soil nitrogen
Available soil nitrogen at planting time is one of the main factors that will influence crop
response to fertilizer nitrogen. The nitrogen status of a field can be estimated from the previous
cropping history, but is more accurately determined by a soil test.Soils that have low plant
available nitrogen will require more fertilizer nitrogen.

Delayed or late seeding

Late seeding usually results in a lower yield potential and therefore reduced response from
nitrogen fertilizer due to moisture/heat relationships. Also, there is greater risk of crop loss from
increased disease pressure, insects, frost and poor harvest conditions.

Weed competition
Weeds compete with wheat plants for moisture, nutrients and light. Applied nitrogen fertilizer
may stimulate the growth of weed seedlings almost to the same extent as wheat. It is therefore
important to control weeds in order to minimize the competition between weeds and wheat
plants. Banding fertilizer or placing fertilizer with the seed makes it less accessible to weeds
during the early growing season. However, if too much fertilizer is seed-placed injury to the
seedling will reduce emergence resulting in higher weed competition.

Disease infestation
well nourished, healthy plants provide a measure of resistance to many disease organisms.
Inadequately nurtured wheat plants seem to be predisposed to certain diseases such as common
root. Take-all root rot is reduced when wheat plants absorb ammonium nitrogen and is increased
when the plants take up excessive amounts of nitrate nitrogen.

Soil moisture
in lower rainfall soil zones, soil moisture reserves must be considered when choosing fertilizer
rates. On medium textured (loam) soils in the brown and dark brown soil zones, moist soil to a
depth of 75 cm (30 in) and 68 cm (27 in) respectively is considered adequate for re-cropping
stubble land. On fine textured (clay) soils in the brown and dark brown soil zones, moist soil to a
depth of 55 cm (22 in) and 50 cm (20 in) respectively is considered adequate for re-cropping.
When soil moisture exceeds these levels, higher rates of nitrogen will generally give economic
returns. The risk of crop damage or failure is higher on poorly drained or flood prone fields.
Lower nitrogen fertilizer applications are advised on these fields if adequate drainage cannot be
provided. Although well fertilized crops usually withstand more water, if water stands for more
than 2 or 3 days causing saturated conditions, considerable crop damage or complete failure may
result.

Coarse textured soils with water tables deeper than 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) below the surface are
often droughty. Yield potential to a large extent is restricted by lack of moisture. High rates of
nitrogen fertilizers are generally not recommended in these soils.

5.1. Summary

Both soil and Foliar application of nitrogen fertilizer increased the productivity, growth and
quality of crops and the N fertilizer efficiency can be increased with foliar application it can
be safely concluded that 4% foliar application of N enhanced yield and yield parameters of
wheat.
Wheat is one of the types of cereal crops produced in the district. In most parts of the world
wheat is the principal food for human kind. The farming of wheat began very early in pre historic
time in the production crops and affects the crops at the field. Wheat is brought to Ethiopia 5000
years ago by early immigrations.

Different wheat products are consumed daily by human beings. Some of the products are bread,
porridge, kinche, and kolo. For the study area different actors participated in wheat value chain.
These are farmers, traders, processors, and consumers. The wheat and its product flow through
different chains up to final consumers.

Soil and foliar fertilizer N, applied during the pod-filling stage were absorbed by plants with
equal and high efficiency, compared to appreciably lower utilization efficiency for N applied
before seedling emergence. These results reveal that the wheat roots were active in N uptake
during these late stages of growth. Nitrogen fertilization during pod-filling resulted in significant
yield increases over the control treatment which received an early application of 20 Kg N/ha.
Seed yield increases were, however, more pronounced than total dry matter yield, and virtually
the entire late-applied N was Trans located into the pods. Nitrogen fixation in wheat is not
influenced by the application of 40 kg N/ha to plants as soil or foliar N during the pod-filling
stage. However, 80 kg N/ha supplied during pod-filling as 40 kg soil plus 40 kg foliar N/ha
significantly reduced the amount of N2 fixed.

Inadequate N supply during pod-filling limited wheat yields, and that by the judicious
application of fertilizer N during the late stages of growth, it was possible to enhance soybean
yields without necessarily inhibiting N2 fixation.
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