Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Discipline Course-I
Semester -I
Paper: Mathematical PhysicsI IA
Lesson: Partial Differentiation
Lesson Developer: Savinder Kaur
College/Department: SGTB Khalsa College, University of
Delhi
Table of Contents
Summary
Exercise/ Practice
Glossary
References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading
Learning Objectives
Partial Differentiation
11.1Partial Derivatives
We have seen that often derivatives determining rates have to be solved in physics.
Additional feature of derivatives are that they can be used to determine extreme values
of a function. However, more often a physical quantity may depend on two or more
variables and therefore there is a need to define rates with partial dependence on one of
the variables with all other variables treated as constants.
The ordinary derivatives of a function of several variables with respect to one of the
independent variables, keeping all other independent variables constant is called the
partial derivative of the function with respect to the variable. So by this definition, if 𝑓 is
a function of two variables 𝑥 & 𝑦 then
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕 𝑑
𝑧≡ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑘)
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑧 𝑑
∆𝑧 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑘) ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Point 2 we can give the value to 𝑥 = ℎ so that the function 𝑧 = 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑦) will be curve in the
(𝑦 , 𝑧) plane. We can define the rate change of 𝑧 with 𝑦 and write it as
𝜕 𝑑
𝑧≡ 𝑓(𝑘, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝑑
∆𝑧 = ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑦) ∆𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example 11.1.1 Find the partial derivatives of the function 𝒇 = 𝒙𝒂 𝒚𝒃 at any point
(𝒙, 𝒚). What is its value if 𝒂 = 𝟐 & 𝒃 = 𝟒 and the point is (−𝟏, 𝟐)
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎
= 𝑓| = {𝑥 𝐶 } = 𝐶 𝑏 {𝑥 } = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦=𝐶 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑓
= 𝑦 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1 𝑦 𝑏
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑏
= 𝑓| = {𝐶 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 } = 𝐶 𝑎 {𝑦 } = 𝐶 𝑎 𝑏𝑦 𝑏−1
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥=𝐶 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑓
= 𝑥 𝑎 𝑏𝑦 𝑏−1 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏−1
𝜕𝑦
For the given values of 𝑎 = 2 & 𝑏 = 4, the partial derivatives at point (𝑥, 𝑦) would be
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 2𝑥𝑦 4 & = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= −32 & = 32
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 𝑎
= 𝑓| = {𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑏 } = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦=𝐶 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑓| = {𝐶 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏 } = 𝑏𝑦 𝑏−1
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥=𝐶 𝑑𝑦
For the given values of 𝑎 = 1 & 𝑏 = 2, the partial derivatives at point (𝑥, 𝑦) would be
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
=1& = 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
=1& =4
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Example 11.1.3 Find the partial derivatives of the function 𝒇 = √𝒙𝒂 + 𝒚𝒃 at any
point (𝒙, 𝒚). What is its value if 𝒂 = 𝟐 & 𝒃 = 𝟒 and the point is (−𝟏, 𝟑)
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1
= 𝑓| = {√𝑥 𝑎 + 𝐶𝑏 } = {𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑏 } ==
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦=𝐶 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑎 + 𝐶 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑎 + 𝐶 𝑏
𝜕𝑓 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1
=
𝜕𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏
𝜕𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏−1
= 𝑓| = {√𝐶 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏 } = {𝐶 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏 } ==
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥=𝐶 𝑑𝑦 2√𝐶 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 2√𝐶 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏
𝜕𝑓 𝑏𝑦 𝑏−1
=
𝜕𝑦 2√𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑦 𝑏
For the given values of 𝑎 = 2 & 𝑏 = 4, the partial derivatives at point (𝑥, 𝑦) would be
𝜕𝑓 𝑥 𝜕𝑓 2𝑦 3
= & =
𝜕𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4 𝜕𝑦 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4
𝜕𝑓 −1 𝜕𝑓 16
= & =
𝜕𝑥 √17 𝜕𝑦 √17
The higher order partial derivative can be similarly defined with some of them as follows
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓𝑥𝑥 = ( ) = 2 & 𝑓𝑦𝑦 = ( )= 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
𝑓𝑦𝑥 = ( )= & 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = ( )=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
Example 11.1.4 Find the partial derivatives of the function 𝒇 = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 at
any point (𝒙, 𝒚). What is its value at the point (−𝟏, 𝟑)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 3 , = 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 9𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕
𝑓𝑥𝑥 = (6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 3 ) = 12𝑥𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 3 & 𝑓𝑦𝑦 = (4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 9𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) = 4𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕
𝑓𝑦𝑥 = (6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 3 ) = 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 18𝑥𝑦 2 & 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = (4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 9𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) = 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 18𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= −24 , = 28 , 𝑓𝑥𝑥 = 0 , 𝑓𝑦𝑦 = 32 & 𝑓𝑦𝑥 = −48 = 𝑓𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
11.2Total Differentials
Let ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 be very small increments given to the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively. With
these increments the value of 𝑥 changes to 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 and that of 𝑦 changes to 𝑦 + ∆𝑦. A
function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)which depends on both the variables is than expected would take a new
value 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦), then the change in increment in function ∆𝑓
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
∆𝑓 = ∆𝑥 + 𝜖1 ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦 + 𝜖2 ∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
This is known as the Total Differential or Principal Part of the Differential or just the
Differential of the function 𝑓.
Graphically, Point 1 & Point 2 above tells us that the change in 𝑧 due to variations of
𝑥 & 𝑦 together would be
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑 𝑑
∆𝑧 = ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑘)∆𝑥 + 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑦) ∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑓
To conclude, we say that the function 𝑓 is dependent only on two variables 𝑥 &𝑦; that
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
& are to be read as partial derivatives of the function with respect to 𝑥 &𝑦 respectively
𝜕𝑦
and that the total differential / principal part of the differential is
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
if & are continuous.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
11.3 Theorems
Theorem 1
If 𝑓 is a function of 𝑛 (independent or dependent) variables 𝑥𝑖 and have
continuous partial derivatives in some region 𝑅 then
𝑛
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = ∑ 𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1
Theorem 2
If 𝑓 is a function of 𝑛 (independent or dependent) variables 𝑥𝑖 having continuous
partial derivatives in some region 𝑅 and 𝑓 = 𝐶, a constant then
𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝜕𝑓 𝑎
= 𝐴𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1 × 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥 𝑎 × 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 𝑏𝑦 = 𝐴 ( + 𝑏𝑦) 𝑥 𝑎 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑥𝑦 𝑎+1 𝑏𝑥𝑦
= 𝐴𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 = 𝐴𝑏𝑥 𝑒
𝜕𝑦
And so the differential
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑎
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴 ( + 𝑏𝑦) 𝑥 𝑎 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴𝑏𝑥 𝑎+1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑥
Note that
𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑓 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 {( + 𝑏𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥𝑑𝑦} == 𝐴𝑥 𝑎 𝑒 𝑏𝑥𝑦 { 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏(𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦)}
𝑥 𝑥
Example 11.3.2 Show that the differential (𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + (𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝒚 + 𝟔𝒚𝟐 )𝒅𝒚 is can
be written as differential of the function 𝒇 = 𝒙𝟑 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟑 + 𝑨 where 𝑨 is a
constant.
3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
(3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦) − (2𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦) + 6𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑦𝑑𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦) − (2𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑑𝑦 3
Thus, a function 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 3 has the above as its differential. In general, a constant
𝐴 being added brings no change in the differential so the required function will be
𝑓 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 3 + 𝐴
Here, we would like to emphasise that it won’t be always possible to find such a function
𝑓 for an arbitrary differential.
The differential 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 is said to be Exact Differential if there exists a
function two variables 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) such that
We have already seen that the primary condition to be able to find such a function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)
is to check if
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
It important to note that integral of exact differential are path independent and therefore
for any closed curve
Similarly, the differential 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is said to be Exact
Differential if there exists a function of three variables 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that
We find that the primary condition to be able to find such a function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is to check
if
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑃
= , = & =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=𝑃, =𝑄& =𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
We again assert that the integral of exact differential are path independent and therefore
for any closed curve
Theorem 3
An expression of the form 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 is the “exact” differential of a
function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) if and only if
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Proof :
Necessity
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
If 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 then 𝑃 = &𝑄 = . Now assuming the continuity
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
of partial derivatives, we get
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
which means
𝜕 𝜕
𝑃= 𝑄
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Sufficiency
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
If = then by Green’s Theorem the integral ∮𝐶 (𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦) = ∬𝑅 ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and the integral ∫(𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦) is path independent. So we can define a function
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫(𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦) and thus it’s differential, which means
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦
Theorem 4
An expression of the form 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is the “exact”
differential of a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) if and only if
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑃
= , = & =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Proof :
Necessity
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
If 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 then 𝑃= ,𝑄 = &𝑅 = . Now
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
assuming the continuity of partial derivatives, we get
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
= , = & =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
which means
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑃= 𝑄, 𝑄= 𝑅& 𝑅= 𝑃
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Sufficiency
The integral ∮𝐶 (𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧) can be written as ∮𝐶 𝐴⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃑ where 𝐴⃑ = 𝑃𝑖̂ + 𝑄𝑗̂ + 𝑅𝑘̂ &
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂. Now, if 𝑃= 𝑄, 𝑄= 𝑅& 𝑅= 𝑃 then − =0, −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑃
= 0& − = 0 and so ∇ × 𝐴⃑ = 0. By Stokes’ Theorem the integral ∮𝐶 𝐴⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃑ =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
∬𝑅(∇ × 𝐴⃑) ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃑ = 0 and the integral ∫(𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧) is path independent. So we
can define a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∫(𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧) and thus it’s differential, which
means
Example 11.5.1 Show that the differential (𝒚 + 𝒛)𝒅𝒙 + (𝒛 + 𝒙)𝒅𝒚 + (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝒅𝒛 is exact
and find the function 𝒇 of which the above is differential.
Solution: Let’s first write the differential in standard form as 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧 so that
𝑃 =𝑦+𝑧
𝑄 =𝑧+𝑥
𝑅 =𝑥+𝑦
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
The condition of exactness require the 𝑃= 𝑄, 𝑄= 𝑅& 𝑅= 𝑃 so we check for
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
the validity of these equations
𝜕 𝜕
𝑃= 𝑄 →1=1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝑄= 𝑅 →1=1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕
𝑅= 𝑃 →1=1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝑓 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 + 𝐴
Example 11.5.2 Show that the differential 𝒛(𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + 𝒛𝒅𝒚 − (𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛𝟐 )𝒅𝒛 is exact
if it is divided by 𝒛𝟐 and find the function 𝒇 of which the above is differential.
Solution: Let’s first write the differential in standard form as 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧 so that
𝑃 = 𝑧(1 − 𝑧 2 )
𝑄=𝑧
𝑅 = −(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 2 )
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
The condition of exactness require the 𝑃= 𝑄, 𝑄= 𝑅& 𝑅= 𝑃 so we check for
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
the validity of these equations
𝜕 𝜕
𝑃= 𝑄 →0=0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝑄= 𝑅 → 1 ≠ −1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕
𝑅= 𝑃 → −1 = 1 − 3𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
1 1 𝑥 𝑦
( − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 − ( 2 + 2 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1
𝑃 = ( − 𝑧)
𝑧
1
𝑄=
𝑧
𝑥 𝑦
𝑅 = − ( 2 + 2 + 𝑥)
𝑧 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
The condition of exactness require the 𝑃= 𝑄, 𝑄= 𝑅& 𝑅= 𝑃 so we check for
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
the validity of these equations again
𝜕 𝜕
𝑃= 𝑄 →0=0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 1 1
𝑄= 𝑅 →− 2=− 2
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 1 1
𝑅= 𝑃 → − ( 2 + 1) = (− 2 − 1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 𝑥 𝑦
The differential ( − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 − ( + + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑧 is therefore Exact.
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧2
Now by some rearrangements the differential becomes
1 1 𝑥 𝑦
( 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑧𝑑𝑥) + 𝑑𝑦 + (− 2 𝑑𝑧 − 2 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑥𝑑𝑧)
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 𝑥 1 𝑦
= ( 𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑧) + ( 𝑑𝑦 − 2 𝑑𝑧) + (−𝑧𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑧)
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑑 ( ) + 𝑑 ( ) − 𝑑(𝑥𝑧)
𝑧 𝑧
𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑑 ( + − 𝑥𝑧)
𝑧 𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 1
Thus, a function + − 𝑥𝑧 has the {𝑧(1 − 𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑑𝑦 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧} as its differential
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2
but not 𝑧(1 − 𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑑𝑦 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧.
∞
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ (∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦 ) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)|
𝑛! 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑛=0 (ℎ,𝑘)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑘) + { | (𝑥 − ℎ) + | (𝑦 − 𝑘)}
𝜕𝑥 (ℎ,𝑘) 𝜕𝑦 (ℎ,𝑘)
1 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
+ { 2| (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 2 | (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + 2∆𝑥∆𝑦 | (𝑥 − ℎ)(𝑦 − 𝑘)} + ⋯
2 𝜕𝑥 (ℎ,𝑘) 𝜕𝑦 (ℎ,𝑘) 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 (ℎ,𝑘)
1 1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑘) + 𝑓𝑥 (ℎ, 𝑘) × (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓𝑦 (ℎ, 𝑘) × (𝑦 − 𝑘) + 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (ℎ, 𝑘) × (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (ℎ, 𝑘)
2 2
× (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (ℎ, 𝑘) × (𝑥 − ℎ)(𝑦 − 𝑘) + ⋯
If ℎ = 𝑘 = 0
1 1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(0,0) + 𝑓𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 + 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 2 + 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 2 + 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) 𝑥𝑦 + ⋯
2 2
Example 11.6.1 Find the power series expansion for the function 𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 + 𝒚)
about the origin.
1 1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(0,0) + 𝑓𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 + 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 2 + 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 2 + 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) 𝑥𝑦 + ⋯
2 2
Now
𝑓(0,0) = cos(0 + 0) = 1
𝑓𝑥 (0,0) = − sin(0 + 0) = 0 & 𝑓𝑦 (0,0) = − sin(0 + 0) = 0
𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) = − cos(0 + 0) = −1 & 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0) = − cos(0 + 0) = −1
𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) = − cos(0 + 0) = −1
1 2 1 2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + ⋯
2 2
Example 11.6.2 Find the power series expansion for the function 𝒛 = 𝐞𝒙−𝒚 about
the origin.
1 1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(0,0) + 𝑓𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 + 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) 𝑥 2 + 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0) 𝑦 2 + 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) 𝑥𝑦 + ⋯
2 2
Now
𝑓(0,0) = e0−0 = 1
𝑓𝑥 (0,0) = e0−0 = 1 & 𝑓𝑦 (0,0) = −e0−0 = −1
𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) = e0−0 = 1 & 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0) = e0−0 = 1
𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) = −e0−0 = −1
1 2 1 2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + ⋯
2 2
Summary
Partial Derivatives
𝜕𝑓 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥,𝑦)−𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕𝑓
- If 𝑓 is a function of two variables 𝑥 & 𝑦 then ≡ lim∆𝑥→0 & ≡
𝜕𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑓(𝑥,𝑦+∆𝑦)−𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
lim∆𝑦→0 provided such limit exists at the point (𝑥, 𝑦).
∆𝑦
Total Differentials
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
- If the function 𝑓 is dependent only on two variables 𝑥 & 𝑦 and if & are
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
continuous then the ‘total differential’ / ‘principal part of the differential’ is
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Theorems
- Theorem on Existence Total Differential
If 𝑓 is a function of 𝑛 (independent or dependent) variables 𝑥𝑖 and have
continuous partial derivatives in some region 𝑅 then
𝑛
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = ∑ 𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1
- Theorem on Existence Total Differential Equation
If 𝑓 is a function of 𝑛 (independent or dependent) variables 𝑥𝑖 having continuous
partial derivatives in some region 𝑅 and 𝑓 = 𝐶, a constant then
𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 1 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛
and so all variables cannot be independent.