A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N

Applying Industrial Symbiosis

to Smallholder Farms
Modeling a Case Study in Liberia, West Africa
Jose Alfaro and Shelie Miller

Keywords:
Summary
agriculture
industrial ecology The study of industrial symbiosis (IS) has largely focused on the exchange of energy and
industrial symbiosis materials among industrial processes in an effort to increase value and reduce environmental
integrated biological systems impact. Agricultural systems, particularly those located in developing countries, can benefit
integrated farming systems from the principles of IS. Relatively few studies have analyzed the potential benefits of
smallholder
integrated material and energy flows in smallholder farming, even though these systems are
considered essential to the world’s food supply and poverty reduction.
Supporting information is available Although the concepts can be applied to virtually any system, the study of industrial
on the JIE Web site symbiosis has traditionally focused on industrialized systems in developed countries. The
research presented here applies the principles of IS to smallholder farms using optimization
techniques to maximize farm output while minimizing wastes. Our research links IS to the
growing field of integrated farming research (IFR), which seeks to create new technologies
that increase the production of farms by viewing the farm as a system. Bridging these
fields enriches the potential for robust research outcomes in both areas and fills a current
knowledge gap. IS benefits from exploring new applications and increasing its penetration
into the developing world. IFR benefits from established IS tools to create alternate pathways
for increased output based on symbiotic relationships.
A small farming system in Liberia, West Africa, is used as a case study. System integration
of individual unit processes shows increased productivity and decreased waste. The results
of this analysis indicate that there are unrealized opportunities for IS in developing countries,
and integration of IS techniques into smallholder farming operations has the potential for
impacting sustainable development.

Introduction creating an integrated network of industrial units. Using an IS

The field of industrial symbiosis (IS) studies the exchange
of material and energy streams among industries in relative
proximity to one another (Chertow et al. 2004). The facilities
participating in such exchanges achieve improved performance
as a result of the symbiotic relationship, which can be measured
environmentally, economically, or socially. Many of these ex-
changes allow wastes to be used as inputs for other processes,
framework, systems where each component becomes more ef-
fective as a result of its interactions with others can be revealed
or developed and is considered one of the evolutionary steps
toward a sustainable region (Chertow 2003).
Kalundborg, Denmark, is the subject of a number of early IS
analyses and where the term “industrial symbiosis” was coined
(Chertow 2003). The application of IS has traditionally focused
on large-scale industrialized activities in developed countries.

Address correspondence to: Jose Alfaro, Center for Sustainable Systems, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, 3012 Dana Building, 440
Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1041. Email: jfalfaro@umich.edu Web: http://css.snre.umich.edu/person/jose-alfaro

© 2013 by Yale University

DOI: 10.1111/jiec.12077 Editor managing review: Donald Lyons

Volume 18, Number 1

www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jie Journal of Industrial Ecology 145

 A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N
Other major research foci within IS include uncovering poten-
tial linkages among established industrial systems and devel-
oping principles to appropriately design and incentivize eco-
industrial parks (Chertow et al. 2004).
Unlike industrialized nations, least developed countries
(LDCs) rely heavily on small farm agriculture, or smallholder
farming, and have few large industrial districts. Smallholder
farming presents a unique opportunity to implement the princi-
ples of IS in a nonindustrialized context. Interventions toward
sustainability are most effective during the early stages of sys-
tem development (National Research Council 2001; Nikolić
and Dijkema 2010); therefore, LDCs may have the potential to
adopt IS principles more successfully than already industrialized
nations. By expanding its scope beyond traditional industrial ac-
tivities, the use of IS can influence small-scale initiatives that,
in addition to contributing to the knowledge base of IS, can
foster new economic opportunities for LDCs.
The field of integrated farming research (IFR) started in the
1970s and 1980s (Simmonds 1985). IFR uses systems thinking
to improve the performance of agriculture, focusing on small-
holder farms and the well-being of farmers. IFR also uses on-farm
experiments, systems modeling, extension services to farmers,
and demonstration experiments for new production schemes
(Simmonds 1985). However, IFR does not explicitly consider
the environment or creation of closed loop systems, but fo-
cuses on improving the performance of a farm by integrating
the farm’s different units. It draws its boundaries at the scale
of the farm and does not consider compatible processes outside
the farm system.
As such, the more holistic approach entailed by IS can com-
plement IFR research. Examples of overlap between IS and IFR
already exist, although they are often unnoticed. According to
the Zero Emissions Research Initiative Network (ZERI), Dr.
George Chan pioneered the development of integrated biosys-
tems (IBS) (ZERI 2013). IBS are systems that seek to close
loops of resources and wastes in agricultural settings, in essence
an expression of IS. Hardy and Graedel (2002) define integrated
biological systems as clusters of farms that share resource and
waste streams and identify them as a type of eco-industrial park.
Perhaps the best example of IBS is the Montfort School for Boys
(MSB). At MSB, Dr. Chan developed an integrated system that
uses pig manure to generate methane in a biodigester. The ef-
fluent of the digester is then used in shallow ponds to grow algae
and further treat the waste. Algae are then used to feed fish in
polyculture ponds that house niche species feeding on different
types of nutrients in the water. Further production is obtained
by growing vegetables on rafts and on the embankments of the
fish ponds (Klee 1999; ZERI 2013).
IS case studies also show an overlap between industrial
and agricultural approaches to IE. Kalundborg, for example,
integrated local farmers with the industrial system by link-
ing discharges of excess heat to a local fishpond to increase
production. The sludge from the pond was sold as fertilizer,
whereas organic materials from farms were used by a pharma-
ceutical company and waste sludge distributed to local farms
(Ehrenfeld and Gertler 1997). Nemerow (1995) provided tem-
146 Journal of Industrial Ecology
plates of symbiosis that could be used to reproduce the Kalund-
borg experience. Two of those templates include agriculture,
namely, combining farms and canneries and cement and fer-
tilizer industries. Finally, in an analysis conducted by ZERI, a
brewery is integrated with mushroom production, chicken rear-
ing, and fertilizer, creating a complex with zero emissions to
the environment (Ehrenfeld and Gertler 1997). The complex
produced more nutrients for human consumption and created
more jobs without increasing the inputs to the system.
Apart from the ZERI efforts, the industrial ecology (IE) com-
munity has focused their research of agricultural systems on
large-scale operations (Hardy and Graedel 2002; Swanston and
Newton 2005). On the other hand, IFR applications are based
on smallholder families and their farms (Food and Agriculture
Organization 1991). Thorough analysis of IS opportunities for
smallholder farming appears to be a gap in the IE literature, with
only Hardy and Graedel (2002) and ZERI (2013) explicitly ad-
dressing small-scale systems. This article attempts to expand the
application of IS theory to the smallholder farms to investigate
the benefits of bottom-up approaches. The study shows that the
IS objective of increased system efficiency complements the IFR
objective of increased farmer well-being and that both can be
pursued simultaneously.
Expansion of Industrial Symbiosis
Researchers have identified a number of research goals for
IS, including:
– Investigating bottom-up implementation techniques for
environmental, economic, and social benefits
– Empirical implementation of IS at different locations and
scale levels
– Determining how IS can add to general sustainable de-
velopment and society
– Grounding IS in the language and local economic activ-
ities of diverse countries (Isenmann 2003; Chertow et al.
2004)
IFR’s particular focus on LDCs and small-scale agriculture
makes it a good vehicle for the advancement of these research
goals. It allows the exploration of bottom-up techniques, applies
methods at a different geographic scale, and works in the con-
text of different countries. Further expanding IS into the field
of IFR offers three main benefits: (1) the opportunity to become
relevant to a larger variety of systems and a larger population;
(2) the avoidance of future environmental impacts, particularly
if smallholder farms were to adopt industrialized farming prac-
tices; and (3) the enrichment of both fields through the lessons
learned.
Smallholder farms typically produce goods for family subsis-
tence, selling any surplus in the market place, which provides
their only source of cash income. The world has 500 million
smallholder farms, home to 2 billion people (International Fund
for Agricultural Development 2011a). These farms are respon-
sible for the majority of agricultural production in Africa and

Table 1 World statistics showing the relevance of agriculture in
2009 (Food and Agriculture Organization 2010)
Indicator Percent of world total
World agricultural population 38
Agricultural economically active population 40
Agricultural rural population 49
Agricultural GDP 3.2
GDP = gross domestic product.
Asia and house most of the world’s poor and malnourished
population (International Fund for Agricultural Development
2011a).
The international community sees these small farms as key
to poverty alleviation, sustainability, and food security. They
are expected to play a major role in providing an increase in
food production of 70% by 2050 to keep up with the urbaniza-
tion of the world (International Fund for Agricultural Devel-
opment 2011b; Altieri 2009). However, as table 1 shows, agri-
culture garners only 3.2% of the world gross domestic product
(GDP).
Substantial productivity increases will be necessary to reach
the goal of a 70% increase in production by 2050 (Livingston
et al. 2011). Two focal areas have been identified for success
in the IFR field: (1) diversification of farming income through
nonfarming processes and (2) capturing high-value activities
and products (International Fund for Agricultural Development
2011a).
By implementing IS principles, it is expected that LDC farm-
ers can achieve increased food production and income. IS ap-
proaches can be used to recover waste and integrate material
and energy flows, increasing performance and reducing environ-
mental impact. In addition, IS practices can identify pathways
that do not rely on increased chemical inputs and the mono-
culture practices typical of industrialized agricultural systems.
Rather, increases can be achieved through niche exploitation,
material exchanges, and optimization schemes, as will be illus-
trated below. Benefits can also come from the exploration of
nonfarm products and activities such as new technologies for
energy, water treatment, fiber production, and alternative forms
of feed for animals. Fostering relationships between small farms
to form a network of energy and material exchanges can bring
further increases in production.
This work integrates IS and IFR by using system modeling
and optimization techniques and by conducting the analysis
in terms of farm carrying capacity (both in terms of increased
productivity and employment levels), a metric not commonly
used in IS.
IS often uses modeling and forecasts to plan and design sys-
tems and quantify the improvement of an overall network. Early
IFR literature suggests that a lack of modeling of agricultural sys-
tems that includes environmental concerns and decision mak-
ing by the farmers is one of the gaps in the field (Hansen 1996).
More recent literature suggests that the modeling community
needs to provide more emphasis in communicating modeling
Alfaro and Miller, Extending Industrial Symbiosis to Smallholder Farms
A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N
Figure 1 Theoretical grounding of proposed work.
results to provide practical aid to farmers (Whitbread et al.
2010). Utilizing IS approaches and modeling tools provides
more information to the farmers for decision making. It opens
opportunities for greater profitability and the inclusion of en-
vironmental considerations. This is where the theory of IS can
tie directly to the IFR needs and create a successful expan-
sion of both fields. Figure 1 shows that the work presented can
be grounded in the theories of both fields as it addresses key
research goals.
Konia: Modeling a Case Study
A community development project in Konia, Liberia, is used
as a case study to demonstrate the potential for complementary
IS and IFR research. The project is typical of smallholder oper-
ations in this country. Projects such as these are established in
an attempt to reinvigorate the economy after Liberia’s 14-year
civil war decimated the agricultural economy and destroyed
most of the infrastructure of the country (Milbrandt 2009). A
model is presented that estimates the potential income gains
(and waste reduction) that can be achieved from applying IS to
smallholder agricultural economies.
In the next section, a “baseline scenario” describes the cur-
rent production units and managing practices of the project. An
“integrated scenario” is then proposed where the production
units are realigned and the management strategy is changed
to incorporate IS principles. The integrated scenario specifi-
cally identifies waste exchange and product flows and outlines
the creation of niche opportunities for new production units
that increase the income of the farm. An optimization model is
used to calculate the most productive use of the area. The two
scenarios are compared using the functional unit of “carrying
capacity,” defined in this article as the number of people the
land can sustain by generating enough money to pay for their
salaries.
The integrated scenario can be seen as an example of IBS.
It has not been fully implemented, but is a proposed model for
system improvement.
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 A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N
Konia Farm: The Baseline Scenario
The projects are located in the village of Konia, in Lofa
County, Northern Liberia. Konia has a population of nearly
2,000 people and is the base of operations in the area for the
Christian Revival Church Association (CRCA), a nongovern-
mental organization (NGO) that owns the farm where the IS
exchanges are being implemented. Lofa County is in an area
of high biodiversity known as the “Upper Guinean Forest,”
recognized as a top priority in the conservation agenda by Con-
servation International, the World Wide Fund for Nature, and
the United Nations Environmental Program (Conservation In-
ternational 2007; UNEP-WCMC 2010). This highlights the
need for sustainable practices.
Optimization of farming systems provides great value to the
development of the area, which has little economic activity
other than subsistence agriculture and charcoal production.
These activities can inflict heavy damage to the ecosystem.
IS techniques can increase revenue from the same amount of
land and maximize its carrying capacity, lowering the threats to
the surrounding forest.
The authors have a long-standing relationship with CRCA
that dates to 2008, when they performed work at different
sites around Liberia as consultants for community development
projects and financial operations. CRCA’s mission is to estab-
lish development projects in areas of the country where no other
NGO or government organization is present, regardless of the
communities’ religious, tribal, or political affiliation. Further,
CRCA focuses on creating projects that will increase the liv-
ing conditions of the community in general while generating
income for their operations. However, the lack of a system-
atic approach to their current development plans offered new
opportunities to explore the potential for symbiosis.
CRCA’s farm in Konia is made up of five major production
units, as shown in figure 2: guest house; piggery; rabbit farm;
fishponds; and rice mill. The total area of the farm devoted to
economic activity is less than 0.7 acres,1 but the area avail-
able to CRCA is 173 acres. This land contains several natural
springs, some swampy areas, and typical tropical vegetation. All
production units are managed by CRCA. CRCA’s ownership
of all the production units simplifies the establishment of IS
relationships.
The model only includes material and energy flows directly
related to symbiotic exchanges. As such, some of the guesthouse
material and energy flows lie outside the boundary of the system
and are not included in this analysis. These flows include the
consumption of electricity and water for hygiene purposes, as
well as the production of human and kitchen waste. Others,
such as the flow of methane from the anaerobic digester, are
included within the system.
The pig farm sells around ten pigs a year. Volunteers feed
them with a slurry of papaya and rice bran. In the absence of
that feed, leaves of cassava and sweet potatoes can be purchased.
CRCA takes pigs to a butcher that charges a nominal sum to
prepare the meat for sale. Data for the average weight of the
pigs are not available. However, according to revenue data,
148 Journal of Industrial Ecology
pigs generally arrive at the marketplace with approximately
250 pounds (lbs)2 of sellable mass (Johnson 2009). The market
price for pork is around $1.14/lb.3 Waste from the pig farm is
buried with plans to someday use it as fertilizer.
The rabbit farm sells around ten rabbits per year. These
animals are fed with a mixture of wild greens obtained from the
surrounding areas and can also be fed with the leaves bought
for the pigs. Rabbits are sold live in the market at a price of $20
per animal, with the animals having an average weight of 4 lbs.
Waste from the rabbits is also discarded by burying it.
There are six fishponds at the farm, all stocked with tilapia.
The total surface area of the ponds is 0.65 acres. The fish are fed
with rice bran gathered from one of the 14 rice mills around the
area or from the rice bran left over at CRCA’s mill. Volunteers
do not track the amount of rice bran provided to the fish. Each
pond is harvested twice a year. The yearly output of all the ponds
combined is around 2,300 lbs of fish that sell in the market
for around $0.75/lb. Fish are harvested by draining the ponds,
releasing the nutrient-rich water into nearby marshland.
A diesel generator powers the rice mill on the farm. One
gallon (gal)4 of diesel can process around 65 lbs of rice. CRCA
does not own local rice plantations, but local farmers bring
their rice to be cleaned. Farmers pay for the mill services with
a percentage of the rice cleaned. CRCA keeps 2.2 lbs for every
13 lbs of rice processed. That represents around 17% of the
clean rice. CRCA pays $4.50/gal for the diesel, making the cost
of running the mill around $0.36/lb of rice kept by CRCA. The
price of rice in the market is around $0.35/lb, meaning that
CRCA is operating the rice mill at a loss. Leftover rice bran is
used to feed the tilapia in the ponds.
CRCA has achieved a good relationship with the commu-
nity, which helps maintain the general farm activities. As can
be seen in figure 2, the projects are managed in a linear fashion.
Waste streams in the farm are not utilized, with the exception of
rice bran. No real coordination exists between projects. Perfor-
mance data are not well documented. What data are recorded
are usually not shared among project coordinators.
Developing a Rural Symbiosis: The Proposed
Integrated Scenario
Using IS, the production units can be integrated into one
“ecosystem.” The integrated scenario portrays a sustainable ap-
proach that does not depend on donations from the community
and minimizes pollution and resource extraction. In this way,
the integrated farm system employs both the principles of IS
with reduced emissions and increased material cycling and the
principles of IFR with improved self-sufficiency.
In the proposed approach, several production units are in-
tegrated to create benefits to the overall system. Further, new
production units are introduced in the farm to take advantage
of niches defined by nutrients and wastes that are underutilized.
Fishponds, for example, can also serve as rice paddies (Frei and
Becker 2005). Planting rice in the fishponds achieves better
economic yields than planting in the available swampy areas.
Fish provide fertilizer to the rice and eat weeds and pests that
 A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N

Figure 2 Present state of Christian Revival Church Association land and projects, baseline scenario.

inhibit rice productivity. Rice stalks provide shade and food to
the fish. In addition, the method results in reduction of pesticide
use (Fernando and Halwart 2000), elimination of weed control
measures (Vromant 2001), elimination of fertilizer for the rice
(Lin and Yi 2003), and elimination or reduction of external
feed for the fish (Haroon and Pittman 1997).
The rice mill becomes profitable by growing paddy rice on-
site, reducing the cost of operation and providing a steady source
of rice bran. Excess rice bran can be fed to the rabbits to improve
their diet (Raharjo et al. 1986) or it can continue to be used to
supplement feed to the fish.
In the integrated scenario, an anaerobic digester is added to
utilize the manure of the animals. This will produce methane
(An and Preston 1999) that can be used for cooking in the
guesthouse, decreasing charcoal consumption and improving
air quality. The biogas digestate can be used as fertilizer (An
et al. 1997). In addition, the integration of a garden growing
more Liberian dietary staples, such as cassava, eggplant, peppers,
and ocra, can increase dietary variety and provide extra feed for
the pigs and rabbits.
A general schematic of the proposed integrated scenario is
shown in figure 3.

Alfaro and Miller, Extending Industrial Symbiosis to Smallholder Farms 149

 A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N

Figure 3 Proposed integrated scenario of the system.

Calculation of Possible Benefits The annual per-capita salary used in the model is $600
per year, which is the CRCA salary for staff in charge of the
An optimization model is used to compare the possi-
projects analyzed. However, for 2008, the average GDP per
ble revenue from the entire land available under each sce-
capita in Liberia is only $240 per year (Ministry of Planning
nario. The model maximizes the revenue for both scenar-
and Economic Affairs (Liberia), Government Of Liberia, and
ios by changing the area devoted to each production unit.
United Nations Development Program 2010). The discrepancy
The maximum yearly revenue in dollars per year ($/yr) is
between CRCA’s salaries and the average GDP is the result of
divided by workers’ average yearly salary in dollars per per-
the high unemployment rate and prevalence of informal eco-
son per year ($/pr/yr) and the amount of area (acres) re-
nomic activity in Liberia.
sulting in a measure of carrying capacity in persons per acre
The optimization model is represented by the following
(pr/acre).
formulas shown in equations (1) and (2):
Other metrics, such as utility values based on multicrite-

ria analysis, a farm’s resistance to stress, and the farmer de- Ma xCC = Zi (1)
velopment index, have been used to determine the sustain-
ability and performance of farms in previous studies (Andreoli where
and Tellarini 2000; Hansen and Jones 1996; Qiu et al. 2007).
(Ai∗ AYi∗ Pi ) − (Ai∗ AYi∗ C Ri∗ C Fi )
However, this article employs carrying capacity resulting from Zi = (2)
the state of the economy in Liberia and because providing S
jobs is considered one of the most important roles of this where:
farm.
Data required for the model come mainly from interviews
r MaxCC = the maximum number of people supported per
with CRCA staff and historical performance of the projects, year.
including yields, market prices, and number of animals sold
r Zi = people supported by production unit i.
(Johnson 2009). Where historical data are unavailable, such as
r Ai = area devoted to unit i in acres.
for new projects being implemented, yields are estimated from
r AYi = area yield of unit i in lbs/acre.
the literature.
r Pi = price of product i in the market in $/lb.

150 Journal of Industrial Ecology


Table 2 Yearly carrying capacity for system under different
scenarios
Carrying Potential profit Profit per
capacity generated area
Scenario (pr/acre) (1,000 $/yr) area (103 $/acre/yr)
Baseline 0.5 52 0.301
Integrated 7.1 741 4.2
pr/acre = persons per acre; $/yr = dollars per year; $/acre/yr = dollars per
acre per year.
r CRi = feed conversion ratio of the unit (when applicable),
that is, the quantity of food required to increase the weight
of the livestock by 1 lb.
r CFi = cost of feed per lb for unit i.
r S = salary of an adult in $/pr/yr.
The model constrains the relationships of the production
units in the integrated scenario, where appropriate. For exam-
ple, the model is not allowed to tear down the infrastructure
already set in place because that would be a wasted investment.
The total area of 173 acres is entered as a constraint. Con-
straint equations for the model can be seen in the Supporting
Information on the Journal’s Web site.
Model Results
The model results describe anticipated performance of the
farm because the IS projects have not been fully established.
The farm at Konia can be expanded under the present man-
aging practices to support 0.5 pr/acre. Under the integrated
scenario, the farm could sustain 7.1 pr/acre. This can be seen in
table 2. Complete spreadsheet model calculations are found in
the Supporting Information on the Web.
Several aspects of the baseline scenario can be considered
unsustainable. In the baseline scenario, the rice mill operates at
a deficit, with the value of the clean rice retained being lower
than the cost of fuel required. It costs CRCA $0.36/lb of rice
retained when the normal market price of rice is $0.35/lb.
The diet of the animals is based on rice bran, papaya, and
wild greens. Rice bran is free of charge from one of the 14 rice
mills in the vicinity that see it as waste. Although using rice bran
for animal feed is one of the few existing symbiotic linkages, rice
mills may begin charging for this product or use it themselves.
During seasons where rice is not being produced, feed must be
purchased for the pigs. Papaya is obtained from community do-
nations. Depending on community donations for the operation
of a commercial unit is not an appropriate or sustainable manag-
ing practice. Wild greens are insufficient for rabbits, especially
during their nursing periods, when they require higher amounts
of protein. Rice bran can supply sufficient protein for the rab-
bits, but increases CRCA’s dependence on that supply. Waste
from the pig and rabbit husbandry projects is buried under-
ground. This waste is being underutilized and its accumulation
may become an environmental problem.
Alfaro and Miller, Extending Industrial Symbiosis to Smallholder Farms
A P P L I C AT I O N S A N D I M P L E M E N TAT I O N
The integrated scenario outlined in figure 2 eliminates de-
pendence on these practices and creates further sources of in-
come. The integration of rice and fish allows CRCA to intensify
production through paddy rice production in the fish ponds. A
review of experiments in different areas by Frei and Becker
shows that the integrated paddies can produce an average of
4,000 lbs/acre (Frei and Becker 2005). This model uses a con-
servative 3,500 lbs/acre.
Rice production allows CRCA to retain all of the rice
cleaned, dropping the operation cost to $0.07/lb and stabilizing
the source of rice bran. The digester utilizes waste to produce
new benefits and eliminate underutilized streams. Diversify-
ing income increases the organization’s resistance to drought
or pests. Eliminating wastes lowers negative environmental im-
pacts, avoids possible health issues, and improves CRCA’s com-
munity image.
Benefits obtained as a result of the integrated scenario are
highlighted in table 3.
The implementation of the integrated scenario is already un-
derway. Students from University of Liberia, Clemson Univer-
sity, and University of Michigan have implemented the initial
phases constructing the rice paddy/fish integration, a garden
nursery, and the anaerobic digester. Monitoring of empirical
data at CRCA farms will make the model robust and increase
its accuracy. However, it is important to note that the model is
intended as a tool for system improvement and not a predictive
mechanism.
Environmental and Social Benefits
The integrated scenario creates symbiotic benefits that are
not captured in economic analysis. Those benefits created
among production units are discussed here.
Intensification of production in the fish areas through rice
adds diversity to the farm. Fertilizers and pesticides should not
be required for the integrated ponds (Fernando and Halwart
2000), reducing possible costs to the organization and environ-
mental impacts. Excess nutrients in the water are used by the
rice, reducing waste release to the environment (Lin and Yi
2003). Insects, submerged plant material, and weeds reduce the
required feed for the fish (Haroon and Pittman 1997), reducing
manual labor and costs.
Increasing the rice production of the farm increases rice
by-product available that can be used for fish and rabbit feed.
Coupling on-site rice production with the rabbit unit increases
the quality of diet provided to the rabbits.
The digester and vegetable garden allow for utilization of
livestock waste. Unused manure in the baseline scenario is
transformed to valuable flows of methane and stabilized com-
post. Methane reduces charcoal consumption, its cost, environ-
mental pressures, and health effects. It also establishes a clean
cooking facility, identified as a key step in achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals (International Energy Agency
2010). Air quality is one of the worst human health concerns
in Africa, killing more people than malaria and tuberculosis
(International Energy Agency 2010).
151
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Table 3 Yield data for production units added to the system

Input source

Unit Benefits of symbiosis Baseline scenario Integrated scenario

Piggery 12,900 lbs of external feed eliminated Purchased or received as Produced within
donation the system
Rabbits 430 lbs of external feed eliminated Purchased or harvested from Produced within
surroundings the system
Fish ponds 69,300 lbs of external feed eliminated; Rice mill waste Produced within
source of fertilizer and pest control the system
for rice
Rice paddies New crop source without extra land Not applicable Produced within
use; increases profitability of rice the system
mill; source of feed for animals and
fish
Crops (garden) Generates extra income plus feed for Not applicable Produced within
animals; uses waste material from the system
animals
Rice mill Decreased running costs from $0.36/lb Community farmers, Internal production
of rice to $0.07/lb of rice purchased and purchased
Biogas digester Sanitary disposal of manure; methane Not applicable Produced within
generation to reduce charcoal use in the system
guesthouse; fertilizer for crops
lbs = pounds.

The garden can produce a variety of Liberian staples. Sta-
bilized manure from the digester can increase its yields. Any
waste generated in the garden, such as cornhusks and damaged
product, can supplement pig feed.
Model Weaknesses
The integrated scenario is lacking empirical data for valida-
tion and verification. Empirical data will become available as
the projects are established and provide information to address
deficiencies in the model.
The model utilizes corn as a proxy measurement for garden
yields and waste produced. Okra, hot peppers, cassava, and other
crops are more desirable for Liberian diets. Though yield data
for these crops will be different, price differences may balance
out any deficits or surplus created by the model. Empirical mea-
surements of garden crops and by-product yields will strengthen
the model.
A salary of $600 a year was used as paid by CRCA. This
is higher than average GDP per capita, but still under the
$2/day line, which is undesirable for the development of the
community.
The growth of animals was modeled using efficiency data
found in the literature (Feki et al. 1996; Smil 2001). Data
available are a ratio of the amount of feed required by an ani-
mal to increase its body weight. Actual feed required to main-
tain the animals and help them grow may be different as a
result of numerous reasons such as waste, spoilage, and nurs-
ing and sickness periods. Empirical data will help improve the
results.
Barriers to Overcome
The presence of CRCA as the single managing entity sim-
plifies the modeling and decision work. However, other stake-
holders, such as neighboring farmers, community chiefs, and
government organizations, should be involved in the mate-
rial, energy, and information exchanges, as IS theory recom-
mends. These stakeholders can widen the network of exchanges
and create benefits that impact a wider section of the popula-
tion and community while reducing environmental pressures
further.
However, the lack of economic activity in Lofa is a barrier to
the implementation of wider symbiosis. Experience shows that
successful symbiosis grows from the bottom up and with time
(Mathews and Tan 2011). CRCA will need to support other
farmers in the area to have access to more symbiotic links.
The time lag between establishing projects and seeing the
improved results can be a significant barrier. Hansen explains
that, in developing countries, sustainability is considered as a
short time horizon matter, with farmers thinking about how
to survive now (Hansen 1996). On the other hand, IS and IE
are mainly western constructs that are focused on a long time
horizon of sustainability.
Liberia lacks an institutional framework and historical data
to promote the kind of projects described here. Del Rı́o and col-
leagues (2010) explain that with a lack of institutional support,
innovations can remain stagnant because of cost and remain
expensive as a result of the lack of implementation, creating a
vicious cycle. The establishment of policies that encourage sym-
biotic linkages at the scale of smallholder farms could present a
good solution to this barrier.

152 Journal of Industrial Ecology


General Conclusions
The essence of IE is to apply nature’s principles to our in-
dustry models (Isenmann 2003). Small farms and subsistence
agriculture are not generally considered industry, but they also
benefit from the application of these principles. Further, IS can
increase its social relevance by including this large sector of
human activity.
When finalized, this project should provide a significant ben-
efit for CRCA and better understanding of how IE principles
can be applied to smallholder farms. CRCA can use the IS tech-
niques outlined above to improve projects in other sites. The
modeling technique can be used to estimate the appropriate
level of commitment to communities and the number of staff
that can be supported. IS and IFR theories used here can be used
to provide training to CRCA leaders, production managers, and
surrounding communities.
It has been suggested that NGOs can play a vital role in
the discovering and use of symbiosis and sustainable practices
(Isenmann 2003). Industrial ecologists have a unique set of skills
that can be used by NGOs and other leaders in these nations
to better manage natural resources and emerging industries. IE
can be a tool for appropriate development, providing economic
increases and transfer of knowledge.
IFR and IS can achieve mutual benefits from the extension
of IS into the field of smallholder agricultural systems in de-
veloping countries. Both fields would achieve advances in their
research goals. Also, these efforts can result in the growth of
a sustainable network of small farmers in LDCs that can re-
spond to the increasing pressure on our environment and food
systems.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the National Science Foundation for
their financial support and the editors of JIE for their help
with this manuscript. The authors also thank CRCA, Brook-
wood Church, Rev. Fenton Moorehead, Clemson University
Engineers Without Borders, and University of Michigan Sus-
tainability Without Borders for their support of this project and
invaluable contributions.
Notes
1. One acre ≈ 0.405 hectares (ha) ≈ 4.05 × 10−3 square kilometers
(km2 , SI) ≈ 1.56 × 10−3 square miles.
2. One pound (lb) ≈ 0.4536 kilograms (kg, SI).
3. Throughout this article, $ refers to U.S. dollars.
4. One gallon (gal) ≈ 3.79 liters (L).
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About the Authors
Jose Alfaro is a Ph.D. candidate and NSF graduate student
fellow at the School of Natural Resources and Environment
and the Center for Sustainable Systems at the University of
Michigan in Ann Arbor, MI, USA. Shelie Miller is an assistant
professor at the School of Natural Resources and Environment
and the Center for Sustainable Systems at the University of
Michigan.