Using English Grammar - Verbs 2

sqra^ :z uopJas
UNIT 2.1.
VERB FORMS: positive,
negative, interrogative
lVe can divide verb forms into two tvpes: those with only one main verb and tlrose with an
auxiliary such as a form of the verb to be or to have or one of the modals such as can, will, etc.
The Simple forms. Present and Past, are of the first type; all the other iorms are of the second
type
When the verb form has only one part, then we use a form of to do to make the negative and
question or interrogative forms. When the verb form includes an auxiliary or a modal, then
tl-rere is no need to use to do; the auxiliary is used to form the negative and question forms
Look st the follouinq chnrt:

Forms that use do/does/did
Positive Negative Question

Present Simple
II I I
You ( study English You do not (don't)
Dol you
Y"(
lre\,
t
at school We
-I-hev
study hard
{ they study hard?
/
Ile \ studies Errglish LI^ does not (doesn't) he
She I at school She sbudy hard
Does
{ she
It works well It does not (doesn't) Does it work well?

work rvell
Past Simple
I I
You You
He studied English l{e did not (didn't) Dd study hard?
at school study English
lr
She She
We lVe
-fhey
Thev
It worked rvell It did not (didn't) Did lt work rvell?
work well
l8
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z .\\oJJOLUOI l1lorroLuol aruoJ A/\OTJOLUOI

aluoJ }I IIIM (l/uoM) lou IIrM ll atuo) (ll,ll) IItm,:
(ll,iai{I)
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(il,aqs)
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ALIS IIIM Aq:
(II,AH)
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i,4\olroruol
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(ll,aA\ )
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snonurluoJ lsEd
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(1ou ar,.{aq1
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(lou ar,no1A,uare no1)
no,L ary lou aJP no^ (ar/no^) are no:
I rIIV oou ur/l) lou luP I (ru,1) tue
snonu4uoJ luasard
uoqsan$ a.rpeBa51 aArlrsod
plp/saop/op asn lou op leql suroc
suroJ qra^ l'z llun
Unit 2.1 Verb forms
Positive Negative Question
Presen t perfect
i '\ Have I
You have studied i"" ( have not (haven't) Have vou
We English studied English Have w.e studied
Therr H.:r Have they Fnslisha
l
He
She
has studied English
r':l has not (hasn't)
studied English
Has he
Has she
It has worked well It has not (hasn't) Has it worked well?

worked well
Past Pe rfect
rl I
You
I'"" { had studied He had not (hadn't)
Had I *t" studied
,"di;; i; ;;;;;"
il:{
rhev
it before She
We
They lH,
it before?
It had worked It had not (hadn't) Had rt worked?

bef ore worked before
Fufure Perfect
I will (i'll) I
You will (You'll)
He will (He'll)
She will (She'll)
have studied
r-l will not (won't)
have sfudied vvlll
you
he
she
have
studied?
We will (We'll) we
They will (They'll) ili,l they
it will (lt'll) have worked It will not (won't) Will it have
well have worked worked
well rvell?
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qJrr{,4 ''lla 'suor}EJ€lJap 'suor}pr}suor.uap Ara{ooJ ro sluaturradxa sE Lllns suor}eJlsuorxap
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nod qrrq.u. lnq pear ro rear{ ,{etu nor{ qJrL{.4{ rrrJoJ aldurlg luasard aql Jo asn raqlo auo sr araqJ
'arnlnJ aql
ur JnJJo IIr.M sluala aq1 q8noql uala l)EJ e sr prps aq/s lpq.t,r lelll ureual sr araq raleads aq1
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'u'e 00'9 le sanPal aueld aq1
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csdsuJ s,ra)lPM uo lsrsur no^ l,uo6l

'pal srrl ut ;e8ns a{Pl l,usaop aH
:aldurexa roC suorlJe Ipnllqeq ro slrqpl{ aqrnsap ol
'ssaursnq ,{>1sr: e sl a.\ol lnB
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:alduexa JoC sIJEJ ro sqlnrl leraua8 ssardxa o1
:pasn sr
aldtulg luasald ar{I 'arurl luasard aql qll^r pauraJuoJ z(luessarau lou sr pue aurl rrloads 1o
uorlou ,{ue apnpur lou saop }I 'l)eJ Jo sluaualels ssa;dxa o} pasn sI rurol a1dur5 luaserd aql
'z(eprnleg lxau uogaÊ s{e1d loodralrl

'ru'e 00'9lP saleal aueld aq1
'Pal srq ur re8ns aIPl l,usaop aH
asdsu) s,raIIEM uo lsrsur no{ l,uoO
'ssaursnq f>1srr e sr aôl lng
'J.0 l€ sezaarJ ralEM lIldI\iIS INESlIUd
'IaaM lxau ,{eprloq uo seo8 ,{rEl^l
Z'Z IINN
Unit 2.2 Present simple - TASKS -Et
te
Task one
(al Llnderline the uerb in each of the follou,tng adztertising slogans.
@ Our Label Spells Style
(b) Yorr tuill ttotice thnt all the uerbs qou hnue underlined nre in the Present SimTtle tensc. Cnn tlotr
,qiae a reusott tuhv the ndt,erttsers hn-ne chosert to usc this tense?
Task two
Read the following text nttd fill in thc missing u,ords rcith any aerb tlou think is apptroprinte.
It is a fact that:
(a) The United States (i) . . . . . the most extensive road system in the world. The proportion
.
of cars to people (ii) . . . . almost ridiculously high. With 500 cars to every thousand of
population, there (iii) . . . . . one toeverytwopeople. This (iv). . . . . . babies, children and
.
old people. There (v) . . . . . . approximately thirty-six cars per mile of road.
(b) (i) Australians . . . . . . more meat per year than any other nationality.
(ii) Over 50% of Italians . . . . . . their own homes.
(iii) 21 % of Germans...... reading to any other leisure pastime.
(iv) 17olo of 3-vear-old children in Japan . . . . . . to school.
(v) On average, every French person . . . . . . 4.9 books per vear rvhile every Austrian
......2.6.
Task three
The statistics that nTtpear in Tnsk tiL,o rL,erc contpilcd |tt/ questioninl prr'opr/g nltttut tlteir hnltits ard
possessioits. What questiotts do vou think tlte 7:eoplc u,tre nskcd? Fill itt tlte ntissin.q it,ords in the
follouittg tltLestions to tnnke them questiorts thnt ntight hnte Ltcnr nsked:
(a) Howmuch meat...... you...... everv week?
(b) . . . . . . you . . . . . . your house or . . . . . . you . . . . . . the house vou . . . . . . in?
(c) What...... you ...... in vourleisure time?
(d) t{ow many 3-year-olcl children . . . . . . there in the school?
(e) How many books ...... vou...... in a year?
Task four
(Extension task)
Listen to a newsbroadcast in English (for example,BBCWarld Seraicc, Voice of America or alocol
rndio seraice in English) or to people speaking Englislt, or u,ntch nn Englislt teleaisiott programme.
Find as mantl examples as you cgrt o.f the Present Simple f ornt in the texts tlou haxe listened to and
try to decide tuhrl the speakers hat,e chosen to use the Present Simytle fornr ench time.
22
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panutluo) .arnrnJ aL{} ui a..,p allurJap
e lelr luauraldrur 11r.u pue ueld aql appru s€tl rollarupr{f aql lpq+ slsa83ns luarualpls srlif
'sln) xeJ aleru ol Suruueld sI rollaJupq3 aqJ
'arqnJ aql ur arug alrurJap e ie areld a)pl llr.lr luala aql pue aperu uaaq {pearle seq ueld aq1
'8uru;otu ,,{epuo141 lxau 'ure 00 9 le Suraeal are .{aq1
:saldwuxa Sutmo11of dlll 1a loo-
'arnlrg aql ur sluaâ
lnoqe IIel oi urroJ snonuquoJ luaserd aql asn o1 alqrssod sr 1r dq.u sureldxa sIqI 'arnlnl
aql ur aurll 1o lurod auros pue lsed aql ur pauueld sp,r. ro palJpls luala aL{} uar{.l,r arur} au-
ro Surlrr.n ro Surleads Jo eruu ar{} raqlra :arull Jo slurod o.lll ueaMlaq Suruaddeq se }uala au-
saas ralrrm ro .raleads aql uaq,l pasn sr ruroJ snonuquoJ luasaJd aq] lpql 'uaql 'aas ue) a.\.
'uorlErnp alrurJap P seq ]eql uorlrpuoJ e se uaa:
lspai ie ro alels ,fterodrual e aq ol uaas sr ,uopuol ur 8ur.Lr1, leql Papr aql sapnlJur r{Jnl.4{ l)E:
Jo luaualpls e 3ur1eu ro IJEJ Jo luarualpls IEraueB e 8ur1eu to a)ror{) e seq araq ra>1eads aLi'
'uopuo1 ur 8urnr1 sr aqg

'uopuo'I uI sa^rl aqs
:3ur.tro11o1aql lo qloq.{es o1 lrar.ror sr 1r .,{qr* ureldxa 'ralamoq /lou plnom 1J ('asua1 aldurr-
luasard aqi uo z'z [un aa5) 'anr1 aq o] saârlaq raleads aql ]Pql l)eJ Jo luerualPls leraua€
e sa{prlr puoJas aql lqJaads Jo luaruoru aq1 1e Suruaddeq sr 1eq} uor}Jp ue saqlr)sap lsrrJ aq'
'lalur.M aq+ ul puelSuS ur lol p surpr ll

'ure8e Sururur s,l1
:sl ua|'ualels o.\'. -
3uuto11o1 aql uaaalaq Surueatu ur af,uaratJrp aql ureldxa 'alduexa ro, 'plnom ll 'ruroJ srtll l.
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'1r rredar pue llneJ aql puIJ ol rlueqJaru aql slcadx;
ra>ieads ar{l pue dlluarar paupls rualqord aqI 'uoplpuoJ ,ftErodtual e se slr{l saas raleads aq -
',,{iradord Eurryoaa l,uare sradt.r.r uaarJspuI.M aqJ
:aldwaxa stql ft 4oc-

uorl€raprsuo) lueuodur ue sr arull lPql salPJIpur .,{1.reap puP uoqernp
Jo eapr aruos sapnlJur ruroJ slql to asn aqJ 'atup Jo porrad pal$ull e urL{ll.|v\ Sur.rrnJlo s:
luala ar{l smarl ralrJm ro raleads aql uar{.tr pasn sr qJa^ aql Jo turoJ snonurluoJ luasard aql
'slnr xel aIeru ol Suruueld sr rollaJupq3 aql

'Aauotu a)Ieru
ol sJupm oqm auoeruos ro;3ur>1oo1 arp aM
'ure8e Sururer s,1y
',{gadord
3u1ryo.tr l,uare sradrl uaar)spurm aql I SNONNIINOf, INIISEUd
€.2IINN
Unit 2.3 Present Continuous l
COMMISSION
SALES
We are looking for someone who wants to
nrake money. They will have to lind some of
their owrr projects arrd make tlteir own sales.
Our prodtrct is a necessity in every home. lts
quality is superior and its prices compelitive.
We are looking for someone who wants to make money suggests that the companv has
started to Iook for a new employee and that there is a definite time limit for looking; aiter that,
they will offer one of the applicants a job with the company. So the period of looking for new
emplovees will be of a limited duration.
24
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ol pJ,1il no/i uJtl.t! LutoJ stlonutluo) luJsal(l )4:
Jstt
dsn noh li4ot uwldxa o1 pandatd ag'uotlLlsraauot lo sltud Surssrru ary ut 1111 pua tau1tud a 41t,t:
a41
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'ptnlaam aql n] iaon oB o1 sua1d apaw rtpaa4a aaoil
ua41 Jo huaut puu pouad aal a lillauo4tpatl st laql asilaraq LtooutalJti lupttT uo sslp a aaa4 ol luu0!
lou luor ilaLt.taal aql pua srrlterl)u prlnparys aryy jo liua ssilu oJ ilauiarl a7l lltaol qou op rta41 4aan:
a41 Suunp loo4)s p)ol a oi Jrcta )noq-auo a pua ta>1aads pan? atow auo apnpur ol Jualz lia41 s11t4<
a8un8unl 4st13u1 aWryautrlul ru ssal) a toi 4atm a41 nJ alqaiawU a 8uruuu1d an auuv pua wof
aarr.{l {seI
;wtoj snontrtlito) lu,tsrt(l a qlr0t prllrJ aq lou pUoLls s4ualq inoJ q)t4M (r)
;a?assud aqJ olut lnd noli ptp srutoi ,9ut-, l:tunLu 01oH (q)
'pue13u3 pue sal€M 1o slred lscru uI urer ' ' ' (llp) uer a,la
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lradxa 'aruoJ 'aas 'aurqs '8urrq 'aq '1oo1 'puels

:pq ?utmo11oj a41 wotj sqtaa a7l jo uuol pailo) a4l 4ltm sp)"om
Sutsstw a41 ur Sulllll hq rya1 at17 a1a1dtuo3'ldutsuatl aql ur Eutssua atb pua lpaalt pallnusua4
lou atam sptom slq ]o aLuog auwotSotd uo$taapl a uo uatutaqJaam a woti ltodat u st molag (e)
o1vtl IseI
auaaS uaaq anaq

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lluaw
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sPJ;)tl .rtll JLtltulrlaf rlrlr.l.t .rstqlrllrf
seseqEtec
[]Lllr l:,\trll lll.\ falrrllslq.los
r:3rrrr,ruu1d elr puu stuaruJ:rn1...r JlLLti)tsnf .1o,'iutplrt:]s:apun l.rll3q
u burltluua sutrts.is pasrlut:ads 1o raqruttu I 3tttluaJLr .(1]uaurt: .rrtt :,11 IEuortBIeu
tu)o] snonutlu)) ]uasard a4t ut atl rtuuw mo4 allls (q)

'
sqtaa a41 altrudpun pua o10laq Juawastltaap0 qo! a4l paa>l e)

auo {sel
s)svl - I snonuFuo] luaserd E'z tlun

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Unit 2.3 Present Continuous 1 - Tasks
English for Communication class: Week three

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
9.00 Reading Writing Conversation Crammar Listening
11.00 Listening Grammar Reading Writing Discussion
1.00 Lunch
2.00 Guest Project Individual Project Free Period
Speaker: Work Tutorials Work
Mr Iames
Anne: Ms Kelly has agreed to come and speak to the class next week. When can we fit her talk
in?
Tom: What is she (a) ...... about?
Anne: Modern approaches to grammar. What about Friday afternoon?
Tont: No, thatis a free period for the learners. Some of them are (b) . . .. to go on a trip. But
what about Wednesday afternoon?
Arrne: No, that's not possible either. They're (c) ..... .
Continue this conaersation uith tlour partner tmtil you find a titne uthen Ms Kelly could siae her
talk and a time for the school aisit.
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(! 0q"j3o
O{<x-< ? fr\-
=5
J; tE
=)a,-
TJ; !J+ f-..f4
:d
OJn
\ d€i 6 nJ+t
;D !
3€
Unit 2.4 Present Continuous 2
However, rvhen these verbs express an event or an action, or have a meaning that denotes an
action, then they can be used in the Present Continuous form just as any other event verb.
Look at these erttmples:
i think that's brilliant.
I am thinking of going to Spain for a holiday.
In the first case the speaker is expressing an opinion which s/he believes to be a fact which
has no time limit. In the second case the speaker is using think to mean consider or plan and
knows that this planning time will end when s/he makes a decision and either goes or does
not go to Spain for a holiday.
WARNING BOX
Have is never used in the Continuous form when it means to suffer from:
I have a headache.
He can't come to class because he has a fever.
Have can be used in the Continuous form when it means to have someone do something:
I'm having my hair cut on Wednesday.
They're having the house painted.
28
6Z
,'Gq) ' d1lea.r I se aul (a.?s) " "

;anau no.{ }nq'aurlrrp .l,rau proJ epued aql Surpnpur'spe Jo slol(op)' 1, 1it,s1 "
aqs ,/s.roqsaprs pue sasrorl aql qll-M dlaq o1 pasn puP ,{lrure; sn)rrr e urorJ (awn) " " L (a
'srarrral arnis)ro^ aarql pue pueqsnq raq qirM uopuo'I Ltr (aatD ' ssar]re aLIJ (p
, qol
a\-F (ada4)' " i pue 3op B se Surrur,ruor Qlool) ' ' ' orll\^ auoauros (paau) ' aqL (l
'IIel saqrur uaâs loo, rnol ,{1uo sr oL{^^ 'duua4 (fias)' ' ''' ,s1q3raq oLuarlxa
,o aldoad Vl\M Qaalr) " orl-\{ .,{).ia8B 'f,la sralsuohl aq1 paurol I o8e sreai 1vra] V, (q
'pea15.,ruua4 ssa.rtre aill lsnl opol)' " tl - )luup e (doa4) puP
I)eq (lrs) " " " rals€ru aql alrqm uroor ar{t Surluied Jo ssaursnq aql L{ll,\{ uo (ta8) '
3op aql araq.t - {11uar.rnr uorsrlala} uo Gq) " ' q)ILIl,r pe ua))aulaH InJrapuom aql
Jo aspr aql ul zlpor slr tnoqlr.\\ alrl (1ool)
" " 8opdaaqs qsrlSug Pp ue (op) " " leL{M (E
'Slal)a)q ut q)ao )Lll lo uttoj Snotlutluo--l JttJS)t.

atl] ro ut.tL)l a1dtu6 luasal(l a4l ,raqlta \lot sp.tol2 Swssttu atu Ltl illJ l1Ltll $aJ ?utmo11oJ ary p1al
oMl ISEI
'3uor,u s,leqm aas pu€ oB o1 u.rn1 Jno.{ s,}I 13ur.,{n s,,{qeq aql (q
lq8tu lP 1o1 e .{.o sarqeq auo5 t5
tq3r1 r"urp ,{:a,r ur JJs slPJ .

'3urlaau or{l ro1 epua8e aql lnoqP ,{epoi turq Surees ur,l (a
'uaqt tl Surliarus dois '11a,14 1p
'alqrJror..l sllaurs aLunJrad srql r:
'.{8.m.,{ue Surlaaur aql ol oB o} }uem },uop I os aL{Jepeaq p a^pq I (r

'3urlaau aql ro1 alel aq.{er.u aq os ,llou qrunl Suraeq s,aH (E
iJSrJ l/-)1,,) ut uLiaJ Snonutltto) lulsd).1 J4l .to lu.toJ )ldt" -
$asa.tcl a4j pasn sa4 taJu& to taynads atll lrqil dllt)ap putl sa)udluds 1o sttud 3utmo11oJ a4l lu lo.
auo {sel
sxsvl - z snonuFuof luasard v.z llun

UNIT 2.5
PAST SIMPLE 1
Lucy Souter retained her title . . . she
defeated Liz Irving. . .
Edinburgh and Cardiff made an immediate
impact when the event was held at London's
Alexandra Palace.
Regular verbs in English form the Past tense by adding -ed to the stem or infinitive form. For
example:
@)Eitffi
Lucy Soutter retained her
British Under-23 Open title last
nieht when she defeated Liz
Irving of Australia-ffi5t, 9-2.
9-6 in 62 minutes at Lamb's
Squash Club in London.
Hor,'e'u'er, there are a number of verv common verbs which are irregular and form the Past
tense in different ways. For example:
o HOCKEY
Edinburgh and Cardiff, mak-
rng their first apPearance in
the competitron, made an im-
mediate impact when the event
was@!5lfor the second time, at
its new venue of London's Al-
exandra Palace.
You will know most of these irregular verbs already but on the follorving page there is a task
in which you will put ihe irregular verbs into a svstematic scheme which r'vill help 1'ou to
remember them. (See also Appendix ,1.)
To check how to make questions and negatives in the Past Simple iorm, see Unit 2.1.
30
T€
panutluo)
:f:*
llr:
rY'
. r:l
A,\P:
pal
T::1 J--
l:-
TY
t::i
loEroJ
tlal lu
pal
II:
Y:i:i aôJp
,\\ Ei:..
iil
atu Lr -
i::T1
'Y:l:1 t.':.i:'.1
ualllq t::"
t> -
ueSaq
auIo)aq aulof a,-
aJaM/se.^^ a-.
a1dnr1re4 1se4 aldurrg 1se4 aArlrurJurnualq
'lluii:
alaldwoJ oi spnm Sursstw atll u! lllJ 'sqtao nUBatJt uoLuuo) lsotu J4l Jo awos an molaq jil1tl-) ?...
auo IsP'
s)svr - r ardurs lsed g.?llufl

Unit 2.5 Past Simple 1 - Tasks
Stem/infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
mean
met
paid
put
read
rang
run
said
see
sold
send
shown
shut
spoke
stood
took
;;;;
told
think
::::::""0
Task two
(a) Nozl sort the uerbs in the sboae chart into three groups.ln Group 1 put the stem of all the aerbs
that h.nue a dift'erent form in each column; for example, fly, flew, flown. ln Croup 2 put the
stem of all the aerbs that haae only two t'orms, one f or the infinitioe and the same one for both
the Past Sintple and the past participle; for example, buy, bought, bought. ln Croup 3 put the
stern o.f ell the aerbs that haae the same form in all three columns; for example, bet, bet,
bet. Some examples haae been written f or you.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
tty bug bel
(b) Can you think of tuo common aerbs that do not fit into any of the three groups qou haae made?
(c) ln which group would you put regular aerbs?
32
€€
'd1a4iun sr uorlnlos e Jo arueq) a'.1] ler{} punoJ Jo asn aql .,{q Surlerrpul sI ralrr.rvr aq+'pu., ,
aq1u1 d-ra11ol aql Suruur.M Jo arueLIJ alpll dro^ sr arar{l s)iurql ;aleads aql 'aldurexa }srrJ au-
'auo aldurrs e aq lou ,{1qeqo,rd plnom 1r 'dialenbape

rualsr{s e to aJueluJo;rad aql arnseauJ ol .^/!oq ;o rualqord aqt o+ uollnlos e punoJ a1\^ Ji
'rp) ,.n,rau e .,{nq p1no.r,i 1 fua11o1 p uoM I Jl
;og firlqeqord ro ,{1r11q1ssod ;o slural ur aq osie u€r aJuelsrp -

:aldtuexa
('qraads palrodar Jo slrelap arour roJ Vt'Z't '7, s1ru61 aag) ',,{pearle auroq au -
sEq aq lpql lreJ aql pue ples ua,{{O leq.^^ qloq Sull,rodar aroJarar{l sr raleads aql puP Irc
'lrel sILIt aleJlpul o} alpq;o ur-ro1 a1i--
auo lsed dlqeqord sr aurrl arl]'aldruexa puoJas ar{l uI
luasard aql sasn 'aroJaraql '.ra>1eads aqI arqnJ aql uI lills sI tlrrtlM 'aruoq Suro8 sr ua'
aurrl aql rro Sursnrol sr raleads aql pue IJolJ,o auo aroJaq,{lqeqord sr lr'aspJ lsrrJ aL:
'{lol),o auo lp aruoq oB o1 peq aq pres ua.,wo

')iJolJ,o auo ]p aurorl o3 o1 seq aq prPs ua.MO
:alduexo ro{ 'uopasn)oJ Suraq sr arup }pr{.M uo pu€ daauor 01 spua}ur JalrJM ro raIF.: :
aq] Surusatu leqm uo spuadap sasuol qral ar{} a8upr{) ol uorslrap aq} asneJaq anrl d1a1a1d,..'
lou sr srql 'lraJrad lsed ol aldurrg lsed uort ro aldrurg lspd ol luasard 'alduexa roJ /ruorJ sas *:
qra^ aql a8ueqc sderrrle lsnur nod qJaads l)arrpur ro pegodar ul ler{l lr13ne1 uaaq aleq n.
'oBB sread.,{1uam1 JaAo sp.^ uoilJp aql'prrql aLIl ul puv'o8e srea,( porpr--
e raao areld Iool IIe 1r 'aldruexa puoJas aLIl ul '{epra}sad pup o8e slaa.lt o.n1 aceld )iool uc -
ar{} 'aseJ isrrJ aq} uI 'aruq Jo auo sr ssaualoruar ro aJuelslp aq} 'aôqp salduexa aarql au:
'srJed Jo ,{lrsraarun aq} }P r{f,Jeasar lerolrop-1sod

ur srea,{ o.ry\l lxau ar{l luads ptJj- 9961 uI euuar^ ;o dlrsranrun aqt ruoJ, palenper8 erde3
'lelaru e pauleluoJ osle lnq crueSro sP1|{ lPql punodruor P parJrluapr peq auo.{ue
leql aurl] lsrr] aq+ se1|{ ll 'arrJ 1q3ner pue rnode.r, e paruroJ z([pear leql prnbrl 8ur1laus
-lrâ ue parnpord aq 'aprpor ldqla 'punodruor rrueS;o ue qll.ryr Jurz PalPaq aq uar{^ }eql
punoJ aH dra.,rorsrp snoluaurour p eperu'lsruaqr qslllrg aql'puel>luerC pr€.\.tp1 6t8I ul
'.,{epralsad rallal aql paramsup diuo 1 lnq o8e slaa.an oml aur ol alorm aH
:saldwaxa asaql ja ,._
'arurl Jo sr.ura] ur aq uer a)uelslp sIl.{J ol par.r.-:
Suraq a1e1s ro luala aql Jo arurl aql pup 8urlrr.u ro 8ur>leads Jo arur] aql uaa^{taq a)upJs':
E sr arar{}'sprom rar{lo ul '3ur1rr,u ro 3ur>1eads Jo al.url ar{l ruoJt aloruar dertr auos ur are'q):,
salels ro suorlJp aqrJJsap o] Jo sluaâ ale)rpur ol pasn sr qra^ aq] Jo turot a1du45 lsBd ;,
'aw roJ aSessaru e raq a,rr8 aseald no,{ p1no3

'auo aldrurs P aq lou .{lqeqord
plnoM lI ' ' ' uoHnlos e punoJ a.ryr JI
'lra.lorsrp snolueruou p epptu 'lsl|'uaq)
r{splrg arll'puel{ue.rC prpMpE 6tgl uI
Z EIdWIS ISVd
9'Z IINN
Unit 2.6 Past Simple 2
In this unit we concentrate on the first type of distance or remoteness: fime. (See Units
2.35-2.39 on conditionals for a discussion of the second type of distance: probability.)
When we speak or write about events, actions or states that occurred in past time and when
there is a focus on the time or a definite time is 5;iven, rve use the Past Simple form. There are
three basic meanings of the Past Simple form:
State
Pete was a very competent lecturer at Stirling Universitv.
Carole was very busy.
Single event
I-isette planted a holly bush in the garden.
Thev found some new evidence in the case against the three defendants.
Habit or repeated events
Esme went to Spain for her holidavs every vear.
Joan worked extremely hard on the course.
We can add adverbials of time, frequency or duration to all of ihese to specify the time of the
action or the state. For example:
They found some new evidence in the case against the three defendants yesterday.
Pete was a very competent lecturer at Stirling University for three years.
Lisetie planted a hollv bush in the garclen last month.
Carole was very busy last week.
Joan worked extremely hard on the course last term.
I'}lrilip practised the piano every day for three hours when he was a young man.
34
9€
s, li02oN /itanua!gpalnpsD02.tallala4.L'tajlala4lul opolSuto8stirlIptus11ut11 s8ury1 a\]lloauc:

rtpuatla aabq I asnarrq sasua4 q.taa a4j Jo awos aBua4t oj aao4 I mou oS 'Jr luas to 1r paptttd Jou pt'.
1nq rt1dat a uajJum plq I tllll punol l nssatotd pnm iw parya4r I uarlM'o?a s4lttoLu x$ paara):
I )ailal u o1 pa4dat l()u pLr7 l la4j pa.taaorstp pua staJlal awos t13notq1 3uryoo1 sam 7 /iupta1s,.
aarql IsPf
'1utu3uo dLIl slt .rt.toi ]wos aql ilt slttoLtr,)t!l lDadar Aldats fiaryl ualio 1nq u)oJ aldutiq lsll(l a4l
o1 a9LtuLltoplarysruqautosju4lputJil,1!rtoAsarut1 ilajasttllopnolJ,l ,'' plusI,'a)urluasa4l
alaldutot fiat11 ua4ot )sual qtan a4l a8uuLl) tia41 tat11a4m l)a4) tu)4 lolt ptp noli puaTatd tro/i
8ur4|awos qaadat o7 watlJ ysa /illuttotsatto pua uostad a4l tlltor uotiuslaauo) u 1tu19 luaLuuadxa
st41 fuq'talpaat qstpul ua aaL)4 nofi Jir to 4st13u1 Jo uayuads aa4uu liua moul noti ]j 1q
']aarls UTEIAI uo se^\ aJr]{o rraq+ prps Aaqf
.taarts urp^l uo sr a)rjjo rraql prps AaqI (lll)
.Sururpr sr pres aqs
lr
'Surure: spM Jr prps aqS (ll)
passardap i.ran sr JL{ lPql prps aH
'passardap AlsA sEM aq leql pres aH (r)
'alDJs )o uotjJtl'Juaaa paUodat ary
Jo awq a4j lnoqD lias o1 ltLaau ta;lttads
a4i lD4m aptJap pua sa)ualuas to sttad ary ia 4oo'l ]Jauo) ata saruaiuas 3utmo11o] aqj ]o llv (v
o1vrl IseI
'1ua8r13eu uaaq lou ppq "a l-.aJe) a[('lpuosear ur Sury:e1
uaaq lou peq, raturel aql leqt (all)) lrr1o) leaddy aqJ ase) aql (asol) " aqs lng r:'
'srrlt op ot lalrl (aq' " stspaq
srl{ u.lrou>{ aneq lsnur rarureJ aql lel{l Surureyt'sa8eruep ro! (ans) " aqs punorS
aql ot nq Opou)l) " pue pr8 aqt lsure8e {dwnt11 " {t1l auo 'r(laleuntro;un
'arrrlt slt{} os (op) '' ' d".{I tuar{} punore Sur.raqle8 pue aldoad o1 dn 3urdo11e8
Jo lqeq e qllrvr ln1{eld.{lpalqnopun tnq snorf,rl tou(aq
' " ',{a.{I':;tq (aq " "'salllll
ua)iorqrrn '8uno,{ omt plarJ s,laute1 e passorJ }eql - aq o1 lq8rr tsarc 1aaa41 " or{s
araq,M - Lllpdlool rrlqnd pa8paqun /paJua1un ue Surssorl sem 1:rB e ,{ep auo 'aluelsur Jol
AsEa lou (arl) srtit pu\' gua8rlSau uaaq
spq aq leql pano-rd aq (ua) ) ' ' ' ' ll ssalun 'pasnp) d-rnfur -ro a8eurep .,{ue ro; a1qer1 .,i11ensn
lou (sr) ' ' ' ' rau/to aqq ',3u1{t umo s}r 3urop, /luaq lernleu s1r 3ur,r,ro11o1 sr lad rrlsar.uop
fueurproueJI.Melaq}uI!Ps|(mo4s)''...'SIeuIueqlInûoISSasqoIPuoIlPusIqI
2.,{lrredsrp aq1 .,{q.ln }nq * suortesrueS;o alqerrurpe Gq '"''r{}og tggl ruorJ (aryp)''" "
Lrarplrrl3 o1 ,,(11an.r3 Jo uorlualard aql roJ.,ilarrog lpuorleN ar{I yZSI urorJ (altp) " " "
- ,1e,{o5, lr'V+ (a)ttou) sleruruv o1 {11anr3 Jo uorluanaJd ar{l roJ .,{1aoog ledoy
aql a)ua]Jo ue osle uarplrrlr o1 ,{11anrc 3ur1er-u ot punorp (1a3) " sdhl alojaq srea^
l9 raqloue (a4al)' "'ll lnq'aurur e slewluE ol ,(11an:l (a4L1ut) " luatu€rlrecl iZZSl sE
o8e 3uo1 se'leqt aruerrlruBrs lnol{}l.M;ou,i1a.rns (aq)''"''tl slprurup rraql ltalatdS "' .'
.{11ear qsrlSug aqt teqt lq8noqt s.{e.r,r1e a^pq I lnq - raôl p (aaol) " "' plro-4 aqt IIV .
's4ualq a4l u! ll4 o1 swtot a1drur5 lslc1 a1l .to (Z Z ttun ads) aldwtg qtnst.t4 a41 ipro :.
'sla1)atq ut qtao a4l spton Sussrw ary ul tt!] putr lxal 8utmo11ol ary pt
Jo tutoJ J)arlor aLU 41t02
auo {sP'
s)svr - z ardurs lsEd g.?llull

Unit 2.6 Past Simple 2 l'asks
75 lrttrt. Wltnt churrgesittill I hnue to nrnke to the zterbs nrttl other u,ords in the letterbeiore I can send it?
5 Januarv
Dc'ar Edward
I am reallv excited because I have just booked mv tickets for mv trip to Australia. I am leaving
on the 15th of this month and will be in Svdney for tvro h'eeks. I'll be staying with two old
friends, Jim and Cathy, who have a flat on Sydney Harbour and they have promised to take
me to all the places of interest in and around Sydney like the Opera F{ouse, Bondi Beach and
even on a trip into some of the parks and the country outside Sydney. It is summer now in
Australia so I will get lots of sun.
It's a long w.ay to go from London and I only have two weeks' holidav but if I don't go this
year I may never go at all. So I will just have to be content'rvith two weeks and do as much as
possible while i'm there.
You said in your letter that your final exams are at the beginning of Fe]:ruarv. I hope you do
well in them and that you get a chance to take a holiday before you start your new job at the
end of February.
You must write and tell me all about the job, your new flat and everything as soon as you are
settled in.
Write and give me a1l your news.
I-ots of love,
JO
It
'Surauqaq s€ r{lns pJoM E aoelda-

pasn sI Suraq pue a1e1s clueufp '{rerodual e sem ssalrrsrou s,uarppqJ aq} ler{] slseSSns :
'aurtuerSo.rd aql uo al€rlua)uoJ l,uplnoJ 1 pue .{srou fua.t Suraq aram uarpln{J aql
:3ur,no11o1 arll .{ps pinoJ a.f\ 'uuoJ snonuui-
aql ul Pasn lou sr q)rqM qro^ alPls e .,{1leurou sr aq ol qra^ arll qSnoqlle 'aldruexa roc lu: :
ue rlll,lr palJauuoJ Surueatu p uo alel Jo alpls rpueudp e ssardxa ol pasn ale {arll ssalun .:
ro luasard rar{}ra'uJoJ snonuquoJ ar{l ur rnJJo ,{11er.u:ou lou op (l'Z +lun aas) sqran ure--.
',,{pua14 ol ra}lal e 8ur1rr,ra surn I
:lou ro raltal aqt paLlslurJ.raleads JLII raq::
'uallum sr rallal aql lou ro raL{lar{^{ sn 1a} l,usaopr alduexa 3ur,uo1yol aql'pueL{ laq}o au- -
'raddns 3u
ra8uol ou are daql - alalduor .Mou sr lr lsqt sn sllal lxaluor aql Jo aSpalmouT ;no lnq /uoqp: - :
palltull Jo se-u pup arurl auos roJ panurluor raddns 3u1neq leql slsaSSns luauralels !
'dn paurnl ra1a4 raddns Surneq aram a^r uaql\
:alduexa rog luasard aq dpressarau lou paau s8urueaw oml i.:-
aql lnq'alurl aluos roJ panurluoc Suruaddeq aql leql'uoqpJnp Jo eapr ue s.{e.+r1e sr a:.
'z[puarr,4 o] ra]lal e Surlrra'r se,l
y
1.{ep.ra1sa.{ no,{ pauoqd I uaq.\\ Surop noz( era^r tpq,\l

ldurexa roC 'paqsrurJ .ro alaldtuor .,{luessarau lou sr luala ro a}el: :
'dn paurnl rala4 raddns Sur,req arem a1t\ uaq,\1r
:aldruexa JoC 'palrlull sr luala ro alels aql Jo uorlprnp ro arui: :
'Morrourol lsal aL{l lnoqe Surlurrll sEM I
Zarnlral ar{l ur salou 3ur1e1 no;( 1,uara,ra ,{q.1,,
:atdtuexa Jol arur] auros JoJ panurluoJ alels Jo lua.\: :
:s8urueaur aarql Sur,uollol aql ,{anuo: -
ruro1 snonuquoJ lsed aqJ (t Z't Z sllun aas) arup luasald al{l rot pasn sr ruro, snonuuu -
luasard aql se ]sn[ selPls puP sartr^rlrp 'sllqeq lsed ro1 pasn sr uroJ snonuquoJ lspd -.
'slxal JrJrluarJs ur orer pue qsrlSug Ipuorlesre ,
'ua{ods ur luanbery aJour aJe surJoJ snonu$uol snonuquo}-uou aJp luJ) rad a,rr;-.i:.-
upql aroru pue snonuquo) aJe surroJ qra^ Jo luar rad a U ueq] ssal lpr{l pa}eln)lpJ uaaq s'. -
iAPpralsaA
nor{ pauoqd I uaqM Surop no.,( araM l€r{M
'dn
paurnl ra1a4 raddns Surneq aram a.tr uar{M
.,rvroJroruol
lsal aqt lnoqe Sur4urql seM I
SNONNIINO) ISYd
L'Z IINN
Unrt 2.7 Past Continuous
The Past Continuous form is often used to express actions that were going on for a period of
time when another event occurred. For example:
He was making some tea when thev arrived.
In this case, the tea-making began before they arrived. But if we said the following:
He made some tea when they arrived.
then we would mean that he began to make the tea after they arrived.
If the two events happen at the same time, then we need to use as rather than when. For
example:
The Lrand was playing, the flags were fluttering and the crowd was cheering as the
plavers ran onto the field.
3E
6€
'sittrlt )1ll p.tuatl noli JIutJ srll 1tt Sttrolt at)n! il2s.1t1o/i noli lt,
s, 3r/1017 at..a ia\l prus liaLll sSuil1q .t111 llll urtoLt ,)lli,r LtlrlJ's,.|]au a4J ptua4 iia4l ut4ot 3ti
sr' //.r!)r
at,t,n lia4l 1ut1ot satiiLtallo.r.1ldli 4sL1 L11u .t.tclLlJrLt].t a1tlot11 liupuL Jutll lrL,trL.t ''uttl.LoLltut ua Jo ln:
'sr')rJlt JtlJ
lt)LlJLl ls.tlJ ti.ttl) rLJLll! lv16p atat iat11 lntlot .taLlutJLua) nlJs trll) o.
tiupol aldoed litrtu atu J.tJLlJ pLtLl t9b[.'.1)qtuJJ[)N lr.r f .rJUr]ssrs\'rr 5u,)r tipnitu,t,'1 ullol lLtdp :a)(l's,1.
Jtll p.tLlatl lia41 itrotl taLlut.lLua) siiu,ttlu 11tot;1doad 1tt41 ltudut LtL) Lpils 2tLt4 li.tolsttl tu sluan) utuJ.,
aarql IsPf
'auoqdalal aqt lqgnorq {r€tr 1
'3eq
pue alllal e lq8norq er,r,1.,{5
ea1 e
'L{srure^ IrPu Jo al}loq e peq pue laal arPq raLl ur sP.\\ larPSrEhi
'uPLu)leM siq 1q3no,rq uplv
3op srq tqBnoLq d11rq4
'qsnlq lur€d e 3ur.t,r:pr sel/r pue s[e]JAo ur se,n ,i11e5
's.rar1d
;o ried e Surlrrpr sp,\\ pup uo saqlolJ plo ppr{ r.uES
u rqs e rnoqr r^''*',
"u:"tJJfi l: ::t Ji
":,:rq
')ooq Jeuure.r8 a8rel e Suri-r-rer se^\ pre,t\pg
'uorde ue ur pJAlJl€ lJaqoy
:s.tllruu.tJ Frrr.r:o71.ry .)r1J .'s1-l . r,
Sutop a4/s sD0t lu4M'uotysanLt a4l .taoEua pua lst) oJ sutll Suryu.''>1sr:q stqJ anLrtJuo)'tau1tad u :
2ytauo4d Lro>l ua4il Sutop a4s suil la4[\

'lrns fur^ s P ur PsArJr€ qeJes
lauoqd e4J prtaitlsLLD Jq ua4il Sutop at1 sDfi la4\
'saoqs AuP lnoLIlr.M +nq lrns E ur paAlJJe Jalad
pauotld uoy Ltall,tr Sutop a4 sllor lull,\\
'IJMO] P ur pJAU-tr uL{O.
1fi1tud atll oJ ultiuJtau d4i lo8 ]4s Ltatllt 8uto1t a4s sa,n la4i\,1
'apeds e Surlrre: 'ulqs--L e pup sueal Jo ]rpd p1o .'fua.1 p ur palure ereqrpg
'A1tad a41 ol auLo) o1 Ttaat8u p fiary putl SluLtrna puu Aup a4l Jo saur1 lua.. .
/u r/s,rilF Jrll pJrto\Ll uo>l rtotlalr.!u1 .141 p,t,,t))11 nJlll il.)11.).'JIJ,I ,t,rtll su pJssJ.tp
tr,lJtJtJ
lsttlu sJsan' aql 4rt40r o1 /i1.Lud D st st4f 'li1tud a.Ly no^sV au1) n aaB ol papt)ap auuuolprtr
o1lrl ISE
'no.{ o1 ral}al e 3ur1rr.rl sp.l,t I pallrre rallal rno^ uaq.\1

'do1.
tualll a)elu ol lle,{\ al{l uo paSupq aq lpq} asrou Jo lol p q)ns 3ur1er.u ara,!\ slnoqqSrau aq1
'cru ,{rreru ol raq pa)s€ pup aalr>l auo uo umop }oB I uaqm uap:e8 alil ul Surllrs aral\ a-\.
'ur alueJ arrlod aql uaLIM uorsrlalal uo LIlleLu aql 3urqr1e,u ara.,u r(aq1
paq o] uarplrLlJ aql Surllnd se.M rurf pa^rrrP I uaq.\'.
'liuer llaqroop aLIl uJr{.rl auoqd aL{l uo ralsrs raLI o1 3ur>11e1 se,.rt aL{.
qstr] pauetlda4 sluaa) oLnl rLl] jo rlrr4il )lL1JS pltl1 sa)LLaJuas iiuttttolloi aLll ir-
auo )!:
s)svl - snonuquo] lsEd L.z llu_ I
UNIT 2.8
EXPRESSING THE FUTURE
IN ENCLISH
English has no fufure tense but there are a number of ways of expressing fufure time in
English. We can use any of the following forms:
Will/shall r infinitive
Be going to i infinitive
Will/shall + be * continuous infinitive
Present Simple form
Present Continuous form
Be about to * infinitive
Be to + infinitive
We can also talk about the fufure from a point of time in the past. This is often called the
Fufure in the Past and five differerrt forms can be used to express this idea.
These different ways of expressing fufure time are not necessarily interchangeable - each one
is used to express a particular meaning or idea. Sometimes, aithough the meaning of two
forms may be the same, one or the other form may be more appropriate in informal speech
and the other more acceptable in formal situations or in written English.
In Units 2.9-2.16 we examine in turn each of these ways crf talkins about the future.
40
L'
panulluo)
'll, uorlJe-IluoJ alll sl plror\ aql roô II€ r{srlSuE uo)iods ur ru-roJ uo\rLUoJ lsotu aql IIe }€ pas:
iyarer sr llpqs Eppue3 pup VSn aq1 u1 3ur1r.r.M pup qraads dreurp;o ur 8ur:eaddesrp dlprdr
sI uorlJullslp srql lnq IIIM pue llpqs asn ol .{p^1 lra.uot aql sl slql lelll lL{8nPl JIr}s ar€ uarplru
sloor{ls Llslllrg.{r.reu u1 '(z(aq1 'no,,{ /1r /aq /aqs) suosrad plrqt pue puoras aql r{tr,!\ pas'
sl III,I pue (arr.r .ro I) uosrad lsrr] aql Llll^,r pasn sr llPrls lerll si +ureal a,rer-1 ,ieru no.l ,a1nr, au1
zllPt{s ro IIIAi
'op ol papl)ap lsnl aêq no.,{ Surqlauos SLrlels arp no.{ uatl,tr (a,rl1e8au aLIl ur) l,uo.r
ro IL /ll€LIs/llIM asn oslp tsnur no^'arnln] aq] ul Sulqlauros lnoq€ uorlsanb e )se ol ro arnjr
3LIl lnoqp uorlrrpa-rd e a>lptu ol IIeqs/IIrM asn ueJ no.{ leql alpr+suouap saldluexa asaq} Jo 1:
'lou IIrM roJ l,uoM uorlJErluo) anrleSau aql Jo asn aLIl s.{\oqs 1r 'puora:
(luaualels srlil ul o1 3u1o8 asn ol alqrssod aq lou plno^\ 11) '8ur1eads Jo luaruo.-
atll +€ appu uooq aêq lplll suorsrlap ssardxa ol pasn aq u€J II, ro lleqs4p.u,{1uo'1s.r.:
:II, J
IITMAIPTIS lnoqp l\ ou) ol paau no,{ slurod rar{unJ o.u1 Bur,rto11o, aql salerlsnllr aldwexe srr.;_
'3uo1 aq l,uo^{ I noi :o1 Iooq aq} la8 ILI
:auoaLu
.roy Surqlauos op ol 3ur-ra1;o sem oLIM alroaluos .,(q ualods se,n ayduexa lspl ar{l pu':
'alqnoP llrM sluauaq e.rlxa 1a3 up) or{.M uarplrq) qllM sarlrrueJ Jo raqurnu aql Iudv uorl
:1ry .^,luntas IerJoS .4rau s,luaurulaôf rlsltlJg aLIl ol sJaJaJ aldurexa lxau 3L
'puPllors sso.rJe ls€a aôru IIrM 'sapr.rqaH aql io lsa^^ v
'ralel "\\ol
ssJelo
l1e o1 peards IIr/\^ urer lnq ]srlJ 1e IIIT pue13u1 Jo qtnos pue }sea aqt Jo sued
,{rp .{1urer.u aq
:Jadeds.\raLr € ur lseJaJoJ raLIJea^{ e Luorj otlla
saJuoluas 3ur,,no11o1 aq1 srea.,{ ,r]ua.\\1 lxau aql ra,ro tuals,is uorlElnpa LlslllrB aql ur saSuer
alqrssod aql SrrrssnJsrp autuerSo.rd laued uorsrlalal e ruoJJ are aloqp soJualuas aarLll aL'_
Liuaral1rp iue aq arntnJ aqt IIIM

'alernJJp are suorl)rpr;d qrrtl,u IIal IIIlrl aurl ilug
larur1 ,srea,{ d1ua.M1 ul alll >1oo1 ruals,{s uorle)nPa Llsrlrrg aLI} IIIM lpr{M
:sa1druaxa asa4l l0 10,.
',uorlrrpard Jo aJnlnJ Iprlnau aL{1, sIr{l IIeJ auros alrlrurJu

+ IL uorlJ€rluoJ aql ro Ileqs ro llrrvr Sursn {q sr aJnlnJ aql ssardxa o1 de.u Ipnsn lsour aL _
'3uo1 aq l,uom I 'no,{ ro; {ooq ar{l lag ILI

'aleJnl)e eq ol lno uJnl
IIrM suollrrpard qrrq.u I1al lllm aturl ,{1u6
eluaraJJrp,{ue aq ern+nJ aql IIrM aAqrurJur
;aurl ,srea{ Auaml ul aIIl
aq uals,{s uorle)npa llsrlrrg aql IIIM lBqM + IIPr{s/IIrM EUnInC
6'Z IINN
Unit 2.9 Future I
Another trse of lvill is to si6;rral that there is an elerlent of intention or personal involvement
in the statement. If vou sery,'l'll be there tonrorrow', vou are expressing an intention or a
promise.
Shall n'ith the first person (l or we) is still used when making an offer to do something:
Shall I carry that for vou?
Shall I do that for vou?
Or to ask for permission or instructions:
Shall I come to your house or will vou corn€ to mine?
Will rvith the second person (you) is used to ask for help:
IVill vou hold this for me?
Or to issr.re an invitation or a polite order or request:
Will vou come into mv office, please.
1a
LI
'Puenc..:,g uâ+g.a/yl v, vteA +uoM [FPqwd ql

'nol to1 Lt.)JluLn ueeil surl alrhuata uV lsu)J)oi a41 o1 Strrp.tos)u .n1.11
.1.11t 1at!) slutLu,tltlls rls allr,\1 llittyt stLll lro rJrlJlJ.),]r Jr/l lnrraJrr ,r1r,rrr rro/i pllor sJrJl{i,)JUJs lLillll
uooulJUP Jt{l ul ulPr t.lll.n,tpnoll rJ,i r
'''' ll'1so:1 puno:S Jo qrnol p r{lrM nuuns pue.,t-rp (ut3J(1) " puPliorS uralsel (nr)
'puP[toJS ura]sJ.\1 pue puulSug
uJalsa^1-quou pue uJar-{lnos 'lpllua) ur ^{ra.lroqs pue -ralqBr.rq (Juto))t1) lt (II)
puelSug uraL{lnos Jano
,illerradsa s11e;.,{,reaq q1\tr\ (pila1ds) " " u!eu's1;ud u.ralsea aruarlxa ur JLrrLlsuns
auos rltr.&\ iry ru8arll ' puelSu3 Jo rapurpLuar arlt pue pupllols trragsalul (rrl
'ralq8r.rq (awo)aq) " +nq Fl\ (u8aq) ' pue13ug
lsaM-qlnos puP saleM /puelarl uraquoN :{ool}no lerauaS ]sPraloJ laqlea^\ s.,\Ppol (r)
'sl )\) Lt.t L:
ut stl.taa a4q fo stu;o] yJatrl) a4l Llltn splo01 Sutsstut d4l rrt llJ puu Ittl 8utmo11ol ary paa>l
o/vll IsE
'6ad aql ol taJat latll aso4i rol lraJ:LeJ luasa)cI a4l Eu$n pu!
)tnin| aql ol )aldt luql asoLll .ro/ IIIM Sursn alttltu tadt,rTsotau JLll Jo sa nl tsltJ -ltlJ srr srlri/pl)r::
atll aluLtr-all tltaLl a\l jo utloJ 1stt4 n Sutstt ualJuJt aLl pltl.)J sluaod lSDd 01 lalar lullJ slil.
a4t'lllrla Sursn tra17u,n-).1 rq plilo) ))ntnJ )41 ol .LJJdt lDql J.to,l, lsll r4t ut s?utlpLt.lt! J4t Jo lt1
'saadap litatrtuo4 aata).)t
11nt aldoad pa4srn8wlstlt ?a.ttii iLt4l sLtuaw sltl1 CfUnONOE
1A OI I1AHJ aq plno:) f 4saJ- ut alu,t! 01 paryt) aq il|r! no/i aprltu rtll loJ au\puri.
a41'aldwaxa to7 aatltutiut atlq snld o1 Suisrr lt1 atnlnj a41 1auSrc ua1!o sauripua4 tadadsotay
'ol lo asn a41 hq pa11au3rc st anlnl ,t41, :pauaddutl rtpttatlu satl lt tl8nollllLl luasaLl a7l slralir
lt)Lly 1u.1,2) to l)DJ a ol siJl,l) )suJl llt)<)t(l Jtll :u)o1 qt)n )41 ltl ))uataJllp d4l pJ.1tlou /i1,1t,,70'.:
no^ aanln| a4l ol to uotlDn+6 luasatd aql ol pailalrl saulpaary a4t )a41a4il apnap non ptp 0Loh
sqol uopuo'l OOg

suollels nI snq...yro
,"r:,81?;
axe ol Peorqrlqrn
slles lleg
s ur a r q o,, d rTJ"? if,o?'fi:1",1] :.1 il: ::"",11 N
uqlfl^lc .-:ffin d'cnq''oa1=laorye'-6frtn3
sloe6
PJenO ol sdobjf fr"i,uo,o 6u!!rs
:ualJuil sot'tt ,tullpaall ,tLll lta4Jt peutdtlt,tl ipatt11, 7,v.

1[41 3u4lautt]s 0t.ro rrrltlJ dtll ol )a]at liat11 ta41a4,n a]als pua s)Ltrprla4 Sutoto11o1 a\1 la \ot'
auo IS:
,ll s)svl - I arnlnJ 6'z llul

ta
'7
Unit 2.9 Future 1 - Tasks
Hornlng Afternoon lllght
ff.
Fbc* rls
p--'a &"p*,.
,fl,Y'oX oz Xefr;1" {rf\

o {''
@{ suooTH
'#r" a@ aj flls-
Wffi
€B*
noucx (
Horning Afternoon ilight
torning Afternoon
,/z
V
qf$
tFHill
44
9n
luortpcpnt-o ..w
tuo!ar8M- polfroS-.r
rq&!,eatc E\fgflO *t OOd
,""rs Q/ ,,"" c *",. e
111,*{_"iffiiP
,"0,^y,"u*.lfiffi? ""r{
,{ '.,,""'::I;q) ,", *
(coep) (qdu)F.d.pur Gn
u\
sernF)duol t,, uosrp piM,r
sloqtu[s ot itey
'srallalJo rol)ocl ;o aar8ap .,fue;ouoq aL{l alla)ar - aplsallqM laraq rC

'a)uar)S Jo rolJoq 1o aa.rSap fuerouoq oL{1 olroJoJ - {^g-l arrrnel4l I\
'af,uatJs Jo JolJoCl 1o aar8ap d-rerouoq aLIl allalar - pealsl?H pleuoy ri.
'raqluaJaq g '.,{epsrnql uo saa-r8ap rLre"rouotl pu'.
raq8rtl Jo luaruraJuoJ aLIl ro1 .{uotuarar e 1e aprsard - erpupxalv ssaJuI.Id HUH /rolla)ueq3 at{,
' nilolu).t.
atll atoJaq )laam auo tuaddu lltm al)tJn a4I'aptlta lto4s n oltu saJou a7l dn aqua ol palsa uJ;.
dia4puatadadsozautalsu)rtu1 p)olJ4lto1 ttltodataantnohry41 atL8rsul )alsD)til7]oi1ts.Laotu;
a4] ]o alauas a4l 1o Sutlattu Lt Ju 111vt1tttts t4l lQ apau rtam lD4t selou Sur,noiloJ aLll pu]i
rnoJ {sEf
'raplof, qJnu laal ]r aI€r.u IIrM spur.{r aql Lllret{-prur roJ Ierurou reau aq 11r.,rt sarnle.radr-ua1
q8noqliv 'saleM pue puelSug ;o slred uralsaM pue uraqlnos ra,r.o sa1e3 qll^\ arar{,\r[Iaâ
dpur.m urEurar Il1/!\ lI IJp Surureruar slred u;alseaqinos ro uralspa parallaqs-11a.u Iluo
qll,l,r raleI pea.rdsapr.u. aroru Sutuoraq 'lsrlj lp slllrtslp LIJalsa.lt ol paulJuol 'sramor.{s puP
sporrad .{uuns aq IIrM aral{l araqmaslg 'sar'ulJ lp sule}unoru aql raô 'llous aq [lr^t araLlf
'urer Jo spor.rad ra8uol Jo sra.\{or{s aq lll^r. araql puplloJs r.Ira}sea pue uraquolr ui i;iunor
aql Jo lsoru ralo rueallsrre.{ra.+roqs e qlrm puello)S ura}spa 1yo uorssa;dap e sI JraqJ (l
'po;:adra sl urpl lJrlllnJ
Surua.ra aql Suunp lnq '^rolloJ IIr^r ralllea.l,r ralq8rrg lsaî-Lllrou rLI] ul aq IIIÎ ulpr aql
Jo lsol4l uoourarye-prtu .{q sea.re llE qrpar IIr,\\ sJrIs rarpnolf, asaq] pue uter i-ra.rtorls auos
qll,lr ,{pnol) aroru aq IIr.\\ seare ura}saM saqrled 3o1 1e:nr .t'ra1 e 1sn[ tpr.,r.r ',{uuns alrnb
pue fup uels IIrM urelrrg uralsell 'salsl qsrlrrg aLIl sraôJ urparlsrr p ,i1:a1sa,rt elqea8ueqr y 1
.:
'ur€r lpuorse]lo ri]r.,w .,{pnop {llsotu aq IIIM puelSuE tsa.\\-qtnos pue saleM slllq
auros uo.{Lous pu€ sareld ur.{neaq'urerJo slparqlno LIll,\\'puelarl ulaqltoN puP PUPIIoJS
ra.to,,(pnop.,{lureru aq IIIM ll araq,lrasla suollrpuor A-raMoLIS aq tllM araql pue13u1
lsa,M-r{}nos }JaJJP III.ftl ,&\oi rar-{louv 'Puello)S ssorf,e lsPa-Lllnos aôlu 11r.'n uorssa:dap V 1 '
'1.\)1 )!!1 sJJUrjs'i
1a47 atuanbas atn4trd pa.uo) a41 4llJr lsu)aio] 4)aJ 4)lDW slsLt)d)a] ta1lDa0! aa.t4J a.tri ).ti'
'1aap luat8 D lt lno(p llul oi wa.-
qstlttg a4] pua alrlaa?uutlt liteo sr ta4lDaol qstit.tB )tll'praa4 hlqatlottl atu4 rtoli stt'asntttacl aq rtt'.
snll 'taLllaaol a41 inoqa sutalt liuat sautuutSold otput pttu IIotStLl)i)J pItLi s|,)dDastn)u 4s11119 1s0;
aarql {sPI
s)iseJ Iarnlng6ztlun
UNIT 2.LO We are going to get the report out early next
FUTURE 2: be going to * week.
What are they going to do now?
infinitive fason Donovan is going to be on the
programme next week.
The last episode of Crossroads was on last
night. Is there going to be another series?
Be going to * infinitive is commonly usecl to express the future in informal speech. There
.rre t\\'o b.rsic meanings of this form anci both depend on the situation in the present time.
The first nle.rnrng expresses the fufure fulfilment of a present intention or plan.
i ook nf fIt'se e,rrrrrrplcs:
\'\Ie are going to get the report out early next week.
\Vh.rt are they going to do norl,?
Jason Donovan is going to be on the programme next rveek.
The. last episode of Crossronds, the- soap opera, was on last night. Is there going to be
another series?
You're going to be very surprised n'hen you see the house.
FJe's going to give a talk at the conference in Berlin next month.
All oi these statements are spoken utterances which tell the hearer what is going to happen as
.r result of .r p[2n which has already been r.nade.
Thc seconcl meaning of this form is to e\Fress the fufure result of a cause in the present.
/.ooA rit l/rcsc c.rnllplrs:
It's going to rain. (The skv has become very dark.)
IIe's going to win the race. (He is vr,ell ahead of all the other contestants.)
Slre's going to have a baby next month. (She is pregnant now.)
In this use of be going to * infinitive, there is a sense that the result is almost immediate. In
the filst trvo utterances this is certainlv true. If, howevei', as in the third utterance, the result is
rrot going to be immediate, then vou must r-rse a time phrase such as next month, next year, in
March, etc.
WARNING BOX
Wc clo not use be going to * infinitive to rn.rke an offer. If , for exanrPlr', |ou are at home
u'ith I'otrr f.rnrily and the phone rines, you would say:
'l'll get it'
'l'll answer it'
and not
'I'nr ,qoing to nnsttter it' .
'l'rri golrr' tct ttnstLter it'would suggest that you had a definite intentit'n and that you
tlrought someone would prevent you fronr doing what vou wanted to do. It would not be
.rn offer to clo something.
If n'e.rre talkirrg about the future, we clo not usually continue to repeat be going to *
infinitive thror-rgl.rout the text. So, if vou'"r,erc. talkirrg about the weather, for example, you
nrlgnt sa\':
It's going to rain torrrorrow nr,-rrning but then in the afternoon it'll clear and be sunny
antl ttrrrch w,trnter. So it,ll be rrice tor the l\,,hD^,,^ in fho D\ nnlnq.
/l
p atlLtlltlo)
.,tep -raqto
d,rana 11e,u e :o1 3op aqt aI€l ol auuv la) .rL y p
'apn ( <Jtntttttt
ro|rurs AttItIl
.rlly+ ruJ
'^r
a',r,-l
.uLu.\l d\l.lJt..
.q)Pa 'saAI--ir '

salnurLu,,{1u,r,M1 ol sllp) auoqd .\Lu }rLur-l aql uo rrpro lP)rlaqpqdlp ur sjooq ,{l'u I' ,
'3urua,ra .{.ra,ra 1;o.,rtauoq ,{r-u og i1>1rrnb paau l leLI-,nt purJ uer I os ur a8alr.
'alnpaqrs ,{pn1s i11aa.r.r e a>let\l rrrorj salou dao) o] laurqp) 3uril1 e.ir.
^LU
salrPtIJ euu\
'alulp JJels ,{Lu aJoJaq lno sBurLi} }ros ueJ

I os rarlrpa rnoq-ue-Jleq a)rJJo aql ol laJ 's8utlaau la^\al plcr:.
'auo.{rana ol Surq}aluos uBrsse 'J-Iels .i --
puP saroql Ploqasnoq Jo rlnpaL{rs e aletr/{ s8urlaaur ro1 saurrl relngar aprsp l.::
1s11 Surddoqs alep-o1-dn uP daa) 'JjPlq ol aroul JlPSr'
^Lu
'aur1 .{r-u puads I ,\1.oq aas ol 3ol aurrl Up}S
E 'lr
t: esn nup
vr" r-'
LasrrrpSro rpuo:;ad e.r:'
UAIIA
'srrDld.rttt11 Jo 1u)Lll ptllLu).t ol

llLttl a4l ut p.tuoLl utl)lliliil Li ol s)Jo1t.tl,)Ll] p)trurLl sall ,.
111tL1 .t.)ll,1tl Jlutl .u)tlJ .tSuuDtu pilt) lltJt)tlJa a.LO1u eq ol utld titL11 nOtl lrlrLrl) r/.rllrr,ir sl,r/ .r|(),
'li1qrr,;ttr11a )i()Lu )llul .uJ4l 3ut9L1uuru iol sLtuld.)uos alutLt oJ uJ.tpltll) oJtl tatlt pt;tptt,nstt,1
lltrL1 L)Jlt.trl)l ei.ull trt)11] JLlllJt liltLlu,)lJsrrts/il/Jl.r lita.] d.Lu lit4.1, s.tttllo.ttJtll .!t1)u uJloJ 11 111 uolJ: .
.tltll.ut| /o ,3J//or u litl urt.L asfito) Ju,)tu)3tJut)Lu :)ut11 tt Lu().tJ !J|.t11|,t.1 lsill t,tutl JloJq, utlll put-t .-
o^^] ISr
Srr L{JL\\ srLIl rr1-rlr.lr)
'' ''' slels-ol rnoi Jo auo pue spuo.rssi)./J Luoq crl) e (.rJsl ''''' aJ,aM l./.)fl.ri
^,\ou
]eqt o)rl (1at71" 'aldoad Jo tol p alrnb 1urql I pue,noi (sslilt )
;1r,t,{4, aLu l[r] or-1,n sdoqs ur aldoad Surlaer-u dacl I',uou1 l,uop I lng ,t1qrsso.1 r ss.
asorras laqlouE (r4)

' ''''' aJaLIl sl i.r.rrl.ri.l
'sueld
ua1 c alrnb a^€Ll I lnq lxau fop) ' ' ' I ler{'u ,{ra,t uaaq a,r,1 iss.
^\ou) l,uop 1
.,{snq
itxau (op)
.
' ' leqA\ 'sllaoisso.l) pJr{srLru oA,nor{ l€ql ,\\oN :.t,)01,)1.:
'p)uaat)s u])q lstli suq aposrtle $Lll d1!.L sp€ori.
' il.1 ) do (1110s tlolstz)ltl )Lll ttl SS).11)11 LtLl pLLU.tJtl).)l,1.t2lll1 ttOlSI.l)PJ U ltJ)t)!JJLI ltOIlUS.tAtlLIO.-
1l s|))1,)11.!q ut qrlil artl jo ut.Lo1 l.)).t.ro) d4l llliin sp.rorl 8l/lssr/rt JrlJ tu llti lil.LLi 1xa1 Iiur,n.o11o],tr11 ,
auo I-qE '
J
Jg s)svl - z alnln{ 0I'z llun
'7
Unit 2. lt) Fr,rture 2 - Tasks
(a) looA'rrf rf/rr'ritrlr,s LtboL,c Llttd iL,rit( dorrn uhnt enclt nrentlter oi tht: iLtnrilv tt'tuld sny nbout Jtis or
/it'r'orr,rr iLlcts for tinte ntattntttrtetrt. An exnntplc hns been u,rittctt itr vou.
ExortrltIt:
ial or3aytiser
I'r,vr going bo bug a persolraf or ayrd use it.
(b) l\'/rr'n Lllett ittent to ,ttork the nert datt, slte told some of her.friends uhnt hnd hnlspened. After
sltt ltnd tolLl thent u,hat sltc u,ns plartttiug to da, she toltl them about thc others'plnns. Writt
it,/r,tl -sllc snid. Att exttnt2tle hns been r,ritttn for 11ou.
Et,ttnytlt
Arrne r's goir,rg to bug a filing cabirtet to keep her nobes iy
Task three
Looft nt tht cnrtoons belou: nntl, rrsirir be going to * infinitive, satt u,ltnr tlou thirtk is.qoin.q fo
JtooLtt'tt ttaxt.
(a) *', lo*

'j&'/t'
e"=\i (Hr,
,\\\El
ll 'l
TrNq l
(d)
'-_-l
ai,) r-t
.t
---/
,Hgi,3+
':h7*tl*.
ttllt/'i\f; "
(g) o- (h)
_.-t
-
( r r'trjr}-
V
,/' - .+l-l
z' / 3-'J
c.l$c{' .q---i
(-(.=)IK-t@.: RtN+t47
''ilG-,
r4
-f,: ==:)=
' \
-tl
'lE
,, wY::
s6ry
'wlrj aq1 q)1en

i +qFrraoi d;; {;itt ;t 6u'"6 n"6 -n i"',prt ,C
:p;;"iu e 6iq ;i 5;1oF r. ,y
1
. >faaet lxav 6'nq o1 ['u1o6 nofra'te ]e{}l :[
:saidui,.
'noti .ttti LtdllutnLt,)JLl .).rutl saldutuxa .rrroS s.r2,?rsu u lttLtt sttorlsanLt
tlrlrop ,tll.ttl! unt nort'u.toJ sr4l tl]to! a)tJJD,ti J.tou auos 1aB o1 quu,^D noi lt to tt,tto tnoli uo 3Lt:J,.,
atu noi Jl autus a4l op oj taultud tnoh 1aE u)tlf laail Jr)LL')1r'rpJbil'aas'inq'o7t o1 l;,:
sl a4is 1a401 ltlo(UJ sLtotlsanb uu41taL1 lsL) Lta4l pua aluas a7l op ol .nu1.tud trro/i ysu'ssr/J ir ut ail1 ..
torLoh41rmSurlpnqssro4Lnpuau]Daoa4nohiI s\uttlluaaasd4lqltLi!/itarya4luotla8udSutote
a4l Ltl lili u"t4I auo 4raa op uttt nort Ltatlit! aptrap lua laaor Jxalt c)p ttl uald rtoh sttrrtll LLtaas jo:1;,.
JnoJ IsE'
s{sEJ-zsrntnc0IZllun
UNIT 2.11.
FUTURE 3: will/shall * be * I'll be moving to London in August.
Will you be selling your house in
continuous infinitive Switzerland?
I'll be starting another book very soon.
I'll be doing plenty of exercises and getting
fit for the race.
!\re can use will/shall or 'll * be * continuous infinitive to talk about the future rt'hen n,e
\'vant to put the event or state into the continuous time frame.
Look Ltt tltt'st erLtrnTtles:
More than 300 million people will be watchingthe Grand National tomorro\-.
Thev're wondering whether he'll be running in the marathon next ivcek.
I'tl be doing plentv of exercises and getting fit for the race.
I'll be startin6; another book very soon.
ln these statements, the speaker is thinking about an event or experience in the near fufure
r.t'hich wilI continue for a specific period of time, '"vith a definite beginning ancl end.
Another purpose of this form is to indicate that the future event or experierrce rvill happen as
a matter of course, without the inrplication that tl'rele is any human intention, planning or
promise involved.
I.ook nt tht,se ertntplt's:
Brian will be hancling in the kevs to the ilat and he'll be moving in rvith his son next
montl-r.
Now that we've rvon this ;rrvard I think we'll probablv be getting a bigger audience for
our performances.
I'll be moving to London in Augr-rst.
Will vou be selling vour house rn Sn'itzerland?
I'll be starting another book verv soon.
Brian has been',vorking as a lighthousc kecper and is about to retire. l{c rvill, oi course, leave
the lighthouse and go to live somewhere else.
Thc spokcsman for the singing group who m.rde the second statemL'nt sees a big;;er att.lience
as;r natural result of the publicitl, thev have t'eceivecl bv rvinning the art'ard.
The i:rst three state.ments come from an intervie',v on televisron with Sallv Burton, Richartl
Burton's rvido'"r,. The rest of the intervielt' tvas as follon's:
Ittttn,ittt,t'r: Are vou coming back to London?
Burtort: Yes. I'll be moving to London in August.
ltttL rctt'rrer: Does that mean vou'll be selling vour house in Srvrtzerland?
Burtotr: Yes.
Irrttri,iaucr: lVhat do vou think might happen ir-r the nt'rt ten r.e'.rrs? Will vou write
another book?
BtLrtttrt: I'll be starting another one verv soon.
Fron-r tlris cxchange we can see that Sallv Bulton considers these events;rs follorvirrg, as a
nlatter of coursc, one on the otl.rer. Bv using will/shall * continuous infinitive shc gives ihem
a scnse of inevitability or routine. This me.rning cxplains the follorving expression:
50
IE
'78nory Suwaaa sllll it asn ua) no;' htto5 lyot 1sa1

U
uoouraue srq] rossa)ord p.rorvr ar{l Sursn aq noi y1r1r1
llutll to] a8ussaw u aautl ttoli og 2li41r4'sa1
2Suruana srql prpr{lr5 8u1aas aq no.,{ 11r,14
;noh tol 4JUq 4ooq ttroli a:1a1ol atu lttaot 11oli o/r 'sa \
2,tepo1 .,Lre-rqrl aql o] SuIoB aq noi 1IL14
;11 .laot.toq ol lttD,n )lJn op'o\
z.\ôrJourol JaMoru u.rte1 rno.,i Sursn aq no.L 1111,4
:srql alrl Surqlatuos oB lq8ru a8ueqrxa aql oS 8ur1se roJ uos€ar raqr .
peq no.{ l€r.{l lnq lsaralul ro .{ltsounr 1o lno .{ldurrs 3ur>1se lou araM no{ ler{l Mou>l plr.
passarppe no.{ uos.rad aql asneraq uraql Jo .{ue o1 ;a,usue oN ro sa1 aldurs e lladxa }ou plr
no1 no.{ ro; Surqlatuos op ol auoauros 8ur4se ;o s.{e,tn }JarIpuI are ,suor}sanb, asaql 1o
Zuoouraue srr{l rossaJo.rd p.ro-r.t aq1 Sursn aq no.,i 1yrr14
l3urua,ra srqt preLI)rU Suraas aq no^,{ 1164
;,{epoq i-rerqrl aql o} SuIoB aq no,{ 1y,1,1
ir{oJJouroJ ra^\our u,r,re1 .rno.{ Sursn aq nod 1F64
:saldutaxa asaql ju :"
''sn loJ Surqlauos op ol auoauros 8ul{se :o Surqlauos :

auoaruos 3u11se yo ,,{e.u lnoqepunor e se aAqIuIJuI snonulluoJ + aq + IIrM asn a,M salulla !-.
'IPruJOJur aJOLU SI 'JaAaMOLI 'UTJOJ SnOnuIJuOl :
'7 urro11e1d uo Surrrrrre aq IIIM/a^lue 1pr* .rTo8selC o] uler] lxau aLlf
:aldurexa roc 'sruJo] snonulluo)-uou pue snonuqL:
aql uaamlaq Suruealu ur a)uaJa1;rp ou sr aJaql'.ranamor{'}uaLuaAIoAuI uerunq ou sI alau.
's1qap .rnor{ ded 1F^\ no.,{ uaq.u 3ur>1se i1o,,
sr uosrad aql 'Surded 1ou .rnor{ yo uorlsanb ou sl araql }eql sl uorlsaSSns aq} 'sasel ti+or
ZUerpraô rno.{ Suyeap aq nod lll,vr uaq6\
alllq slqt 3ur.{ed aq no.{ IIr^r uaq1\
'aloLL.
rog'3urq1due op ol ruaql Suuapro arp a^\ Jr sp ulaas ol luem lou op pue finp.ro uorle8r,:
ue lo r(11n1lrel auoauros pulrual o] lue1\^ a^,r uar{.4/\ In]asn sl uorl)nr}suol arues aql a-
Surlaaur paxrl due Jo laaru o1 ueld altulJap p ser{ sn ,o Jaq}rau }nq uoos ute8e laau .,{1urr::,
llrM a.lr asn€)aq aurll auros no{ aas ILI }pt{} Surles Jo lenset d;an e st alduera '
ê.n,r 'no.,{ Euraas aq
11,1
€arnlnc[lzl]un
E
-2-
unit 2.11, Future 3 - rASKS F

E
Task one
(a) ,4f1,'r tlre sptrutglrrtLtk, Bnr[tttt'u tnd lttlLrt ri r11 be golrrg Ltnck to rntit,trsttt/ LtttLl gettirtg LtLtck irtttt
tlre strrte routittc t'Ls Ltef ore the holtdnrls. \Nrite sonte setrtences, rr-ciriq will/shall or'll * be *
continuous infinitive, sbout u,ltLtt tltcu uill Lte doing t,hen thcti gct bnck. Llse tht cues to hclyt
votr or tltirtk up tlour ou,tt ttctii:ities.
#'ill*
52
€E
'Surua.na aq+ ur uorsrlalal

uo sr/1t'Lt q)lP \ llut' rJlndr.r0.r ln(),\ JS|r ',1;:.irrq rno,i .rno;.to.1 ol s]ut' .\1 .rau1:ed .rno 1
'sTslrrlr;r; lJ,t.ttLtul ;ttll .)4L1uL .L,tu+.tttd .11161i .t,vttt1 IlLtL1 sJlo.t ,tBt.ttttls otoN r-
's,luagps,\\au JLll uloJJ aulZpBplu ralndtuor e pLlE s,JaIPq aLll tuoJ] pPalq
auros 's,lsnLraLI-r Jql uro:; ur:rdsu oiuos lLtp.\1 noi pr,re Sr"rrdclotls iiuro8 sr :ar:i-ted rnol
'ttoli .roJ Sttltll.rttlos o[1 o] wIL! ttaLl lsL'
i11:a.ttyttrt o1 a^rllurJur snonurluo) + aq + IL/lll.ll Sutstr.iauytud.Lnttli 41t'tt trrFoltttLt a )sti)u.t(l :
aartll Is r
'erBroa3 'elsnBny 1e ti
-nordruvq3 Jlo) s-ralsphl S1l lsra,^âL\ 000'02 rIPr.LIroN .:-.r.r3 '41,i1 ipue5 'so-ralsallP8 oLIPrra
'Lunrpplq ,{a1qrua1u1 1e s.rolelrads 000'09 - lleqlooJ sioqlooqls uptlrz€.rg snsran Llsl:
'siauunj 00tl'92 raô :s:o1e1rads uollllttl auo - uoL{}P.IPt\ uopuol -.
'aarluIV lP lsasrotl xrs-.{1rrq1 lqJl€M aldoad uoIllILu 00€ - leuollEN ptrPrS:
asit],lt dtll spr',r.1 Jl/ l1.rl1,ll /ilrs .t1l llr,t1 lLlll\\ 'J.tt1ltlJ a4l 1t:
slul') atll llr lsLl)pLio.t(1 s;.ror/s J.r.I/ sll/.rol s,r]oii lrrr,Io71ol t\] ttlLltF uaaLl sDI! .tJptlJ.tsJjJlt o1l1;
oMl {sE
i tFLLu rlt sl u.) tu) 1t1 l.
,)tll lo SuutLi.)nt JIll LtlltoJr rrtt)t/ alJllulJul a o1 SuroB aq trits,r s.r.rr/.1J1l.rs )I!1 Jlo.t)!a.t tloli ll
s)sel € rrnlu ll z llun

UNIT 2.L2 Tomorrow is Friday.
The flight doesn't leave at 15.45; it leaves at
FUTURE 4: Present Simple
18.45.
form The Money Progrnrnnte refurns at 5 o'clock on
Wednesday.
The big race tomorrow is The Grand
National at Aintree.
The Present Simple form is used to talk about the fufure when the event is seen as a definite
fact, just as the Present Simple form is used to express a fact in the present time.
I.ook nt these exnmytles:
Tomorrow is Friday.
The flight doesn't leave at 1.6.45; it leaves at 18.45.
Tlte Nlorrerl Progrttmntc refurns at 5 o'clock on Wednesdav.
A new comedv series starts on Channel 4 at the end of the week.
The big racc tomorrorv is the Grand National at Aintree.
In England, Luton take on Portsmouth tomorrow and in Scotland, Hearts face Celtic.
'fhe calendar is fixecl and one day follorvs another in the same order. Similarlv, airline and
television schedules and sports events are decided many months in advance and are not
subject to change in the normal course of events. We see these events, therefore, as facts and
not as possible events in the future.
Nozo look nt this etnntple:
The wedding is next month and it's a white n'edding.
Again, the woman who made this statement did not consider that there was anv doubt that
the wedding would take place or that the bride would be wearinS; a long white dress.
The Present Simple fornr is used to e\press the fufure verv often but this is usuallv in
dependent clauses after conditionals such as if or unless (see Units 2.35-2.39) or after time
conjunctions such as when, as soon as, until, etc. The main clause is usuallv in the will/shall
or 'll form or the be going to * infinitive form but the verb irr the dependent clause r,r,hich is
introduced by a conditional or time conjunction is in the Present Simple form. For example
What will happen if it rains?
I'll let vou have a copl' of the report as soon as I finish it.
I'm going to work on this when I have more time.
54
9E
I rrsla.rru 1 uado g0'z t-9C't I
raqlen.\\ 99 1 I-0! l I
Ioopno pualaa.\\ 0t'I I atuprl.l qrtuu.rtuIi ) 0l I I
JrqlEr.t\ 9Z I I ,)urr.l_ u0rlsrnt) i)f 1)I
lq;rus r\,r\ 0f () I Jllq.\\ pur'rx.)PIg 0t 0t
la,\ErJ III.{ y.l ) ()f i'ir
qJlP.\\.)tuli
- s1q8lllool a,\PH 0I 0i \ r\J\ JUI\ {)0 6
\.loJ,l,L)
sdlnull\l 0t 0c 6 pultu.lrls?l{ 0ti !l
II rrppB\relg 00 6 pJro \\ \, \\o.Ii()ulo l. 00 8
Jlnle\ ()f:'h \.1,]pu3lsr?3 oi: !
,Bsr; do L 00.u stlo.1 aq1 ;o do1 0{) i
lJnlg it{ ilP) 0c : s,)urinriJr?rupuoL.fJH gil 9
"ra,\oJ ol Ja.\oJ 00': s.$r\ \roll.O \I5- 00 9
o.r\I uoolle ) 0! g
L?AS
2388
'sJ,|:,'
Ltl Stl.tJtt )41 Jo stu.taJ Jfr.r.r(r-r )Lll 3u1s11 ',sp.ro,I l-r//ssllu Jtll u1 llt] L|ttL1 ,1lnp,)tps lralstrlr/.rJ 8ilt,11.
JIII lu 1O01 .\iilil.i,1.r .ltll ui. uat:tJ.1l,ti iro tl)lL1Jt, al uLlld h,)t!l lrrl.)r
o,/vrl '
IsE
'ttt)Lll.t3t)lSti!'
Llttt) lsu o1 1)tllJSol +toJ! J\tl silolis,rltr u,tto .ttt()ii i0 lutll .L,ttL1.Lutl tt t111.1t.
11ut1 aaoLlLl sJLra ar/l
Zs,{€puol l uo ralsp)ue-l ruorJ o^rrrE urell lsrrJ aq} saop al-url lEqM (^)
is.r{u|1n1p5 ol qArpuoL\ Uo lJ}sp)upl Jnpal urpl} ls?l aql cJop atur} lpLl.\,1 r.\l
as,\epLrnq uo lalsL'rLlel aAPal urprl lsirl aLIl saop arurl lPqlt (111,
zralseJuel aêal 1l saop awrl l€qM r€ oI +P uopuol ut soAIJ]P urPrl s..illPS (ll)
zuopuol ur aArJrE
lr saop aturl lpr{'\^ 8c zl. l€ saÊal Lrr€rJ reH ,iEpuns Lio uoPuol ol 3rrro3 sr auuv (r)
8tt0 [0cz !sau
cszz te6t @" vzztn 00tz osr E
4E
Itlz LILI @" 9!20 00ez ts!E
Dtlo lt00z slozo 00tz os!U
;r :
totz
dllrir i
gztl _, 0t6 t rz9l @,
ata.a
gStZ
dt:;
0t8r
rs@
rso
H0'OZ 0l1r H iz6, ESr stz 9z8t os-
z90t ctgt d @. tzoz oelt @ i.f
09261 609r zsgr 000t a 'i.. o-!-:1, xs@?
o9t8t eotr ve9rt zrrr osd "
zsz0 00tz tiSt oesr @i^
9l'.kl alrll.L I dc,, ts@ .
09 rz 0e8r eelr 00tt
ottSl rtet o gSCr 9t0r t3, et0z 0tzl t09t 000t @.
3,irr q-cPl
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otztl
g(l', L
00zi
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do /sr I
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o!/ i L dll,,Bil \s@ | t 9t-a'' d ali 69Zt SS80 rs@ rl
stc90 vzzo :.0 s Ee10 let0 32091 000 t a69zt 0t80 osd 1l
)srzo ,zao !l E J 9t90 9ZZO Hili rL q I li 9e0t 0e/0 @'r
sr(epuns sêprnles ol s^spuoW slPpuns sleprnles ol sAepuolt

uopuo-l e Jalsesue'l relsecuel e uopuo'l
..)10/ra/ st/dlJs.rlrlr
J tll .t,t,t) 5 r! Ll
tr)tll '1)uq puu l.toplrol oJ "rdlsu)Ltul ruo.t] sulLl)l loJ salqul,)tuti ln1>l 4sttt.LB t;Ltlit!()lloJ arll lu 1oo1 r:
auo ISP '
s)svl - t aln+nc zl'z llun

Unit 2.12 Future .1
- Tasks
Srsrrl: I'm going to studv until 7.00 and then I'll n'atch some television. What ..... . (be) on
tonight?
Ionn: Well, fop of thePops......(start) at7.00. It......(be) a popmusicprogramme.Then
there . . ... (be) Eastenders at7.30.
Susrur: When ...... (finislt)?
loart: At 8.00. 40 l\Iittutcs . . .... (stnrt) at 9.30.
Srsnn: So it ..... . (not .iirtish) until 10.10.
loatt: No. But that's all rtght.. Black and White .. .. . . (rrot sfarf) until 10.10.
Susnr; Oh. Well nothing ... .. (sotLnd) very interesting. What ...... (be) on ITV arrd
Channel -1?
Task three
Hoiu ntany corrt'ct nnd sansiltle scntences can Vou ntnke br1 choosing one u,ord from ettclt of the
follouing columtrs? The xerbs ttre in the miinitiae f orm so you iuill hat,e to ptLt thent in the correct
forttt. You catl usetJte utords in nnV order atttl r,tt.ttr marl adLl other u,ords suth as nourts, ptrepositiotts,
ndiactiues, odi,,:rbs if you hke. Ststemntts, Lluestious rtnd negatile stnten,ents or questions enclt
count ss one setltence. Ciue yourself or Vour group a ttntc limit nnd, ii vou cnn, hat,a n competition
uith another group or pair.l!hen the time is up, check e(tclt other's sentences to mske stLre they are
Cor(ect gnd make sgn5g. QnwL tvnntnlp< hni,r hepn writtett for t1ott.
Exnnrples:
tll telephote hiyln when f ayive.

I'll ask heras soorl ael epeak tohetc
When you teave I'll plag lhe recprd gou don'L like,
Wilf 9 ou sLay if I go7
If it rains she won't cp*rz.
I do me if speak
you come you rvhen tell
she ask her as soon as go
he nlrr..
r'"1 hinr after see
1t have it before rain
we arrive US until leave
thev stay them unless telephorre
your name get partner's name till finish
56
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rr a
r a e q sr u a pnI s
^ "1
il:il "y#
l"J*"
g
:L:""" ilf il :: i{I to:
:aldw,xa
'a^rtrurJul + ol SuIoB eq ro aAEIuIJuI + IL ro IIeqs/IIrM asn ol aêr{ a,{,1 'sqra^ alpls
r{}rM 'urroJ 8ur- aql arE} louueJ qllq,u (t'z lrun aas) sqra^ alPls r{lll\{ }ou ,sqra,r ;rureufp
ro luaâ qll1\t {luo arqnJ aql aleJrpur ol pasn aq uer ruroJ snonuquoJ luaserd aLIf
XOB )NINUY \
')aa,.tr lxau suallrl Sur,req s,le) dl.Ai
:alduexa roC 'ornrn; ar{l aleJlpul ol r.uroJ snonuquoJ luasald all a:
upJ a..ra 'sarlrlenb u€runq alpq ol raprsuol aldoad .{ueu qrrq.,n 'ralamoll 's1ad rrlsauop q1r .
IJ
o w x eu s$ a u 1|a 4 I u ry I
L 11
1 r
.8
:rlr:i ; r:1,::r, :l f,
:3urrr.ro11o1 aql ,{es louupJ no1 sSura;
uerunr{ aîoûr lsnu ueld ro luarua8uerJE eJnlnJ aL{l lel{} sr a}ou ol lurod 1ue1;odrur au
'ueld ro luarua8uprJp luasald ,
uroJJ sasrJe q-lIr{1\,\ luaâ arnlnJ e ol JaJaJ riaql :Surueaur Jrseq auo aA€LI s}uaura}els asaLIl Jo l':
'uoos ,,{ral no.{ Jpau eluaurr e o1 Suruor sr urlu srrll
'Liluour JXau JalspJuel ur doqs ,uau e Suruedo are o{ueg
"$i::{,"":"JJXj::"TJ,""#ff$"i::il
'rauurp roJ qsrJ Sur,req ar,a14
'uoouraup srql 0€ i 1e Surlaau ar,.,{ar41
'{eprnleg lxau Ioodra^r1 3ur,{e1d sr ra}saq)ue14l
:stldruuxa esJr!l ln I
'3ur1r-r.lt ur pasn z(luotuur--
ssal sr pue qraads lpturoJur ut pasn,{11ensn sr ruroJ snonuquo3 luasard aLIl ,a^qlurJu'
a o1 Suro8 aq aII-I aurl ralel p sa,rr8 leql asprlld aurl e sr arar{i ssalun 'uoos Al;rey uadd: .
o1 Suro8 sI lpt{l Surr-11ar-uos slsaSSns }l leql ur alqrurJur + ol 3uro3 eq LI}l^{ Suruearu a,

ol rplrurrs sr Suruearu aql 'turo; snonur1uo3 luasard aq] Sursn ,{q arryn; ar{} lnoqp )lp} up) a.,.
luooru,{auoq rnor( ro;8uro8 no,,{ Jrp alaqM

'qluoru lxau
JalsEJup'I u1 doqs mau e Suruado are o.,{ueg
'rauurp roJ rlslJ 8u1.req ar,a64
'APprnles
ruroJ snonuquoJ
lxou loodra,rrl Surr(e1d sr ralsar{Juel4l luaserd :9 llunlnc
'uoouragp slql 0€'t lE Surloau ar,z(aq1
ET'Z IINN
Unit 2.13 Future s - rASKS
-Et
E
tE)
Task one
(a) 1lcn,i /lli'io//trl,lrr,q tert nttd urtderlirtt tJtt'Prt'sent Continuous fornrs tti tlte t,erlts.
l'm having a !.arty tomorrow night. I'm putting all the living room furniture upstairs so
there'11 be lots of room for everyone to stand and move around. I'm pr,rtting all the food on
the dinirrg-room table and everybody can lust mill around and help themselves. I'm
havrng a lruge turkev, fried chicken, ple-nty of bread, salads and little things like pickled
onions antl olives and cheeses. I'm h.rving all the drinks on the sicleboard. Ancl I'm
g,ctting.rn entert.riner to plav the guit.rr.
(b) Which t,rr[ts nre not in the Present Continuous fornt? Whv are they not?
(c) Tltr. 7tr.y51,71 it,lo tcns sStenkittg L'tltout tht li{lt't!/ u,as tieiittiteltt llli.nttinq to lttr.e n yttrttt ttttd iL.ns
tt'lltttt Lt trit'rtd iultnt sltc plnnttttl to do ior it. If shc had bequrr iattlt 'l tltirtk', rtthnt f ornr uottld
sltc lrLti'e Ttut ench ttf the tterbs in?
(d) llcilr.it,' tlc pn-s.sage beginrtittg tL,ith 'l tltirtk ' tnd chLtttge nll the ttrlt fornts tltttt need to Lte
c lrnrtge d.
Task two
Petcr ntrd List Ou,ot nre tttkitrg tt ottc-it,eek holidLt'tt irotrt ttork ncxt iueek. Tltrtl nren't -gplrig nt,n17
Ltecnttst' they tre Lrlnnning to redccornte thc kitchen nnd tlrey are going lo ttst' l/ic titna to get tt all
tlone. LItrr: is n /isf tf nll fhe tltirrgs therl nrt'plLutnttre to do, Look nt thr: list nttd tht'rt coxrplete tltc
It'ttcr to Pettr's iritrtd Bill, telling hinr u,htt thcrt nrt'Ltlnrtning to do.
fr.lint the kitchen ceiling; replace the iloor tiies;

tile the wall above the sink; put up ner\r cllrtains;
paint the other walls; install a nerv cooker.
put twcl new shelves on the wall over the counter;
Dear Bill
Lisa anri I are planning to completelv re-do the kitchen next rveeL Pprh:n< r,nr,',1 IiLo is
come and help 1si1[ some of the work?
lVe're . . .
Ail the best,
Task three
l\rrte u lcttt,r to t irtr:rtd tallinc them t[tttut tt lltltt tlou ltnt,e to do sontctltnt,: ttt tlotrr house or tnrdett.
58
69
'lsrr1 saJrrd rno )i)aql 'uoos uorsrnalal Mau p ,,{nq ol 3uro8 ar,noi 11
rauu rp
j;l i,?l
"u, ";J;"'Jt:l#t
'atuo5 roJ aÊal ol 3u1o8 1sn( ar,iaql
'ur8aq o1 Suro8 1snI s,auurerSord aq1
:8ur.uo11oy aqi dq passa.rdxa aq plno) Sutueau alues au'
''-'"
+)f,Lt ^---'r '^^ ---'lJ'uorsrlalal
.oJ,ru r,,u ,lJUyJ ,,,", e.{nq
,vrau ol lnoqp ar,no.{
. ,,,,.."npa[ 11
o] lnoqe .'i I
'JaLrurp aLIl alEru ol lnoqe s/aH
'ruloU roJ aneal ol lnoqe ar,,iaq1
ur8aq o1 lnoqe s,aLuure.rSo.rcl aq1
:stldtuu.ra JSJtlt la \r'
'qsr13ug 1ernbo11i.
'leuroJur ur pasn sr tr /elrlrurJul
+ ol 3uro3 aq aIIT eurll lrotls ,{ra^ e uI ol Suro8 .ro o1 Suro:
lsnl se Surueau aues aql lsourlp spq lI alnlnJ rBau ,{raa atll sa}eJJpul allltulJur + ol lnoqP ag
'1srry sarrrd rno IJar{)

'uorsrzrayal,rnau e,{neol ln:ffi:#lll
'rauurp aql a)IPru ol lnoqe s/aH
aAIlIurJuI
'aruou roJ a^Pal ol lnoq€ ar,r(aq1
'ur8aq ol lnoqP s,arutuerSord aql + ol lnoqP aq :9 llunlnc
VT'Z IINN
Unit 2.14 Future 6 - rASKS
fask one
IltLtLl tltt'fol/tra'lrg tlur:stictrts ntrd tL.ritcrt|tlics tltLtt nrnkc c-tcuscs for rrot dctittg ialtat titay osk rlou to
do. (\'orr ctln ustt flr -sriggcslcri cucs irt Itrnckets ii Vttu ltkc.) ,Art crnntple hns Ittut rurittert ior qou.
t tLtnrytle:
['nr going oLrt now. If Philip phones, lr.ould vou tell him I'll be back at 4.00
1owy. I'm aboutt to leave ntqself.

J'
(a) Do you want to watch the film on television? (Start the dinner.)
(b) Would ycu help me hang these pictures? (Wash the car.)
(c) Do you lvant to go shopping with me? (Go to the cinema.)
(d) Would you give me a hand with the washing up? (Hang up the clothes.)
(e) Can you go and see rvho's at the door? (Tnke a shouter.)
60
t9
'ua8equados puts
pr.rp€!! 'uelrhl 'urlqno Surpnlr
-ur 'sarlr) uBadolng ul 3uno,{
aql roJ aJll telo-61-1jjR 'aPrng
qBnoU'sarras,illaa,\\ V
'sJrsselJ Jo slEadaJ
puB saruurEJSoJd IEn jJe.I'f, rsnu
dpn(JUr pue 6.in11 uo r.rr.'ts
i|iTr 'eggO pallEJ '\drrrq dq.L
'lEiJaleu leutBrro jo s.:uotl
009 apnlJul sueld stl .{ep:at.a.i
paJunouuE'salnp.rqJs .l3r.u ui ns
uorllltu 0ST slr Jo UEd sP ra]rod
tdJrls tduel pd.rnpoJd I
JIdodd Frrno.i^qrol s.rr.ra. f
MJU e ueJJ.ts ol sl Jflfl:{H_!
:aldurexa roC 'alrlrurJur + Ilpqs/llrm Sursn ,{q sanurt'.:

.4,11t'nsn rJlu.ll. aLIl 'leql -rJUV 1-roda.r p Jo alualuas lsrrj aLIl ur pasn uallo sr alrlrurJur + ol ?.
'laluurns aql Io pua ar{} Irlun uazorJ aq ol are sa:ud dr-ue1s a8elso.1
:JldLUr\J .ro1 antssnd aql uI pasn uJl1o .
'ur Surp.rqr ralge d1r.rnra5 q8norql aBeSSeq pupr{ rrar{t rpal) ol arp sra8uassed
'Mo.r-roluol aJrJJo ilulsrc ai{l ol lrodar o1 are no^
:aldr"uexa roC luauraJrnba; e sr +r lpql 1sa33ns ol pasn uallo sr urroJ s.-
's1rq8r1
lnd ol are JrJJE.rl Sutnout-.,r,ro1s purqacl sreJ
p.rezeq uo
'.{rolepueur aq ol ale s)ro.tt plror 1e slrturl paad5
'.raJps
l.rlprl ie.,lrloloru a)pru llr,\\ l€ql saSupq) a)ptu ol are lualuuJano.3^ aqJ
:saldtuura aslLll lu t
qsr13u3 ualocls ur uprll uallrr,{\ ur uauo arorr L)asn sr pup arnlnJ aq} Surssardxa Jo ...:
IpruroJ iFre; e sl slql auruprSord ro ueld arnlnJ e ol rajar ol pasn aq uer a^qrurJur + ol ;.
'slq8ll prezeq uo
lnd ol arp )rlJ€rl 8urôru-Mols purqaq sr€)
'AJol€puPru
aq ol ar€ s)Iro1!{ peor lp slrrurl peads
'raJEs IaAPA , e.llro;oru alEru JIIM
lpr.Il sa8u€qr a{eru ol are luauuraôS aq1 a^rllurJur + ol aq:/ Eunlnl
9T'Z IINN
Unit 2.L5 Future 7- rASKS
Task one
Reatl tlre f ollotuirrg sente nces nnd f ill in the missing uords it ith the correct inrm of be to * infinitive
of thc xerb in brnckets.
(a) Activists from the Creen Party and the Social and Liberal Democrats . . . . . . ( join)forces in
campaigning on J rangc of issues.
(b) Mr Willis . . .. . . (address) representatives of manual workers at Ford's twentv-two UK
plants.
(c) British Airways and other international airlines . . . . . . (begin) detailed negotiations with
the New Zealand government for the purchase of a large shareholding in Air New
Zealand.
(d) France . . . . . . (transfer) underground nuclear tests from Mururoa to an island trventy-five
miles arvay.
(e) Debrett's Peernge, the 210-vear-old Wfto's Who of the aristocracy, ...... (become) a
stablemate of books on computers, technology and management
62
( 11 7 'gY 7 s1tLr.-
aa5) qraads palrodar ur pasn sruro1 aues aql ruorJ Surueaur ur raJJrp sruroJ aôqe rql Jo ll\.
'aiuerC Jo luaprsard ruro)aq o1 dn .raor8 plnom ioq 8uno,{ aq1
:aldurexa rog sa1,l1s ire.ra1r1 'IplrrJoJ ur pulto1 oslp sr plnortl lepou al{l Sursn u.ro; aq_
'saruanbasuol Lraasaro1un aleq ol se.+l .{ep leql ap€ur aLIS uorsr)ap aql
'r{Jea luaruuosudur ,srea,( ua1 o} paJualuos aq o1 ,,{1yen1ua.r.a are,ra .{aq1
:alduexa JoC aleJ ro.{uqsap s,auoaruos lo.ro luaua8uprrp uE Jo luarulrJlnJ slsa88n-
ll slro1v1 l:era1r1 uI uorurlloJ ]solu sr pue qraads ;o 8ur1u.u leturoJ ur pasn sr eÎlrurJur + ol aB
',{ep lxau aql arode8urq roy Suraeal sem aqs

:J lO urP \
rog '1sed aqt u[ ]urod leq] uorJ ]€ pa)ool uaq^r arnlnJ aq] ur areld a{El plno.\\ leql pup lsp;
aql ur paplJap sem leql luarua8uerre ro ueld p lnoqp )iel ol pasn sr turo1 snonurluo3 lspd aL.-
'uede{ o1 Suro8 lnoqe purur ral{ pa8ueqr 1nq aa.r8ap aql la8 plp aqs }eql su€au (a) alduer.
'saJpueJ puP saL{Jlol .ro1 3ur>1o
aurl puads ol p€q a,l,r asne)aq de,ue 1q8r.r rauurp aêq l,uplnor aM leql s1sa33ns (p) alduer.
'palurp lasnpraq lno oB l,uplp aq 1eq1 slsa88ns r:; alduc',
'no.,{ o1 3ur1rr.u o} punorp
1o3;a.r,au 1,,(snq os uaaq a^,l lnq lr lnoq€ 11e no,{ 11a1 o1 Suro8 serrr f i-rros ut,1 ,sa7. :li11ug
,{eprloq e roJ uopuo.l o1 Suruoc a;e no.,{ +Eq} preaq 6n[ a,t1 :auuy
:s.\\olloJ se aq pinoJ uorlPsJaû,
aq1 'aldoad raqlo ruot1 smau aLuos prear{ seq puarrJ asoqm auoaluos {q pres spm (q) aydtue- .
'asn plno) auoqd p purJ +,uplno) pue lno luam 1 lnq nod auoqd o1 Suro8 serrr I .d-rro5
1
:aldr"uexa toJ /aq
plnol ramsue aq1 '3uruoqda1a1 1ou ur rnorêqaq s,uosrad raqlo aql i _
uotleueldxa ue ro;3ur1se sI or{^{'lutelduror e se.{lqrssod'auoaLuos,{q pres se.n (e) aldtue-.,

'pea+sur
pgpeni ot tua.M aqs tnq uede{ ur qoI e 1a3 uaq+ pue aa;8ap raq la8 o1 3u1o8 se,u aqg (a)
'lno luaM slr{brl aq] uaLI.M rauurp a^pq ol lnoqE araM aM (p)
'palrrre I uaq.M lno oB ol lnoqp se.u ag (r)
'lr lnoqe 11e no,{ 11a1 o1 Suro8 sertr 1 (q)
'lep.ra1sa.,{ ar,u auoqd o1 Suro?,araa,r no1 (e)
:salcltubxa asa\l 1b 1,,
'are1d a1el lou plp pauueld sem ranaleq.^ leql aunssp .,{liensn a.l,r uaql ,uorlelardra:.
sllll lrrperluor o1 Surqlou sr araql JI 'lnoq€ aruor lou prp l€ri] sueld yo ro uoqualu
paIIIJInJun ;o Surueaur arll aêq ualto alnrurJul + ol lnoqe aq pue alqrurJur a o1 Suro8 ag
'lsed aql ur lurod e uor1 lp palool uaqm arnlry ai{} ul sl qrrrl.u Sugqlaruos }noqp t .
ol turoJ lsed aql ur pasn aq ue) 9I'Z-6'Z sirun ur parpnls aleq a.l,r surro1 arnlnJ aql Jo .{uf .
'pa^lrrp I uaqm lno oB o1 lnoqe selvr eH

'r(ep lxau aql arodegurg ro;8ur,rea1 sem eqs
'pEalsur
plrpphtr ol luam aqs lnq uedef ur qoI e
1aB uaql pue aar8ap raq 1aB o1 Suro8 se^r aqs
'lr lnoqe 11e nof 11a1 o1 Suro8 seaa 1
ur arnlnJ aql :8 Eunlnl
'fepralsa{ aru auoqd o1 3u1o8 araM no1
9l'z IINn
t-Et
E
Unit 2."1,6 Future 8 - rASKS ,E)

Task one
Look ltLtck trr L/rrif 2.7A'lnsk 2. The Scott itintiltl mndc lttts oi plnns.ior tht' iuture but tlttrl did ttot dtt
ttll tltt tlttrtqs tltey TtltnrLed to do. Ortc rrtonth nfter theu snt Llotun ntrti ntstle thosc L,lans, tltttl ttre
tLilktrtg nltout thern and exltlsirting tuhrl thel/ ditln't ntnnnge to stick to their oriuirtnl plnns.
ITtoti tltt fo/10.{,riE corrr;crsntion nnd f iLl itt tlte misstttc i(,.)rds iL,itlt tlit' be going to * infinitive
folrrr r.f flrc i.,crbs in L:rncktts. Thert cttutruue fhe corrlrrsnfiorr, gii'irrt ench mentlter oi th.e fnrnil .
r,.rcr.sr,s ior ttLtt doing utltnt tltc'tl plnnnetl to Llo. If ttou lttte n pnrtrter Vt)u cnn do this trnllV nnd uritc
tloit rt the i.ttrb f orms onltl f or prLtctice.
Ct'of.f; Well, it's been a month since we decided to organise ourselves more efficiently. Let's
see n,h"rt has happerrecl to those pt.rns. I'll start and then the rest of you can tell us what
h.rs happened.
First, I ...... (ltut1)a personal organiser and use it. I bought it and I use'd it for two
weeks brrt then I stopped becatrse it was taking a lot of time to filt things in and I
wasn't reallv using it very efficiently.
Then I ......(tltleqale) more tomv staff. lVell, I've done that, so that's onethingthatl
said I . . .... (do) and I've done.
Task two
'I'hink of soilr. of the things Llou irere about ttt do itt tha
LtLlst ferl u,eeks tltnt uere irrttrrupted nrtd
thLtt you uerert't nblt ttt do. V\'lrite -si"r sclierccs nLtout tltent rsirrg about to * infinitive. Sorrr
exnmpLes lrfirc be(n utritten f or qou.
Examples:
f was abonl n?w:paP1/ wh:^ the firc etavhed,

Lo read Lhe
Theg wetve aboub bo sLarL Lfue race whTn a sbavL;ng
bfock coffapsed,
Task three
Llse the Pnst Continuo11,. iorrn. to tttrite nltotif z.ohat hnyrTterted orre darl two zt,eeks ngo. Choose one
Llny nrtd recoutltyour nctiuities that day using, ultere possiltle, the Past Continuous forrn to indicate
the iuttire. ([Tememltt'r thnt vou cnnnot ust'the continuousfornt witlt sttte tterbs nnd tJrnt tlou nrust
use the Sinrple Past for thost ierbs.) An etntnple hns tieut ittritten for uttu.
Two weeks ago o^ l41ndag I gob up eavlg. I wa? vneeting
Tony and Dianne aL 9'00 a^d wewere plaNning our
work for the folf owing week,
:'/
'lai lr auop l,usEq aH

'pa^rrrP lsnl a^,1 :4s1lt.tg
'la^ 1r op l,uplp aH
paArrrP lsnI I ]ril,J1.i,)lily
:aldrupxa ro.l '{lluaJal puu ,,{pparlp '1a,{ '1sn{ su slereraApe q)ns qlI,\.\ illerradsa
'l)alrad luasard aqt Jo Ppalsur pasn ualjo sr lsEd aldrurs aqt 'qsrlgua uef,rraLuv uI
'asel .{ra,ra ur,tldde,ryr-ressarau aarLll aql Jo II€ loLr lnq
'luasard llrls sr uor]ru aq] Jo llnsa-r aLI] lpL{l
:lua)al sr luaâ aql leL{}
:atur1 luasard rql crl dn sppal aLurl aql lprll
:sarldwr ruroJ lJaJrad luasard ar{l Jo asn sIr{I
ir.\llf uaas no.i ane11
'sluJurllPdop Juros
qo 8lrr.rn1rnr1s aLIl ur sa8ueqr aArsseur a>lpru o] sueld palealar spq ,ilrsra^rufl aql
',tsua .{11ear a;rl aIeLu o1 pau8rsap uaaq seq ue1.1 ,{1rnbg
Iuuosrad a:eqs,ie1r:eg aq1
:ayduexa Jol aurrl luasard aql o1 dn Surpeal por.racl p ur sluaAA Z
'sIaa^{ o^r1 .ro] pasolJ uaaq sEq peor aqf
iltr uaaq rrl seq 3uo1 ,uo11
:alci.uexa .rol aurrl luasa.rd aql o] dn lsed aql ruo:1 SurnutluoJ alpls V T
:lJaJrad luasaJd aql 1o s8urueaur ro sasn urpru aal{} ar€ araql
lraJrad luasard aql Jo sasfl 'I

ratsE)upl ur 8ur,rr1 palrpls lsrr; iaql uaq,u (9961 a r) lsed aql ur a!i-
alll ol lnq l)p; _Jo luarualpls aldrurs p sr puolas aqf .taou LuoJI rnou -
.raJal ol alqp lou arp a.l,r
roJ araq ac'l 1l,n,t i'sprom Jaqlo Ln larnln1 aql o] .rl.ou uro.rJ aLlrrl aql ol sraJar aldr-uera lsrr1 ).
'.ralsP)uPl ur e^ll AJqI
'lnoq Lre JoJ alali wP I
:saldutuxa asaql tu \.
qsr13u3 ur alqrssocl 1o.
srli] lng'€apr aq] ssardxa o1 aldurg luasald aql asn plnom sa8en8uel Au€Lu'saseJ oMl asau-
'c8(r aJu ls JalsP)uPl u t pa^ll aA,Aaq-L
I
'JnoLI uP JoJ aJaLI UAaq a^/l
:selLltLtLlxa a5)q] lu :
'qsr13ug ur seLI lJaJJad luasard aql leql Suruear.u aq+ ssa.rdxa ol pasn sr aldurg 1s:
.roaldurg luasaJd aql'saBenBuEI raqlo ur'asnpraq sraureal .ro1 sualqo.rd asner up) l)a.Ir:
luasard ar-11 'qsr13ug u1 aldnrlredlsed 1 (a^,/s,) a^pr{/seq qll^{ paturo_I sI l)eJrad luasard:.
'lra1Bau pue luatudola,rap

'lq8norp 'aseaslp qSnorql lsol uaaq a^pq
saarl ueqrn,(ueu srea,{ {fJIJ lsed aql raÔ
'sluauqJPoap
aruos Jo Suun;rnqs aq1 ur sa8ueqJ alrssplu
alpru ol sueld paleazrar seq firsra.rlun ar{I IJIIJUlld IN:ISEU.I
LT'Z IINN
Untt 2.77 Present Perfect
3. Habits or recurrent events in a period leading up to the present time, for example:
Over the past fifty years many urban trees have been lost through disease
drought, development and neglect.
British Telecom has spent €1 million a month to improve the pavphone service
Have you ever eaten snails?
The important thing to remember about the use of the Present Perfect is that the speake:
or writer is focusing on now.
In the units on the Past Simple (Units 2.5, 2.6), vve said that this form refers to events o:
states that are distant or remote in some r,vay such as time or probability. But the Presen:
Perfect form is not distant in this wav. Although it refers to events or states which startec
in past time, these events or states are either still present now or have some effect on c-
give some rncaning to the present time.
Look st tlttst: ernnples ogtttrt:
I've been here for an hour.
Thev've lived in Lancaster since 1985.
The first means that I am still here and I arrived an hour ago (in the past time); the secon.
means that we can infer that they still live in Lancaster.
2. Using adverbs and prepositions with the Present Perfect

Certain adverbs and prepositions are commonly used with the Present Perfect. Thesr
include: since, up to, so far.
Look nt tltis exnntpl,e:
I'he European drinking water directive has been in force since 1985.
There has been no proof up to now that nitrates in drinking water do vou anv harr:'
(except in a few rare cases).
The only response the authorities have produced so far is a statement that there is n
need for people on a public water supplv to buv water filters.
Ever is another adverbial that is comr.nonly used with the Present Perfect but it is neve:
used with the Past Simple. It means at any time and, rvhen used w,ith the Present Perfect
refers to all time up to and including the present time. For example:
Have you ever been to Thailand?
I don't think I have ever seen her looking so ulrset before.
Ever is used onlv in questions or negative statements. It cannot be used ivith a positive
statement.
Never is commonlv used with the Present Perfect but it can also be used rvith the Simplr
Past. For cxanrple:
I've never been to Hungarv.
I never liked going to the cinema on mv orvn lr.hen I was a teenager.
For can bc r-rsed rvith eitl.rer the Present Perfect or the Past Simple. For example:
For the past few vears, a new approach has been adopted bV conservationists.
Pete lived in Cambridge for five vears before he moved to Stirling.
If a definite time irr thr. p.rst is eiven, therr the Past Simple should be used. For example
(icoffrey Bcrrv, rt,ho clevoti.d mr-rch of his life to the conservation of the Lake Distrlc:
died on 29 ]anuary, agecl 75.
Four page.s of scribblings Lrv Beatle john Lennon in a school exercise book were solc
for t12,0(10 .rt Sothebv's in London yesterday.
oo
L9
't))tuwal 01 uaaq taaa aab\ L

:des louuEJ no1 sluaual€ls e^qrsod ur pasn aq louupJ rale ler{l raquaua1
.aldurg lsed aql ql1,l\
lluo pasn aq uef, oty '1raya; luasard aql qllm o8e asn louusJ no.{ leql raqurauay
XO8 9NINUV,\,l
'raler* Surlurrp
1o ,,{1a;es ar{l se IIa.M se aruereadde pup a}sel Suua.nor sralalue:ed xrs-.,{lxrs .ro;
sprepuels qll,\^ aJroJ ur uaaq seq a^r])arrp rale-rt Surlurrp ueadorng aql 986I a)uls
'q)ret\l aJurs arall ueaq aA/aM
Q$6t a)urs plrpel J ur pe^rl azreq {aq1
:aldruexa rog '1sed aql ur arup ur lurod s ruorJ suearu a)urs
'urer .,{q Iros aL{l olur paqsem uaaq seq splarr(
asear)ur ol sdon lparal uo pasn srasrlrual alpJlru aql Jo uoruodo.rd auros sape)ap Jo{
'sr{luour lqara roJ araq uaaq aA/aM
's:ead uaalrrql roJ orrauel ap oig ur pa^rl aqs
:aldurexa roC arur1;o porrad p JoJ ro Surrnp sueaur rol
lraJrad ar{l to auo q}lâ pasn aq ueJ a)urs }nq s.,,rot lraJrad ar{l Jo auo ,"
lspd aql rar{lla Li}11v1 pasn ^luo "rtiilj;
aq uEJ roJ 'sraureal .ro; suralqord asnpJ sarurlaruos aJurs pup rol
ea)urs ro Joc
'la{'lsn[ 'a)uo 'qluour slrll /aJoJaq ',{pearlu 'ro; 'f11uarar 'reer( srql 'Sururour srql '{epo1
:3ur.uo11oy aql apnlJur lJeJrad
luasald ar{l ro aldrurs lsed aq} raq}la qll.4{ pasn aq ueJ qf,rr{^,I suoprsodard pu€ sqra^pv
'1sed aq] ur areld 1ool Llril.{.\.r fpnls aql uo sr snJoJ aLIl araq lng
'suoISsas
Surqreal 1en1re Suunp palsrxa saruarar]rp asaql raqlaqrra pale8usaaul .,{pnls srql
'lno parJte) sP1t{ r{JJPasaJ aL{:
uaq^{ arur} aql uo lou pue Surpury aql Jo suorlerlldurl aql uo Sursnro; sr araq raltr^ aql
'suorlpnlrs rualqo.rd ;o sas.{1eue
pue IIeJaJ rraql uI raJJrp sraqJeal a)rnou pue lradxa leql umot{s aAEq sraqJJeasa1
:saldwuxa asa4l lD loo^
'3ur1eads Jo aruq luasard aql uo alpls ro luaâ aql lo lJaJJa ar{l lc
Surluqql are no{ raqlar{M ro lsed aql ur an4 se,ra ro pauaddeq lpr{l Surqlauos Jo Surlurq:
are nof roqlaq/r 'spro1r'\ raqlo uI 1atur1 lsed ro luasa;d e Jo 8ur>lulr{l are no.,{ raqlaq.\'.
uo spuadap asoorlJ no,{ r.uro1 aql pasn aq ue) l)aJrad luaserJ aql ro eldrurs lspd ali:
rar{lra uaq}'aurnluasard aq} sspnllur qrrq.n porrad € sl pauorluaw aurrl aql'raâruor{'J:
l)ajrad luasard lL'z l\un

nit 2.17 Present Perfect - TASKS E
Task one
Iitttd tlre io11oa'ins text urd fill
irt the inl-sslrg ttords u,ith eithtr tlte Presetrt Pariect or tJte Pnsi
Sitrtptle iortn oi thc t crb in [trtckats. T]tert dtscuss tlour chotces u,itlt Lt pnrttrer [te.iore ,,1ou clteck your
rrsi{)crs. YLttt sltoulLl I,a ltrcLtLtred to explnitt ,altt1 rlou ltnt e cltosut tlch f ortrt.
(a) For the past three vears, Prince Charles . (work) for a renaissance of Britain's inner
citics. He ...... (gite) his roval seal of approval to the relativelv new phenomenon ot
'communitv architecture' and . (t'islf) dozens of projects throughout the countrv. Fle
.
...... (httst) dinner parties at Kensington Palace for those involved and ( nr ttkt
powerfulspeechesinitssupport.Communitvarchitecture......(stnrt)n'ithanexplosion
of protest bv residents in the 1qhOs against insensitive official development plans. The
protests . . . . . . (lesd) to growing involvement by the people in the development oi their.
own communities,
(b) This is rvhat attracted the attention of Prince Charles, whose participation rn the inner
citv debate ...... (be)one of the most r,r'elcome and remarkable events of the 19E0s. It is
.rlso whv comrnrrnitv architecture ...... (stenl) the headiines.
"'-"'.',]
Task two
Rend the f ollouing sentences atrd complete thc second one. Put the ztcrl, ttt tltt Prest'trt Ptrf ctt fornt
Att exttntple lttts beett uritten f or t1ou.
F,xntrple:
He doesn't study very much.
ln facL, he hasn't done an q homework f"r thrce weeks.
(a) I don't or^/n a car. In fact I . . .
(b) The standard of public water supplies in England and Wales is high. The Water
Authorities Association . . .
(c) Roger is going to Naples for the Conference. He is looking forward to going because. .
(d) A band of astronomers in the USA hopes to raise enough monev to reopen the Hooker
telescope on Mount Wilson. Supporters of the scheme . . .
(e) Film director Willie Christie once had a job on the Burton's yacht, feeding Elizabeth
Taylor's dogs. But . , .
Task three
Most rtewspnper nrticles denl uith bctd neu,s o.f disasters, scnndnls, problems etc. It has be en said tha:
tltis is becnuse good neios is boring aud people uill rtot buy pnpers unless thetl catt .fittd erciting tl.
st intttl ntittg tr euts st ori es.
Ilout:-uer, it shottld lte possible to mnke good nert,s lttst ns excitirtg and interestirtg as bnd neus. Tltirr';.
of sir neit,spaper hendlines ior good nett,s that yott it,ould like to hntte happen. Then loirt ioitl
nrrotltcr person antl discuss tt,hat the storrl might be. Choose one o.f r/our partrter's hendlirtes nu,-.
tttrite tltc ston1. Since youutant to concentrate on the effects of the neuts on the present tinte,yoi
sltttulLl use thc Prcsutt Perfect for most of the uerbs nnd use the Sintple Past onlq for stntements th:L:
reier sTtecifically to tr Ttarticular time in the past, and ottc of the future forns for the future. Sont,
exnmples Jtsttc lteen utritten.for t1ou.
68
69
. luPM l slooq aq+ JIP +ab ue) I /\ô\

')ooq reLutuer8.e\au e paau I lEql aLu plo+ seq ral{)Eal .,tr.u pue,{-reuoilrrp .ltau p uo 1133r,n.:
.t1111 luads I LlluoLu lse'l sarpnls Aru ro1 s)ooq uo 1r83ur.r Jo spalpunLl .{ueu luads a,r,et1 r
'pres jndurnl elPn) Lrr luapnls V ,uorsrralr asrM ra,\ p aptrur a.req iaqt )ufr-{l l, pru:
IrJunLrl L{srlug aql Jo LISrelA Lldled'lLraLUaJunouLrE aLIl uo Surluar.ur-uo3 asr:d:a1ua sru:
asrplsqns o1 pasruord aApL{ sraqr-uatu fAI aql pue asrnol qsr18'u3 aturl-|-red ro -lln1 p Lr
pallorua seq oq,\\ auo,{ue o} slooq aa.ry ilddns o1 paar8e aêq sraqsllqnd aq1 'palisrlor1'.
uaaq aÊq sJaureal -1gE paralsrSar ro1 s)iooc'l ro1 sa8rerlr IIp lpLIl L)aJunouup spll J3g JLI r
is.rr.rols etll Jo auo lo )lLl1uu\a LtLl s1 ).t,1
sulNUY3-1 '11'1 UoJ Sxoos SIUJ

slfis,l08v uvM
slsnal[ Tv s31vNtw,11 Tvlnv/. /vl3N
: s-,)l | !
s)s€I - lraJrad luasord lL'z 1\un

UNIT 2.I8 The Canadian government has been putting
pressure on the administration for some
PRESENT PERFECT
time to reduce the USA's emissions of
CONTINUOUS sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
The National Council for Voluntary
Organisations has been publishing its
annual directory of agencies for many years.
The Present Perfect Continuous is made up as follows:

has/have ('sl've) + been + present participle
have been working
has been putting
The Present Perfect Continuous has a similar meaning to the Present Perfect but there are two
important differences, as follows:
1. When we use the Present Perfect Continuous form we are thinking of the event or action as
having limited duration. For example:
The number of active organisations has been increasing at an extraordinary rate.
In this case we understand that the number began to increase fairly recently. If the action
has been going on for a long period of time, then we have to indicate how long that period
is. For example:
The National Council for Voluntarv Organisations has been publishing its annual
directory of agencies for many years.
The Canadian government has been putting pressure on the administration for some
time to reduce the USA's emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
2. The Present Perfect Continuous usually shows that an action is continuing into the
present. For example:
Hundreds of airline passengers have been waiting for hours for their flights to take ofl.
The implication is that they are still waiting now.
Like the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Continuous can be used to refer to achons that
happened in the recent past but that have consequences or results in the present time. For
example:
You're looking very tired. Haven't vou been sleeping well?
I think he's been crying. His eyes are all red and swolien.
There are certain verbs such as learn, live, rain, sit, sleep, sfudy, wait, work, which suggest
trctions that continue over a period of time. With these verbs either the Present Perfect or the
Present Perfect Continuous can be used. In both cases, the action continues over a period of
time. For example:
She has worked for British Airwavs for six years.
She has been working for British Airways for six years.
WARNINC BOX
Certain verbs, known as state verbs, are not normally used in the Continuous form. (See
Unit 2.4 for a list of these verbs and an explanation of when thev can be used in the
Continuous form).
70
LI
'ou,ts).\ :B
' ' aia]-I rv
I '01t,,tsa/\ :g
''' a,1L1H :V
rTr
d)
(
(q)
r;uoruo 6'urJJ;\d uodq ;êul i 'oN

; 5;i6,r n;6 ;;;H ;;q ,l
'nol .to.[ uailum uaaq sutl aldwaxa uy 'Sutowtp aq1 ur ttostad a41 'g '
'Dila) a4]'V atuld
Ltaaa4a(l uat1a1 aaaLI pUoJ 1ut17'\uran4) dLlJ tapun'anlolurp aLll dlt.t^l'il..ti
trlj't\ut, pul asno4 aql o+ sawu auoawos qaql aut\uwt pilu molaq s8unntp aql to tltut 1n ..
o1vrl IsE _
'alr]f,arrp aql Surlreua s.ue1 1ssudl '' ' )r€LuuaC Pue urnrSlag
r(Iuo 'ler.raleur ai{l alpuer{ plnor ,{;1unor 3ul1:odur aq} ssalun alsPM )Ixol 1o sl;odxa
" " fEE aqt q8noqlly alse.tt
@nq)...... leql lg6l arurs arroJ ur alrtrarrp e (aab4)
)rxol Jo uorlrurJap aql Surpnlcur '.{1ear1 aq} ul slulod IEluauIPpunJ leralas vo (aatBusry '
. I . . . I ,.rorlnu rood pue r{Jrr uro.r; sa1e3a1ap 'ralamor{ 'se)prel ur L{}uoru srql Surlaau e l1
.1fins1.. . . . . aq '[renue{ lxau z(q auo arnpord
,paleluauo-uorlJe aq lsnu uorlualuoJ aq.1.
. .' Sluaruu.ranoS raqlo qSnoql ua,rs .{1ea.r1 u.Mop-paJa}PM e JOJ al}las
ol rulq lssatdl
lou plno1\{ ar{ l€r{l rqorlpN uI Iaa1\{ 1se1 lrius;
'' ' dANn aql Jo ro}Jallp aÎ}nf,axa aqf
xel arour (aq) " "
slorluoJ aJaq.e\ sarrlunor rarood ur,{ldeaqr alseM lrxo} fiatql (dwnp) ''' ef,rraury q}roN
pue adornE ul paseq sarupdtuol 1eq1 sl.rodar Jo laqrunu P rau€ (awo)) " " ' llel a\ll
.salseM )rxol slesodstp pue sluatudrqs leuorleuJalul lorluoJ o].{leall leuoI}Pulalul
to
qBnol e roJ IleJ sl (maua.t) ' ' ' ' IaaM ]sel ar.ur.ue.rSold luaruuorrû!l suollPN paltun aqf
.tlll01 .
uasollr aaatl nofr li\m unldxa o7 patadatd aq p\oqs no^'sDmsu\ mofr 4taTt noh atolaq
ta:''
b 4ltm sa)to4) tnoli sswsrp uaql'qa4)atq m qDa ary to wtoJ a1dwr5 $acI a7l t0 snonutluo) l);'
sptolr Surssrw ur pua agassnd 3umo11ot aryl
qu),rrr4 atll'eal.ta4luasatd atli .talllla 41!m a41 1pl ''
auo ISi_
,4
7
s)svl - snonuuuo) lraJrad luasar.I 8I'Z lrun
Unit 2.18 Present Perfect Continuous - Tasks
(c) (d)
A: Haue...
B: Yes/no, I
A: Hsre...
B: Yes/no, I
A: Haae... A: Haxe...
B: Yes/no,I B: Yes/ no , I
(g)
A: Haoe... A: Haue...
B: Yes/no, l B: Yes/no, l
(t) (t) e--11
,@r> i /-.Q,
()ffiW
\Y/i--=+-
l:;r' t
nffi
A: Hntte...
B: Ycs/no,l
A: Haae......
B: Yes/no,l..
72
.L
:aldlupxa roC'lJaJrad lsed aql asn ol .i(lessaJau Jou uaql sl lr pup ]srrt parJnr:
aleJs ro luaâ r{)rrl-4{ no,,{ IIJI ueJ lxa}uo) ar{} sarurlaruos lsrr] parJnJJo luaâ r{)rq,{/\ r€a
II aleul ol pue Japro IPJISoIouort{) P olul sluaâ lnd ol sr l)aJrad lsEd aql Jo asodJnd urpur ati
'ualel sPM uorlJP
aroJaq sread o1!\l roJ spBor aql Jo alels aql tnoqp paurelduoJ ppq ale+sa ar{l uo s+uaprsau
ûP
'paqJPar se.rl uo luaruaatSe aql uarlM s>laaM aarql rot alrrls uo uaaq pEq sra)iro.M aql
êd 'sSurlaaru o1 Suro8 aturl q)nru ool palsp./r{
salrlnJaxa duetu oo1 lr{3noql aq leql pres qof srq lsol 1sn[ peq oq,\.r uerxssaursnq aqJ
:aldruexa loc'slrqeq lo salpls'sluaê ol ra]ar ueJ l)errad ls€d a-
'3ur1;nspurm pue sarq8urp ur Surpes palloûr leql s,{eprloq ua{pl peq ,{aq1 .aLr
teql aroJa8 '.1'eprloq Surlres e,i(rl o1 paprrap.{aql uaq.r.r lsed aql ur aurr} e ol srajar a8pssed sr.._
'palradxa peq I leq.lr aqrnb 1,use,u, g1 ',{eprloq
Surires e ,,{r1 p1no,u a,n lq8noql a,rw .Mou pue Surynspurl\{ pue sartlSurp parq ppq aM
:alrlLuaxa ;tL!l 1u 40ol .,.
9961 aurze8eu ur
ualJrJ,\{ alJrue 6t8I palunouu€ punodr.uor parJrluapr per
lraJrad lsPd
(1sud aq1 u; (1sed aq1 ur luroC

(.ryrou aurll) lurod e le aurq) E aIoJaQ etu!r
lvlON ueqr uoql aroJaS
:liL1tlJ slLll la lool .
'luauraf,unolru€ aql aJo1aq appul sp,lt .{;anorsrp .

'Ielau e paureluo) oslE lnq rrue8ro spM leql punodrrroJ p palJlluapl pEq auol.up
]pqt auIll lsllJ otll sp/\{ +I'bf8l ut AlaôlsIp sIL{ pafunouuE pLlelIuu.Il preMpE uaql\
:aldruuxa strll lu ..
'1noqe SurlulVl a:e no.,{ aurl lsed aql aJoJaq ar'utl aLIl ur Surr-raddpr-[ sp uaJS at-1
.,(epralsa,{ aroJaq pauaddeq lpql 3ulql,{raâ uaLil'.,(epragsa.{ }noqp SurIpads a:e no.{;r'sp.
raLl]o ul 'aulq lsed ar{l ur ipearle sr q)rLIM arurl Jo lurod E aroJaq arurl e ur salEls ro slu;
ol rajar ol lue.\\ a,\ uaqM pasn sr 1l lsed aql ur lsPd aql palle) saturlaluos sr l)aJJad lsPd :
'pa13rnq uaaq per{
aldtuexa rog 'aldrrrlred lsed 4 uaaq + ppq Jo dn apeur sr LuroJ aarssed
'parJuuapr peq
alclurexa -rog aldnrlred lsed 1 ppq lo dn apeu sr l)aJrad lspd
'palradxa per{ I lprlM alrnb l,usern 1y '.{eprloq

Surlres e ,{4 plnortr. am lq8noql a^{ -uou
pu€ SulJrnspurM pup sarq8urp parq p€q aM
'lelaru e paureluoJ osle lnq rrueSro
selr lErll punoduor e palJrluapr peq auo,{ue
ler{l eLult lsrU aql sP1\^ tt '6}8t ur A:a,rorstp I)E{UEd
sn{ pa)unouu€ puel{uerJ pre^1pE uaqM
6T'Z IINN
Unit 2.19 Past Perfect
The survey conducted last month showed that of people who had been burgled in the
past trvo years, two-thirds were burgled on a weekday.
In this context, the second verb, were, is in the Past Simple because it is clear that the
burglaries took place before the survey was conducted. It woulci also be correct to put had
been burgled in the Past Simple.
Similarly, when we include the words before or after, the use of the Past Perfect is optional
because the meaning of the words makes it clear which event or state came first in
chronological sequence. For example:
Edward Heath, the former British Prime Minister, learnt to play the organ after his voice
broke at 14 and he stopped singing in the choir.
john was a policeman for six years before he went to Lancaster University to do research
for a PhD.
in these two cases, it would be possible to use the Past Perfect forms had broken and had
been but it is not necessary because the secuence of events is clear without the Past Perfect
a1
9L
'slPnpr.\rpur palnldPJ laqlo :.

sur{s (rrJ,#r.ra)" " raue sarJads
al.i € (r41 " '}l
wqt (lLut}uo)) uoslrleH dL:
^âu
,sJalsaro1 aql olul '(joo4s) " q)lLl,\{ 'uouanB alptu }lnpe ue 1Fui.i,i1 " " srJlunH s;.
lunoJ ol .rolJadsord.{.r1sa.ro1 e qlr,l,' uolllpadxa ue 8ur.rnp.{aluoru aLIl (|lill) 'AlrslJ.\:-
q8rnqurpg Jo /uosrirpl,i a)rtyuouanS palre1-uns e (ilu)) "' lpurrup aLII €rr.r{V lprr-
ur uoqe) Jo slsarolurer aiil ul Aaluour Jo sarrads .ltau € (lrr2oJslp) ' lsrSolooz Llslll.rE
'sl.tl)u.tLl r!t Ll.td,1 Jtll Jo ilt.t0J 1))!.r.1d .,
a4l to paiDd luasa.t(l aql 'aldtu$ lsud aryl \ltil sp.too'L Eutssttu a4j ut llll puo lral StLrotolloi a4l L'.
o1vrl {sE
'asnoq P Anq/sllnEJ snorras raôJsrc

'JrLrpr{JaLLr E llnsuo)/Jp) pasrl e ,{ng
'surroJ aLi] ur 111171e3auas roJ esl^ p la!
,ilrsraatun o1 o37ad.{1 ol urPal
lepau p1o3 e urM/JBB aqt PaMal^ralur aB
'ssaursnq olur ^q
o37ueo1 P a8ueil\'
'raprorar oaprl e ,,{nq7,,(auou a,re<
'LUPXA UP AIPI/APprlOLi UO o-
'uodar e alrrm/aurrl) uo elpp raqlp!
'I Par+s'd pu9 1r1o 7v?M"v1 l2iTtlzy1 wr11ltt Pe\?4 u?t4 lr

'-rapal p atlr^r,iraltaI n rrod prn-]l
'iloh.toJ LtalJiJ0t uaaq sall alduuxa uV 'sauo laiL1l pltLt L.

J4l.toJ tuioJ aldtuts 1su4 tllj puu altlJs )o luaa,) tatuLtJ d4l toJ uttoJ 1t,tJta4 $t)(I a4l Sttrsn hq s1 ,'
atuanbas a4l L\uqa)tpttl a)LLJiuas a alt.tol ua\I'ls)t] awD) tlrrl,n apt)Jp ptn struLl Sutozollol aqt
auo Is:
sxsvr - lJaJrad ls€.I 5I.z llu:l

UNIT 2.20 When the results of her medical tests arrived
PAST PERFECT
she realised she had been feeling ill since
CONTINUOUS she had been on holiday.
I had been doing Tlre Cunrdinn crossword
puzzle for three years before I managed to
do one in less than fifteen minutes.
The Past Perfect Continuous is made up of had been * present participle (-ing). For example
had been feeling.
Had is often contractecl to 'd. For example:
I'd been cloing; She'd been running.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used when we want to refer to events, habits or states in a timt
before a particular time in the past and when we want to stress the duration. For this reason
we often include a time expression with for or since.
Look nt thest ernntples:
When the results of her medical tests arrived she realised she had been feeling ill since
she had been on holiday.
i had been doing Tlc Cunrdintt crossu.ord puzzle for three years before I managed to dr
onc in less than fifteen minutes.
IIe had been teaching English for twenty-two years when he retired from Skertor
Secondary School.
Like the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect Continuous can be used to explain ;
state or event. For example:
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Your eyes are all red. Have you been Your eyes were all red yesterday.
crying? Had you been crying when I saw you?
76
('sta)li ailj-ilua0rl l+roM) 'irenue{ ur parrlal saLupl
( siLlati ;tat4; :tlJ.tltJ\Ji og1 'aunf ur srsaLI] srq paL{stLtrJ 1a,rn,{p1
i sIIlilout.us lsr/os5-.r1 ,))lJl) Llluour lsPI lsal 3ur,nr-Ip'r srq passed uppLrarg
('stlluotu utatqSta :)it.t,W -rea,i lspl )ooq p parlsrlqnd r)lrN pue prE,lrpg
( st{luotu )).t41 :uLil(l) )aa.t,r lspI pepq8ug o+ lua.\l prpmp]
( sL!luoLu.us l,;,1Ii() )aa,r\ lsel ualo aA!'ll.oJfrru e pLre raqsp,\\qsrp e gqBnoq ueo{
( sllJltotu rraaltlttJ r.y.roM) Iaa^\ ls€l asnoq 3ql paLIsturJ sraplrnq aLII
Is.ilr,)/l u: .1tt.ttut.tlJ.t1t L{lLrour lsPl .irJ.\oJsrp.\rau r pJ.runoLrun slSr}uJr)s
t';.t11Otl 1t tl :,1,)t)(J) ru p i lc uoFuol ur pJAu.tp no,i uaq.r.r pJ.r tl Ara.\ ,)lJ.\ noA
( s_).r21]] o01l :)11ils s.Lallo.tluo)
-1IJlL1.tl .tt|')'qluolu lsPl uleltr8 ut sllod-IrP aql lP srnol{,ro] palrP^r s:aBuasspd Jo spa.rpunH
'1l6Vile 6t!^v7y
6v1u1u v"?g
Pv\l1I' 422M 15el VepoorJ sem Ped ?qL
.p1,)r.tl .pr.,tl o; rit,: ;,7ti,,..
('lrltlt ilu:uttt.t /i,tut111 8utu:otu auo dn lo8 no,r uaq^\ Lrapoou sp^\ peor:.
:a1Llu,.
:noli.tt'tJ tt,t::
ulJq stJLl .tldutuxa uV 'suotluuultlxt .rttt'tti .Lo sJ)t1J .t11q 1.11t;l,t.t oJ tu.tol stlantLtltlo) 1taJ.t.t4 lsucl )rl;
'lrl.)lll p.)i)llr-) /trllJ:j/l.r,i.r ,tlll ltlt)rlD.)frlrilr !'l 1lrl./ ltOt1 Sllt)lSill)tt!)-) Jrl/.)1.ld i/li,rrl,) J/11 J.1,,.1.)(i;-illli r.:
ltlJq pall luLltr .rtul.tatl .ittoti 1a1 tuai 1su1 atll ru ptu,tdtlu4 )Ja4 lu41 s3u14l a4] J0 )Luos alD .t:.
auo Isil
S)SVI - snonuquo) lraJlad lsed 0Z'Z I|f|I'I

UNIT 2.21.
FUTURE PERFECT,
In six weeks' time the bricklayers will have
FUTURE PERFECT laid 90,000 bricks.
CONTINUOUS By the end of the summer fifty conductors
will have taken the rostrum in this year's
Proms in London.
L. Fufure Perfect
The Fufure Perfect is made up of will/shall/'ll * have * past participle. For example:
will have finished.
I will have finished by six o'clock.
The Fufure Perfect expresses the idea that an action will be completed or a particular state
will be reached by a specific time in the future.
Look nt thcse e rnmytles:
In six rvct'ks'time the blicklayers will have laid 9(l,0tltl bnck.-s and the.,'rcill have
built five walls up to thirtv feet high inside a tram shed for Peter Brook's Tlc
M ah LtLth ar at a in Glasgow.
By the end of the summer fiftv conductors will have taken the rostrum in this year's
Proms in London.
Economists predict that by the end of the vear the prices of houses in London will
have risen by a further five per cent.
The Future Perfect is often used for predictions. So it is often used after an If clause. For
example:
If I stop smoking now, in three months' time I'll have saved enough to buy a new
jacket.
2. Fufure Perfect Continuous

The Future Perfect Continuous is formed rvith will/shall/'ll * have been * present
participle. For example:
will have been studying.
The Fufure Perfect Continuous can be used to show that an action or state will be
completed bv a certain time in the fufure if vou want to emphasise the duration oi the
action or state. For example:
Bv the encl of the month r.r'e'll have been working on this book for eight months.
Althorrgh this form erists in English, it is rare)y uscd as it is.rn arr'krvard construction
People usually find another wav of expressing the idea. For example:
Bv the end of the month it'll be eight months since we started working on this book.
78
gr,l1uor,u aY1 to
i,* ;* 6q ;;;; p iîa i,i6 sn1,i iievn /vtoY oS :!

'aryl )o rg
^voJ
itiii e u,lurrp ;;6 "t qit'îitvd";; Fiei i;H ;t
'rtoi.toJ Lttl]1.lil uJaLj sLt4 )lL1tut1r) snonluilto) l)aJ.t,t(1 ,).n1lnl )1 .
littrt J-)Jlr.t(l a.ntltrJ JLIJ ts11 e.urlnJ rr11 ,,, rr,r1 tt1rt,ls t; lit7 "t1.t'pu.t.t. Jtr,tt1s -.,arrl liru, ,,ui -r7"r .1o,:
ttttuttt ,tttttl 's.tttot1 iuaui ilotl lttoqD st.totlsanlt .talrsln1 puLi lsLi ptLtt .t;ttt1.Lud ttto/l tuol ri lr/I .rl.r 'rr.r.r.'
iitaaa pot't1 tLo lsuads noli 4tntu ototl 'Suriptnls f)uaLls rroli 3r.ro7.)lo11 'leJtl 1r |1r;.1 111t7f s.y.ro,1 ritrt,.
.)'r,11 'li JJ:l..t.r/.r/ t/ )/r.)r ttOil tlDp U ;tItr)tl tIttLl;il .llJIl :t t1-);li JlJr.tttOtt l/l()(1ir cl 1|t .)llli)i ll.)1r)/) .)il.r'
aartll )seI
'sasuq vo ,lnoq F1"!s Jo l4o1 e Tuzde

'i ;
ll.t t afad n w asorq Yluow av1 )o Pvo &11 hg
"//tetl :Sutoto11o1 a4l alLtL]1 ilatu pltto) t10^'st1(l lrq hLlp lr.Lao) J)1.-
)tll LJI to ssrrlr ol 3ur11aB sJltluuu ti1.ttt11 ptrads t1.ua aldoad Ja)tll lDtlt ptrtJ titttu rtoi 'aldtuuxa .;
su o1 ]Li ltl ) lu ) .Lrto h ss a.L ;.
o1 1ta.ll.ta4 a,nflJ aLF Eutsn'suotsnltuot.ttroh alu)tI rllrrotu a4l lo pttJ try Aq qtrads uaaq enu4 I.
liauoru to auttl Lpntu LtLo4 to auop uaa(l aaD4 Ut,i.3ur41atuos satutl huuut Jr()Ll alDltI)lu) l/rt1l sltot-
puu sltqri4 ttJ4l lnoqu sltuJ Jluo< ltlo llutl ol sJllitusstil).to splt.it.t|.utoh Sttttuu Aaatns t1 J)tll1tl
o1||+ {sEI
'(aaue) {tn{ fg',{ep e saptu 0Z sa^rrp.1n[ l rer rltau :II)IN

'(aaas) 'sqluour aAIa.^Î 'qluoul E 0€3 saês allasr'l
'(umo)'8661 886I uI asnoq e lq8noq pr€,{ pA
'(paulaw) l66L '1961 palrreru :ueol pup a{rlÎ {-
'
'(asaa)rul) 'uolillq 0t 0002 uorlelndo4 plroM uorllrq 9 886I uorlelndo4 p1.ro14
"1l./),4od zVO
6q ueslA zêv ltfM s2?e^ 4sel4w a\+ lo pua frg

'(rslu/ lual :ad ua.r.a1a raqura)aq - salell lsaralul^safr "yqlseral
'1uar .rad ua1 d.renue{
- saleU
: alLltr:
:noli.toJ tn]lt.tm uaaq sa4 aldwaxa u\r'suapl at11 ssatdxa oi 'si.rl.'.

ru q.r)a a41 lo ru.toJ 1ta],ta11 a.mlnJ a4l Sursn'squawaJals a4DLLt pua suotJrryetd Sur,noyoJ atll tL1 t.
auo IsE-
sxsvJ - snonuquo] lraJrad ernln--

'lleJlad arn+n{
Tz'z llun
UNIT 2.22 Ercole Pasquali used to be the chef at Chez
Vito, a small pizzeria in Montreal.
USED TO, BE USED TO
Teachers used to think that learners had to
avoid making errors because the errors
would be'learned'.
Susan used to sit in her room and play the
cello for hours every evening.
Used to refers to a habit, action or state in the past. It is always followed by the infinitive and
can be used only for past time. Also it can be used only to refer to a habit, action or state that
n'as true in the past but is no longer true.
Lottk at these examples:
Ercole Pasquali used to be the chef ai Chez Vito, a small pizzeria in Montreal.
But Pasquaii is no longer at Chez Vito; he is now one of the owners of a first-class Italian
restaurant called Vespuccr.
Dr Robert Peter used to be a professor of art at the Universitv of British Columbia.
Dr Peter is now retired and a full-time rvriter
Susan used to sit in her room and play the cello for hours every evening.
Susan no longer lives in the same place and no longer practises the cello in the evening as she
used to do.
Teachers used to think that learners had to avoid making errors because the errors would
be 'learned'.
Now they reaiise that making errors is a necessary part of learning.
There are different ways of forming the negative and interrogative of used to. For example:
(a) She usen't to like learning English. More common in
I
(b) She used not to like learning English. J British Engtish.
(c) She didn't use to like learning English. \ Used in both British
(d) She didn't used to like learning EnglishJ and American English.
She didn't use to (examples (c) and (d)) is preferred but most people avoid the problem
altogether by using never. For example:
He never used to watch television.
They never used to do any homework.
For questions, there is only one form, as follows:
Did you use to take piano lessons?
WARNING BOX
Used to which refers to past habits, states and actions that are no longer irue should not
be confused with be * used to * noun phrases or present participle. For example:
Most Indonesians are used to eating rice at least once a day.
But they aren't used to a cold climate.
Be used to* noun phrase or present participle is another way of saying accustomed to. It
means that someone is familiar with something or someone else.
This form can also be used with get instead of be, to sav that someone has become
accustomed to or familiar with someone or something. For example:
After my first winter in a cold climate, I got used to feeling cold most of the time.
You can get used to almost anything if you have to.
80
I8
'op ta\uol ou tloli lary oP ol Pasn

qloLl noli sEttt4l httutu olo4 aJS pLLu .Lat4.tud utoh rlltill Ltillop udlJt.tol aoa4 noh sEuttll a4l ssrllslO (r.
'snq 6-q o 6 i,t;6 ;P;;;t 6* J" ?ii'/os 1"Y1 ,4F-+uY1
fr'tart setill lut4l o? posn I PvB looYss o:l )letA v7 PosA I

dlautaxl :
.noli .toi LtalJt.t(n Ltat(l sa1 aldtuuxa auo')la 4u141 olt tab'uo1 ott troA lu4l qt1q
"114
'rta 'pres 'Iuerp 'ele 'paluem 'pa111 'lq8noql 'plP no.{ leqrvr
:3utoto11o1
J4l liloqli,ol pasn Stusn 'sa:tLaytas atuos alt.tLll pttb ptru) a ataot noh uaqil1 alLttl a4l Jo 1ur41 tz
oM+ ISEI
'rer e Sur.trrP o] Pasn tu,l (llr
're) e aAIrP o1 Pasn 1 (t)
'auo1e 8urlr1 ol Pasn s,ag (ttr
'auole aÎl ol pasn aH (I)
,""",;",:;';,1;L:i#"':i ;:i;'J,i:fi li I
'preq lro.M ol pasn aqs (ll

'Iro^\ preq ol Pasn s,aqs (I)
:sluautalals ]o stIDd Sttrrttolloi aLL; ueail]aq e)uata]]+1 r4l ttlL
auo ISE
s)svl - ol pasn eq/ol pasn zz'z llun

UNIT 2.23 Lonsdale was followed from his flat to the
Midland Bank.
PASSIVE 1: form
Penicillin was discovered bv Alexander
Fleming.
The hospital will be opened by Princess
Alexandra.
The city has been attacked.
Lool' at l/rcsc clnrrrplcs;
#1,?9""
On 27 August, thev followecl Lonsdale fronl On 27 August, Lorrsdale ,uvas follorved from
his flat to the- N,{idlantl Bank his flat to the N4irlland Bank
Penicillin
ff-s'
Alexander Flenring discovered Penicilli n Pcnicillin \.\'.is Lliscovered bv

Ale.rander Flemirrg
I'rincr.ss Alcxandra l,r'ill open the irospital I'he hospital rvill be operred bv
Pri nce'ss Alex.rtrtl ra
.?-
=->.
W ^
-l-he
We h.rvc- att.rcke d thc citv citv h.rs L-.'cn att.rcke'd
ln the above examples. the active sentences contain hransitive verbs, i.e. in each case the verb
82
t8
'asu .{ed p ua^rg sp^l &€larlas aql

'zfuelanes aql o1 uarr18 ser* asrr .{ed y
:3ur.uo11o1 ar{l Jo raq}ra se paurroJsuert aq upJ srqJ
'asrr .{ed e Lrelanas aql a.re8 ra8euelu aq1
:alduexa roJ 'arualuas
alrssud aq1 1o 1rafqns aq] ap€tu aq oslp uer srql '1ra[qo lrarlpur u€ sr arar{l araqM
XOS )NINUV.\:
'pa{rellP uaaq sPrI ,{1n aq1
'^llr aql pa{)Plle aêq aM
:alduera .ro1 luelroduL*
sr 1rafqns leur8uo aq] 1r 'aserqd fq aq+ qlrM aJualuas aql alalduor o1 .,iressarau sz(e.r.r1e 1,ust .
'dny,{ 6l uo erpuexalv ssa)urrd z(q pauado aq IIIM lelrdsoq .r,rau aql

'dnl 6I uo lelrdsoq ar{l uado 1pr* erpu€xalv ssarulrd
^âu :saldutuxa asJrll lD I
'(1ua8e + ,iq +) (aydrr4red lsed a aq) qra^ a llalqns :alrssE '
'lralqo + qra^ 4 1ra[qns :anrl:t
:smollo1 se '.,(q {q paparard sr 1r '1uaF:
up sp paurelureur sr 1ra{qns leur8uo ar{} uariM lqra.L leur8rro aql lo aldrtrlred lsed ar{t F-
aq.{rerlrxne aq1 yo dn apeur sr qra^ aq} pue lralqns aLIl sauro)aq lrafqo leur8r.ro aql'suadci.
srr{} uaqM'anlssed aLIl ur patulo1-ar aq uer,{laarlrsuPq pasn sI qral aql aIaM saJualu.-
'alPpsuo-I parvrol 1o;,iaq1
:alourPXJ -
lralqo l)arlp + qra^ + 1ra[qns sr araql 'aJualuas qrea ul '1la[qo ue ,{q pamollo]
I a^rss€d €z'7, IIun
Unit 2.23 Passive 1 - rASKS
Task one
lVlrL,r't possilrlr', c/rrrrr,q,'tlrc frrilo,r'lrre -sdnfalcrls ittto the pnssllr';
(a) John Fuller unearthed Stephen Spender's novel Tftc Tettpie at Texas Universitv.
,].\ V^" '^ 1.".
r vu -\(rrr uu)i ^^
ys(tLtr\J
'rhaq tho'o fnr lt)n er,.h
(c) They lar,rghed at jim as he fell into the rr,aier.
(d) On Friday morning, n'e .rll met at Alex's flat.
(e) Thev had bcen.lrinking alJ night.
(f) Someone hear"d the cuckoo very earlv this vear.
(g) You can park cars in the street behincl the hotel.
(h) We c.rnnot accept bookirrgs after 30 September.
(t) The partv continued until breakfast.
(k) The Queen has given the title of Princess Roval to her daughter, the Princess Arrne.
Task two
Ileu,rite thc iolloit,ing texts in the passiue.
(.r) A report vesterdav cleared the weathermen in gerreral and the BBC's N'Ir Michael Fish in
particular ol irresponsible forecasting before last Octcrber's stornls, rvhrch killed ten
people and destloyed 15 n,illion trees across the south of England.
(b) Thev have shot dead a candidate in next n'eek's electron. Thev threu'bombs and fired
shots at the candidate from close range. The main opposition parties are boycottinq next
We.lnr'sday's elections.
(c) Thev hired no extra staff. Instead thev transferred a hundred workers from other duties,
and transferred some of the workload to Liverpool.
(cl) Mrs Thatcher has given two rvomen politicians ne'w posts .ifter the resignation of Lord
Stocldart, follon,ing a heart.rttack. Bcironess Nicol has taken his job "rs Energy Spokesman
while the Prime Minister has made Baroness Ervart-Biggs a Whip.
81
98
panurluo)
' ' ' srarrtlo roruas .,{q pauoqsanb Suraq se,ra aq lqgru lse'I
:alcltuexa roJ 1a)rol a,rrssBd aql sasn ar{ os'urnl o1 Suruadi'..
sem ler{llt pue lpunurrJ ar{l inoqe 3ur>11e1 sr Ja}rr1r ar{l 'aldr'uexa puoJas aql uI searaLi ,.
u e Suruopsanb lq8ru lsel araM ' ' aJrlod
:olduexa JoJ laf,rol alrlti
aql sasn aq os '3urop ararn {aql leLI.u pue a;r1od aql lnoqe 3ur>11e1 sr ralIr.^4 aLI} 'aldurpxa ls-
aql u1 '(6'9 lruq aas) lnoqe sr aJualuas aql leq^^ sn slla] uaryo.,fua^ arualuas e;o lralqns a,
'snJoJ luaraJJrp p rilr.4\ lnq /luaâ alues aLIl ,{1}cexa lrodar asaql lrodar puo: - -
eql ur qder8ered 1se1 aql pup lroda.r lsrr1 aql ur qde;3ered lsrr; aql le ure8e IooT a)lo^ alrssE:
aql asn o] peq seq ralrrM aql'slr{} op o} rapro rrr pue'lpunurrJ aLIl uo sasnJoJ;roda; s'-
'uopuol ur uorlPls arrlod uaa.rg
uol8urppe4 ,{lrrnras-q8rq aql le srari;Jo roruas .{c1 pauorlsanb Suraq s€^\ ar{ lq8ru 1se1
' ' ' 3ur,,uo11oJ tunl roJ palunour sE.M lullt{ alrlod anrsseu e raue
srnoq.{1rrq1 ,{peau - uopuol lsaM ur pre; Surua.na .{pea ue ur pazras spm'S€ 'r{uo.l,lpupH
'arrlod paure .l,q doo,us JrleueJp
e ralJe lq8ru 1se1 parnlder spm - urelrJg ur ueru palueM lsour aql - quompueH leN '
:Juaaa swas a41 fo ltoda.t 8utno11of a1F la lool .'
'se.{\ IeurrurD aql oq^^ lno pur] a.\\ ua _
'qder8ered leurJ aql 1r1un arrlod aql uo sasnroJ pue af,rol aAqJE aql sasn lrodar srql leq] a:
'lsJllp snl .ra11e uorlegs arr lod
uaarg uolSulpped ol ualpl se-tt pue aJuelsrsar ou para11o 'gE pa8e 'quo-t pu€H leN rn
'araql sp^r Surlaas a.ra.,r.r .{aql upur aqt leqt ruaql p1o1 rrlqnd aql Jo raqtuau e ra11e u d 5
aroJaq ,{1}roqs peou Pu€llot{ uo laloH sro}rsrA uopuo'l aq} Papunorrns sa^rlra}aP paturY
'laloq uopuol lsat14 e lp palsarrE
ueur e Suruorlsanb gt18ru lsey araM ' Vll.,vr uor])auuo) ur ueru e ro1 Surqr.reas a)rlod
:(snorlrlrr; are laloq pup leurrurrJ aql Jo srueu aLIl) lrcda.t tadads,tzau tutno11o1 ]tll lli.'
:Z 1AISSYd
vz'z IINn
Untt 2.24 Passive 2
Many reasons are given for using the passive voice rather than the active; essentially,
however, the writer/speaker makes use of the active or passive to focus what is being said.
In an article about a new hospital, the writer says:
The hospital will be opened by Princess Alexandra . . .
This is done because the writer is focusing on the hospital. If the writer had said, Princess
Alexandra will open the hospital, then the focus would have been on Princess Alexandra.
It is often said that the passive is used a iot in scientific reports. This is an over-generalisation.
It is used when the writer wishes to focus on the process that is being reported. For example,
the writer is more likely to say:
It was discovered that the virus could be controlled bv . . .
rather than:
Dr Robertson discovered that the virus could be controlled by . . .
This is because he wishes to focus on the discovery about the virus. Note also that very often
the sentence begins with the anticipatory It (see Unit 5.2). To say, for example:
That the airus could be controlled by . . . was discoaered.
would place too much in the subject when there is nothing following the verb, and this would
unbalance the sentence. It is not wrong, but stylistically, it feels ugly (see Unit 2.40). If,
however, the writer of the report is Dr Robertson himself and he wishes to focus on what he
has done, he might write the report in the active, as follows:
I discovered that the virus could be controlled by . . .
86
lg
'sn)ot d4t {llaqre dtll )\utu'p;'t

aldoaC ta41o 1aq0r inoqo 3ury1a1 tta4ot !sntoi arl;;1asrno,{ a4but'p111 noA qa4at inoqa 3nt:11a1 uat1.1'.
'rla 'IroM lP ro loor{Js
le uoqpluosard lerrads e',{epgloq u'tr7ted e'spuauJ qlIM lno,{ep e'luauuadxe )IJrlualrs p
:aldtuaxa n1 'hpuatat n paoloeut udaQ aiull rrcrt filttzrltuilutreJ otuos tto 1tot1u u aJt.t.\
aarql {sEJ
'rurq i.:
palsneqxa uaaq peLI daql lnq'urq Sur.vrolloJ ara.l,r a)rlod ar{I auoLl rulq anorp au-
Illls
0€ II lnoqP lv Iulrp e roJ rer raq ur erret\l qllM lrra^\ uaql pue Sutuana leql 00'g lrlun looqr:
aql ul padels aH 'pa1ro^r dllensn aq araq.M loori)s aSen8uel aq] ol wrq pa[el daqt pue 00 ,
1e uleSe lno aueJ aH'roop apls e Aq aJrJJo aurlJrp aql ralua pue laaJls lua8ag ol snq E a)i-
'Sururour aql ul 0€'l le leg sIt{ a^pal uln{ uaas p€tl .{aq1 .,{ep IIe l)lN pa^loilo1 peq arrlod at1
'4dafiand a41 w a)uaryas 1taa lo sn)o] a7l s1 {)lN laLH os gaq 3utmo11o} a4j a|uot,..
o11^l {sPl
(4unq fipoqawos'aaup'te) raqlo)'luaprrle ue qllr\ a{l L.

zillerr8e-r1 papua,{ep
aql r'.
( sra{Erd 'li,ns'ntpaalplall)'s::.(erd r{ll.ll ue8aq s,{e.llrye dep looqrs
1'ndadsmau litaaa'linq sfrump'{relanas; 's^rau aL{l ra.ro 3uro3 dep aql upls ol pa)ill aH -
( wopv 'uStsap '1r1 areldarrq In;Ilneaq e sI ]l i.

( €96I u! '{rellg 'qlulp ']!) plloM aq] ul ule]unou lsaq8rq ar{} sI lsaraÂ :
'pl.f{r an Eq 6urns se,v. 5'uos y

('8uos'3urs 'p1i:
.6vos e 6ues
H\t
(8uos'8urs'plIrIJ) lJp plrl{) pup raqleJ e rltrm parlslurt ua)uo) a.
au1
,
:alduLt
'nofr rcl uallttm uaaq aao4 saldwuxa omJ'a)ualuas lluo)as at11 ]o sntot aq+ adli+ ,r'
u ptoil a\l DpW 'sla4)n)q w sprcm a41 Swsn 'moptl sa)ualuas aql Io q)na ol aruatuas puoras t) ,- .
auo ISE'
i1
g
s)svr - z aArssPd vz.z +Iun
UNIT 2.25
MODAL VERBS 1: form
can, could , rrrdf r might, This COULD be worse than school.
must, ought to, should, will, Applications MAY NOT be withdrawn.
need, be able to, have to You NEEDN'T tell him.
I'M NOT ABLE to see him tomorrow.
There are many verbs which are used to express modality in English. These verbs are used tr
exPress different attifudes to an event or situation. In the way thev are used structurally, i.e
the way they are used to form sentences, they can be divided into three types, as follows:
Central modals Marginal modals S emi-auxil iari es
can be able to
could have to
may etc.
might
must
ought to
should
will
would
etc.
1. Central modals
The characteristics of central modals are as follows:
(a) There are no non-finite forms. For example, there is no form:
*maying, mayed, to matl
"mustittg, musted, to must, etc.
There is onlv the bare infinite form may, must, should, etc.
(b) They combine with other verbs in a sentence in the following way:
modal * bare infinitive
Look at these examples:
A separate cheque must accompany each application.
This could be worse than school.
Medical costs can be expensive.
(c) The negative is formed by placing not after the modal. For example:
You cannoUcan't be serious.
Applications may not be withdrawn.
People must noUmustn't approach the wild animals.
(d) The interrogative is formed by subject-modal inversion. For example
Could you close the window?
Must we finish it tonight?
(e) There are no complete tense forms.
88
68
'lppor.u r{f,ea ro; slrLrn ar{l aas 'uaaq a Eq lsnru ,(aldrtured

lsed 4 aleq) a^qrur;ur 1ta;rad + Ieporu aLIl Jo asn aql pue sruroJ gsed 1o asn aql ro-
11e11q8ru lq araq aq o1 aaeq ,{aq1

l\olroujol rurr{ aas ol aIqE lou ru/l
:aldtuexa roJ urJoJ alqrurJur eJeq
aql ,(q parrrolloJ ar€ slePotu asaq+ /leporu r(rerlrxne-ruas aL{} ul paure}uoJ sr o1 asnerag (r,;
'ol aAPq l/uplnor{s aH
'ol aêrl lq31ur no1
'ol alqe aq lsntu
:oldr.uexa roC 'qra^ I€poru raqloue .tq papara,rd aL-l âql
uEJ ,{aqf (q)
'sLuroJ asurl
11e aneq ,iaqt
zo1 alqP aq seM
;ol a^Pq noa oq
:alduexa Jol 'urJoJ aarleSorralur ue aleur uer laql
'ol a^Pq l/usaop aH
:aydurexa roC op .{-rerpxne qtI.M a^rlp8au aq1 ruroy .{aq1
'o1 alqe Surag
'ol aÊq oI
:aldruexa rol sruroJ alrulJ-uou aaeq .,{aq1
:s.{p.u 8ur.t'rollo1 aq} ur sqral ureur a{II a^pr{Jq uer ,{aq1 (e)
:s.Mollo] se aJP sarrErlrxnP-nuas Jo sJrlsrralJeJeq] aLlI
sarJPrlrxn€-ruas ':
'auriua .^,{au P spaau re) srr{I

:aldurexa Joj ']qgr-r u.\{o sJl ur qra,\ lpJrxal p sp slslxa oslp paaN
XOS 3NINUVM
;.{epo1 arrqt og ot paau I oC

'rulq IIal ol paau l/uop no^
:aldr.uexa roj
sq;a^ ureur to s)rlsrrallereqJ aql .{eldslp saurrlaruos r{aq1 1q,
;iepo1 araql oB I paaN
'lulq IIal l/upaau no^
:ayduexa roJ 'sleporu lerlua) aqi Jo s)rlsrratrer€r{r aql deldsrp daql iu
:s,l,rollo{ se aJp slppour yeur8retu Jo s)rlsrra}Jpreq) aql
'paau sr Ipporu yeur8reru pasn uauo lsou aql sqral urpru lo s)rlslralJereq) osle pu'.
slEporu IErluaJ Jo sJrlsrralJ€req) aruos aJpqs sqra^ asaql se Pasn sr leurSreu urral arl'
slPpour leurSrEt\ :
(lz'z t\ua
plnoJ qllm passardxa aq upr lsed aql ur ueJ Suralonur uor+Jp Ltp suolsp)tro aLuo:
L sqra^ lPpot^{ 9z'z ltun
Unit 2.25 Modal verbs 1- rASKS
Task one
Ile nd thr: folloi.t,ing seutertces nnd thert complate the clrrtrt Lteloit, btl identifVmg the ttlpe of ntodul t,
enclt o.f the sentences. Sny utlrich chttrocteristic of cach ntodnl is sJtottttt. An erttntple Itns been u,rittc.
for you.
Erample:
It may be difficult to convince the rest.
(a) Cigarettes can seriously damage your liealth.
(b) You may choose a Mercedes-Benz.
(c) Dishwashers won't (will not) wash everything.
(d) You don't need to buv a sleeping-bag.
(e) Thev won't be able to go there next week.
(0 Children r-rnder 1.1 cannot be admitted.
(g) You don't have to pav the earth to be n,arm.
(h) Are you able to pass our test?
(i) Need he know about it?
(k) Must vou do that?
Type of modal Characteristic
Exantple
(a/
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
(g)
(h)
(i)
(k)
90
Ib
arurl ,sr€a.{ o^^l ur aJleuol]llur P aq " aq lnq 'uleual lou s'll

'no'{ drar{ * o:::l"jj "o1o, ,o, ;,x-}",iF1'l:" li:jj:
'srnoq uoLllereru aql.unr " "
*l aH
""iql
'doqs leql uI s>looq Pueq-puo)as {1uo dnq " no'\
lq8ru 1e alel u,llo] aql PunorP IIEM lou
'''" nol
saueld ra3.re1 aql alel ol padola'r'ap aq '' '' lrodle aq1
'aas no.{ ler{^{ a)Il lou '" ' no,\
'a8en8uel laqloue leads ' lll'llt noA s)aa'^'l a^fa'Ml LII
'ln]IapuoM aq " " peorqP sAepIIoI{
plnor '.{eu 'ltISIru 'uer 'plnoqs 'o1 lq8no

/ol alq€ aq 'lllll /plno) ''
a4l alrl'.
:pt1 iutoto11o! at11 urot{ qtaa Ppotu aryrtdotdda ua Sutsoo4t hq nolaq s))ualLrds
o1lAl IS:
sIseI -I sqra^ Iepontr 9z'z llun
UNIT 2.25
\IODAL VERBS 2: meaning
can, could I may, might, You SHOULD use first-class post.
must, ought to, should, will, Dishwashers WON'T wash everything.
need, be able to, have to It really COULDN'T be easier.
This MAY be worse than school.
\lodal verbs are used in two ways to express rrarious attitudes towards a situation or event
l:ese are known as the primary use and the secondary use. Many of the verbs are used to
.. \"-fc-5 more lhan one meaning.
1. Primary use
Primary use is concerned with fact or reality and expresses the following moods:
tat Ability (says what you are able to do). For example:
You can't hypnotise anyone who doesn't want to co-operate.
You miss a 1ot, if you can't speak the language.
They reach out to people they couldn't reach before.
There are many ways you are able to help.
tb) Advisability (expresses what it is best to do). For example:
You should use first-c1ass post.
You ought to follow the instructions for agents.
rc) Certainty (expresses a general certainty). For example:
Take the form to your doctor, who will complete it.
Dishwashers won't wash everything.
td) Exemption (indicates what is not necessary). For example:
You needn't pay in advance.
You don't have to book early, but it helps.
{e) Necessity (indicates what is necessary, but not obligatory). For example:
You need to earn at least f20,000 a vear.
rf t Obligation (tells vou what is obligatory). For example:
Applications must be received by 15 October.
You have to complete this form for membership.
Relatives should complete and sign box 7.
ig; Permission (expresses what you are allowed to do). For example:
Applications may be made only by persons over 18.
You can withdraw €200 whenever you wish.
May I check the answers?
Can we stay longer?
r Prohibition (expresses what you are not allowed to do). For example:
Once made, applications may not be withdrawn.
Yor,r must not leave your car for any reason.
Can rve stay longer? No, you can't. There's work to be done.
. Request (rvhen you ask somebodv to do something). For example:
Can vou lend me some monev, please?
Could vou close the window, please?
lfould vou mind handing me that cup?
'
E6
'rulf aq plno) tl roop aql uo lrou{ pnol P s,l€qJ

'sasnlr^ lnoqP lol e qJns .{\oul Plnoqsnsnu no.{ 'rollop e ar,no^ sv
:aldruPxa rog (uorlPnlrs
aql to ,lrou>l no^ tpq.&r ruorl ,{IaIrI ,{raa sr Surqlaruos 1urq1 no.{ uaq.r,r,) firlqeqor4 (a)
'rarsea aq l,uplnoJ .{1iear 1J
isnorras aq (l,uPr) louueJ no.{ '.,{1a.taq3 sr61

:aldruexa rog '(anq lou sr ]r aâliaq nof saletu aruaplla ar{l uaqm) iltlqtssodul (p)
'Ioor{)s upql asrom aq ppor6q8nuT,{eur srql
'unJ aq 1q8rru7,{eru4rEr peorqe sz(eprlog
:alduexa rog '(dllulraroaql alqrssod sr 1r uaq.tT) !y1gq1sso4 (r;
',,{eppru ralye 1snI a.r,rrre lq8rur/plnoJ/plnoqs pue urerl dq Surruor s,aq5
:aldwuxa rog '(arns alrnb lou lnq 'urelrar lsolulp are no.{ uaq.rt) fiurelrar rEaN (q)
'tuoor rno.{ ur a)Iu )ool plnoM arnlrrd 1eq1
arrat€A aq (IIIM) II/lpLit 'sdalstoo{ aqt Jo punos
"Ut ::;L"""
ro4 (,illrauor passan8 aneq no.{ t€ql uIEuaJ are no,,{ uaqzn) pooqr1a417fiure1ra3 (e)
:spooru 8ur.tr.o11oy aq1 sassardxa asn {.repuora5
'ureJJaJ lou s,aLI
1nq'luesealdun aq ol s{ep uanas 1o porrad srql roJ alqrssod sr 1r 3ur.,{es sr raleads ar{l alaH
'Ioor{JS ueql
asro.t,r aq plnoJ srr{I sluared ,{ur q1r.tt puelsl uasap e uo auole s.{ep ua,tas sur8aq o5
.as€f, aql
s,{e.tr1e lou sr lr lnq'pporgp deprloq e ,{olua o1 alqrssod sr ]r ]Pql SurAes sr ra>1eads aql araH
'unJ rq uP) pPorqP sneprlo;1
:saldwnxa dsdr.ll lu 40o .
'JnJ)o lou deu 1r lnq 'luala ro uoIJpnJIs slql JoJ lslxa suollrpuol
aqt l€ql 8ur,{es sr raleads aql'slJpJ uo paseq sJallaq qlrm pauraJuor sI asn,{lepuo;a5
asn.{rPpuores :
z sqra^ Iepohtr 9z'z ilun
Unit 2.26 Modal verbs 2 - TASKS
Task one
Summarise the information in Unit 2.26 by listing the appropriate modals after the t'ollowing
headings:
(a) Ability:
(b) Advisabilitv:
(c) Certainty (primary use):
(d) Exemption:
(e) Necessity:
(f) Obligation:
(g) Permission:
(h) Prohibition:
(j) Request:
(k) Certainty (secondary use):
(1) Near certainty:
(m) Possibilitv:
(n) Impossibility:
(o) Probabilitv:
94
96
ol aA€LI
sqo{ a8ueq) paau l,uop
sselS aql lnl l,ueJ
uarplrLlJ aJlu aêq l,ulsnur
,,{qeq e aêq ol uP)
uapre3 aql le >lool +,upaau
asnoq e u,\/\o paau
luJluoJ aq plnol
uerssnu ureal ol t,uplnor
;aulred ,uau e 1aB plnoLIS
lq8ra.u asol ol a^pq l,uop
lsnur
'aures aql Jo arou luerur 1sn( a64 .,{1dar Aaql ',araqr*oN waql 1se nol ;o3 o1 ueld no.,( op a:a -
lda1s lxau rno.,{ s,1eq,14 aJrl alqpuoJurol e r{lrm lua}uor are,{aq1 'sarnssard asaql Jo a-.
Iaal 'pueq raqlo aql uo'aldoad lpluozrroH 's8ulgl ,r,rau ur pa^loûr la8 o1 8urd,r1 sr{ervrle ar,..,.
:ft1unoo /v\au e o+ 3ur11a,rer1 :{ooq .trau e 3u11rr.rt :^qeq raqloue 8ur.r.eg ',slsnur, pue ,spaau
IIn, are sa^rl rraql 's8urql op o1 Suruueld s.{e.tr1e ar.faql elxau s,leqM '1se {aql ZMau s,tE -
'a8ueqr o1 s8ulql paau pue s8ulr{l op ol arnssard 1aa1 oq^{ asor{l a.re aldoad 1errlra4'a1i-
Ieluozrror{ pue aldoad lprrua^ - aldoad ;o sad.{1 o.^4} olur pllom aq} saprlrp arpaa.{rl
(D 'ir;;;;u uAvat 01 pnu 6r'j_

: a1dt,,'
'nol rci uallum uaaq sar; aldwaxa uV 'ltaqr aq1 tuotl alqtssod sattL;.
no^ lx)l )r!l ut )ial! noi uorlnutolut aryt wot1 )ntl aq ol daall.1.:
dql IIa )sn ol paau tou lltlz
wLllsrualualaryfipoasoor13'aldoadpluoztto4tolylpuaaldoadpt4taan]LsluatualugtnoA:",
'aldoad lpluozrroq pue aldoad lerq:'
aE,tJsap o1 'mopq ua\) aql Swsn'sluawaJa$ pattor h11ac4auwat8 a4bu1 purl 3wmo11oJ a4+ !.
o1l4l {sE
s)sel - z sqra^ IPpol { gz'z llvn

UNIT 2.27
MODAL VERBS 3: ability,
permission, request,
prohibition/refusal, These are the ways in which you CAN help
possibility, impossibility COULD you lend me €200?
Holidays abroad CAN be fun.
1. Primary use
Primary use expresses the following moods:
Ability (see also Unit 2.36)

Can is used to express ability (or inability) to do something. For example:
These are ways in which you can help.
We have found a hotel you and your boss can agree on.
Because of his illness, he can't work anymore.
You miss a lot, if you can't speak the language.
case it is possible to replace can by be able to. For example:
In this
These are ways in which you are able to he1p.
You miss a lot, if you aren't able to (are unable to) speak the language.
After some time and experience, vou will be able to judge mountain condition.
when you go climbing.
The Past form is expressed by could or was able to. For example:
These were the ways in which you could (were able to) help at the hospital.
Last year we found a hotel you and your boss could (were able to) agree on.
Because of an illness, in the last years of his life, he couldn't (was unable to) worl.
anymore.
You missed a lot in Italy, if you couldn't (weren't able to) speak the language.
Permission (see also may, IJ nit 2.29)

Can and could are both used to ask permission. For example:
Can I borrow €200?
Could I borrow €200?
Can is more direct, whereas could is more tentative.
In granting permission, only can is used. For example:
Can I go now? - Yes, vou can.
Could I go now? - Yes, you can.
May is also possible in granting permission (see Unit 2.29),but could is inappropriate
Request
The same rules apply when a request is made to a second person. For example:
Can you lend me 8200? - Yes, I can. - No, I can't.
Could you iend me f200? - Yes, J can. - No, I can't.
May is not possible for making requests of this nature, but a possible alternative form is
would (see Unit 2.31).
96
L6
'lluplnoJ Jo asn
aq] qll1vl lqnop arou s,araql 'lluE) se alrur]ap os lou sr lr lnq 'pasn sarurlaruos sr l/uplno]
',{1pno1 os roop arl}
IlouI tou
saop uqo{ 1€r{l SurtsaSSns sr releads aql 'puo)as aql ul 'luarualels snorras E aq o} prnsqe
ool sI prps seq ,{a1anat13 srl leq.M lprl} SurlsaSSns sr raIeads aql 'ayduexa lsru aql uI
uqof aq l/uer lI 'pnol oot s,))oul teqJ
isnorras aq l,ueJ no,{ 'ia1anaq3 sr61
:alqelreê
uolleurrotur eqt uo paseq uorlJnpap e 8ur>1eu sr .ra>1eads qrea salduexa 3ur.tro11oy aql u1
dlrgqrssodurl
'uaaq aAPrI plnor :aldtuexa roC
'aldrrurpd lsed 1 aÊq + Ieporu qtpr pauroJ sr lsed ar{} ul .{rllqlssod r1;nadg
'deprloq poo8 e lr pue Ioor{)s uprll asro^ l,use.M lr lJe, ur }eql sl uorlerrldr"ur aq1
sp.lv\
'loor{Js ueql asroM uaaq aêq
plnoJ lpqJ 'sluared , ur qlyvr puelsr uasap e uo auole sr{ep ua.nas luads 1 'reari 1se1
:alouPxa JoJ
'1sed aql oJ aJuaratar qlIM slql ssnJsrp o1 alqrssod sr lr 'uorsef,Jo auo ]noqe 3ur11e1
sr raleads aql asne)ag 'rala,ry\or{ ',{lurepar ou sr araq1 'aq III,!1 uorlenlrs ar{l leq.l,r lnoqe
uoqrrpard e Surleur pue 'uorspJJo JrJrJads auo lnoqe 3ur11e1 are sraleads aLIl aseJ L{Jea ul
'urll aq plno) lI 'roop aqt uo )roul pnol e s,leql
'iooq)s ueql asroM aq plnoJ srql slua.red ,{u qlyvr puelsr +rasap e uo auole s.,{ep ua1
;itr;;::x:";:,:';l
'turo, alnlnc Jo lsed ou sr araql iluarualels
yeraua8 p sr srrll sV 'unJ aq IIIrv\ pporqp .{eprloq lxau ar{l lprll uoq)Iperd ou sr araql
',,{eprloq rr;nads p lnoqe lou pue IErauaB ur s.{eprloq lnoqe 3ur11e1 sr raleads aql araH
'un; aq uE) pPorqp s.,{eprlog
:Jlttluax0 srql la loo
G4Z lunosle aas) firpqrssod IEJauaC
:spoour 3ur.uo11o; aql sassardxa asn l-repuora<
asn frPpuoJas :
'dnor8deld aql to sraquaru aq l,ueJ g raô uarplrr{J
'arl € lnor{lrM ralua l/uEJ no^
'l,uer no^{'oN - Z00Zl ./v\orroq I PInoJ
'1,uer nod 'oN - Z00Zl Mo.rroq I ue3
:aldr.uexa JoC'uorssrruJad Surlupi:
qllAr se ,{1dde salnr atues aqJ (Zg'Z llun aas) uoprqlqord Suor}s ssa;dxa ol pasn sr l,up-l
(62'Z ltun ',{eru osle aas) IpsnJal/uoqrqrqord
€ sqra^ Iepol,n\tr Lz'z +Iun
lJntt 2.27 Modal verbs 3
It is possible to use both can't have been and couldn't have been when the event c
situation is in the past.
3. Summary
Primary use
Ability Permission Request ProhibitiorVrefusal
Present can can can can't

be able to could could
Past could
was able to
Secondary use
Possibility Impossibility
general spe cif ic more certain less certain

Present can could can't couldn't
Past could have can't have couldn't have
* past participle * past participle * past participle
98
no/i 6uudwot)b 01 ta4/utq Suryunstad puauJ tnoli ol tagal ary aItM (ql
'ayqelrrpard - alqrssod arp leql s8u1q1 aÎJ (lll)
lyereua8 - alqrssod arp leql s8ulql aÎJ (ll)
lpalrqrqord are lErll s8urql aÎJ (I)
:3urmo11ol a41 Jo sqsrl a4ory e
noli 4l1m ircn 01 puaul a altaw oi a4tl plnom puo ilam mou4 noli atuld a lo 4utti'
aarql IsPf
'd1.rea oo1 rpJ s,ll 'pef aq l,u€r teq] {1arn5 t.
ZIIeq u.llol aql ol dem ar{l aru 11a1 nof ue3 {i
'{ro.\4 lelll qlla snorue, fuea auoraq plnol no^ (';
'sr{luoru 6 dluo s,lr qSnoql uaâ'sproM zr.ra1 e des o} alqe.,{pearle sr.,{qeq aqI 1:
'anrsuadxa aq ueJ saa1 leJrpal (,
'8I lou a;,nod asnpJaq urlrJ ler{l aas l,ueJ no1 (:
'passatdxa st iltlupow lo Suruu:
laqm ala$'nuajuas ryaa nlty'wtot 7su4 a41 u mopq sa)ualuas a41 alt.tmat alqtssod atai.'
oArl {sPI
fi1pq1ssodur1
firpqrsso4
IesnJer/uoqrqlqord
lsenbeU
uorssiluraJ
iMorJourol IroM ol au aAup no.,{ p1no3

'nod ro; luarualuof, arow sr JaâqJn{M 'dilaa,n ro dlqluotu l-re1es rnod aêr{ u€J no1
'arupu srr{ a}rr,41 uaâ l,uplnoJ aq iaJaq aru€J ar{ aro]a8
'aunuo, s,prog ,ftuag apeu sre) deaqr fes plnof, no.\
'1e1rdsoq slq+ ul fels uer sarqeq rrar{} pu€ s.raqlou dlrol
'urelunorx e sr aas ol alqe are nod 11g
'IaaM srqi suollellarueJ pIoAP ol alqeun aq IIIM no\
'3ur1ooo umo rraql op ueJ spuno.r8 aql ur Surdruet srallalsoF
'deur aql uo nod 1nd plnor a8ed srtl r
'aldoad qJns roJ Iro.tr ol Suraar8e sJalrrm lsaq Jno 1o .,{ue aur8etur 1,ue: '
:sa )...
?urmo11ot aqt u! sppow a41 to asn a41 liq passatdxa s8utuuaw a41 rtfuuapr'mopq uaqr a4] .:
auo )i!:
EI
7
sxsvr - € sqra^ Iupol tr Lz.z llu-^
UNIT 2.28
MODAL VERBS 4: There MUST be at least ten per cent real
obligation, necessity, orange juice in it.
exemption, prohibition, I HAVE TO finish this book tonight.
probability All you NEED to do is attach a recent
photograph.
L. Primary use
Primary use expresses the foilowing moods:
Obligation (see also should, Unit 2.30)

Obligation is expressed with must. For example:
The cheque must be made payable to 'Eurotunnel UK offer'
There must be at least ten per cent real orange juice in it.
Each hosteller must use an approved sheet sleeping bag.
These rules are almost like laws and it is unlikely that have to would be used here in the
Present. Must expresses an obligation imposed by an outside authority. Have to is more
informal. For example:
I have to finish this book tonight.
You have to arrive before nine o'clock.
With a past obligation, only had to can be used. For example:

The cheque had to be made payable to . . .
Each hosteller had to use . . .

These are just statements about an obligation in the past.
Necessity
Necessity is expressed with need or have to. For example:
All you have to do is cut out this voucher.
All you need do is cut out this voucher.
All you need to do is attach a recent photograph.
The Past is formed with both verbs. Again there are two Past forms, as follows:
(i) To express the necessity of doing something. For example:
All you had to do was cut out the voucher.
All you needed to do was attach a recent photograph.
(ii) To imply that the action wasn't done. For example:
All you had to have done was cut out the voucher.
All you needed to have done was attach a recent photograph.
Exemption
Exemption (shows that it is not necessary for you to do something or that you are no:
obliged to do something). It is expressed through need not or don't have to. For example
Only the group leader needs to be a member. The other people in the group need not
don't have to have membershio.
100
l0I
'llupaau suPaur ol aaPq l/uop os

'uopd|.uexa
'a'r 'paau se eapr aures aql sassajdxa ol aAEq ruJoJ aA4PSau aql uI 'aAqESau
aql ur alqlssod 1ou sr srr{} 'urroJ annrsod aql u1 lsntu areldar uer ol alpq q8noqllv
XOS )NINUVM
aldgr;rred lsud a aAPq lsnu

lsnru
asn ArepuoJaS
ol e^Pq r,uplp ol pPq

ol paau l,uplp papeau ol peq lsPd
ol a^Pq l,uop ol aûq ol a^Pq
l/ulsnru l,upaau paau lsnru luasard
uoqrqrqord uopduraxg ,{1rssara51 uo11e8r1q6
asn,fteruud
,{reuurng
'aruoJ;no alqeqord aql sl slt{l 'uotlenlts
aqi lnoqe u,44ouT sr lptlm Luo{ lnq 'uleilar 1ou sr raleads ar{l 'aôqe saldtuexa aql u1
'pauoqdalal
oq^{ uaqoU uaaq aêq lsnru lr '.{ueu'ra3 ur sr prptlJry pue aJuerg ur sr puotu.{ey sy
:aldtuexa rog 'aldnnred lsed + a^pq lsnur q8norql passardxa sI lsed aL{I
'urlq lnoqe 8un{}l'raaa .\ ou{ lsnru no^ 'rolJop slq al,no^ se lng
:alcturexa Joc'aurof,lno Jql aq ol lradxa a.M IPLIM ssaldxa
a.\r lnq'Surqlauos lnoq€ ureual lou are a,^ +€t{l sueatu ,firpqeqord ssardxa ol pasn lsn4
firpqeqorg
asn drPpuo)as
,{eru ro rouue) qrr.4\ searaq.r\ 'passarpp€

""*"otllJ.";l#i"ffi: IiT,iltH:";it"^;
'sialsot{ asn lou lsnw as€asIP snorlJajur ue pal)ejluoJ aAPq oq-4{ sJallalsoH
:alduexa roc (l/qsnru) lou lsnru Sursn dq passardxa rq ueJ uolllqrqord
(62'Z ltun'lou feu pue lZ'Zt1un'louue) oslP aas) uor1lqlqord
t sqra^ IPPohl gz z llun

E
Unit 2.28 Modal verbs 4 - TASKS F-
Task one
(a) Uslrrg the chart below , identify the meanings expressed by the use of the ntodals in the f ollowin:
sentences.
(bl Where possible, rewrite the sentences in the Past.
(i) You don't have to pay the whole amount in advance.
(ii) That must be Charlie. He said he would be here about now.
(iii) A separate cheque must accompany each application.
(iv) You need to add some more sugar to that.
(v) You mustn't walk on the grass!
(vi) You'll have to be there by 9.00, if you want to be sure of a seat.
(vii) As a senior official, you must have great influence over the committee's decisions
on appointments.
(viii) You needn't wait for me.
(ix) You don't need smallpox vaccinations any more for anywhere.
(x) Books must be returned on or before the date stamped beiow.
Obligation
Task two
Rewrite the following instructions and slogans lslng must, need or have to. An example has beer
written for 11ou.
Erample:
No bathing or canoeing when red flag is flying.
You trysb^'L baLhe or canoe when lhe red ftes ir flying,

(a) No children under 18 admitted.
(b) Keep your dog on a lead.
(c) Cheques accepted only with a bank card
(d) With Visa, waiting is unnecessary.
(e) Seventy-five tokens gets the coffee-pot!
Task three
With a friend, ptlnn to set up a club and desigtt the rules t'or membership. Think in terms ot
obligation, necessity, prohibition and exemption.
102
€01
')loul slLI a)II spunos tl roop aql lP tull aq {Pur lPr{I

'purl .{raâ Jo ue Jo s>lro,\t Ilas aa,,r }er{} sl Jo areme aq lou ,{etu no.L 1eqr14
.uns aLIl ul
8urze1 ro; aralll are saq)eaq a\ll ]nq '8urq1eq ro1 loo) aq ,{eu IrPuuaC punorP ea_s aqf
:alduexa lol
'uaddeq IIr.{\ lpr{.ta lrrpard o} sarr} luala ro uor}re JIJIJads E ol a)uaJaJal aLI} 'plno) qll.la sV
,,!rlrqrssod firlrqrssod
arolu ssal
uP) .{eru lqSllu

:s.MolloJ sp ale)s e uo pape;8 are flryqrssod Surssardxa roJ suearu luaraJ1lp aqf
',{1r11q1ssod IErauaB 1o salduexa are asaLiJ
' ' ' ruo4 paurplqo aq lq8ru aruelnsul deprlog
' ' ' r.uol; paulplqo aq {eru afuPlnsul'{eprlog
:saldwuxa asa4l ta 4oo'I
'rqgltu pue ,{etu q8norqt passardxa aq ueJ .firpqrssod lr;rrads pue leraua8 qlog
U6Zyun'plno) puP uP) osle aas){1111q1556tr
asn ArPpuoJes 'z
'Ialsoq ,{ue olur lerurue ue Suuq 1ou feu rallalsor{ V

'lalsot{ .{ue olur Ieurlue ue Suuq ,{eru .ra1a1soq o51
:Sutuealu arues aql arreq saldtuexa o,ul SururTollo; aq1
'luaualsls ro aJueralln aql 1o lred Jar{}ou€ ur paurp}uoJ st uotleSau ar{l sarurlauros
'u.\{erpq}r.^^ aq lou ,{utu suotlecrldde 'apeur arug

'1ou ,(eur no.,{ 'o|\1 - ;ra8uol Iaa1\{ e Iooq aql daal 1 ,{ey,q
:aldurexa JoC 'lou feru q8norql passardxa sr uolssrurJad Sursn;ar ro uoFlqrqord
(gZ Z llun'l,ulsnur pue lZ'Z llun'l/uPr osle aas) UOFIqItIOJd
'a3uno1 aql asn detu sraqr.uatu dlug

'z(eu nor{ 'sa1 - ZIro.ta aq} a}alduor ol arurl arou aneq 1 {etr41
:alduexa rog .z(uur Sursn passardxa aq ueJ uorssrluJad SurluerS pue 8ur1se qlog
(LZ.Zllun 'up) osl€ aas) uOrSSruuad
asn aJerurrd 'l
' ' 'ruory
paurelqo aq IHCII tr aruernsur,{ep11o11
'a8uno1 aql asn AVI I sraqurau.{1ug flrpqrssod
'uoprqlqord'uorssrurad
:s sgua^ fvcow
6Z'Z IINn
Unit 2.29 Modal verbs 5
The first signs are those you might easiiy overlook.
It might be better to get your visas from the London embassy rather than face deiays
on the spot.
The different means for expressing predicting and specific possibility can be graded or
the following scale'
could might may
less more
possibility possibility
3. Past forms
There is no Past form for the uses that express permission or prohibition, as these
represent immediate attitudes or moods. To report a past prohibition or permission tha:
was given it is necessary to use to be allowed to or some similar verb. For example:
May I go out?
No, Margaret, you may not.
The report on this is, Margaret was not allowed to go out.
But compare the following example:
Margaret could not go out.
mean that she wasn't able to go out, because she was ill or for some othe:
}t:Ittn,
WARNING BOX
Might is not a Past form of may.

You must be careful how you interpret the meaning of the form. For example:
You may withdraw €500.
Here, may can be interpreted in the following two ways:
You have permission to withdraw f,500.
It is possible for you to withdraw €500.
When speaking about the past, however, only the interpretation about possibility is
acceptabie. For example:
You may have withdrawn €500.
This can only be interpreted as follows:
It is possible that you withdrew €500.
4. Summarv
Permission Prohibition Possibility
may may not may

might
101
901
(a)
+tlt{= +
md,l D (q)
-\\
6,ll'
t
' tiiei +4 6 iW l
.l atdtuux:
'nofi toJ uailum uaaq so7 a1dwoxa auS
.t.IfiIur ,ro [eur Sursn auo 4taa rc] uo4dat alaudotddn ua alttm puv moPq suoqa'tlsnqt aLU 1a loa-.
oM+ {sEf
uoIlrqrqord
'lq8ru aql Suunp lsorl i-leaq e aq lq8rru araql (x)

'aurll due 1e 1gZJ ol dn r*erpqlr-u deru no1 (xt)
'u1rop u€J lr{3rru lI 'sno:a8uep tr".t (}ll^)
::jLIqI
'luem nod 1eq'tr aaeq '4eru daql (11'r)
Ii€urs uI SaqJrol {Jols ^{1uo ,{aq1 li lenop I lnq
'paqsrurJ seLI tuexa aql arolaq II€q ar{l a'lea1 detu dpoqop (tzr)
'awaq)s itq* lo sa8eluenpe aql Jo arP'lle aq lou lq31u no1 ('r')
'uns aql qll1\^ urrp^\ are saqJ€aq aqt lnq 'Surqleq roJ ioo) aq '{eu eas aq1 ('tt)
'quoÂ sr asnor{ aLi} u€ql arolu lsoJ /eu s'rredar asnoq aql (rrl)
'lI lqnop I lnq /arlesog aq tq8rur 11 (tt)
1+uaruu8rsse aq1 alalduor o1
ra8uol aaeq 1 de4 (1)
'$acI d41 oJw sa)ualuas aLll lnd 'alqrcsja ataqhl t:
:sa)ualuas
a4l ut sppou atll asn at1| fiq passatclxa sSuntaaw at\l i/guapl'molaq +nllr ar1l
Sulsn :
8uuno11o! lo -
auo IsP
-gh sxsvl - s sqre^ FpoIAtr 6Z'Z lFIl

'7 7
UNIT 2.30
MODAL VERBS 6:
obligation, advisory, near Beds SHOULD be prepared one hour before
certainty closing time.
Cycles SHOULD be locked.
Your doctor OUGHT to be able to help you.
'1.. Primary use

Obligation
Should is sometimes used to express a duty where the obligation is a moral one rather
than one that can be imposed. For example:
Either (a) each member must use a sheet sleeping-bag of the approved type, or (b) if a
down sleeping-bag is used, a sheet sleeping-bag must also be used to protec:
blankets. Beds should be prepared one hour before closing time.
In this example, the rule about sleeping-bags is imposed on the members. It is
impossible, however, to impose the rule about preparing beds, because some people mav
arrive late. Thus it becomes a moral obligation for the members.
WARNING BOX
Ought to is rarely used ln this way.

There is no Past form to express a past moral obligation. The Past form + past
participle implies a moral obligation that wasn't carried out. For example:
Beds should have been prepared one hour before closing time.
This example suggests that the beds weren't prepared and they still aren't.
Advisory
The advisory mood is a means for giving advice. For example:
You should use first-class post and allow two days. (if you don't, the letter ma.,
arrive late.)
Cycles should be locked. (Otherwise thev may be stolen.)
Ought to can replace should in the above examples.
The Past here is expressed with should have/ought to have. For example:
The bicycle should have been locked.
This implies that the bicycle wasn't locked and now it has been stolen.
) Secondary use
Near certainty
When you are predicting an event that you believe is almost certain to take place, you use
should. For example:
It's nearlv seven o'clock. Jack should be here in a few minutes.
106
_ irl
' ullq laau no.{ pinoqs

:aldurexa roc 'leuorlrpuo) ]o urroJ aÎleulalle ue se pasn oslP sr lI
' ' tulr{ laaur plnoqs nod;1
:alduexa rog aruet{r dq uaddeq lq8rur leqt
Surqtauos s1sa33ns lI araqM (Eg'Z llun aas) sasnep lpuoqlpuoJ uI pasn osle sI plnoqs
a,req o1 1q3no a,req o1 lq8no

aÊq plnoqs aêr{ plnor{s lsed
o1 lq8no o1 lq8no
PInoqs plnoqs plnoqs luasard
,{lureyar reap z[rosr,tpy uope8rlq6
ArErutuns :
'ol lou lq?no sr o1 lq8no Jo ruroJ e,ule8au aq;
('l,use.r'r aq lng) no.{ diaq o} alqe uoaq aAEq plnoqs rol)op rno1
:alouJPX:
roc 'aÊr{ ol lqtno/a^prl plnoqs qllm 'poour fuosrnpe aql ur s€ passardxa sI lsed aq'
'araq plnoqs areldar uer o1 1q8n6
no.{ dlaq ot alqe aq pFoqs ro?rop rno1
g sqra^ Iepohi 0e z llun

Unit 2.30 Modal verbs 6 - rASKS
Task one
Complete the chart below to show the lse of should or ought to in each of the followiri.
sentences:
(a) Children under 14 should have parental permission to see this film.
(b) It's twelve o'clock, and the President's plane should be coming into view at any moment
(c) He ought to have been more diplomatic in his approach.
(d) As you'll be in Japan at New Year, you ought to visit Nara.
(e) If he's the leader, he should lead.
(f) The oil should be changed every 5,000 kilometers.
(g) This book should be made compulsory reading for anyone who has thought of going int,
business on their own.
(h) A child ought to be able to speak by the age of 3.
(,) Members ought to support the party whatever happens.
(k) People in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
Obligation Advisory Near certainty
Task two
What aduice would you git,e in the t'ollowing situations? An example has been written for you
Example:
A child runs across the street and is nearly run over.
Yow should svnp and look both wals befure crossi^g
Advice: k[g ro-g_d:. ...... ......
(a) You friend is always having difficulty starting his car.

(b) A friend has complained of having headaches and not sleeping.
(c) There's a verv popular play which you and your friend want to see.
(d) The train a colleague plans to travel on is known to be crowded on every journey and sh.
wants a seat.
(e) A friend who is very lazy has criticised colleagues for their work. The friend is now unde:
attack.
(0 A colleague has lost some very important documents, which he fears may have bee-
stolen.
(g) A friend who doesn't like violence plans to see a film, which you know is very violen:
(h) Your friend is interested in India. There is a new book about India, which has bee-
highly praised.
(j) Your child always gets up late and is late for school.
(k) A friend needs to pass an examination to get promotion in her iob, but she goes out a lc'
and does little work for the exam.
108
60r
'(.lrou llr./v\ daql lng) 3urq1.{.ra.la qsem l,uplnom sraqse.\^tlsrp lsed aql u1
'(^{Ou l.uoM
aq lng) '1r alaldtuor PInoM oq.M rolroP rnod o1 lurot aql 1oo1 no.,{ lsed aql u1
:aldurexa rog '8urq1d.rala r{se.M ilr.4L sJaqse.\ r{srp .ltou lruroJ aql u8rs l,uorrt rolJop
rnod rtou :pa8ueqr a.r,eq s8urql sdepertou leql sI uorleJrldurr aql 'saser r{f ns ul '(ZZ'Z }lun
aas) o1 pasn se Surueatu aures aql seq lJ 'plnom asn a^r. 'araq lsed aql lnoqe )lel arn,r uar{M
'sfurrlle uo sI ssalls ar{l aJaH

;alPI aurof, s{ean1e 11,a11
rol
'pasn osle sI sdemle sarullatuos
:alduexa
'1ra[qns aql ;o lred aq] uo uopllo^ to asuas p osle sr araql 'tIqpr{ Jo eapr aql sp JIaM sV
'alualuas aql ur ssarls aql sauJpf s.{enr1e /saset asoql uJ
IIIM
lpeu lsod o1 .{e.u a.l,rsuadxa }sour aLIl asn llrlt ar{S
ialel auror IIIllr aH
:ayduexa rog 8urler1snr1
;o 8ur1e1r.ur spurJ raleads aql r{rlr{,rt 'llqpq p alef,lpul ol pasn saulJauros sl IIIM
'qseM ol sSulql qrrq,u Surprrap pue Surqservr aql Surop Jo

IoJluoJ ur sr raqse^lqslp aql'uosJad p JIrl rar{seMqsrp aql appur seq luaurasrlralpe aql
'3urq1d.raaa r{sp,/r^ (lou IIIlrl) l,uom sraqsp./v\rlsrC
:luatrlaslllanpp up ruo.rJ sr Surrvrollo; aq1
'os op ol 8uri1r.u aq oslp lsntu aq/s lnq /urroJ aql u8rs o1 ,,{1np p ser{ ro})op aql araH
'1r alaiduor llr,vr or{.M 'rolrop rnod o1 urroJ aql aIe} uaql no1
:3ur1ia.rer1 uaq.e! aJr^pe Surnr8 laueal ]uaururanoS e urorJ sr ,lrolaq alduexa aqI
:s,t1tlruuxa ds.tql 1a loo'I
'flrleuosrad e lrafqo aq1 a,rr8
oJ slue.tr raleads Jo JalrJllr aql uaqru saurrl are araLl+ tnq 'slra{qo alpurrupur rlliM lpnsnun
sl slr{J Surqlawos op ol ssau8urllrmun ro ssau8urylrm e 'a'r 'uoqIIoA Io papr ar{l sure}uol
IIr1r^ 'saseJ asar{} ul 'luaâ ro uoqpnlls IsrauaS e }noqe dulelrar Moqs o} pasn sr IIrM
asn /fteruud 'l
'@€'ZjtZ slruj aas) lpuorlrpuof, aq1 qtlr\ palull uauo sr asn s._
'3ur1eu aJp a uoqrrpard
uoq)npep p lnoqp Jo 'luala Jo uorlrrqrs JpJauaB aruos lnoqe flurelrar ,taor{s ol /ralalvror{ /p.:!
osle sr ll (6'Z Uun aas) luala arnlnJ p ssardxa ol pasn fuerpxne ue se Ilrlrl Jo Tulr{l -{11ensn ..
'rup1 pooS E e{Eru q.InOM >1ooq leql

alaldulor 1111,1
'11
oq,!r 'rolJop rno,( o1 urroJ aql a{el uaql no1
(asn drepuo)as puu ufuetuud,
zlule1rar :/ SSUAA'MOI\
Tg.Z IINN
Unit 2.31 Modal verbs 7
2. Secondary use
Will is used when the speaker makes an educated guess about an immediate situatior
from the evidence available. If it is six o'clock in the evening and the telephone rings
Anne might say, for example:
That'll be Marilyn. She said she would ring at six.
Anne is guessing. But from all the evidence she has, she is certain that the perso:
phoning is Marilyn. And if a letter has just arrived, she might say, for example:
That'll be from John.
Anne hasn't opened the letter. From the evidence, she has (the handwriting or expectin:
a letter), she is certain |ohn has written the letter.
With the expression of certainty in the secondary use there is also the idea of a vagu.
fufure possibility, connected to the conditional. For example:
It's a beautiful book. It'll make a good film. (If somebody decides to film it.)
This can also be interpreted as a suggestion for someone to make the film.
It is possible for would to replace will. Will is often used, when the speaker is making ,
suggestion, rather than expressing a certainty. For example:
A car at that price wilUwould be a Jaguar.

That picture will/would look nice in your room.
The Past can be expressed in the two following ways, depending on the situation.
(a) When the speaker is making an educated guess. For example:
A; The 'phone range about six. But I was too late to answer it.
B: That wilVwould have been Marilyn. She wanted to speak to you.
Now look at this example:
A car at that price wilVwould have been a jaguar.
Here the speaker is still only guessing; but now there is no possibility of finding o:-
if the guess was right. Both forms carry the same meaning.
(b) When there is a vague possibility and suggestion.
That book would have made a good film.

This means that it's now too late to make the film.
That picture would have looked nice in your room.
This means the picture is no longer available.
For other uses of will and would see Unit 2.35.
110
tII
:ii^l ait;;.;i ;;in ut ealvl >loot plvo,v' q?c,,te) 1e\41

I
rittm jtJ llin ase)zoo1 1eW

i;'{6 asile\e 1ilai
saldutut:
'noA tof ualJuo! u)acl eoull saldttLaxa ootf asnoq at11 1o uufi a ,nbrp o7 nort d1a4 Aaw 71 'a1c1ayu':,
arl 4urql Ltaql pua' )ja'atnJutnl a41 lo lsq D a)iuut lsltJ'Lua4l d1at1 ol suot;sa33r:-
lo41 sutoo.L aLlJ Jo
a4uyy '3ut41fuaaa 1nd ol a,ra1lz Sututtald Luaql 4lt0r atD no^ asnoll u l43noq $nL aoaq spLrau] lnL- .
aarql {sEI
'1a>peuuadnsTsBurq+ .{ueu sllasTdoqs 3rg
'eruaurJ 1e uo17u(ydar ouTs8ur.r auor'1da1a1 {!
'luapIf, )e/alel/rolIS IA (:
'pooJ IpluarrO deaqr'pooSTluernelsatl (.1
'deaqt dranTales roJ surelrn3 i'.
vorsr,tgl,?r B aq ll,? ! ' ;;:id 1i'6 av

rrsuadxa Ara^/alPS ro1 Surppr'. :
:aldtut' '-
no/t to] uzJJlttn uaaq srll! aldwuxa uV 'ilopq uarlt| uollarutolul Jtll luo)J sJualuala6 ilutultat a4L ,
o1tAl {sPI
'uPrl€slv e aq ILll 8op 3rq e s,11
'paau no.,{ uolieruroJul aq} no,{ a.lrB 11r.rt sa)UJo JSIrflof r '
11e
;aseald 'aru roJ srr{l lsod no,{ 11r1u1
'Suuayio a;,.{aql MI lg p aq ILtl 'alrd }eql lV -
'paldar:e aq lou 1p,tr sardo:o1oq.1
'/ """r" ""

('puoHeYf sev l,lor1en4!s
"4],
5uol,e 6 nd n 6.1uo uo salt;vu )o;[o6 pttdM i1a1 )it
'1or1ad
;o suo11e3 .tra; e .{1uo uo salrul rol oB 11r.t'r re: s -
: a1dn,
'noA rc] uailrrm uaaq saq alduaxa uV 'asn nort swtttt

liturl .lssan| )o a)tapa 'wtoJ .t14od'uorssatdxa Tsad ott'Ltotiutllts pa|unrltl uasolp aoarl nort uuo,
lo Etrruuaut a41 ala)lpul Ilr,la lo plnoM Stusn satua:las \utmo11oJ at7 altnta.t'ayltssod lt
st a).'
auo )sE'
sxsvl - l, sqra^ IEpoI tr IE'Z llull

UNIT 2.32
MODAL VERBS 8: requests
Could I keep the book you lent me?
Would you mind opening the window?
Will you open the window?
Can fohnny come out to play?
We can divide requests into the two following rypes:

requests for permission
requests for the addressee to do something.
l. Requests for permission
The request
We make requests for permission in the following wav:
Could I keep the book you lent me?
Can I pay by chequer
May I use your typewriter?
Would you mind if I were a iittle iate for the meeting?
Of these, Could I? . . . M"y I? . . . and Can I? are the most common. It is difficult to lis:
them in order of politeness, as a iot depends on the manner in which they are spoken anc
the context in which they are used. Most people would probably rate Could I? or May Il
as the most polite. would you mind if I? is used only for special requests.
WARNING BOX
Might I? is verv rarely used. When it is, it is usually in a formal sense, when
the speaker is interrupting a discussion or formal meeting. For example:
Might I suggest a break for coffee?
The response
Eg
Could I keep the book. . . ? - Of course
Can I pay by cheque? - Certainly.

May I use your tvpewriter? - Yes.
Would you mind if t . . . ? Not at all./No. of course not

112
!I1
'passarts sl IIIllr Jr ,,{llerradsa 'ra>leads aqt Jo upd aqt uo

uorl€rlsnr] pue uorlelrrrr slsaSSns lr sp 'pasn aq ol dlaIrl lseal aril sr ruroJ IIIM aql teql Aps
lL{31u aldoad auros 'apeur sr lsanbar aql qJrq.r\ ur lxaluoJ aql pue uorlen1rs aL{l uo puadap
Ilr,lt slr{l se 'agerrdordde arotu aql sr qJrqm Surprrap Jo {e.4,\ ,{sea ou sr aJaql 'ure8e arug
a'\opur,\4 aql Suruado pulur no,{ plnoM
;.4\opurlra rql uado no,{ y;rr14
cMopur.tl aqt uado nof p1no64
Z,t,ropul.,ra aql uado nor( ue3
imopurm rr{l uado no{ p1no3
:saldutaxa tsJLll lu 4ooj
lsanbar aql
Surqlauros op ol aassarppe aql roJ slsanbay 'a
2luatulredap qrledsap aql 01 rallaI srql a)e] uosuqof rhtr ptnoJ
:aldurexa roC 'srairo.,"r 1o dnor8 e Jo peaq aql sp qJns 'rar{loue ra,lo f1uor11ne
seq uosrad prlql e uar{rvr pasn osle sr ll 'uosrad prrql aql ur pamollot sr uralled arups aql
Zsn LIIrM ryed aql o] aruor duuqo[ plnotr
aaur qlrm deld pue auor fru141up) /aseald
:aurqlaruos op ol pa,\ôlle
aq ol puarrt p roJ uorssnurad 3ur>ise ur lsanbar Jo ruro; 8ur,uo11oy ar{} asn ua+Jo uorplrq3
'uorssrurrad Surlaas ur pasn lou sr IIrM
XOS )NINUVM
'op I'sa1 Z''' I il puru no.{ plno6
'1,uernoi'oNi "luPJ
'1ou ,{eur nor{ 'o11 Z ' 'I deW
'l,uplnotr no{'o51 i 'l plnof
:8ur,uo11oy aq+ Jo auo aq plno./\^ Iesn1ar d;8ue pue a,trssarSSe aroru V
'alqeldale aq plnoM ' ' 'lnq ,{rros ur,1 'reâ.4.loll

'anrlrsod Surqlauros ro op I prEUE ru,I sl a ' ' ' JI puFu no{ plnoaa roJ IEsnJar aql
XO8 SNINUVM
'IesnJar aql ro1 uosear e dq pa.rtolloy aq dlleurrou plnom asaqf
'lou PrerJe ru/I
:sôlro, se ''1a'olode pup lu€spa1d aq uer asuodsar ;Jli;tti"t il"1 r,

";; "
'uorssrturad sa.tr8 lre; ur 'r{)rq.4,\ i' ' ' l\ purru no,( plnom qlrrtl asuodsar aarle8au
aql alou plnoqs no1 'surroJ raqlo are araqJ sasuodsar a1r1od 'lpJlnau IIe are asaql
8 sqran Iepohl z€ z ]lun
Untt 2.32 Modal verbs 8
Please can be added to any of these requests. It usually comes in the middie or en,:
position. For example:
Would you open the window, please?
Could you, please, open the window?
In the middle position it is a little more forceful than in the end position.
WARNING BOX
Note the -ing form after would you mind . . . ? for example:
Would you mind opening the window?
The response
The polite response is one of the following examples:
Could you open the window?
Would you open the window?
Can you open the window? - Yes, of course/Certainly.
Will you open the window?
Would you mind opening the window? - Not at all.
Note once again, the negative response with Would you mind ? which is a:
agreement to carry out the request.
If a refusal is given, it follows the same pattern as the refusal in L above. For a polit.
refusai, you can say, I'm sorry but . . . and follow it with a reason for the refusal. Fc:
example:
I'm sorry, but I find it rather warm in here.
An aggressive impolite refusal, can be any of the following:
No, I couldn't.
No, I can't.
No, I won't.
WARNING BOX
No, I wouldn 'f is not possible.
If the form of the request is Would you mind? the refusal is likely to be, Yes, I would
114
Ett
Z8ururoru MorJouro] r€J rno.{ ur )iro.t ol UII e au 8ur,tr8 puru no.{ pino1,4 (a
2no,,{ qual I )ooq leql urn}ar 'aseald 'nof p1no3 (p
.xoq
ilsed la8 plnor I os 1eq1 Sur.toru puru no.{ p1no1,4 (r
uollpls aql ol ase) srql &rer aru dlaq no,,{ p1nor14 (q
U
/atu roJ rallal slt{l lsod nof p1no3 (e
2aseald
:sysanbat SutmoyoJ a4l ol asuodsat aiqodwt ub pua alqod a 4loq aar
aarql IsEI
'aprsPPor aql ,{q l:nq auoauoS (a
'3ur1re1s ]ou ref (p
'uMol raqloue ur dllua8rn papaau sluawnJop atuos (,i
'ureal Ileqloo; e roJ papaau uosrad arour auo (d
'paôru aq ol arnlrurn, jo lol v (E
'asJno) J; ;;;1 'rra"

iPuatr@M "m +e a;iiof aai i;i;J Cvr d$a ii6 plnor'r'""r"
'pua)aar\ aql lp ll op ol lueM no.{ - Surlured spaau asnoq,Jnoi
:)ldLuLt.\.:
'nort nj
uallu(n uaaqsa4 aldwoxa uy'tl1aq ol SutaatSa sasuodsat ayltssod 6a33ns puu d1a4 1sanb,
743tw uostad aql mo4 alarryul'd1aq spaau paapout uostad a41 antlot'sllouanlrs aa{ arb mol.:
oMl ISEI
'puarrJ plo ue aas ol {Jo1r{ ruorl .{eprloq s,dep e lue.^ no^ ra
'uorsrlalal uo aururBrSord leroads p r{Jlpm ol lupm no1 {:'
'paau no,{ leql slool aruos seq puar.ry .rno.{ pue arnlruJnt auos 8ur1eu ale no^ 1l
'u^/\ôl aql tuolJ sasPJ dzteaq auros Surrq o1 alqe aq ol Je) s,PuarJ; rnod .,nolloq ol luP.4{ no^ I J
'r{luour rar{toue ro1 fels ol paau no1 'srlluour xrs dpeau
ro] aJar{l uaaq a^pq no.{ 1nq 's1aam o-/t\l JoJ aurp) no1 'asnor{ s,puarrJ e ur 8ur.,(e1s aJe no1 1:
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:AIdaE
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']r oaaj . .
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:alawt:,..
'nort nt uatiltlt uaaq sall aldwaxa uV pq fr1dat aqy pryom wr..
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auo {sPf
4' sxsvl-8 sqra^ Iupow

z€.?llun
7
UNIT 2.33
MODAL VERBS 9: modal
idioms
I'd rather be a hammer than nail.
You'd better check that your employer is
willing to conhibute.
Both of the)mo-dal idiomi\would rather and had better behave like the central modals (se.
Unit 2.25). Their characteristics are as follows'
(a) They have no non-finite forms. For example, you cannot say:
"to rather/to haae better
*
r athering/ h az'ing be tter.
(b) They are followed bv the infinitive without to. For example:
I'd rather be (rrof *l'd rather to be)
You'd better check (nof *you'd better to check).
(c) There are no other tense forms.
In the example. I'd rather have been, the change in tense is with the infinitive be.
(d) On only two occasions (see below) do they have a negative form:
You must say: I'd rather not be. (Here the negative not belongs to be.)
You cannot say: *1 iuouldn't rather be.
You must say: You had better not check. (Here the negative not belongs to check.)
You cannot sav: *I hadn't better check.
1. Would rather
The idiom would rather expresses a preference and has the same meaning as woulc
prefer.
Look at this examytle:
I'd rather be a hammer than nail.
In this popular song, the singer is saying what he would prefer to be.
Would rather can be used to express a choice about plans or ideas. For example:
The British people have said thev would rather have a good Health Service than gt.
back money in lower taxes.
The interrogative form is also used to show what choices there are for the person bein-
asked. For example:
Would you rather have a government that raised taxes to pay for services you mig:
not want, or a government that cut taxes and let you decide what vou want?
Both the interrogative and negative forms are used to make suggestions. For example
Would you rather stay home tonight?
Wouldn't you rather stay home tonight?
The negative form strengthens the suggestion, almost as if the speaker were trying :
persuade the other person being asked. It is often used when the other person h.:,
planned to do something different. For example:
Let's go to the cinema!
Oh, wouldn't you rather stav home tonight?
116
tlL
)rlpe Suorls Sur,rr8 lnq 'uorlsanb e 8ur>ise 1,usr .raleads aql araH
arunrururru
aql ueq] arotu alnqrrluo) ol Surlprvr sr ra.{oldura rno-{ lpt{t T)ar{J rapaq no,{ 1,upeg
:aldwexa rog 'Surureaa e paJaprsuoJ aq dew pue 3uor1s dta.l sr aJI pe aql
'asp) srrll uI 'pasn sr urJoJ allluSoJralur a,r.rle8au ar{l {ilensn 'aJIApE Surrrr8 Jo suParu e s€
1nq uorlsanb p )sp ol lou 'pasn ,{11ensn sr ruJo, aapuSorralur aq} 'uollpn}Is leruroJul up ul
'alqnorl
ur aq IIr.u o1 ualods uosrad aql 'paqsrurJ 1,usr lrodar aql lr telll sI ataq uorlelldur aq1
'a,rea1 nod aroJaq paqsrurJ lrodar aql 1aB ragaq p,no1
:alduexa ro'{ 'learql ro Sururem e da,ruor ol pasn uauo slruolPl aLIf
aq] ueql arour alnqtrluor o1 3ur11r.r,r sr raz(oldura rnod l€ql IJar{J ra$aq p,noi 'auo
Ipuosrad e ol auraq)s uorsuad luatuu.ra.to8 aql uorJ Sur8ueqr ;o 3ur1u1ql are no{ JI
:alcluIexa
roC .a)rlpp a,nr8 o1 pasn sr ll '(0€'Z lrug aas) plnoqs o1 Surueatu uI rPIrtuIS sr railaq pPH
ranaq pPH :
'11 prp nof raqler p,I

:alduexa roc (69'z ltu11 aas) asual lsPd P ur sr asnel) arll u
qlal aq] pue qsli1 se uralled aules aql s^tolloJ lI 'asnelJ e dq pa.t'to11oJ sI tuolpl aL{l uaq.\
6 sqra^ Iepol tr €€'z llun

Unit 2.33 Modal verbs e - rASKS
Task one
Read the follottting sentences and fill in the missing words with the appropriate modal idion: -
had better or would rather.
(u) ......you...... bookthetaxi early?They maybe busy.
(b) The government .....you had a personal pension.
(c) You . . . . . invest that money in something safe. You might lose it if you speculate
(d) Although it's not comfortable and often very cold, Yousoufa ..... live in Canac,
than in his own country.
(e) I.. ... have good health than a small fortune.
(f) The Football League . . . . . do something about the hooligans, or England won :
play any more World Cup games.
(g) . .. you . ..... travel by train? Such a long journey is exhausting by car.
(h) He . . . . . not know the truth about the accident. He's afraid it will upset him.
(j) He . . . . . improve unless he wants to lose his job.
(k) .. you ...... agree to their plan? They could be very difficult people.
Task two
Imagine you are organising one of the following:
(a) a holiday.
(b) a business hip.
(c) a plan to develop a part of the place where you live.
(d) a research scheme on something that interests you
State the choices aztailable and your pret'erences. Explain to your associates/colleagues what should
be done - this should be strongly asserted, almost as a warning.
118
OLL
'slueJS aleJ,{trunuuror i(q

poJJôJ suortEntrs Jql-Jo auo ur aJE no,4Jr noi dlaq or
,lqP eq AElu tuaulJeoac satrr^Jas lBlros lEJoJ JnoI
'SSS 999
0090 uo ?3rDqr Jo re{
g 5 g q auoqdayal 'slUauaq lnoqe alr^ps 1e:aua3 :oj
('durets B paeu l,uop no1)
'US€ IUd uotserd'ISOdAAltt
(af,t^reS stqi11 angatr1 'pe8ueqr s?q uoll€nlIs:no,i ssalun ute3e Sutql cue:
.IrunoJ f1uno3 arlgsecuel eqt :o; ur Surtlnd r:o;aq srlluotu xls Jaqloue lIE.f.
:ol leuBel .aJr^pv roc oc oJ aJar{1x\, ,ql JoJ alrJ^\ ol :,18q IJIÎ no,\ 'U,r\Op pJulnl 3JE pue UJIell no.\ JI
ro ',{J€JqIJ lEroJ rno,{ lB ileJ sassaJppE lraqt purJ oJ 'pro.lJe ol alqe aq rou i{FrFnoi qrrq.r
':arrgg stqSra are;lefi\ (neerng art^pv^:gazlll:)
{o slu:ru.izdr: ol no,i lttututtl [i{ t1 ueol e Suttd:r:r
'a:lua3 aJI^pV uB uro{ dlaq pue aJr^pe lat u€tr notr ::o.y:t 1I1;a:e. .{rr.\ IutqJ neat\ut ue(\l P firrrtt
'aarAal B qrrm dlaq luem ro uoueueTdxa ue
aq rlEiru no.i 'ruPl8 e Jr'l u.top p:ujnl 1.t3 no.i t
tues pue uo(sr:ap S S H C e qlra 3aJSESrp lq8ru no;
'uro; aql ur Surll1f qlr4qglEq ro 'ruer:odu:t a:ou Sutaq sB patEarl aq IqB@ urel-
slupr8 JrBf, ilruntrruof, lnoqe af,r^pe turm tq8nu notr s.J\l: euoJ(uo\ asnerrq dlaq luE lJ3 lou-IIISTE n"
'.i1tur3:n p:JU no.\ leq) SuIqlJuos Jot p)tlllEI.l:\P:
uorlsruJoJur Tq-B@no.{ q8noqllp uS r.\tr1:r SSHCI leqr \urPl
reqlo aqr 1Ie qtlm 3uole le palool rq Tlfli ulu Ir rno
aJoru pue aJr^pv l€ql sueaul slqf pellull qsEJ sl slueJd eJr-
ilrunuuol JoJ punJ IPlf,os eql^lltrIlls
lPql Jaqui:ui:l lnE
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'lEunqr{ Ieaddv leJrpru ro Jeuolte:npa'sa3:eq: auoqdalat'sJSUedx:
flrrnra5 IEIJoS aql ol Isedde Jo lqgu fue lJtBIJr-Irofl 'sJsuJdYJ llnoJ JItJ siutqt upnl'u
lsrl srql ro] urrelr ol pasoll€ lou el€ no,\ qtrIqf
aABq lou op no{ uit\op Paurnl ere no^ JJ sulJlt lo lsll E osl€ sI JJigI JleutlsJ ue )PI.\ulLl
paisB aq
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e or dnplgd aq [ilm tl pue sul3tl aq] .lo lsol lBnlJE :iL.
Jol IsB uEf, nol paulBll a,\Eq no^ sl.lllll aql JoJ pa:l
asBJ Jno,{ lnd noi tunour aqr aq ffi tue:8 aqt Jo lunoue aq'
ol a3uBqtr Jaqloue lsnl .{lE$?q s_I A13IA3j Y uolslJ3p
aql Jo .raIAaJ E JoJ )isE uE3 noA 'ulrB[J JnoA_ lnoqe 'ruer3:qr 1;o ualet :qlil:
sa1d.u :arg.yo srqt (crqa,t uotstrap {us qlla fddequn 00sJ lJ.\o )unoue Jql u0>J l:\o sSutnes :req noi :-
orE no,{ JI 'laruJo pund I?llos aql pallEl IEtJtJJo
ssHCI 8 ,{q apeur aJB LUIEIJ Jnof, lnoq8 suolsl)ac 'stso) le^Pll roJ sl lt sstpn'0€.J u?ql ssal fed 1or1e
quolslcap 3 gll^r rtddequn SSHCI aqJ, uollglolap-er pue Sutppaq 's:ted::
1u9ras.r'plqr palqeslp s loJ slso: irpunel 'Sulqlo
-
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qrrm aldoad :o; d1ag, 00€CS urlol sI ro; {se ol 'no,\ ol)u
rir.io; aqa SSHCI eql uorJ llrloJ uollBrllddg uE roJ
tur4se ,{q ]UBJE aJBJ {llunujuloJ E urrBll plnoqs no !fr noi teqt saJllras Jo sulall aqt:t1 urel:6nt ,.
IUIBIJ ol /|oH itat nof uBc lBtllA
'fi rpquqord',{1rlqrss c :
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,uoqdtuaxa ,(asn ,{repuoras) &uIeilal /(asn ,fteurud) &ulelral /rfilgqest^pe /Alllqi
:qtaa ()pow r!)aa ol saqddo s\utuaaw Eut,no11ol )41 Jo 4)t4m )lals puD'lxal a41 IlSnotql I
'sluawnad afiham luawunaoS awos +noqa ploat PD4to ub tuo4 uDPl st a?assad 3utmo17o1 ;.
auo IsE'
i! s)svr Mlrr^lru - 0r sqre^ Fpor tr v€'z llun

'77
Unit 2.34 Modal verbs 10 Review tasks
Task two
In the following text, which is from a booklet giaing adaice to people traaelling abroad, the modal
aerbs lrat,e been deleted. Conrplete the text bV qdding an appropriate modal perb and stnte which
menning the motlal zterb has in the context. An exantple has been uritten for qou.
'
Exnrnple:
Can (abil ,hJ),
PLAN WEtL AHEAD
Check the requirements lor Paying for vaccinations and Paying tor medical lrealmenl
your destinalion anli-malarial tablets abroad
F nd out about the heallh nsks rn Some vaccrnatrons are free How much you lo pay
the country you are v srllng,and under lhe NHS for others there depends on the country you are
theprecaulronsyou take.by beacharge Doclors vrsrtrngandtheexrstenceolany
reading the chart of page 5 And charge ior sign ng or frlling n a specral arrangements tor tree or
check on lhe vaccinalrons you certr|cate Although you reduced cost medrcal trealment:
need. usrng lhe advrce on pages seek your doclor s adv ce on ant -
9-14You gelmore malarallablelssomeo{these r lyouarevstltngaEuropean
intormalton lrom your lrave ag ent are ava lable from a pharmacrst Comm unity counlry you need
andtheEmbassyorHrgh wlhoulprescrplron JormE111 Readpages1522
Commrssron rn London ot the You need medrcal Insurance
counlry concerned Get your doctor's advice if you as we
to take any medicines
Consultyourdoctoratleast withyou r llyouarevisltrngacountrywhrch
2 monlhs betore departure But you only to get a has a recrprocal health care
He advrse you and arrange sma supply ol medrcation under agreement wilh the UK. read
vaccrnatrons.Someollhese lheNHSlorusewhrleVouareaway pages23-26 Consdertheneed
lake time to become eilectrve tor suppiementary medlcal
and be g ven a1 thesame rnsurance
lrme as other vacc nalons Tell
your dmtor where you are gorng I lt you are vislt ng any other
andifyouarelakrngyourchrldren counlry medical insurance rs
with you Th s rs partrcularly essential. Check wlth your lravel
rmponant ri thev have not had agenl on lne amounl ol lnsurance
their full course of chronooo you need and include enough
vaccrnations. Flather earlier cover to allow lor the extra cosl ol
arrangements be needed rf travelling home ln an emergency
you requrre vaccinatron agarnst
luberculosrs (see page 9)
Task three
Using a modal expression, explain what the following texts mean.
Example:
No through road for motor vehicles.
FloVor vehict?s wusY noL use Lhis road.
(a) Turn left only.
(b) Hotel - open to non-residents for luncheons.
(c) Please place your purchases on this platform.
(d) Kodak film - developing - printing.
(e) Riding by permit only.
(0 No camping beyond this point.
(g) Admission free.
(h) Newcastle Utd. versus Derby County on Wed. 28 Feb.
(i) Road liable to subsidence.
(k) Cold and influenza mixture - not recommended for children under 5 years.
720
LZL
:aldruexa
JoJ alqlssodurl sr tlJItllvt uorlenlls d-reurSetur ue sassardxa leuourpuoJ alqrssodurr aq1
IPuoqrpuoJ alqrssodur aq1 L
asual lsed 'qran urelu lsed a y1 (p)

(ol lnoq+l^{ a^llIurJuI)
qran uleur + (plnom .{11ensn) lepour lsed a
asual luasard'qlan ureu luasard 4 (q)
lnoqlvvr anrlrurlur)
(o1
qral urpur + (Igrlr ,,(Jlensn) lepou: luasard + JI (e)
asnEl) urEtr l asnPIr elEurproqns
:1reqr SuuurolloJ aql ur uMoLIs sr ruroJ aL{J
1'lsed aql ur pauaddeq q)rqm luala up tnq '(q) ul sV)

'sra,\.rog atuos lq8norq s,,{e.u1e aq 'uanas JaUe auroll aurer aq
;1 (p)
('AIaIrIun aroru lnq '(e) ur sV)
'rret aq] o1 oB 1,up1nona a.vr '.,{eprn}ps uo peurpr lI JI (J)
('sra.+rog sSurrq aq uaq.!\ arp asar{l pup
1 s a o p aq
""
u^' " :;':;;;:"Ji : :tT?; :"iT,: H ::::." ffiX'*Tf 3ll l3'" iTi, *
('alqrssod sr urpr 1nq '.{eprnles uo a{rl aq lllrl rar{+pa./vl aql leqM rrtoul 1,uop a6)
'rreJ aqt o1 o8 1,uol,r. ar',r 'feprnleg uo surer ll JI (e)
:saldwaxa )sary la 4oo-l
1'Suruear,u pue asn ;o uorleueldxa

raLIunJ rcl gt'Z lrun
aag) '1sed aql ur parrnrJo aêq plnol ro arnln; .ro luasa.rd aqi ur
rnrro lq8rr.u uorJJe ro luana ue leql &Illqlssod ,1ea.r, e sassardxa lpuoqrpuo) alqlssod aq1
IPuoprpuor alqrssod '"
.Ipuor4puoJ alqrssodtur aql .c-
".{I
llsuoqrpuo) alqrssod aql I
:a)ualuas lEuorllpuo) Jo s:,1
3ur.v'o11o1 oml aql ^,{lerrseq are araql 'sturueaur Surdgapun uo srsaqlodr{q rno aseq arlr u: -
'pasn surot aql;o s8urueau 8urd1:a'.

aql qll/vr lou pup paurro; sr leuorllpuor aq1 ,{e,ra aql qllr'l paura)uoJ st uorlrsoddns ar{l'!-
'sarualuas lPuoFrpuoJ ur Jr raue pasn aq uer surro] qra^ luaraJJrp aarql 1€r{l lreJ aql uo F;:
sr srsaqlodr{q sF{I 'aJualuas lEuollrpuoJ;o sad.{1 aarq} arp araql leql palsa33ns uauo :
'l\{OU
0G aq plnom aq 'a,u1e ararrt raqlu; ,(ur 11
'sraMou lqSnorq
s,{eaa1e aq 'ueaas ralJe eruoq arueJ aq JI
.IIPJ
aq1 o1 oB 1,uo,ra aru '.{eprnlps uo sulpr lI JI ruroJ fVNOIIICINO]
gE'Z IINN
Unit 2.35 Conditional 1
(a) With reference to the present, the situation can't occur now or in the future
(b) With reference to the present, the situation didn't occur in the past.
(c) With reference to the past, the situation didn't occur.
(See Unit 2.37 for further explanation of use and meaning.)
(a) reference to the present, but can't occur:
(i) If you had a video, you could record it yourself.
(But you haven't, so you won't be able to.)
(ii) If my father were alive,
he would be 90 now.
(He isn't; he died ten years ago.)
(b) reference to present, but didn't occur:
(i) If you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night.
(You don't have a video, so you didn't record it.)
(ii) If my father were alive, he would have been 90 last week.
(But he died ten years ago.)
(c) reference to the past, and didn't occur:
(i) If you had had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night.
(You didn't have a video last night, so you didn't record it.)
The form is shown in the followins chart:
Subordinate clause Main clause
(a) If * past past modal * main verb

(infinitive without to)
(b) If * past past modal * main verb
(past infinitive without to)
(c) If + past perfect past modal * main verb
(past infinitive without to)
3. Alternative forms (see also Units2.36-2.38)

A conditional is not always expressed with an if clause. On some occasions (especially
more formal ones) an inversion form can be used.
If * present can be replaced by should * inversion:
Should he come home after seven, he always brings some flowers.
If * past can be replaced by were * inversion:
Were it to rain on Saturday, we wouldn't go to the fair.
Were my father alive, he would be 90 now.
If * past perfect can be replaced by inversion with the auxiliary had:
Had you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself.
r22
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.l€-( llun aas ,y )al[a a$M pu\ se/yl {o asn toJ
'pooJ aql ssil.u ol palradxa a^€q lsnu no.{ alel a^rrrp plno/rr nod JI
'+lqeq lsed e ssardxa ol dlrelrurrs pasn sr plnoM
'pooJ aql ssnu ol lJadxa ]snur nod'alpl aÎrre nod JI
:(uoruruoJ
alour sI slql) siserldua aql sl)el lnq'Surupau arues ar{} sassaJdxa aldtupxa 3ur.{o1o; aq1
'poo, aL{l ssrlu ol lcadxa lsnu no.{'aleI eAurp 11rm, no.{;1
:1ra{qns cq1 1o 1.red aq1
uo lrqeq alqrssod pue uorlpunuralap e asrseqdrua ol pasn sl IIIa'l, aql aldtusxa 3ur.ra.o11o1
aql uI 'asnpll Jr ar{l uI pasn .{1are.r sl IIIM 'filuqrssod arnlry p Jo 3ur)eads uaq,.v\ leql aloN
'a^rlp era.u aq Jr /Mou 06 aq plnoM raqley ,{61
'rvrou 06 aq plnom aq 'a^rlp aram raqley fru y1
:alduexa Jol 'rapJo JarIlIa ur oB uec sasnel) aqJ
I Ieuor]rpuol E€'z llun

Unit 2.35 Conditional 1- rASKS E
Task one
Complete the following sentences uith the appropriate f orm f or the type of conditional indicated irt
brackets. Some examples haoe been written f or you.
Examples:
If you (haae) a computer, you (can produce) beautiful handouts. (Impossible)
Tf gou lfAD a c'mpAbet, gou COULD HAVE PRODUCED

beauhful handoubs. ", If go't tlAD +{AD a <-ovngwk.-r, goa
@uLD HAVE TRODUGED beauL;fyl haldglts
If the money (arriae), we (can arrange) the holiday. (Possible)
If the mo[4eg ayrives, We can ayrange Lhe holtday.

(a)if the treaty (be) signed, we (zpill get rid of ) the bombs. (ltttpossible)
(b)If the workers (go) on strike now, they (will lose) a lot of money. (lmpossible)
(c)If I (learn)to readandwrite, I (tuouldbe)arich businessmanbynow.(Impossible)
(d)If the sails of the ship (be) black, that (uill mean) we've lost the battle. (Possible)
(e)If they (cut) taxes next year, we (will buy) a new car. (Possible)
(0 If you (receiae) information about retirement schemes, you (should ask) several cautious
questions. (Possible)
(g) If she (wake) early, she (would be) on the plane that crashed. (lmpossible)
(h) If you (hear) a rapid series of bleeps, it (mean) the line is engaged. (Possible)
(j) If they (not hear) the bell, they (drown). (Possible)
(k) I (haae) a cup of tea, if you (make) some. (Possible)
Task two
Make complete sentences t'rom the ideas below. The section in bold type is the condition. Statt
whether you haue made a possible or impossible condition. An example has been written for you
Example:
lgive - €10lclothe - starving child/
t.f yo_u giy;g f!0, tha! wif! "J:h: a staw_179 _*i!d , Pgss blg
(a) - house/not have to - pay commission/
/not sell
(b) /invest - €1,000 - in l974lworth €20,000 today/
(c) /start - early/see - wonderful sunrise/
(d) iJane - stay on/be - Director of Studies - now/
(e) /believe that/believe anythingi
(0 /cassettes - only - return/postage - not enclose/
(g) /awards - withhoid/sufficiently high standards - not attain/
(h) iyou - successful - second-stage/join - semi-final/
(j) /receive form - before 26 March/we - send - special free gift/
(k) /not contact - us tomorrow/contact you - day afterl
124
9Zl
('ssaursnq yo 1no oB dlprnb plnor nod'aS.reqrrapun no.{ y1)

'ssaursnq ;o 1no oB .{qcrnb plnor nod .ro a8reqrrapun l,uo6l
( 693 nod a.Lr8 11,a.tl '.ltou lunoJ)e s8ur,res e gels nod yy)
'ggy no^,{ aa€ 11,a.nl pup 1v{ou luno))e sgur^Ps E_UPIS
:alourPxa lol
'asnei) Surleurpro-ol e pue anqeradtul aql r{ll^,r ro (g0'Z lruf} aas) uorsralul Jo asn aql q8norql
umor{s aq .{eur lnq /asn€l) Jr ue to asn aq} q8norql passardxa s.,{er*1e lou sr Ieuorlrpuo) aqJ
ruroJ a^rlEuralIV
'urelJaf, ssal sr Jalpads aq1 sr'toqs asual lsed aql Jo
asn aql 'ure8e arug 'arnlnJ aql ur suogJu ro sluala alqrssod lnoqe 3ur11e1 sr raleads aq] araH
'ssaursnq ;o 1no oB dilcrnb plnor nod 'a8ruqrrapun noz(;y
'1r1 Surdnq-auroH aarJ rnod ro1 puas 'auoq lsrrJ rnod Surr(nq;o 3u11urq1 er,no,{ JI
"""""';::H,'"T:ilff 1lil [ :Iff :i :]:H :il ii

:salawbxa asavl lo 4oo7
saqrpqrssod ernlnJ 't
'r{lurelrarun
ralear8 € sl)agar 'rala^ror{ 'lsEd ar{} Jo asn aqI 'pasn aq .,{eu sasual lsed pue luasard
.,{11ensn
aq] qlog 'sapql$E ro saqrlrqrssod arnlry lnoqe uou)npap e 8ur1er.u sr raleads aq] araH
'ue1d ueol sraumo-auroH p aruo)Iam p,nod 'sarueur; rno,{ IoquoJ ol palupm nor(;1
'saruoJ uoosuoru aql Irlun lsel ol ralpM q8noua aq pporls araql 'qluoru lxau sureJ tr
JI
'ra1e.tr q8noua alpq lou IIrM ,|rlunor aqt uaql 'read srql ure8e aruol l,uop surur arll
JI
'palJalas Suraq 1o aJuerlr poo8 e spupls aq 'depol surM ar{ JI
:saldwaxa ds)W la 40a
suoq)npac 'i
'1sed aql ur ,{pe1n8a.r rnJJo ol pasn }eq} ro 'arxrl due 1e .rnrro .{er,u 1eq-
uorlenlrs paluadar ,(Ilenuquor ro lrqeq e saleJrpur lI 'raêuaqlvr dq pareldar aq upJ Jr aral
'lasdn aq plnolu, aqs 're[ e ur padderl dg lsalleus ar{} uaâ 1r{ps eqs JI
'dep 11nrr11p e aq ol Suro8 s,1r smoul auod,ra.na 'alel aJrJJo aql le sa^rrrp aq JI
:saldwaxa )saLll Ia 40t-
lrquq lsed puu luasard 'l

'lPuoqrPuoJ alqrssod
yo sad.,{1 ureru aaJq} aJe araqJ '1sed aql ur parrnJJo aleq plnoJ Jo 'arnlnJ aql ur
Jo luasard au',
ur rnJ)o plnol luaâ ro uorlJe ue ]er{l dlrlrqrssod ,lear, e sassa;dxa IEuoIlIpuoJ alqrssod au
'Iaa^^
lxau ruorJ peaqe o3 uer ,{aq1 'saar8e aqs;1
'pa1ralas 3u1aq
Jo aJuEqJ poo8 e spuels arl'araql surm aqJI
'{ep lprgyrp P oq ol Suro8 s,1r smou{
auo{raaa 'a1e1 arry;o aql lE sa^rilp aq JJ alqlssod :Z f VNOIIICINOf
g€'z IINn
Unit 2.36 Condition aI2-TASKS E
Task one
Indicate the type of possible conditional exemplit'ied in the sentences below. Put the number of tht
sentence in the appropriate column in the following chart.
(a) If he goes out on a cold day, he often wears a knitted white scarf.
(b) If he wrote to his nephew, he always enclosed some money.
(c) If she posts it today, you will get it by Saturday.
(d) If income tax is reduced, the government could win the next election.
(e) If Brownlow is made Minister for Transport, we can expect a lot of changes in the law.
(0 If it snows, then we won't go to Manchester.
(g) If you've got some money to invest, contact Chapman's for advice.
(h) If you buy that painting, you'll be making a good investment.
Past habit Present habit Deduction Future Possibilities
Task two
All the sentences below may be considered possible conditionals. Rewrite them, using another fornt
for expressing this conditional. Some examples haae been written t'or you.
Example:
Read The Guardian and qet the best financial advice.
Alternative:
If y:" t''ad t|r.1 Quydil^ ! y?u'!l get Vh7 besb fllanc;/

advie-.
If you published that book, you'.1 be sued for libel.
Alternative:
Shor,rld gon pilblish LhaL bo"k, L;ovr'd be sued for l;bel.
.'....J..............
?ubl;sh Lhat, book and gou'd be sued fur libcl.
126
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'JQ\ {aNYl ll,?riivsqleuo; 04 1x"H urqod s/W 1.'s 1yh r4o)
f^ l^
'Dr/.U?â 'r41 z1euf\,noP n,n"n Pue ?uvtv 01 1x2u pr/tBo 4rs
:ya';;iyh 6t;;'!;1:;; y,ia,,s iliqei iq qxii i,,;t^{ i"J ii lt
: aldutr ,.
'nofi nj uailum uaaq dautl saldwaxa au,: -

'suotundwot tldLll 4llm
rtddat1 aq 1pm s1san9 aql fo Tsotu lu7l os'anol alll pun())t) uaqlaSuut.tu noli ,noq apnaq Q)
'3ur1urrp alrl l,usaop 1fpe1 p1o larnb - uttloy slw
llol e sluup l;alea ,{srou 1aar1e1uaun3rc - uu4lauoI
:a1dwaxa nf 'nputalp na4j lnoqu 3un11awos aTou'pan8 4taa Tsun8y (q)
:altau oj luum nofi aldoad ua1 lo 1sr1 a a4nw @)
'spuaut oml 4tlm rtltad tt 3urcruu9to an nolt 1u41 aw8t
aart{l {sEI
'l;13 aar; e 1a3 11,nod pue 's.,{ep uanas urqlr.4{ ruro, srql urn}ay
'ua1s.{s areJla^/r lerros aql ur saSueqc lnoqe Surrq llpr{s I 'ar'u 1rala nof, y1
) aql lreJ 11,no^,{ ro 'tq3ruo1 raded 1eq1 pea11
'a,lo1 du ;aq anr8 ',{1eg aas nof p1noq5 :
'leaur ar{l 3ur>1oor palre}s aq arurl aql la8roy ll,aq /.Mou u:rq raqloq no{ 11
'alel aq [,4^ ro .^ôu an€al lsnru aM
'.{psea asnoq aql pur; 1ou lq8ru arl '{rpp ralJe alrrre ol aq araM .
'ure8e no,{ {sE l,uo.^.r I pue ioD
tr proJJp ol alqp aq l,uom 1 'raq8rq .{ue s1a!i asnoq lpr.1l yo acrrd aqt 11 -l
'aurol{ }e 1ou ar.nof .n,lou1 III.M srelSrnq pue lq8ru 11e uo s1q8r1 aq} daa; '
s>iseJ - z IeuoltrpuoJ 9€'z llun

UNIT 2.37
CONDITIONAL 3: Ifyou had a video, you could record it
yourself.
impossible If my father were alive, he would have been
90last birthday.
If the car had started, I would have been on
time.
The impossible conditional expresses an imagined situation which

could not occur or did
not occur. There are three types of impossible conditional.
1. Impossible now (or improbable future)

Lottk at thesc examples:
(a) If you had video, you could record it yourself tonight.
(But you haven't got a video, so you won,t be able to.)
(b) If she had the time, she would do it.
(But she hasn't got the time.)
(c) If my father were alive, he,d be 90 now.
(But he's dead, so he isn,t.)
2. Non-existent past (referring to the present)

(a) If you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night.
(But you haven't, so you weren,t able to do it.)
(b) If my father were alive, he would have been 90 last birthdav.
(But he's dead, so he wasn,t.)
Compare the different tenses used in 1(a) and 2(a); and also the tenses used in 1(cr
and 2(b).
3. Non-existent past (referring to the past)

Look at these exanples:
(a) If you had had a video, you could have recorded it vourself last night.
(But you didn't, so you didn,t record the programme.)
(b) if the car had started, I would have been on tlme.
(But the car didn't start.)
(c) If it had rained, the performance would have been cancelled.
(But it didn't rain.)
In all these examples we are looking at events or situations which cannot occur or
didn :
occur.
r28
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lq8iu 1se1 11asrno.,{ lr paproJor a^€q plnol no-{ 'oapr,r e peq noz( peg
'.Mou 0o aq plnoM aLI 'a^rlP :aqle; .,{r-u are1,4
:aldwexa rc7 (.997 trun aas
uoIsIaAuI aut urroJ alrleuralle alqeldarle aql 'Ipuoplpuor alqrssodul ar{l qliAl
^luo
alqplda)Jp sr araM AIuo'rurol anllpurallp UOISJAAUI aql
alqeldarre lou sr sp.lr Jo asn aql 'nod arem 1;1 aserqd paxr; aq] ul
' ' riJlr sEM i JI lo ' r{Jrr ara.ryr I JI
' ,\Ôu araq sE1\^ aq II J0 ' ' oraq aJaM aq Ji
^/lou
:alduexa rol 'suorlpnlrs IeruJoJ ssal ur pasn
liluanbar; sl spm 1nq '^{lyelleu;tue,r3 1la;ro:t aroru paraplsuoJ sI aram r.uJoJ aql asnpll
Jr aql ul sE1\{ Jo ppalsur pasn saurrlaluos sr ala^r 'aq ol qra^ aql Jo uro, lsed aql qll.ri
XO8 SNINUV\.
t [Puor]rPuoJ j€ Z ]lun
Unit 2.37 Conditional3 - rASKS
Task one
Read through the sentences below and identifV which ttlpe of impossible conditional they exemplit:.
lndicate your choice in the follotuing chart. The first one has been done for t1ou.
(a) If you hadn't read the instructions carefully, you could have made a lot of mistakes.
(b) If they had really been to the Cambia, they would know that the people speak English an.
not French.
(c) If the university had been open that day, there wouldn't have been the trouble with th:
italian students.
(d) If I was going to London by car,l could take the package with me.
(e) If the corner shop were open, I couid buy some bread right now.
(0 if I'd got the right lottery number, I'd be a rich man by now.
(g) If the film had been here last week, I could have seen it.
(h) I'd be drinking tea by the Spanish Steps if I were in Rome at this moment.
(j) There'd be no droughts anvwhere, if it rained iike this in Africa.
(k) If the government had supported the pay award for the miners, it wouldn't have bee:
defeated.
Impossible now Non-existent past Non-existent past

or (present reference) (past reference)
Improbable fufure
Task two
There are seaernl things lohn wants to do,bttt can't. From the inforntation girten belout, express the
in terms o.f the impossible conditionnl.Use both .fornts. An exanple htts been written for you.
Example:
He wants to record the television pop concert, but he hasn't got a video.
Conditional:
!f ha ha ,I a vyde": h? ??nld, reyo/ We Ycteyr2pn p:F

t
cnncevc,
Had lv a viden, he ror,l ld rerprd Lhz tnlevisiorr pp concevL-
(a) He w-ants to drive to Edinburgh, but he's got to see his mother in London
(b) He needs to buy some ne\r shirts, but he hasn't got any monev.
(c) He wants to attend the dance class, but it's full.
130
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pl)loM I 'H?til 1r46rra1 6-nr ua1e1 l.uper4 "qs,l
'YUo)g
pf l4oM s?ragou (s?"laqod 01 flpq aU p?ssed peq a{ JI I
"êq :e1Llur'.
'nort
tol ualJLtot uaaq aau4 salduax"t awos puotllLl:,
alEssodrur a4l Sutsn'uat noli su sa)ualuas fiuau sa unop aluh 'auop uaacl aol1 pyotls tt'..
pua Suotm luam 1041 sBun11 aql nt) lnoqa 8uryur47 ata no^ ('ssaq) sD tltns awa9 p.tuoq b ta llutj::
su qJns auu| wual 11 aq ual y - awu9 arytnoauf noh asoot131 'aurn\ u po1 lsn[ a,zut1 noh aut!
rnoJ IsEI
slq8raq alrl l,uprp ar{s lnq 'alsl}re azade:1 e Suraq paur8er.ur aq5
's,{ep asoqt ur ualu.{1uo palue.+r 1nq'1o1rd e aq ol prul aqs
âqtarilIJd aql aq ol palue.^ aqs
'srrlr1od ur palsa.ralur ,{lsnorras l,usEM aqs lnq 'ra}srurhl
.rq3nouapJeqaAeSt/upIp}nq,uopuo-luiasnoqa3re1e.{nqoipauue1dat15
'spJo.v\ r{ly"r poo8 d,ran 1,use,vr aqs lnq 'ra1u,u e Suraq 1o lq8noql aqg
' /a-to1dv7 ve urdq Pt Yrol 11 s

"Avq "
'?s.t)t?x? ?Aôg al.roP pue 1rJ 1da1 aqs ppH te oldta:HelH?',e
(?s.r)âva or+ros avop
"AeV
Ptl^.o) al4s Pue 1lJ 7da4 pe+"qc li-
:lPuOqIpuL -
'asrrraxa due op pue l{J daal ;,up1p aqs tnq '-ra.roldxa up aq o} palup,\\ :
:.1ltlrt.
'nofr toi uajJLLm uaaq sa7 ald:,.
uy 'swtoi qrcq asn pud ary lnoqu slDuotypuot alqtssodut ayaa nolaq uaaS uo4awroyt,:
wotJ 'op l,upry aqs slatBat atls sEw41 huuw atu a.Laq1 'aJ4 taq uo l)u(l Suqoo1 'p1o rtta,'L otou st r:..
aarql ISE
'sruExa srLI palrPj aqlnq aql }e /(pnls ol slu€1t,r aH
'pallaLu seq arr aq] tnq "{lrsranrun
'raû aql uo 3ur1e1s oB o1 a1r1 p,ag
sISeJ - € leuorlrpuo] L€'z lIun
UNIT 2.38
CONDITIONAL 4: unless
Stamford will be dropped from the team,

unless he improves his performance.
She alwavs comes, unless she's ill.
Unless is known as the negative conditional. It stands in place of except iflexcept on condition
that.
Stamford will be dropped from the team, unless he improves his pr'rformance.
(The only wav Stamford can stay in the team is to improve his performance. He's playing
verv badly at the moment.)
She always comes, unless she's ill.
(The only reason she wouldn't come would be if she were ill.)
It is used only for possible conditionals (see Unit 2.36). For example
The government wili sue, if the book isn't withdrawn. (Possible)
The government will sue, unless the book is withdrawn.
With tlre impossible conditional, we must use if . . . not. . . . For example:
The government would have sued, if the book hadn't been withdrawn. (Impossible)
The version with unless is unacceptable. For example:
*The government would have sued, unless the book had lteert withdrn-u,r'.
Alternative form
As with other conditionals, there are alternative ways of expressing the unless form.
Look at these exanrples:
Stamford should improve, otherwise/or he will be dropped.
(Unless Stamford improves, he'll be dropped.)
The book must be withdrawn, otherwise/or the government wiil sue.
Withdraw the book otherwise/or the government will sue.
(Unless the book is withdrawn, the government will sue.)
Note from the examples above that in the alternative forms, the obligation is stressed by th.
use of should, must or the imperative form in the clause originally governed bv unless.
r32
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aq 1:AoM tq ,o/isil,;,,;lo 'ptonnfi11"p 01 "6lsHW \{!/ -
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suuryu o01l aTl utott uo4awtolut a4l 1n4'atni ol sorl dtl satlu)t|ltp r4l ailr ata\J,uwnla).:
14&t atll u1 'atnlni ary.toJ sutaa.tp s,ut1olpa7st1 atn aSud allt tdao uDlp a4l Jo Luunlo) puary la1 ,.: .
o1vl+ IsE
.no.,{ s11a1 rolJop aql }eq.,vr op nol ssalun /rallaq 1a3 o1 adoq no.{ uer .uo11
'u8rsar o+ rulq 1se 11,faql asr.{,\raqlo ,3ur1aeu }xau ar{l pua}lp }snru aH
'rrJJErl aql ur dn plaq la8 /Alrea
11,no.,{ ro uets
'uopuo.l ur 8urarl Jo iulql l,uplnoqs no.,{ ,,{auotu Jo }ol p a,req nod ssalun
'relndod os s,ll lr 1a3;anau uet nod ,aurzeBeus ler{l laplo noA ssaluil
'+uaprlle ue aAEr{ 11,no.,{ ro 'd1.uo1s aroru alrrq
'urerl aql ssrru JJ,ai\A ',{.:.rnq ,{aql ssalun
'asJnof,
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'aury .,(,r.eaq e ,{ed o1 a,req
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:alIIff.av
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:al lJAr a \
'ruolloq aql ]e aq 11,,laql ro'a,rordtur lsnlu rueal llpqlooJ uerll:'_
:saldutr .
tto tl
ualluil uaaq aoa4 saldtuaxa aluos 'ro/asr1r{Jaqlo .ro ssalun Swsn 'satuaytas 8utmo11o} aqJ alur:.
auo {sPl
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Unit 2.38 Conditional 4 -'fasks
John's dreams Difficulties
Example:
be a world-famous filmstar go to Hollyr.t'ood
(a/ see the Prime Minister Private Secretary agrees
(b) go to the theatre wife book tickets
(c) fly in Concorde rvin a lot of money
(d) become very rich successful songwriter
(e) buy a house borrorv some monev
(f) go to the moon do a lot of hard training
(g.r race at Le Mans find a sponsor
(h) be chairman of his companv get support from the commtttee
(j) travel round the world build a strong boat
(k) be a sailor learn to swim
Task three
(a) NVith n t'ricnd, think of a sports club or social clttlt that Vou uauld like to form.
(b) Set down the conditions of mentbershipt of the club.
(c\ Write these conditions doiun usil,g unless or its ttlternatrce f orms. ,Art exontTtle has Lteen -utritt,
for you.
Example:
You can'L jo;n bhr's cf ub, snless 97u a'e over 18 yeavs of age
l:r'
9er
'sasual lsPJ Jo asn al{l Aq passa,{oxo sr LISrM aLIl Jo Allllqrssod:

aL[] 1nq'luasard aql ul Alleurou sr ?urrlsrM Jo trP aqI (l€'z tlun oas) IPLrortrpuor JPrrlaqlc;
ro alqrssodrul al{l Surssardxa leql oJ rellurrs sr Surqsrrrl ssardxa ol aJn}Jnrls a)ua}uas :
'lou se.lr ro aq ]ou Ilr^.r'lou sr leql Surqlar,uos.ro_1 lar8ar -lo asuas aq1 ssa:dxa qloq .\:
', 1uo;r a)uaraJar IeuorlrpuoJ aql lo qsrm ol qra^ Jql rar{lla qBnorq} passa.rdxa aq uer Surqsr .
,\\ou aulf q lP Jr,f .\\ I q<l u I
'.ll Anq ],upll. l
1eq1 lar8ar Jo asuas aql sr arar{} lng 'lr?or aql ,{nq l,uprp no,{ ler{l sl {lllPar ar{t 'llP raue }Po: ,,
l{3noq peq I r{sr.tr 1 'des no,{ uaq.u 'alduexa roC alqlssodurl sr uollpnlrs aq} 'qsl,lr nod u: -
'Surqlauros :o1 lar8ar yo 3ur1aa-1 e sr a-raq1 Sutq'
rlllM ,qsl1\,\, ra8uorls aql ssardxa l,usaop pue lP4nau sI lPuoqlpuoJ aql lPql sr aJuaraJ]rF :
')iurrp ol Surqsa.ryar Surqlatuos aÊq plnor I 'Mou auoq Jp arem I JI
:a)ualuas leuoFlpuoJ P se uallr.I.Mal aq plno-r :
'Iurlp ol Surqsarlar Surqlauros a^€q plnoJ I ualil ',laou auJoq le aram I qsrM r
:alduexa rog ualodsun Jo uar,lods JaL{:.-
r{Jrr{,tr /r{srm e oq lred puo)as p uauo sr araql uoqrpuo) e Sutssardxa ol asol) ,{.ran sr Surqs'
'aruu aql le os pres peq aq fluo;1

'lle ra$p leor leql lq8noq ppq I r{sllr I
'uoos dleaq aq1 u31s plnom z(aq1 ,{1uo y1
'1r[Ou aruoq le ara^r I rlsl1vr I
Surqsyrt :9'IVNOIIICINOI
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Unit 2.39 Conditional :
There are three types of wishing:
1. Impossible now
I was at horne now.

I wish I lived by the sea.
I could paint like that.
If only they didn't ask sc many questions
she wasn't so poor.
In this group, the wish is a regret for a situation that is present. This is expressed in th-
second part of the structure with the Past Simple. Could here is the Past form of can (se:
Unit 2.27).
2. Improbable future
they would sign the treaty soon.

the sun would shine.
she wouldn't always argue.
he'd make up his mind.
they were coming here tomorrow
Here the wisher is regretting something that will or will not happen, or something th:
continually happens. The wish is expressed through the use of would or could or the Pas-
Continuous.
3. Non-existent past
I had bought that coat after all.

I wish he had said so at the time.
that shop hadn't closed.
If only they hadn't driven so fast.
there'd been some good dance music
In this case, the wish is a regret for something that has already taken place, and is expresse-
through the use of the Past Perfect.
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o1t4l ISE'
'lEti] ualllrM p,I tislrvl I
)ano ar{l aas ol 3uro3 sp.^ aqs saqsr.4r aqs
puelSug ruoJ1 re; os l,usem erpuJ r{sr.,* I
'r{)rpl gI uo urnloc aql ol auoS t,upeq lesaE] dluo 1J :
'.{epsauparl4 uo Jo pealsur .,{epsanl uo 1r palsod p,y .{1uo
;1
'aturl uo an ulp plnom {ar.11 ,{1uo 11
'rauoos lauroJ sno.raSuep leql uaas p,aqs dluo ;1 -
'.{auor.u aroru lrq al$ll € lsnf peq 1 qsi,,ra .,{iuo

1
'uaql qtl,lr erlerlsnv o1 3uro3 ara.M daql qsr.u .{aq1
'rurq parrrPru t,upeq aqs saqsr,^ aqs .
'5ad lualsua-uou to a.i1'..

alrluqotdwr'mou alqrssodwr:3uo1aq8un1stm lo suossatdxa SutmogoJ atlt dno8 4trym oq rtly..
auo IsP'
sxsvr - s rEuoppuof, 6E.z lluil

Unit 2.39 Conditional 5 - Tasks
Task three
(a) Think of someone progressing through Lt c(treer and write down all the things slhe has done to bt
successful in thnt career.
(b) Consider someone ioho is retiring and ltnsn't been success.ful. l\Iake a list t'tf the things s/ht
utishes had or had not hnppened. Some examples haue been zttritten for vou.
Example:
I wish I had passed EhaL exant.

I w;sh I hadra'b bakevr that Jiob bravrfer.
138
{r€ I
(E)Z ul adotl sE L{rns 'a^tlrurtur al{t ..!-
pa.{rolloj arE sraqlo alrLl..\,\'(p)[ ur,{o{ua sp qrns'punraS aL{],{q paMo[oJ oJp sQJaA orUtrr
'qra^ leJrxal ureur aqi uo spuadap punraS aL{],roa^rlrurJulal{t asn ol raqlaLJ,\ ICr arror{J aq-
'Surraaur8ua ur uaruo,ra
sprpMol sapqHle plo aql aSusqr ol sadoq aqs
'apo) paqsrlqplsa aql 3u13uo11eqr pa,{olua
(s,,{EMIe) s€r{ IIEH
qIAA l)alqnS
'Molaq l"rPLr:
ar{l ur .{[real) uaas aq upf, uor]rnrlsuor srr{I Z1VHM uorlsanb aql sramsup 'Surraaur8ua ur
uaruoM spre^rol sapnlple plo agupq) ol 'qra^ ureu rqi :a1;e ase.rqd aq] 'a/\oqp (p)l Ln s\
'SurraaurBua ur ualuo^ sprp.\\ol sapnirlle plo aq] a8ueqr ol sadoq aqs (p)
alduuxa srqi lb 4c,,:
'punra8 al{l lou pue wroJ a^rlrurJul
ar{l asn 'rana^ôq 'sl)afqo rlaq] ro] sasp.lr{d unou iq pa.\\ollo, al€ r{)rLI^{ sqra^ raqlf
a^rlrurJur Jo asn :
'aôqe auo aL.
se qf,ns saspl{d ro auole spunra3 ,,{q pa,no11o; aJ€ qrrqM .{ofua a1r1 sqra.r. iueu are arau'
'qra^ urel.rl ar{l raue iIVHM uorlsanb aL{l sra.4^suE ll unou E: j-
srr' aserqd aror{"' aql os":"j""iili:':'"":i:;xHffi:ij;:::["i:'^:T'3::ffiliti;i'"'
aldwaxa stqi 1D 1,:
'punra3 aql se umou) sr urro1 srql'papuedxa aq louueJ pup ruloJ pa)nl'--

p lou sr ll'qra^ e ueql unou e se arour slJp lr araq^,\'uroy 3ur- aql Jo asn raqloup sI ara.-
' ' ' deaqr Surqlaruos palupm ,{aq1 asnerag

:aruoJaq plr.
' ' ,{aql 'deaqr Surqlauos 3ur1ue64
:alduexa roJ 'ruro1 IInl aql olur papue.-.
aq plno) pue qra^ aql ,o ruroJ paf,npar asne)aq aldnnred aql palle) serra wrol 3u
p seM JI .
aql'araql saldtuexa aql uI 'qra^ aq+ Jo urro; 8ur- aql Jo asn aqr passnrsip a,vr /€ l llu-l -
aldpqred snsrel punra.'
'sepqr1ts p1o a8ueqr o1 sadoq aqg
'apor patlsrlq€lsa
aql Sufualleqr pa,{o{ua s{e.tr1e sEq IIeH
r sltsvur-
IIAIIINI{NI PUP CINNU -
vv'z IIN l
Unit 2.,10 Ceruncl and infinitive phrases 1
There are some verbs which can be followed by either form, but very often the selectior
affects the meaning (see Units 2.41,2.42).
In the chart below are the common verbs which are always followed by the gerund, those
that are followed by the infinitive, and those which can be followed bv the either thr
gerund or the infinitive, where the meaning is the same.
Always followed by gerund Alwavs followed bv infinitive
admit find afford offer

appreciate finish agree plan
avoid forgive appear pretend
celebrate mention decide promise
consider mind expect refuse
defer miss hope seem
delay pardon intend want
deny postpone need
detest practise
dislike prevent
Followed by either
dispute recall
enjoy risk
escape suggest begin
excuse understand continue
explain prefer
start
3. Gerund and infinitive as subiect

It is also possible to use noun phrases beginning with the gerund or infinitive as tl-.
subject of the sentence. For example:
Providing holidays for handicapped children means fun for all,
To go by train from London to Glasgow 1st class costs €126.
The selection of either the gerund or the infinitive depends on the category of the ve::
(see Unit 1.1). It is more usual for transitive verbs to use the gerund form only, where.,
with intransitive verbs either the gerund or infinitive form can be used.
Generally we tend to transfer the infinitive subject to the end of the sentence and beg:
with the introductory It (see Unit 5.2). For example:
It costs f,126 to go by train from London to Clasgow.
This is not usually done with the gerund subject.
1,10
llI
lil htopnpotlw aql asn 01 lra4q $out noll ailJ sa)ualuas nort io qrnlm q F
'trvjlr")ra
-l
nJ?A 9l 2\.,qJo:lou/ e 6utP.td
'ir'""" "'
'6y1Wq6nn 1nt rao6- sa;evu xrTulM vl DU!r1,tw!M9
"5'"I
:a1dwax7
uni atu rta41 fi4m mo4s llrt4m sa)Ltaluas dn ayatu moN (q
'a)!q -ropvue 6.rlptd

r?lutM Mt frpulw tl{lM.s ob oJ
:a1dwax7
'nofl rcJ
uaJluol uaaq aaa4 salduaxa auoq'umop wa\J al)il pua op o1 unJ ttn qa47 s?wt1y ua1 io 7urt11 1e
o1vrl {sPI
'arurl -{ue 1e lasdn paaddal prole }snru 'ralamoq 'uenr1r1c--.

snorlrqure aql 'ursrJrlrrJ JreJun uaryo pue leuosrad Jo lol e (Dj]ns) lsrr no.,{'luar.uery:e-
ur l€as tno[. lurm) pa]erqalal a.leq no.{ luaruoru ar{} ruorl 'uorseJlo z(ue uo {11euos"ra-
fua.t pa1re11e (aq) purru l,ulsnru nod 'ueorlrlod e lawotaq) lu€ur,t no.{ 11 uoos ure8e ;aq:
q)ea (aas) adoq daql',uou uanE'aruri aql Jo lsour paar8esrp daql q8noqtle'raqlo q)ea ol (111':
(tlslul, lup.1vL l,uprp ^,{aq1 raqreqroD rl^ pu€ raqrl€r{I srt\ lE )ioo-l'r{lr./tl an8re o1 auoaruc-
(aoa4) pu ssltu plnom.{aql pue s,\ arl rraql (alaqap) folua oq.u aldoad are suenrlrlod 1soy.,
'3ur1re-de1d Jo lol e,{11ear sr srql }nq lsluauoddo rraql qll^r f'tBwu 11a31ruaas ualJo su€rJrlrlc-'
'"raq1 wor) srd4)ee1 t:tttgf f"t

"Y1
Pu.rr,ra ?.us"oP a{s 1nq;u;ji b1 Ot) OI lueM lytsaop uegf
'araql t-rjorj srrLl)prl aq1 (tddw) pulur l, usaop aqs lnq'ber1 o1 1o31 luem liusaop upc
: aldutu:.:
'noli toJ ua#um uaal, stir.l aldwaxa uy ao4tutttu ,.: .
to punta8 atll r'!'wto] lJailo) a4l ojut sialrutq ut sqtaa ary 1nd uatll pLta 1xa1 Surotolloj aql pui':
auo {sef
sxsvl - I ses€rqd anqrtrr;ur pup punraD

}v.z +rtJn
UNIT 2.41. I remember buying the ginger.
I remembered to buy the ginger.
GERUND and INFINITIVE
He regrets playing badly in the last game.
PHRASES 2 He regrets living in Berlin.
She regrets to say she can't come.
When I stopped feeling angry, I realised a
lot of the problem was my own fault.
Some verbs are followed by the gerund or by the infinitive. For example:
I remember buying the ginger.
These should not be seen as alternative forms, however. The r.ise of the gerund form conveys a
difierent meaning to the use of the infinitive. The difference in meaning varies ;rccording to
the finite lexical verb.
1. Remember, forget
Look Ltt tltis ernntple:
I remember buying the ginger.
In this example, the situation is that now I remember that I bought the ginger when I wa.
shopping. The order of events is:
(i) buying tlre ginger;
/ii\
\,.,,!",.,.,-..1n8.
'omamho'
We could rephrase the sentence as follows:
I remember now that I bought the ginger.
Now look at this exttmple:
In this example, it is the act of remembering that comes first. While I rvas out shopping
remembered that I wanted some ginger and then I bought it. The order is:
(i) rcmembering;
(ii) buving the ginger.
Nozr.,look at these eramples:
Lord Ballantrae remembered to bow when he met Queen Victoria.
Lord Ballantrae remembered bowing when he met Queen Victoria.
In the first example, the scene is in 1897. Lorcl Ballantrae is a small child and he mee:-
Queen Victoria. He remembers that he must bow to her.
the second example, the scene is 1950. Lord Ball.rntrae is recalling the time'"vhen he rn-,'
h.r
Queen Victoria in 1897.
The infinitive form is used in the same way with forget. For example:
I forgot to buy the ginger.
While I h,'.)s out shopping, I forgot, so I didn't Lruv the ginger. The order of the activitr' :.
(i) I forgot;
(ii) I ciidn't buv.
With the gerund form, however, it is more common to use remember t'ith the negatir.
t42
c+-r
'IIal pue ruroJul'APs ueql raqlo sqra^ LIII,\/r pasn aq ol urro] a^rlrulJur aql roJ lensnun sr ll
'lsEd aql uI lloJs lnoqe arl e no,{ plol aq lpql &ros sr ar{ lpq} suearu srr{I
'llors ]noqp ar[^\ou
]eql no,,t 3ur11a_1 slarSar ap1
:alourexa Joc 'sqJa^
asaql dq ualpl sl punra8 + largar Jo urro, Ipnsn aql'luaaa lsed e o] sr aluaraJar aql uar{M
'luaLuour lPr{l lP uanr8 Suraq
sr .,{1red ar{l o+ aruoJ l,ueJ uerrrom aql leql uor}prxroJur aqJ luaâ luasard p o} sratar srql
'auroJ ],ueJ aqs {Es o1 slar8ar aq5
:alduexa .rog 'lar8ar ralJe alrlrurJur aql ul rnJJo saurrlauros IIal 'uro;ur ',{es sqra,r aq1
( urlraB ur 3ur,u1 "' ' )
larBar
luasard lsed
(uLlf,d8
larBar ur 3ur.r.r1)
luasard lsPd
:suer8erp 3ur,r,ro11o1 aql ur 's.{e.u oml ur paluasa.rdar aq upJ purua8 4 1ar8a1
'Surnurluo:r 1p1s
sr 1nq lsed aql ur unSaq sr ]uaâ aql '(ll) ur 1(e) aydruexa aql ul se '1sed sr ]uaâ aqt (l) ul
'araql 8ur^ll alrl l,usaop lnq 'arar{l 3ur,rr1 1]r1s sr aq l€ril (ll)
1a.raq1 luads ar{ arur} aql slar8ar pue urlrag ur ra8uol ou sr ar{ }Eql (l)
:3ur.uo11o1 aq] Jo raqlra upaw plnoJ ll araq r€alf lou sr lxaluoJ aqf
'urlrag ur 8ur^,rry slar8ar aH (q)
'1sed sr luaâ ar{l ler{l realJ lr sa>ietu aure8 1se1 aql
ol a)uara1ar ar{l 'aldruexa snl} ul urrol punra8 aql dq pa,tlollot dllensn sr lar3ar qra^ aqf
'ar,ueB 1se1 aqt ul Ilpeq Surfeld slar8ar aF{ (e)
:saldwuxa as)ql la 40i
lerSau :
'asrruns le rnpoqorog SuBrsr,r laBJoJ raâu ILI

:aqdtuexa rog 1a3,ro; ralau ILI aserqd aql sl slii o1 uorldarxa aq1
xog cNINuv.\1
'lq8ru lsel roop aql 8urpol raqruaruer l,uop I
:,{es o1 d1ary1 arou are a.^
]q8ru 1se1 roop aLIl 8uopo1 p8toJ 1
:Surdes Jo pealsul
:aldurexa rc:
7 saserqd alrlrurJur pup punra3 It'Z ]lun
Unit 2.-11 Cerund and iniirritive phrases 2
3. Stop
Many people think that stop can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive. In fac'
only the gerund form can be considered as an object after stop.
Look at this exantple:
When I stopped feeling angry, I realised a lot of the problem rvas my own fault.
Irr this case, feeling ang:.y, answers the question WHAT? after stop. What did I stop?
The infinitive form does not answer the question WHAT?
Look at this example:
He stopped to reconsider what he'd said.
The infinitive form answers the question WHY? Why did he stop? Some people thin
that the infinitive is an abbreviated form where the object (the gerund form) has been ler
out. For example:
He stopped (speaking) to reconsider what he'd said.
r41
E'I
'lsol sl{auor.u aql (ll)

'lsol tou sr .,{auou aqI (l)
:uo4aua1dx3
'.,{auour aq1 8urso1 Jaquaruar l,usaop uoslaN -
',Surraquraurar, sem uollJe puoJas aql (II)
',SurraquaruaJ, sear uollJe lsrIJ atll (l)
:uo4aua1dx7
'sqderSoloqd aql puas ot paraqruaua: z(uo1 :
'lureldwor e Surleru ra8uol ou sr ag (rr)
'rurq lasdn asrou aq1 (r)
: uo4aualdxT
'asrou aql lnoqe ureyduor o1 paddcls ag -
'-t,lou apeur Surag sr luaura)unouue aq1 (rr)

'o8e aurl auros apetu ll luaua)unouue ue inoqe Lr;os sr ,{1rroq;ne ar{I. (l)
:uo4uuaylx1
'000'}zJ ro ssol aLIl arunouue o1 slar8ar ,{luoq1ne aq1
aqu.raurar l,usaop 1nq 'farrou ar{l ralo papueq pllqJ aqI (II)
'Aauotu al{t ser{ lllts pllrlr aql (I)
:uo4atn1dx7
'fauou; aql ralo puet{ ol ;o3:o; pyrrlr aql :'
'Surtilauos Surop paddols ar{s dr{,vr sl slr{I (lI)

'8uro1'r paddols aLIs leq-lt sl slqJ (l)
:uo4aua1dx7
'uorsrnalal 3urqr1e.+r paddols .{-re4
'aaraJar aqt llq ot lnoqe sI aH (Ii)
'aararar aql tlri .{pearle sPq aH (il
:uo4aua1dx7
uar aql Suil+19 paila:3ar ralleqlool aqI
'roop aql ))ol ol lnoqe sI ut{o{ (lI)
'Mou pallol sr roop aq1 (,
:uo4aLLa1dxl
'roop aL{} 3ur>po1 s.raquraua.r uqo{ .
'a)ualuas tltaa lo uotlauuldxa pat.to) a4l $utD8o t1tt7 a qnd ua4i pua mopq saJuaiLtas atfi L1:.
auo IsEl
sxsvl - z sesEJr{d aarlrul;ur pue punreD

71t
./:
w'z +ItIn
Unit 2.41 Gerund and infinitive ohrases 2 - Tasks
Task two
Read the following text and then put the aerb in brackets into the correct t'orm, gerund or infinitioe
Dear Mary,
I regret (sau) that I haven't been abie to do many of the things I intended to do while you were
away. I forgot (go) to the insurance company to renew the insurance until it was too late. I did
remember, however, (send) the application form for the tickets for the pop concert.
I know you will be pleased when I say that I have stopped (smoke), but now I forget (buu
matches to light the fire or I don't remember (put) th.em in the piace where I finally find them.
I was sorry to hear that you don't like Mr Lawrence. Though I did warn youl I can't say I regret
(call) him a devious cheat. Don't forget (make) your opinion clear to him before you leave. I
suppose I must stop (attack) him as I do. It will make him feel important. Meanwhile, you
should stop (help) him in the ways you do.
All good wishes,
Tom.
Task three
Usirtg orre of the aerbs remember, forget, regret, stop, irrite a sentence describing each of tlt,
pictures below.
(a)
(c) rl
t'\
746
-tl
11]illuJtto)
'asrape '.!rollP 'prqJoJ 'lluuad

:sqra^ Sur^/rolloj aql o1 sarldde
alnr srr{I 'pasn sr a^qrurJur aL{l 'no{ leuosradwl aql qlll14 uana 'raâ,!'toq 'pasll€uoslad
sr JuauraleJs aql uaqM 'pasn sr uroJ punraS aql os 'auo IPJauaS e sI ]uarualPls lsllJ aql
'ruool)rom aql u! alous ol no,{ MoJte l,usaop ,{uedr.uo: aq1
'puno.r8rapun aql uo 3u11orus r*oIIp l,usaop uodsue:1 uopuol
:salduexa oÂ] asar{l aredu:o3 Surueau aql ueql raqler 'aAqruIJuI Jo punra8
aLIl Jo asn ar{l slra}Je l€ql urroJ ar{} sl ll 'Sursr,rpe ro Surpprqro; 'uorssnutad Jo sqra^ qllM
uorssnurad 'z
'qJrr auoaruos 8ur.{leru

'{ueq E Sulqqor
'qof rapaq e Suqa8
'apruotqJ aq1 Surpeat Aq ',Aauotu aroru aêq ol lue.tl no^
:upLIJ zur,\ oltoJ aql uI uaas aq ueJ srL{I

',{auour aroru aAeLI o1 sr{e.u leralas Jr€ aral{I luaturradxa ue sr ll '8trrfti 1o s,{u.u lueu 1o
auo sI alrtuafi.{J aqJ Surpeay '.{auou aroru aletl o1 sr 1dua11e llpraô aq1 'alduexa srr{l ul
'ar,uorttr,,u.t"ro;i,it'hj:;T,";;,;:i;,:,x,,:;,,:J;;it",""
palrpJ tnq parrl iuedr-uo) aql 'alaH

'a8eur s1r a8ueqr ol payl a1f1 ry a;e1
:aJoulexa ro,{
'lnJssa)lnsun uaaq ppq ldural1e aqt )urql plno.4,r arn lsed aql uI sl ,ful qra.r aql uaqM
'aq III.ln lr InJSsa)Jns ,tror{ ro ll op III^{ .{ueduror aq} .toLI
.lroul ],uop rM 'op o+ tuudura$e si a1d1 + alel l€t{zr,t lnoqe 3ur11e1 are a,\l. 'aseJ slr{l ul
'a8etut sll a8ueq) o1 8ur.'fi1 sr a1r{1 t a}eJ
'alduto):a snll la
400-l
dtl.I
'ruoor)Iro/ll aql
ur a{orus o1 nor( lvrolle l,usaop fueduror aq1
'punorSrapun aql uo
Surlous 1r.!,ol{e l,usaop lrodsuerl uopuo'I
'al)ruot4) au € slsvuHd
Sulpuar ,{r1 '{auoru aroru alprI o1 luern no.,(;1 AAIIINIJNI PUE CINNUIID
'aSeurr slr a8ueqr o1 8ur,ftg sr a1f1 18 alpl
zv'z IINn
Untt 2.42 Cerund and infinitive phrases 3
WARNING BOX
When these verbs are used ir'. the passive, they are always followed by the infinitive.
For example:
You are advised to take a packed lunch.
It is forbidden to smoke in here.
You are allowed to bathe here.
We are permitted to drive through here.
J. Like, would like

With like, the reference is general and the eveni is one that is repeated. The gerund is the
most common form used after like; but now the infinitive form is often used and is
acceptable. For example:
Sally likes going to meetings.
Sally likes to go to meetings.
With like * the modal would (would like) the reference is to a specific event. Here the
infinitive form must be used. For example:
I'd like to buy you a present.
Although the iime isn't specified, the speaker is considering buying the present on only
one occaslon.
Sometimes the infinitive is in its Past form. This is used to express regret for an event
which didn't take place. For example:
George would like to have seen Jim last week.
But he didn't see him; and now it is no longer possible.
1.lB
6'I
'op oi udpptqtol atu lia4q laqm pua op ot p)noilo an Aa4l toqm ]o lsq a ayary (q)
'pfssattns aq 01 op o1 lt1 laql s9utql aW Jo tstt D ayory @)
p1no4s
'atut lunltodrut uu Suualua atu spuaul tnol aur?awl
aarql IseI
'.{1ueqr o1 aar8 nol ;r 'xeg :no,{ uor; lunoure
a\t (pnpap) no.,{ s.'r.ro11e Mel r'rau y ,{lr.reqr u o1 aar8 plnor{s no.,( uaq} 'paau ur aydoad dlaq
o] +u€1r no.{ 1r lng | (lsaaut) a>lrl plnoM noi '.{auoru aroru (alow) 8urfu1 a:e noA 1r 'dlsnornqg
'd1r:eqr e
o1y 1aa81fu1 plnor no.{'alduexa ro{'op uer nod s8urql raq}o ar€ araqJ',{auou e:1xa atuos 1oB
an,no.{1rlpql .{eslaql Suruur,u,oarnsa.ra.ulaqtJruaâ'(?nruD9)alrl plno^rtuaqlJo.{upul
lou pup :Surlqtue8 alll s,ll Ierour(ur ]r raprsuoJ.,{aq1 Aauou (lsaLrttr) alrl t,uop aldoad auos
's1:e; ,{ue 1o a:ue:ouBr (wrup) no^
sprqloJ./{pl aql'dlrpqrsuodsar IInJ }deJJe ol a^pq srasrlp€ aql'a)elslul aurnuaS e sr lr Jr uala
- uorlpluroJur ualelsrur .{ue no,{ (aizr8l sJasllpu irrollp l,uop qJrq,M suorleln8a.r .l,rau .ry\ou aJe
aJaql lsrrJ rasln pe IerJueurJ e (ilnsuoJ) l-r1 plnoqs no.{ 'iauoru JnoA lsaûr o1 ?uro8 are no,{ ;1
'aa4tultut to puntaS'wtoJ J)auo) aql olut s+q)ntq ut sqtaa ary 7nd uatll pua $al Sutmoyoj a4l pDall
o,t|4l {sPI
1A41 2op o] tuervr aq III.,l,,r 1eq,14 deprloq srq Suruueld sr
aq ,rloN ruelg ]uoi paqurrlJ ralau seq 'Surqturyr salrl aq pue agualler{J e s.'(olua pe4 (3)
all
(motw)Zop aq pip 1eq6',{1red aq} ol og plnor aqs l€r{} ratqgn€p slq plol uerrg (J)
(aL!'D 'I\ lnoqe ,{-r.ros .{.ra.,r sr aqs rotrpA roruas Jo lsod aq+ ot IIr[ luloddp 1,uprp ,iaq1 (a)
(rr{ill iIulql no^
op '8urlIaêrl lnoqe laat aq saop .MoH 'ralrr,^4. Iaêrl e se gur.r.r1 srq eperu seq dq.v'ap JIrA (p)
(a\t1) Lr.ltellrg o] Ia^Prl ol luPltl
ar{ saop ./t\or.{ os Papl aq} lq paltrxa l:a,l sr pue aloJaq aueld E uo uaaq raâu s€Ll >JarPC ())
(p!qtoJ)
'li lnoqp alnr e apeu seq ar{s os'1q8ru }e rrsnu pnol deld o} uarpllt{J raq a{II l,usaop auel (q)
1li.r11 ;sauoq.,tnxn1
llas ltuprnplsar € uado 1qsr13ug qrea] - op aq up) ieq1,4 uredg uI qol e la8 ot stue.lr dpuy 1e)
sl.t4rutq Lit qtae aLfi Stusn 'otolaq uaor8 suouonl$ aql wolt sa)ualuas dn a1ay,,1
auo {sPI
sxsvl - € sasErqd a^qruuur puP punra) zi'z lltln

UNIT 2.43 He thought he would ask Richard Leakey to
REPORTING 1: statements
join him.
Members mainly agreed that people work
best in comfortable clothes.
Police said they knew of no specific threat to
Ms Bhutto.
Indirect reports are usually reports of what someone has said or someone has thought. The
verbs sav or think are very neutral ways of introducing indirect statements. There are many
other verbs which are used, but these often reflect the reporter's attitude to or interpretatron
of what the person w.as saying or thinking (see below).
Look at these etamples:
I'll ask llichard Leakev to join me.
I?eport: F{e thought he would ask Richard Leakey to join hinr.
We know of no specific threat to Ms Bhutto.
Report: Police said they knew of no specific threat to Ms Bhutto
Note the foliowing changes that have taken place:
I+he will+would me-him
we+they know+knew
And there are other changes that can take place when a time adverbial is included.
I saw him yesterday.
Report: He said he had seen him the day before.
We'll come tomorrow.
Report: She said they would come the next day.
The rules that manv people are taught concern the change of pronoun, the change of verb
tense or the change of time adverbial, are as follows:
Unless the reporters are talking about themselves or addressing the person they are reporting,
the first and second person become third person:
Il he/she
me\ him,/her
vo:u J you J
we\ us\
vou J you J
When the reporting verb 1say, think, etc.) is in the Past, there can be a.hift to; form that
refers to an earlier time. For exantple:
Present+Past
Past+Past Perfect, etc.
r.r'ill go-would go
is going-was gsilg
ga+went
150
M
'Jla 'dldar'JaA sue 'aJunouue '1sa33ns 'godar 'aar8e

:a:e Suprodar loJ sqral laqlo
'feprnleg aqlTfeprnleg 8u1,rao11oy aq1 .{q l.rodar aqt qsrurJ p,aqs ples aqs
:3ur.r,ro11o; aq] des plnom al,t (rlqplJrluapr
.ipsea 1ou ro lsed luelsrp aql ur sj paura)uor leprnleg aql uaq,u) etup lerauaS e rog
'lsEI aroJaq fuprnle5 aqlTfeprn;eg {q
lroda.r aql qsIuIJ P,aris ples aqs
1se1
alduexa n1 'les plnolt/r arvr (par;rluapr
aq uer ro lsed .{lluarar ,{1uo sr paulaJuo) dep.rn1e5 aq} uaqlr) aup r1l1lads e rog
'aserqd arup aril pue qral aql q+lm
qloq saSueqr ar{l aleru lsnru a.lr ueql 'uor}sanb ur lep.rn1e5 aql ragp apPru sI lroda: aql;1
'alerparuur arou uodar el{l aleu o1 sr 7 1:oday uI urloJ asual leut8r-ro aql Surdaal ;o
l)aJJa aql uorlsanb ur dep;nleg aql aroJaq aperu Suraq st l.rodar aq1 1r alqeldarJe ar€ qlog
'.{ep.rn1eg dq 1:odar aql qsrurJ Ilaqs PIes aqg :7 yoda21
'deprnleg lq troda: aqt qsIuIJ p,aqs ples aq5 :1 ,r.roday
'.,{eprnle5 .{q uodar ai{} qsrurt II,I
:aldtuaxa snll 10 40oj
slElqra^pP atull 'z

';a1roda; aqt ;o lred aql uo ltodar aq] uI luarualloûr ssal smot{s sIqI
'saqto[) alqeuoJtuor ur ]saq pa{ron aldoad 1eq1 p,aa'rBe s;aqtua141
:aldr,uexa JoC asual aql
aBueqr pu€ alnr leraua8 aql ol daa)i a.l,r JI 'rala^loq '8uor.u lou sl ]I 'an4 IIus ale rlf,Iqm
sluaualels yeraua8 aJE asar{l 'saseJ asar{l uI anq IIqs sI }eql luauale}s e st palroda: st
IeLI,t,r asneJaq sr srql pa8uer{Jun paureurar seq lroda: arll ul qJaA aql'salduexa asaq} ul
sar{lop alqeuoturo) uI }saq lroa'r aldoad 1eq1 praa:8e slaqrualnl :ltoday

'saqlolJ alqpuo;r.uoJ ut lsaq >pom aldoa4
'" alqell sraruolsnr plot{ ol 1ou s1 dllod rlaql pres f,aq1 :poday
' ' alqpll srauolsnr plotl ol 1ou. s; ,{rr1od .rng
:sdldtuuxd as)L!l lD lool
sruroJ qra^ 'I
',(1dde s,{eru1e }ou op salru aôqe ar{l lnfl
'dep 8ur,rao11ot aql /raUE dep aq1-rr.tor:ourol
Aep lPrlle^Ppol
,{ep snol,rard aql /aroJaq dep aq1e,,{epralsai
:a[cru(exa Joc
'u:a1 rr;nads ssal p .{q parelda: sr 1r (,ra.orrourol 'i(upof i(epralsaz() par;rrads sI aurll € uaqM
auo8 a,req pyno.ra<---oB p1no.u
auo8 peq*1ua.,u
auoS pEr{<-3uo8 seq
1 SurlrodaX €?'Z tlun

r-l
E
Unit 2.43 Reporting 1- rASKS ,F_
Task one
Rcwrite the f olloiL,ing statefitents ns reTtorted speech
Whatever the poiiticians trv to do, capitalism and soci.-rlism will aiways ha'"'e ro extst
side bv side. (male)
(a)
Human beings always behave contrarily. (male)
rh)
I shall be in Rome on Saturday. (reporting a week later) (male)
(c)
(.1)
Ilay rvas ill for three vears before he died. (female)
Wordsworth wrote about nature and the countn'side. (fenale)

(I
I'll lose the game next week. (reporting the same dav) (male)
(e)
We didn't see anv sharks rn'hile we \.\'ere there. (two people)
(n, (8
You have to move so often the job ihat
(t) (h
You'll never believe this, but Los Angeles was once a small country tovr'n. (male)
(k)
Task two
Reurite the following paragraph as a dialogtte betuteen Agnes arLtl Fretl, two people in their 70s
Begrn like this:
Agr,res, I never go oub atLev dark.
fred, It's dangerous r4owadags.
Agnes said that she never \,vent out after dark; and Fred agreed that it was dangerous these
days. But Agnes felt that it could make thirrgs very difficult. She complained that she never
went to the cinema any more. Fred said that he hadn't been to the cinema for ages; and Agnes
replied that she didn't miss it. Fred agreed and said that thev dicln't make films like thev used
to. Agnes pointed out that everyone had video now and Fred commented that you coulC
watch films at home. Agnes rvas sad arrd said she used to like the cinerna. Fred agreed that rt
had made a nice night out. Agnes said that there were no films worth seeing. Fred agreed and
said thev only made violent films and not the good adventure stories like those when he was
oung.
'
Task three
Record or maka notes of a speech giaen by a locsl celebrittl nnd u'rrte s letter to a frtend irt Brttaii,
reporting what uas said.
r52
€EI
plnutluo)
'uorlElrûr aql ]nol{}r.^l. aruo) ol }ou uraq} plol aH :}toda>l

iuollellûl a{l inor{}rrlr auoJ ],uoCI
{eps.rnq1 ro1 Surlaatu aql a8u€rrp ol uraql palse aqs :yoda21
'depsrnql ro1 Surlaaur aql a8uprre as€ald
.ar.tar drrlod aqi ur i:ed 11n1 e,{e1d ol ruar{l pa3:n all :1toda21
i^Larlar ,{rr1od aql ut 1;ecl 11ny e ,{ei4
:sa1dwut,r,1s,1rlI ta 4oo-l
'anqrurJur aq] {q parelda; sr ur.ro; arrperadur aql /spupruruo) pue slsanbar Surl.rodar uy
spuPuruo)/slsanbar Suqroday';
',{ldde 1ou op '')la /plnoa/llbr to asn aql
Surpre8ar salnr .l{} os '(g€'Z lrun aas) }uauralels l€uorllpuoJ e Sunnporlur lou sr JI a.IaH
',vrar^ralur aql ur urrq ulo{ plnoirr eq JI ' ezmarlraluI aql ul atu utol nod 1p44
:alduexa rol'luauralpls a,lrlrsod
e ,,{q pa.t,ro11ol (roqlaqm ro) ;r qllm lroda: aql a)nporlur a.m suorlsanb ad,i1-ouTsaf qllM
'(et Z llun aas) sluauralels Suqrodar uI sI tI se 'pa8ueqr aL'l dptu asual qra^
aqJ '(Z I lrun aas) turoJ luaruale+s anqrsod leurou aql parelcla-r sI LuroJ uorlsanb aq1
^q
lq8noql->1utql ,(aql leqm-)urqt no.{ op leqr'n
:uorlsanb leur8uo aql ol suadder-1 }pq.tr aJr}oN
i^ralur ar{l ul l-ulq urof plnoivr aq;r ,,{a1ea1 palsP aH :1toda21
..Mar^Jalur aLIl ur alu uroI nod 1ir.nr '.,{a>1ea1
'salq€]aza^
pue ]rnrJ Jo lua'rrlparl le)rruall) aql lnoqp lq8noql ,(aqg leqr"r aldoad palsp aM :Ttoday
;sa1c1e1a8an pue lrnrt Jo luarulparl lp)rruaqf, aLIl lnoqp lurqt noi op lerlM
:saTdtuttt,t ,1s,1tll la 4o01
' '
pals€ aH ,{a>1ee1
'
aldoad palse aM
:aldtuexa rol paIse (s)uosrad aql ol a)uaralar e ,{q pamolloJ
aq lsnur )sE 'saseJ ]soru ul 'Isp sI suopsanb tJodar ol pasn qra^ uoulLuoJ lsoul aqI
suoqsanb Surlroday 'l
'.traIAar,{rr1od
eql ur upd 11n; e.{e1d ol uaql pa3rn all
'.ryIar Jalur
aql ur rurq uro{ plno,ra aq yr .{a1ea1 pa{sP aH
'salqelaSa^
slsanbar
pue lrnrJ Jo luauqea4 IPrnuaql ar{l 'suoqsonb 9NIIUOcMU
lnoqe lq8noql {aq1 leqr'r aldoad palsE aM
vi'z IINn
Unit 2.41 Reporting 2
Notice what happens to the verb in the requesUcommand:

play a fuli part+to play a full part
arrange the meeting+to arrange the meeting
don't come+not to come.
The most common verb used for a question or a request is ask, and for commands is tell
There are, of course, other verbs which can be used and these will reflect the reporter':
interpretation of how the request or command was made. Some of them are listed in tht
chart below.
Request Command
urge order (strong)

wonder (casually request information) demand (strong)
beg (strong)
implore (strong)
WARNING BOX
Words such as please are omitted in the report, because they are merely conversa-
tional and show attifudes only, not meaning. The verb chosen to introduce the report
will often express the attitude of the speaker.
154
99t
pa4sa tailanlalur a4l la4o1 ltodat pua olpDt aql uo duo 01 ualstl to t.tolslia?1 lto natatalLtt uu 4)lL'.'.
aartll ISEf
'Jal!\sue Jaq s€.4{ r,{JJPasar ral{ uopupJ,

ot uorsrrap raq teql parldar aqs .,{lleraua8 qr.reasar lnoqe lq8noq} aqs l€l,{.ll, MouI ol pa}uL''
Jl{ ramsue l,uplnol aH ipr.ll 1r13noql ar-1 ,l,qnr ,t,rou>l ol papupuap pup urJIJ ArJn aluprr.
aqs,rluappns sassaullr ar-uos dols plno) lr lqBnoLll aH alqptrle.\ sp,M lr pJrapuoM a..-
'pe{ ll leq} lla; aH pul)ueLu ol anle^
pue paralorun ^roq
lsaraiur 1o Surql,iue peq s33a ,sru.Io^l -
azrs aql uo Ll)reasar slti JI tulq palse uaql aqs palsaralul se,{l, aq dq.t, utq 3ur1se ,tq parl;..
aqs 'leql a)irl llal aqs dq.u raq pa)ise an8eallo: raH uo oB o+ ssalasn sem lI lial aqg s8u:
j
,sarurallnq uo uteJ Jo sllarja aql olul qf,reasar raq qlIM anurluo) ol Jue.M l.uplp uoslraqou _
ii;\a ;zr; laai non 6,1,,1 ,lr,6ea;10^

"p
s:alesn
".f f :i6-urm
.;;irJ;ainq uo uq;; I;r;i";;Jl; q* ;ii
\)leatd) nw 41tM +ve/^ lyop I ,uos7't?qod -1Q
stql a1ll ulddB "nv!+vgfol
'an8opry b sa jt alrtmat lt.1tlJ pu0 orc1at1 I.Lodat 48tro.tL11 pt'
at1;'
oMl {sPI
2no.,{ 1,uo.la 'oB no.{ uaq,tr no.{ '.ltll,r aru a1e1 11,nod uaql illa.lt r{O J..
'aruar:adxa Surlrrxa ue aq plnoM lI uoi)al I sa1
;noi p1no1,4 palsaratur .{1qr.r.ra1 lou ur,l .{11ea.r 1og
zo] a)ill no^,{ p1nor14 .
la.lrsuadxa oo+ s,ll ilou asJnor JO rl.t

alr uI u]llou ;ana noz( a.r.eg l
'sa^ r/,)
atseJ lPqi o3 s.te.uie 1I saoq
'apro)uo] .tlqeqord sP.\r +l :1.,
zuaaq aêq lr PIno) leLI^\ 'lJaM :
',Mou>l l,uop I iJ..

zlPt{l se^^ }EqM
;r*ora1
i."p!p iiitnr
'eeu fl ryyn P"laPuoM pue e pJp?\ ??-,
sull a4q ut8ag 4tlttt8utud paltodat snotttttlttoJ
"slou
u su an7olalp Fut,nollot aq] altt,'.
auo IsP'
s>Isvl-TsuProdau t7 Z lIUn

Using English Grammar - Verbs 2

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Using English Grammar - Verbs 2

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sqra^ :z uopJas

Look st the follouinq chnrt:

Positive Negative Question

It works well It does not (doesn't) Does it work well?

z .\\oJJOLUOI l1lorroLuol aruoJ A/\OTJOLUOI

.,{aq1 ara1,4 o,uarea) lou araM ,\aL{I ara.u .'{ar-1 -

(1ou s,aqgp,usl aqs)

It has worked well It has not (hasn't) Has it worked well?

It had worked It had not (hadn't) Had rt worked?

'sa^Eal aueld aqI

:ard.,,€xa ror 'Burrpads Jo luauour ar{r re pua 0""

'qrnu L:a,r slel alrl l,usaop JJoaD

csdsuJ s,ra)lPM uo lsrsur no^ l,uo6l

'z(eprnleg lxau uoga^E s{e1d loodralrl

@ Our Label Spells Style

'uopuo1 ur 8urnr1 sr aqg

'lalur.M aq+ ul puelSuS ur lol p surpr ll

:sl ua|'ualels o.\'. -

',,{iradord Eurryoaa l,uare sradt.r.r uaarJspuI.M aqJ

:aldwaxa stql ft 4oc-

'slnr xel aIeru ol Suruueld sr rollaJupq3 aql

lradxa 'aruoJ 'aas 'aurqs '8urrq 'aq '1oo1 'puels

auaaS uaaq anaq

I€l8Ot/IU'Jed rstrqtrluP ltru()r1rl'rr Luafoui r'lrll(r

tu)o] snonutlu)) ]uasard a4t ut atl rtuuw mo4 allls (q)

sqtaa a41 altrudpun pua o10laq Juawastltaap0 qo! a4l paa>l e)

s)svl - I snonuFuo] luaserd E'z tlun

English for Communication class: Week three

,'Gq) ' d1lea.r I se aul (a.?s) " "

'Slal)a)q ut q)ao )Lll lo uttoj Snotlutluo--l JttJS)t.

tq3r1 r"urp ,{:a,r ur JJs slPJ .

'.{8.m.,{ue Surlaaur aql ol oB o} }uem },uop I os aL{Jepeaq p a^pq I (r

sxsvl - z snonuFuof luasard v.z llun

a1dnr1re4 1se4 aldurrg 1se4 aArlrurJurnualq

s)svr - r ardurs lsed g.?llufl

Stem/infinitive Past Simple Past Participle

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

tty bug bel

'auo aldurrs e aq lou ,{1qeqo,rd plnom 1r 'dialenbape

;og firlqeqord ro ,{1r11q1ssod ;o slural ur aq osie u€r aJuelsrp -

'{lol),o auo lp aruoq oB o1 peq aq pres ua.,wo

'srJed Jo ,{lrsraarun aq} }P r{f,Jeasar lerolrop-1sod

'aw roJ aSessaru e raq a,rr8 aseald no,{ p1no3

s, li02oN /itanua!gpalnpsD02.tallala4.L'tajlala4lul opolSuto8stirlIptus11ut11 s8ury1 a\]lloauc:

s)svr - z ardurs lsEd g.?llull

'Surauqaq s€ r{lns pJoM E aoelda-

1.{ep.ra1sa.{ no,{ pauoqd I uaq.\\ Surop noz( era^r tpq,\l

2ytauo4d Lro>l ua4il Sutop a4s suil la4[\

'no.{ o1 ral}al e 3ur1rr.rl sp.l,t I pallrre rallal rno^ uaq.\1

Liuaral1rp iue aq arntnJ aqt IIIM

',uorlrrpard Jo aJnlnJ Iprlnau aL{1, sIr{l IIeJ auros alrlrurJu

'3uo1 aq l,uom I 'no,{ ro; {ooq ar{l lag ILI

'Puenc..:,g u^a+g.a/yl v, vteA +uoM [FPqwd ql

sqol uopuo'l OOg

:ualJuil sot'tt ,tullpaall ,tLll lta4Jt peutdtlt,tl ipatt11, 7,v.

,ll s)svl - I arnlnJ 6'z llul

Hornlng Afternoon lllght

,fl,Y'oX oz Xefr;1" {rf\

Horning Afternoon ilight

'srallalJo rol)ocl ;o aar8ap .,fue;ouoq aL{l alla)ar - aplsallqM laraq rC

'1.\)1 )!!1 sJJUrjs'i

.q)Pa 'saAI--ir '

'alulp JJels ,{Lu aJoJaq lno sBurLi} }ros ueJ

(a) ', lo