Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Licence Category
B1 and B2
Mathematics
1.3 Geometry
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
1. By using Pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve right-angled triangles, i.e. you
can find the third side of a right-angled triangle when given its other 2 sides. This
chapter is concerned with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts which will later
enable you to completely solve right-angled triangles, i.e. to find all their 6 elements
(angles and sides).
2. Similar triangles are triangles which are the same shape, one is simply an enlargement
of the other. Two important properties of similar triangles are:
(1) (2)
B 10
6
5
3
A C D F
4 8
3. The above triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios of their
corresponding sides are constant, i.e.
BC 3 EF 6 3
a)
AB 5 DE 10 5
AC 4 DF 8 4
b)
AB 5 DE 10 5
BC 3 EF 6 3
c)
AC 4 DF 8 4
B
c
a
c
a
A C A C
b b
4. Now consider the following similar triangles:
In both cases side 'c' is the hypotenuse.
a) Side 'a' is the side opposite a) Side 'b' is the side opposite
b) Side 'b' is the adjacent side b) Side 'a' is the adjacent side
Since the triangles are similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are constant, i.e., the
a b a
ratios , and are the same for all similar right-angled triangles.
c c b
Example:
5
4
A 3 C
opp 3
a) sin B = 0.6
hyp 5
adj 4
b) cos B = 0.8
hyp 5
opp 3
c) tan B = 0.75
adj 4
6. We will now investigate how the values of sin, cos and tan vary with the magnitude of the
angle.
opp a
(1) sin A = and is very small.
hyp c
When angle A is zero, sin A = 0
adj b
(2) cos A = and b ~ c.
hyp c
opp a
(3) tan A = and is very small.
adj b
When angle A is zero, tan A = 0
c a
A C
b
opp a
(1) sin A = and a c.
hyp c
adj b
(2) cos A = and is small.
hyp c
When angle A = 90o, cos A = 0.
opp a
(3) tan A = and is very large.
adj b
When angle A = 90o, tan A = ∞.
ANGLE 0o 90o
sin 0 1
cos 1 0
tan 0 ∞
Note: The maximum value of sin and cos is 1, but the maximum value of tan is infinity
(∞).
0
30
2 2
B
side d = 2 (given)
opp 3 17321
.
a) sin 60o = 0.8660
hyp 2 2
adj 1
b) cos 60o = 0.5000
hyp 2
opp 3
c) tan 60o = 17321
.
adj 1
opp 1
d) sin 30o = 0.5000
hyp 2
adj 3 17321
.
e) cos 30o = 0.8660
hyp 2 2
opp 1
f) tan 30o = 0.5774
adj 3
The functions all give graphs which are important. You should know how to sketch them
all and know how to use them.
From the curves we can see there is always more than one possible value for any
number you are working out the inverse of ( sin-1 0.5 = 30° or 150° ). The problem is that
your calculator only gives you one of the values ( the one below 90°). You must
remember the curves to find the position of the second angle.
10. You can, of course, use a graph to find the sin and cos of angles between 0 and 90 o. For
tan, this is only practical (because of length of axis) up to about 45o. You should note
from the curves of y = sin and y = cos that there is a definite relationship between
sin and cos, e.g.:
sin
tan =
cos
cos
cot =
sin
Reciprocal relations:
1
sin =
cosec
1
cosec =
sin
1
cos =
sec
1
sec =
cos
1
tan =
cot
1
cot =
tan
sin² + cos² = 1
sec² - tan² = 1
cosec² - cot² = 1
1. So far we have evaluated the sine, cosine and tangent of angles, given the 3 sides of a
right-angled triangle. In the following text it is shown how to solve completely a right-
angled triangle, given any side and 2 angles.
2. B
c
a
A C
opp adj
a) sin = b) cos =
hyp hyp
a b
sin = cos =
c c
a = c sin b = c cos
opp
c) tan = d) By Pythagoras:
adj
a
tan = c2 = a2 + b2
b
a = b tan
12
A C
5
Note: In terms of angle a, we are given the side opposite and the side
adjacent.
opp
Since tan, this is the ratio we use.
adj
opp
tan A =
adj
12
tan A =
5
tan A = 2.4
Note: If we use trig. to find side ‘c’, it necessitates our using angle A which we have just
found. If we have made an error in calculating angle A, this would also result in an error
in side ‘c’. By using Pythagoras, we use only given information and thus the possibility of
'carrying' an error is eliminated.
c = a2 b2
c = 122 52
c = 144 25
c = 169
c = 13
1. For the triangle shown, find the sine, cosine and tangent of A and C.
10
8
B C
6
Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on
both axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the
right of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis takes positive values
above the origin and negative values below the origin.
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The
first, the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the point from the y axis; the
second, the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the point from the x axis.
In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (a, b).
Example:
A (1, 4) D (-4, 1)
B (3, 2) E (-5, -3)
C (2, 1) F (3, -2)
1.
For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be calculated from the
equation being considered. The points obtained can then be plotted and joined together to form
the graph.
Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes into account
the range of the x-values and the range of the y-values. If graph paper is used (which is
desirable) you should use a scale that involves a sensible number of units per square i.e. you
should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 10 etc. units per square depending on the question.
You should avoid using steps along the axes of, for example, 7 or 9 units per square as this can
complicate the graph unnecessarily.
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y: 1 3 5 7 9 11
We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and its
corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to form the graph.
In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9), (5, 11).
We again take x values covering the given range, and calculate the corresponding y values
from the given equation.
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
x 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
-8x 0 -8 -16 -24 -32 -40 -48
+12 +12 12 +12 +12 +12 +12 +12
y: 12 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0
We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph. In this example the
points to be plotted are (0, 12), (1, 5), (2, 0), (3, -3), (4, -4), (5, -3), (6, 0).
2
y = x – 8x + 12
N. B. For a more detailed graph we could, of course, include more points. e.g. by taking x
values of
0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, ……….5½, 6
and calculating the corresponding y values, we could plot nearly twice as many points as we did
in the above example
Again, taking x values covering the given range, we first calculate the corresponding y values
from the given equation.
x: -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
y: 10 5 2 1 2 5 10
We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph.
i) y = 2x + 5
ii) y = 5x + 1
iii) y = 3x - 5
iv) y = x2 - 6x + 5
v) y = x2 - 7x + 12
vi) y = 3x2 - 21x + 30
i) y = 2x2 + 7
ii) y= 3x2 - 12
= x3 - 7
iii) y
iv) y= 4x3 - 16x2 - 16x + 64
1
v) y
x5
1.
2
y = x – 6x + 5
3
y=x -7
where m represents the slope of the line and c is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (i.e.
they intercept). The point where the line crosses the x-axis is called the x intercept.
Example:
Note that whenever c = 0, the line will pass through the origin.
Example:
As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be verified by substituting x = 0
into the equation of the line, as x = 0 along the y axis).
Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line to find
where the line intersects with the x axis (i.e. the x intercept).
We have, when y = 0
6 - 3x = 0
3x = 6
x=2
Example:
y = - 2 + 4x
i.e. 0 = -2 + 4x
4x = + 2
x= ½
Special Cases
A straight line parallel to the x-axis takes the form y = constant.
Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis takes the form x = constant.
Straight line parallel to the x axis Straight line parallel to they axis
For each of the following equations identify the gradient and the y-intercept.
i) y = 4x + 5
ii) y = 9x
iii) y=8
4 3x
iv) y=
5 7
6 5x
v) y
13
vi) 3y = 9x + 6
vii) 8y = x - 8
m =gradient, c = y-intercept
i) m = 4, c = 5
ii) m = 9, c = 0
iii) m = 0, c = 8
iv) m = - 37 , c = 4
5
v) m = - 135 , c = 6
13
vi) m = 3, c = 2
vii) m= 1
8
, c= -1
Example:
Method 1
The general equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c
and it is necessary to find numerical values for m and c.
If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, then each of these points
must satisfy the equation of this straight line. That is, we can substitute the coordinates of each
point as follows:
y = mx + c
4=m+c (1)
10 = 3m + c (2)
Now (1) and (2) give us two equations in two unknowns, m and c, (i.e. simultaneous equations)
which we can solve.
m=3
4=m+c
4=3+c
c=4-3
c=1
If we now substitute these numerical values of m and c into the equation y = mx + c, we obtain
the equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).
That is
y = 3x + 1
Method 2
In general, we can consider any two points (x1 y1) and (x2, y2). The straight line passing through
these points can be written as
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y 2 y1
where m = (m is the gradient of the line)
x 2 x1
Applying this to the points (1, 4) and (3, 10) we have x1 = 1; y1 = 4; x2 = 3; y2 = 10;
and we hence obtain:
10 4 6
m= = = 3
3 1 2
and our line becomes
y-4 = 3(x - 1)
y-4 = 3x - 3
y = 3x + 1
N.B. In this example, the point (1, 4) corresponded to (x1, y1) and the point (3, 10) corresponded
to (x2, y2).
If we had worked through this example with the point (3, 10) corresponding to (x1, y1), and the
point (1, 4) corresponding to (x2, y2), the answer would have been exactly the same.
1. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes through the following points.
2. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes through the following points:
1.
i. y = 2x + 1
ii. y = 4x + 2
iii. y = 2x - 7
2.
i. y = 2x + 5
ii. y = 6x
iii. y = -7x + 2
iv. y = - 4x
v. y=x-5
vi. y = -2x – 3
vii. y=6
viii. y = 7x – 12
ix. x=3 (y = mx + c does not work with lines of infinite gradient)
x. y = 3x - 1
2 4
Cartesian Coordinates
Using Cartesian Coordinates you mark a point by how far along and how far up it is (x and y
coordinates):
Polar Coordinates
Using Polar Coordinates you mark a point by how far away, and what angle it is (r and θ
coordinates):
r2 = 122 + 52
r = √ (122 + 52)
r = √ (144 + 25) = √ (169) = 13
5
tan θ =
12
5
θ = tan-1 = 22.6°
12
So, to convert from Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) to Polar Coordinates (r, θ):
r = √ (x2 + y2)
y
θ = tan-1
x
x
cos (23°) =
13
y
sin (23°) =
13
x = r × cos( θ )
y = r × sin( θ )
(a) (3, 4)
(b) (10, 10)
(c) (10, 0)
1.
(a) 5, 53°
(b) 14.14, 45°
(c) 10, 0°
2.
(a) x = 5 cm, y = 12 cm
(b) x = 25 m, y = 43.3 m
(c) x = 2 m. y = 2 m