Calcio y su efecto en la

poscosecha de la palta.
Portainjertos y su relación en la
composición mineral y calidad de
la fruta

Mary Lu Arpaia
Preharvest Factors Affecting Quality
Principles underlying our expectations
• The interaction between variety, location, and
season should not be underestimated
• These outcomes cannot always be predicted
• Fertility management can greatly impact postharvest
quality - directly and indirectly
• Fertility management impacts postharvest decay
susceptibility - directly and indirectly
• Crop water status can significantly determine
postharvest quality and phytonutrient content
• Plant canopy and microclimate manipulations affects
postharvest quality
• ALL THESE FACTORS INTERACT AND CANNOT
EASILY BY SEPARATED
 The Essential
Elements
Primary elements
required for growth
– Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen
Supplied from carbon
dioxide and water, essential
for photosynthesis
– Nitrogen
– Phosphorous
– Potassium
– Calcium is considered a
secondary element
 The function of Calcium
Essential plant nutrient
As the divalent cation (Ca2+) it is required for
– Structural roles in the cell wall and
membranes; must be present for formation of
new cells
– Counter-cation for inorganic and organic
anions in the vacuole
– Intracellular messenger in the cytosol
 Calcium uptake
• Acquired from the soil solution by the roots
and translocated to the shoot via the
xylem
• Delivery of Ca to xylem is restricted to the
extreme root tip and to regions in which
lateral roots are being initiated >>>>>
need active root growth

6
 Calcium movement in the plant
• Not mobile in the plant once fixed
• Either moves through the symplast (within cells)
via plasmodesmata or by the apoplast (between
cells) to the xylem cells
• Moves in the xylem sap from the roots through
the transpiration stream
• If transpiration (water flow throught the plant) is
hindered than transient calcium deficiencies can
occur which may result in loss of product quality
 Transpiration Atmospheric
Stomates (tiny Relative Humidity

openings on the H2O

bottom of the Stomatal

leaf) control Leaf
Conductance
water loss - Water
transpiration H2O
Xylem
Conductance

Water flow
H2O within the plant -
Root Ca moves with
Soil
Water Conductance the water
 Factors affecting calcium availability

• Calcium is found in many minerals in the soil but

is relatively insoluble.
• It is not considered to be a leachable nutrient.
• Even with high soil calcium (such as on soils
high in calcium carbonate) plants may still
exhibit Ca deficiency symptoms
• High levels of other cations such as Mg, NH4,
Fe, Al and K can reduce Ca uptake in some
plants.
Optimum uptake at
pH ~6 – 7
depending on
element
 Calcium deficiency
• Plants growing with adequate calcium in their
natural habitat have shoot Ca concentrations
between 0.1 – 5% DW
• This range reflects availability in environment
and species differences
• Ca deficiency in nature is rare
• In horticulture, Ca-deficiency can be costly and
generally occur when Ca is momentarily
unavailable to developing tissues
 Calcium deficiency
Observed in developing tissues such as
•Young expanding leaves (tipburn of leafy vegetables)
•Enclosed tissues (“brown heart” of leafy vegetables or
“black heart” or celery)
•In tissues fed primarily by the phloem (“blossom end rot” of
watermelon, tomato, and pepper, “bitter pit” of apples)
Why?
•Developing tissues rely on immediate supply of Ca from
xylem, which is dependent on transpiration
•Transpiration is low in young leaves, enclosed tissues and
fruit
 Calcium deficiency
Other physiological disorders associated with Ca
are related to hypo-osmotic shock (following
increased humidity or rainfall)
Thought to be associated with structural
weaknesses of the cell wall - Cracking in tomato,
cherries, apples
 Physiological Role of Calcium
Calcium is an important mineral
determining quality and decay resistance
Examples of impacts of low Ca concentration
™ Internal breakdown (pears, apples)
™ Accelerated senescence
™ Increased rate of fruit softening fruit
™ Increased decay potential, especially at wounds
™ More susceptible to physiological disorders

Bitter pit in apples Blossom end rot in tomato & pepper

 T. Suslow
UMass Amherst

Other induced 
disorders due to 
calcium 
imbalance
M. Cantwell
U FL
 Plant health under the soil surface
is the root of many postharvest disorders
Good Root:Shoot Ratio Poor Root:Shoot Ratio

Examples:
™ Calcium disorders
™ Thin fruit wall
™ Browning potential
™ Hollow-heart
™ Pith decline
™ Blotchy-ripening
™ Sunscald

16
 CALCIUM IMBALANCES
• TRADITIONALLY CALCIUM IMPLICATED

HOWEVER
• MULTI-FACTOR PROBLEM (HIGH N AND
OTHER NUTRIENTS COMMONLY INVOLVED)
• CALCIUM NOT ALWAYS MAIN FACTOR TO
TREAT
• WATER RELATIONS (STRESS) COMMONLY
ALSO IMPLICATED
 SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

ENHANCE FRUIT SINK STRENGTH FOR:

– CRITICAL ELEMENTS (VARIES WITH SITE)

– CARBOHYDRATES
– CRITICAL STAGES IN FRUIT
DEVELOPMENT
From Witney, Hofman and Wolstenholme, 1990, Scientia Hort. 44:279.
 Calcium distribution in ‘Hass’ avocado

From Witney, Hofman and Wolstenholme, 1990, Scientia Hort. 44:279.
 Fruit calcium levels change during fruit development
Fruit calcium levels change during fruit development

Witney et al, 1990a
 Fruit ripening is influenced by the fruit calcium levels
Fruit ripening is influenced by the fruit calcium levels
Higher calcium: Longer ripening
Higher calcium: Longer ripening

Tingwa and Young, 1974, JASHS Witney et al, 1990a
 Flesh minerals and disorders (individual, adjacent trees)

r = 0.83** r = 0.88**
3

Anthracnose severity (1-5)

Diffuse discoloration (1-5)

3
2

1 1
200 300 400 500
200 300 400 500
-1
-1 Calcium concentration (mg kg )
Calcium concentration (mg kg )

© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 23
Hofman, Vuthapanich, Whiley, Klieber, Simmons 2001
 Flesh minerals and
diffuse discolouration

Year Holding r value

conditions Ca Mg K
1994 7°C, 3 wks -0.07 -0.13 0.55 *
1995 7°C, 5 wks 0.30 0.31 0.06
2°C, 5 wks -0.83 ** -0.75 ** 0.51 *

Point: other elements may also be involved

Hofman, Vuthapanich, Whiley, Klieber, Simmons 2001

 Phenology model for ‘Hass’
“On” year = heavy crop “Off” year = light crop
load load

100
Relative growth rate

80
shoot
60
root
40
bloom
20

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

Hass on clonal rootstocks at UC South Coast REC, Irvine, CA

 Crop Load and Leaf Analysis

Arpaia et al., UCSCREC 1986 Hass rootstock trial – years 5 to 10 leaf analysis
 Cultivar and tree vigor 
Cultivar and tree vigor 
influence calcium levels in the fruit
influence calcium levels in the fruit

• Cultivar differences 
exist; Hass > Fuerte
• Tree vigor influences 
uptake by developing 
fruit – more vigorous 
trees (off crop) have 
LOWER calcium levels

Witney et al, 1990a
 Effects of tree vigor on fruit quality

Individual tree yield records were maintained

Based on overall tree yield and storage

quality the following observations were
made:
In vigorous, low yielding trees all forms of
chilling injury were observed in higher
amounts following 28 days at 5.5C
Low yielding trees had lower pulp calcium,
zinc and manganese
D. Smith, 1992 (unpublished RSA)
 Tree yield and fruit flesh calcium concentration
Calcium concentration (mg kg-1)

500 r = 0.72**

400

300

200
Tree yield (kg)
© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 30
 Fruit mass and flesh calcium concentration
Calcium concentration (mg kg-1)

r = 0.82**
500

400

300

200
120 160 200 240
Fruit mass (g)
© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 31
 Effect of crop load on diseases and skin minerals

Crop load Side Colletotrichum Marketable fruit

(% incidence) (%)
High 78.8 b 39.4 a
Low 90.0 a 17.6 b

Crop load Skin Ca (%) N/Ca Ca+Mg/K

High 0.036 a 22.3 b 0.110 a
Low 0.028 b 31.8 a 0.087 b

Dann and Coates 2009

© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 32
 Rootstocks
Can they make a difference in
terms of fruit quality?
Avocado roots have a unique morphology

Few root hairs (means uptake only at root

tips)
Low degree of root branching (reduced
root tips)
Shallow rooted

These may influence sensitivity to salinity

– Increased exposure to
environmental conditions
– Nutrient uptake may be reduced;
including Ca
Healthy Roots are the key to management 
of avocado mineral nutrition 
• Use of organic amendments
– Mulch
– Composts
• Irrigation management
– Chloride and salts
– Leaching
– Nutrient uptake
• Disease control
– Phytophthora root rot
• Fruit quality
– Vegetative/fruit balance
– Nutrient uptake
Rootstocks influence many scion characteristics

• Yield
• Tree size/vigor
• Yield efficiency
• Leaf nutrient status
• Tolerance to environmental stress

Use of clonal rootstocks relatively new

• Potential for future improvements high
• Significant differences due exist
• More uniform tree performance possible
Haas et al., 1950 CAS Yearbook
Reported differences in 
mineral uptake of Fuerte 
grown on different seedling 
rootstocks
Found that in general, Fuerte 
on Guatemalan rootstocks 
tended to have higher leaf Ca 
levels than those on Mexican 
rootstocks 
Clonal Rootstocks
– Enhanced yield possible
– Control of root rot and other soil related issues

Cumulative yield per tree (kg)

500
Years after Planting
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
400

300

200

100

0
Borchard Duke Toro Topa D9 G755A G755B G755C
7 Canyon Topa
Clonal Rootstock
 Rootstock influences leaf 
analysis

Mickelbart et al., 2007
 Differences in N/Ca and (Ca + Mg)/K ratios

Mickelbart et al., 2007
 Rootstock and Variety 
Rootstock and Variety 
Interactions
Interactions
Effect of avocado cultivar and clonal rootstock
on fruit quality following 28 days at 5.5C
% freedom from chilling injury
100
G755C
80 G6
Duke 7
60

40

20

0
Fuerte Hass

Kohne and Kohne, 1992 (unpublished)

 Rootstock and Seasonal 
Rootstock and Seasonal 
Interactions
Interactions
100
b SV
Fruit acceptability (%)
a a CV
b
75 ns
CD
b

b
50 a
b

a
25

0
1999 2000 1999 2000
Diffuse Vascular
discolouration browning

Rootstocks affect ‘Hass’ avocado 
Results from Australia 20 yr‐old trees
fruit rots and physiological disorders
4 wks @ 5C
Marques, Hofman  2002
 Rootstocks affect fruit minerals

Fruit skin b
0.40 ab
ns
Ca (g kg-1 DW)

0.35
a
0.30
Seedling Velvick
Fruit flesh Clonal Velvick
c
0.30 Clonal Duke 7
b
a
0.25
b
0.20 a
a

1999 2000
Year Marques and Hofman 2002
© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 43
 Results from Australia
Rootstock affects body rots 20 yr-old trees
4 wks @ 5C

100 ns
b SV
CV
Fruit acceptability (%)

ns b
CD
75
a b

50 b

a
25

0
Non-stored Stored Non-stored Stored
1999 2000
Year
Marques and Hofman 2002
© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 44
Willingham et al., 2001
•Differences in time to 
ripe – Velvick > Duke 6
•Differences in decay 
potential (SER and BR)
•Differences in leaf diene 
levels – Velvick > Duke 6
•Mineral concentration 
significantly correlated to 
anthracnose severity
 Rootstocks, disease and skin minerals

Side Marketable
Rootstock Colletothricum fruit Skin N (%) (Ca+Mg)/K
(% severity) (%)
c ab bc b
Duke 7 8.9 57.2 0.94 0.104
a c a b
Hass 34.6 23.6 1.07 0.099
c ab abc a
SHSR-03 10.1 71.7 0.96 0.127
c ab c ab
Velvick 8.3 53.9 0.9 0.115
bc b abc ab
Zutano 17 46.7 1.01 0.115
a bc bc b
Reed 27.3 38.4 0.93 0.097

© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010 Dann and Coates 2009 46
 Concluding remarks
• Calcium is a critical element 
• A healthy root system is crucial to have good 
Calcium uptake
• Calcium related disorders also involve other 
factors such as interaction with other 
nutrients, salinity
• Avocado rootstocks may play a role in calcium 
related disorders
Thanks for your attention

Questions?