Contact

ChEck iT! Homebase

Gumpendorfer Straße 8
1060 Vienna
T: (+43-1) 585 12 12
www.checkyourdrugs.at
checkit@vws.or.at

Eva Baumgartner

Ketamine as a Recreational Drug

on the risks of consumption-related socio-pathological changes and specific conflict behaviour,
and their relevance for secondary preventive institutions

52
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1. Introduction 6
2. The Substance 7
2.1. The History 7
2.2. Chemical Information 7
2.3. Dosage and Use 8
2.3.1. Oral Consumption 8
2.3.2. Nasal Consumption 8
2.3.3. Intramuscular Consumption 9
2.3.4. Intravenous Consumption 9
2.4. Effect 9
2.4.1. Set 10
2.4.2. Setting 10
2.5. The dissociative effects of ketamine 10
2.6. Near-death experiences 11
2.6.1. What is a near-death experience 11
2.6.2. The main characteristics of a near-death experience 11
2.7. Mixed-consumption 12
2.7.1. Ketamine and “Downer” 12
2.7.2. Ketamine and GHB 12
2.7.3. Ketamine and Alcohol 13
2.7.4. Ketamine and Amphetamines, Metamphetamines and Cocaine 13
2.7.5. Ketamine and Ecstasy (MDMA) 13
2.7.6. Ketamine and LSD 13
2.8. Specific Risks 14
2.8.1. Physical 14
2.8.2. Psychological 14
2.9. Possible Long-term Effects 15
2.9.1. Psychological Long-term effects 15
2.9.2. Physical Long-term effects 16
2.10. Ketamine dependency 16
3. The medicinal use of ketamine 19
3.1. Ketamine in emergency medicine 19
3.2. Ketamine in internal medicine 19
3.3. Ketamine in the treatment of chronic pain 19
3.4. Side effects of ketamine 19
3.5. The use of ketamine in psychotherapeutic practice 20
4. The legal status of ketamine 21
5. “Risk Reduction“ and ”Safer use” 22
 
5.1. Risk reduction 22
5.2. Safer use 22
6. Empirical Section 25
6.1. Introduction to empirical section 25
6.1.1. ChEck iT! 25
6.2. Method and Approach 25
6.3. Explanation of method choice 26
6.4. Questionnaire Development 26
6.5. Description of the survey 27
6.5.2. The Realisation 28
6.6. Evaluation of Data - SPSS 29
6.7. The Results 30
6.7.1. Demographic Data 30
6.8. Consumption patterns 32
6.8.1. Age of Initial Consumption 32
6.8.2. Motivation for Initial Consumption 32
6.8.3. Setting 32
6.8.4. Changes in atmosphere caused by ketamine 33
6.8.5. Monthly prevalence 33
6.8.6. Mixed consumption 34
6.8.7. Form of Consumption 34
6.9. Evaluation of Qualitative Questions 34
6.9.1. What makes ketamine interesting? 34
6.9.2. Changes in relationships through ketamine consumption 35
6.9.3. Changes in Friend 36
6.9.4. Changes in those questioned 36
6.9.5. Changes in the life of those questioned 36
6.9.6. Negative Experiences with Ketamine 36
7. The relevance of results 38
7.1. Relevance of results for social work 38
8. Conclusion 40
9. Epilogue 42
10. Glossary 43
11. Appendix 44
11.1. Questionnaire 45
12. Bibliography 47
13. List of figures 48
14. Author
51. ChEck iT!
Abstract
The subject of the submitted thesis is “Ketamine a Recreational
Drug” – on the risks of consumption-related socio-pathlogical
changes and specific conflict behaviour as a consequence of
its consumption and their relevance for secondary preventive
institutions.
Ketamine is an dissociative anaesthetic used in veterinary
and human medicine. Because of its specific effect ketamine
is also used without medical indications, for example in the
party scene. The dissociative effect of ketamine can produce a
phenomenon referred to as a near-death experience. The spe-
cial risks of this substance are the high risk of dependency and
the readiness to take risks after consumption.
The hypothesis of this thesis is that the consumption of ket-
amine causes socio- pathological changes especially in regard
to conflict attitudes. This assumption was analysed with a
standardised questionnaire filled out by ketamine consumers
at various techno parties.
Preface
Keywords This publication is a thesis written by Evi Baumgartner for the
completion of her diploma at the Social Workers’ College (aca-
Ketamine, K, Keta demic title: “Magistra (FH) der Sozialarbeit”). Evi Baumgartner
Recreational drugs specialised in the field of drug-related social work right from
Low threshold the beginning of her studies. In addition to this she has been
Dissociative anaesthetic working with ChEck iT! since the winter of 2003. She had done
Near-death experiences research in various fields of the electronic music scene already
ChEck iT! within the framework of her project practicum and therewith
Free-techno scene carried out important basic research for our work at events. Evi
Goa Scene Baumgartner’s work at ChEck iT! focuses on her counselling at
events as well as special topic work related to the free-techno
scene and ketamine. The curiosity about the topic of ketamine
emerged through the work she did with ChEck iT! and it was
through this that she decided to write her thesis on the topic
of ketamine. She started working for the public medical drug
counselling centre Ganslwirt in 2006.

I have also collected information concerning consumption

patterns and consumption type. The results of my research
appear to verify my assumption. For example, about 78 % of
those questioned stated that the atmosphere at parties where
a large amount of ketamine is used gets strained, excited and
aggressive. 53 % of the persons asked told me that they had
noticed a change in their friends’ behaviour after those had
consumed ketamine.
Ketamine dependence as well as withdrawal symptoms were
also important topics in conversations with consumers. I
wasn’t able to find anything about the latter in literature.
Because of these findings I have come to the conclusion that
street work with a low threshold approach is absolutely neces-
sary in places where ketamine is consumed.

 
1
see: Homepage Ralf Rebmann. URL: www.gifte.de/Drogen/ketamin_bild01.htm, March 2006
2
3
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 1
Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002,853
4
see: Turner, D.M. Der Psychedelische Reiseführer, Nachtschattenverlag, Germany2 ,1997, 67
5
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 2
6
(S)-Ketamin. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Aspekte. Editors R. Klose and U. Hoppe. Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2002,2
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 2
7
9
http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ketamine/ketamine_timeline.php translated, 29 Nov 05
see: Internetlexikon. URL: catbull.com/alamut/Lexikon/Mittel/Ketamin.htm, March, 2006
10
see:Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005,2f
1. Introduction
The following work on the topic of “ketamine as a recreational
drug –on the risks of consumption-related socio-pathological
changes and specific conflict behaviour, and their relevance for
secondary preventive institutions” consists of two large sec-
tions.
The first section includes a theoretical analysis of the sub-
stance ketamine and the second section gives a detailed de-
scription of my research and its results.
The hypothesis which is investigated in this work is whether or
not consumption-related changes can be caused by ketamine,
for example increased aggression potential and specific con-
flict behaviour.
Ketamine is a dissociative anaesthetic used in both human
and veterinary medicine. The special effects of the substance
have led increasingly to its use outside of its proper medical
context, for example misuse in the techno scene at techno
parties. In this thesis I have investigated the use of ketamine
as a recreational drug.
In the theoretical section I analyse the history of the substance
and explain the chemical structure as well as the numerous
possible ways of consuming ketamine. Since ketamine is also
used in human medicine, I also list its various current medici-
nal uses.
Furthermore I distinguished the special effects of the sub-
stance, whereby I address the special effects as well as the
phenomenon of near-death experiences. A subchapter of the
topic mixed consumption and polytoxicomania describes the
effects of ketamine in combination with a variety of other
substances.
An exhaustive description of the substance and the possible
problems which can arise through consumption are provided
in the sections on special risks and eventual long-term effects
of ketamine. Also the dependency potential is described in
more detail in this connection, in particular the dependency
potential of ketamine. Here I will also briefly describe the ex-
periences I had while doing my research.
The current legal status of this substance in Austria is also the
subject of one chapter in this thesis. At the end of the theo-
retical section I describe another two social work approaches
 
with low threshold drug-related work, namely ”risk reduction“
and ”safer use“.
The empirical section of my work is based on data and facts
which I acquired through a standardised questionnaire.
In the first part of the empirical section I describe in detail
the institution called ChEck iT!. Furthermore I elaborate on
the methodology and approach I used in my research. I ex-
plain why I chose a questionnaire for my research section and
describe my queries on location. In order to give the reader a
more complete picture two sub scenes in the techno scene in
which I did most of my research are described in more detail.
The evaluation of the results in the statistic programme SPSS
are explained and the results are displayed in several graphic
figures. Here I first describe the group of those questioned,
then I deal with the consumption patterns of the consumers
and interpret the qualitative questions. In this section of the
thesis I will also reveal whether or not my hypothesis was veri-
fied or falsified by the research.
In the empirical section I also handle to the topic of the rel-
evance of my results for secondary preventive institutions and
the work offered by social workers. In conclusion my consider-
ations are presented and the results are combined with theo-
retical basis in a conclusion.
Figure 1: various Ketanest® Infusion bottles1
2. The Substance
Ketamine is a dissociative anaesthetic (see glossary) and be-
longs to the substance class of phencyclidine derivatives. It is
used both in human and in veterinary medicine. 2
Ketamine is an injection narcotic which causes a “complete an-
algesia with superficial unconsciousness […] with maintained
protective reflexes […]“. 3
Ketamine was first produced by Parke Davis and is sold on the
market with the names Ketalar®, Ketanest® and Ketanet®. 4
(see Figure 1)
In the techno scene it is offered for sale under the names Keta,
Special K, Vitamin K, Cat or simply K.
2.1. The History
The company Parke-Davis commissioned Calvin L-Stevens, a
pharmacologist at Wayne State University, to do research in
order to find a substitute for the anaesthetic medicine called
phencyclidine (PCP, Angel Dust) which was negatively associ-
ated with strong side effects. 5 Phencyclidine was also used in
human as well as veterinary medicine.
“In the 1960s McCarthy and Chen succeeded in synthesising
a PCP- relative: Chlorophenyl-methylamino-cyclohexanon-hy-
drochloride (CI 581), or ketamine.” 6
Parke-Davis obtained the US patent for the production of ket-
amine as a medicine in 1966.
The psychedelic potential of the substance was discovered by
Edward Felix Domino, Professor of clinical pharmacology at
the University of Michigan, on the 3 August 1964 in an initial,
non medicinal self-experiment.
In the 1960s and 70s ketamine was used by the US Army as
an anaesthetic for soldiers in the Vietnam War, as well as by
doctors, psychiatrists and other researchers as a “recreational
drug” for the investigation of consciousness.
After the publication of “Journeys into the Bright World” (Moore
and Alltounian, 1980) and “The Scientist” by Cunningham
Lilly (1984), in which detailed reports of experiences includ-
ing doses specifications were written, the substance became
known world-wide. As a result ketamine was used much more
frequently without medicinal indications, with the purpose of
investigating consciousness. 7
From 1987 to 2000 a total of 12 deaths could be brought in con-
O Cl
N H
CH3
Figure 2: chemical structure of ketamine9
nection with ketamine (7 in the USA and 5 in Europe), however
only 3 of these cases involved ketamine alone. 8
2.2. Chemical Information
“Biochemically seen ketamine is a racemate which consists
of equal parts of two optical enantiomeres [S(+)ketamine,
R(-)ketamine]. (see Figure 2) Pharmacological research could
point out distinct qualitative and quantitative differences be-
tween the two ketamine-enantiomeres. In addition to this the
clinical superiority of s(+)ketamine could be described in vari-
ous therapy studies. S(+)ketamine mainly conveys the desired
effects while R(-)ketamine conveys mainly the undesirable
side effects.
The clinical advantages apply to the anaesthetic potency, the
magnitude of the analgesia achieved, the intraoperative ef-
fects as well as side effects and undesirable psychological dis-
orders. The main problem with the clinically used ketamine-
racemate today lies in the psychological waking reactions and
in the waking phase which is in some cases lengthened by
hours. […]
S(+)ketamine also has a stronger psychedelic effect than the
racemate and must be given in much lower doses than the
racemate. […]” 10
„“Ketamine influences the working mechanism of the neu-
rotransmitter glutamine acid, the most important stimulato-
ry (excitatory) neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Ketamine binds with a specific type of glutamate receptor, the
NMDA-receptor (N-Methyl-D-Aspirate) and blocks therewith
the working mechanism of this receptor. […]
The blockade of this receptors information exchange causes
a functional decoupling of certain regulation systems in the
mesencephalon and the cerebral cortex from the thalamus.
The perception and sorting of optical and acoustic signals and
other stimulants no longer takes place in its normal fashion
but rather in a fragmentary form. Similar to a very strong acti-
vation of serotonin receptors, only separate, completely unre-
lated pictures are processed without any connection to each
other and with distinctly changed associations and attributed
meanings.
11
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005,2f
12
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 3
13
see: Cousto, Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 3
14
see: Turner, D.M. Der Psychedelische Reiseführer, Nachtschattenverlag, Germany2 . 1997, 67
15
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 7f
16
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3, 2000, 297ff.
17
see: Hans Cousto: Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum, 8
18
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3, 2000,298
19
Turner D.M., Der Psychedelische Reiseführer, Nachtschatten Verlag, Deutschland2 ,1997, 67
20
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3, 2000,298
21
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 8
22
see: Lilly John C., Der Scientist. Sphinx Verlag , Basel. 1984, 150ff
23
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3 2000,298
24
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005,8
25
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3, 2000, 299

Ketamine also impedes the peripheral revival of catechol-
amines like adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine and
strengthens therewith the peripheral monoaminergic – in
particular dopaminergic – transfer. Along with the peripheral
transfer, the central dopaminergic transfer is particularly
stimulated. This dopaminergic effect appears to be the cause
of the euphorical effect of ketamine.” 11
Through experiments carried out on mice it has been shown
that ketamine also has an effect on GABA – receptors. There
it works in a way which is similar to that seen with GHB
(gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid, also known as “liquid ecstasy”),
however its effect is not as strong. This means that the mixed-
consumption of this substance with alcohol can also be very
dangerous, as alcohol considerably intensifies the sensitivity
of the GABA receptors and therewith significantly increases
the effect of the transmitters. This can lead to an intensifica-
tion of the dampening factors of ketamine and alcohol in the
brain. 12
2.3. Dosage and Use
Ketamine is available on the black market as a white, crystalline
powder or a liquid. In the pharmaceutical industry ketamine is
delivered in the form of an injection solution containing ket-
amine-hydrochloride. If not otherwise stated on the package,
it is the racemate (50% S(+)ketamine and 50% R(-)ketamine).
The powdery, dehydrated ketamine available on the black mar-
ket is ketamine hydrochloride (Ketamine-HCL), therefore the
racemate. 13
Ketamin kann oral geschluckt und sowohl intravenös als auch
Ketamine can be taken orally or in the form of an intrave-
nous or intramuscular injection. The most frequent form of
consumption in the party scene is the nasal consumption in
powder form.
In order to get this powder the injection solution must be de-
hydrated. Dehydration is achieved by heating the substance to
95 degrees Celsius and maintaining this temperature until the
entire moisture is evaporated and only a powdery substance
remains. 14
Some consumers called this procedure “boiling”. This expres-
sion is common in the street drug scene.
In the following paragraphs I would like to describe the dose
and uses of this substance in detail. For this it appears to be
necessary to view the different forms of consumption sepa-
rately.
2.3.1. Oral Consumption
In his professional information brochure (Fachinformation:
Ketamin-Mischkonsum) on ketamine Cousto, an employee of
the drug checking project called “Eve & Rave”, differentiated
between a suitable dosage for parties and a suitable dosage
for a “real takeoff”. He suggested that the optimal dose for
use as a recreational drug was 40-50 mg taken orally. Here the
onset of effects would occur approx. 30-60 minutes after ad-
ministration and would last for approximately one hour 15
In the “Psychedelic Travelguide”(Der Psychedelische Reisefüh-
rer) one finds a suggested dose of 200 – 450 mg of ketamine
taken orally. In this case the dose represents the amount
needed to have a full ketamine experience (not suitable for
parties).
The effects after the oral consumption of this dose appeared
after approximately 5-20 minutes (depending on the amount
of time since last meal) and lasted for about one and a half
hours. 16
2.3.2. Nasal Consumption
In the professional information brochure on ketamine mixed-
consumption (Ketamine: Mischkonsum) 20 to 25 mg of ket-
amine applied nasally (ca. 0.25 to 0.4 mg per kg body weight)
is given as the right dose for consumption at parties. While
the right dosage for a full ketamine experience is, according
to H. Cousto, approximately 150 mg (2.0 to 2.5 mg per kg body
weight). 17
This statement corresponds more or less with the dose stated
in the “Psychedelic Travelguide”, in which 50 – 150 mg of ket-
amine taken nasally was described as the optimal dosage. The
onset after ca. 5-10 minutes and the duration of effects also
corresponds with this. 18
2.3.3. Intramuscular Consumption
“A dose of 100 mg of ketamine, administered intramuscularly,
produces an intense psychedelic experience.” The exact dosage
necessary varies with body weight and mental condition.” 19
Other dosage suggestions found in professional literature var-
ied from 30 mg to 150 mg consumed intramuscularly. Here the
effects appeared already after circa 3-5 minutes and lasted for
approximately 40-60 minutes. 20
With 400 to 800 mg of ketamine administered intramuscu-
larly one achieves complete anaesthesia lasting up to circa 15
to 25 minutes. 21
The psychedelic self-experimenter John Lilly gave himself an
hourly injected dosage of 50 mg, 20 hours a day with a four-
hour sleeping intermission. Even with such a high dosage on
such a continual basis a physical overdoses did not occur, how-
ever the loss of a connection to reality was a result. 22
2.3.4. Intravenous Consumption
In literature from this field one can find very little information
on intravenous use because this form of consumption is not
very wide spread. This is due to the fact that the high comes
very quickly, very similar to the anaesthesia through ketamine,
and is much too intense. The consumer is too strongly “dazed”
and does not really experience the high. 23
With an intravenous dose of 100 to 200 mg (2 mg per kg body
weight) a complete anaesthesia comes after circa 30 seconds,
and this condition lasts for about 5 to 10 minutes. 24
2.4. Effect
The physical effect of ketamine can range from an anaesthetic
effect to a so-called dissociative anaesthesia. The pain anal-
gesic effect appears already before and also lasts longer than
the anaesthesia.
The psychoactive effect of ketamine is very strongly dependent
on the type of consumption and the amount of the dosage. In
his “Psychedelic Travelguide” Turner assigned each psychedelic
substance a place on an intensity scale, giving ratings of 1-10 (1
= mild, 10 = intense).
Ketamine was given an intensity of 10 to infinite (in compari-
son: Turner gave LSD a rating of “only” 3 - 7.)
The dissociative effect of ketamine means a fragmentary dis-
integration of the environment and the bodily senses, a feeling
of dissolution to the world around it and to feelings within it
(ego – border dissolution, ego – disintegration). In professional
literature one can find experience reports from consumers in
which these users believed to have left their bodies or could
not see any demarcation between themselves and the envi-
ronment (see section on dissociative effects of ketamine).
During my research I also met several consumers who told
me that they had watched themselves dance or something
similar.
Furthermore, there are also reports that sometimes find com-
munication extremely difficult. Thoughts can break off and
the central thread of the conversation is very easily lost.
Often the senses of taste and smell are also deactivated and
sounds are perceived in a distorted form. When the consumer
closes the eyes or takes a very high doses very realistic dream
visions can be seen. Nausea is also often mentioned as a side
effect, in particular when the consumer is physically active.
Therefore it is suggested that one lie down for the course of a
ketamine high. The consumption of ketamine also brings the
danger of injury because it reduces the user’s ability to feel
pain and the overdose prevents the body from collapsing or
passing out. 25
In literature it is also reported that the consumer has no
memory of what they experienced while being high. In many
experience reports consumers describe dark hallucinations
which can trigger extreme anxiety and so-called “near-death
experiences”. (see section: Near-death experiences)
In addition to the physical effects ketamine also has an ex-
tremely strong psychoactive effect, the impact of which, as
with every other substance, is heavily dependent on the set
and setting.

 
26
vgl. ChEck iT! Booklet, Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Universal Druckerei Leoben, Vienna2 , 2002, 9
27
ICD-10, Internationale statistische Klassifikation der Krankheiten und verwandter Gesundheitsprobleme
10.Revision, Deutsches Institut für medizinische Dokumentation und Information;
Band I, Urban & Schwarzenberg, Version 1.0, 1994, 329
28
Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine. Ronin Publishing inc., California. 1999, 19
29
see: Psychedelische Chemie. Editors. D. Trachsel and N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Germany3, 2000, 305ff
2.4.1. Set
The set includes all person-related factors which are important
to the impact, for example one’s body weight and metabolism.
In this way the same doses of ketamine would have a much
stronger effect on a person who weighs only 50 kg than on a
person who weighs 70 kg. The metabolism also varies greatly
from one person to another and can be difficult to determine.
For example, some people can transform the substances into
their effective form very quickly but don’t feel the effects for as
long as other people.
Previous psychological and physical illnesses are also impor-
tant factors which belong to the set. Illnesses of the heart,
kidneys, thyroid gland or respiratory tract and conditions like
epilepsy can have an influence on the effect and can also pos-
sibly lead to a dangerous situation.
Another very important factor influencing the impact of a
psychoactive substance is the current mood of the consumer.
Both positive and negative moods can be strengthened by psy-
choactive substances.
2.4.2. Setting
The setting includes all external factors which influence the
type of effect produced by psychoactive substances. The fac-
tors which belong to the setting are, for example: where the
consumption occurs and who the substance is consumed
with. 26
2.5. The dissociative effects of ketamine
Ketamine has a distinct hallucinogenic as well as a dissocia-
tive effect. The dissociative effect of ketamine is described as
a separation of body and mind which can lead to out-of-body
experiences. When this happens the senses are distorted and
a new reality is created in the mind of the consumer. In this
way it is possible for consumers to believe that they can watch
themselves dancing or see other actions happening from a
vantage point outside of their bodies.
A dissociative disorder can also occur in situations devoid of
the consumption of psychoactive substances, for example it is
10
one of the psychological disturbances or behavioural disorders
described by ICD 10/ F44:
“The general characteristic of dissociative or conversion disor-
ders is the partial or total loss of normal integration of memo-
ries of the past, consciousness of identity, the perception of im-
mediate feelings as well as the control of bodily movements.
All dissociative disturbances tend to go into remission after
a few weeks or months, especially when their initial onset is
connected with traumatic life experiences. Chronic disorders,
in particular paralysis and emotional disorders, develop when
the onset is connected with inter-personal difficulties or insol-
uble problems. These disorders used to be classified as various
forms of conversion neurosis or hysteria. Now they are seen as
causal psychogenes which are temporally closely connected
with traumatic experiences, insoluble conflicts or broken rela-
tionships. The symptoms often manifest themselves in a way
which fits into the afflicted person’s concept of a physical ill-
ness. However the physical examination and questioning give
no indication of a somatic or neurological illness. In addition
to this the failure to function is an obvious sign of emotional
conflict or need. The symptoms can develop when combined
with a psychological burden and can often appear very sud-
denly. Only disturbances in bodily functions which are usually
deliberately controlled and the loss of sensual perception are
included here. Disorders with pain and other complex physical
sensations which are mediated by the vegetative nervous sys-
tem are classified as somatic disorders (F45.0). The possibility
of a later appearance of serious physical or psychiatric disor-
ders must always be considered.” 27
It can also lead to depersonalisation, as described above, when
it comes in connection with a dissociative disorder.
This specified dissociative effect of ketamine is not observed
in any other psychoactive substance and according to profes-
sional literature and reports of experiences the ketamine high
can not be compared with anything else when it comes to
intensity.
Ketamine is in fact a close relative of PCP, also referred to as
“angel dust”, but PCP usually causes very negative hallu-
cination and is known for its “bad trips” which often end in
psychotic episodes and are accompanied by a high amount
of aggression. Ketamine is much less toxic and the effect of
ketamine lasts significantly shorter than with PCP where a trip
can last up to eight hours.
When compared to other hallucinogens, like LSD or DMT, simi-
larities between a ketamine trip and, for example, a LSD trip
are mentioned, but the effects do still appear to be different.
For example, both substances produce so-called “pulsating”
hallucinations (e.g., breathing walls), but a ketamine trip is
usually described as being much “heavier”, more powerful and
more impressive.
Timothy Leary, the LSD researcher, described his ketamine ex-
periences as “experiments in voluntary death”. 28
In the next chapter I will describe yet another special effect of
ketamine, the so-called near-death experience.
2.6. Near-death experiences
2.6.1. What is a near-death experience
A near-death experience, abbreviated to NDE, is the condition
in which one finds one’s self when, for a limited period of time,
one is technically clinically dead, for example during an opera-
tion, an accident or something similar.
A NDE is a very interesting phenomenon –not only in medi-
cine, neurological science, neurology, psychiatry, psychology or
theology. 29
Patients who awake from a coma often claim to have had vi-
sions of going through a tunnel, seeing a bright light or some-
thing similar. Such visions can also be achieved by, for example,
consuming a psychoactive substance like ketamine.
All the characteristics of a near-death experience can be re-
produced by the consumption of ketamine in the right set and
setting. There is no indisputable criteria which describes or de-
fines the near-death experience. As already mentioned, those
people who have had such an experience usually describe
happy, calm and beautiful trips and therefore an entirely posi-
tive picture has become the “distinguishing feature” of a near-
death experience.
Jansen (2001) believes that these positive reports can be the
11
result of the fact that dark visions are usually more readily dis-
missed as nightmares and that those involved are less likely
to want to reveal or make reports of negative experiences. In
the past it was believed that the major difference between a
near-death experience and a ketamine trip was that the latter
could be unpleasant and therefore there was no motivation to
repeat the experience. Still, some people have found ketamine
trips so happy and positive, that they wanted to consume the
substance daily, while some “real” near-death experiences
were described as dark and frightening.
Jansen’s research brought him to the conclusion that the simi-
larity between a spontaneous near-death experience and a
ketamine trip is brought about by a blockade of certain recep-
tors in the brain.
A sudden decrease in the supply of oxygen or in blood sugar,
caused for example by the interruption of blood flow during
a heart attack causes an overflow of glutamate. This leads to
an over-activation of some brain cells which suddenly die as
a result. Jansen compared this process with an air balloon in
which one suddenly blows too much air and blows up as a
result.
Ketamine prevents this destruction. It binds itself to the same
receptor points as other substances in the brain. The same
conditions which can cause a glutamate flood can also set a
flood of other substances free, which in turn bind to receptors
in order to protect the cell and in this way lead to an altered
state of consciousness.
2.6.2. The main characteristics of a near-death experience
One of the important characteristics of a near-death experi-
ence is the feeling of certainty in regard to the reality of what
is experienced and the feeling that one is truly dead. In ad-
dition to this it was impossible for those who had such an
experience to describe what happened in words. Another
characteristic is the strong feeling of timelessness, of eternity,
of peace and joy. Still, in some cases frightening and extremely
unpleasant feelings were reported. Sometimes the people in-
volved experienced such incidents at a very high speed. This
is often described as a feeling of falling, riding on a wave, of
30
see: Dr.Jansen Karl, Ketamine:Dreams and Realities, MAPS, Florida, 2001, 92ff
31
Psychedelische Chemie. Hrsg.v. D. Trachsel, N. Richard. Nachtschatten Verlag, Deutschland3, 2000,306
32
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005,9ff
33
ICD-10, Internationale statistische Klassifikation der Krankheiten und verwandter Gesundheitsprobleme
10.Revision, Deutsches Institut für medizinische Dokumentation und Information; Band I, Urban & Schwar-
zenberg, Version 1.0, 1994, 310
34
see: ChEck iT! Booklet, Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Universal Druckerei Leoben, Vienna2, 2002, 65
35
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005,9ff
36
see: Turner, D.M. Der Psychedelische Reiseführer. Nachtschattenverlag, Germany2 ,1997, 78f
a vacuum, speeding through a tunnel or being swallowed by
an emptiness.
In many cases the early phase of a ketamine trip is similarly
described. In both cases one has no perception of pain and a
complete separation from the body (dissociation) occurs. In
both, near-death experiences and ketamine trips, visions of
landscapes, angels, near friends or partners as well as visions
of religious or mythical origin are often seen. Together both
experiences have the characteristic of aversion to turn back
and return to the condition before the trip or experience. An-
other typical characteristic of a near-death experience is that
one hears the doctor declare the time of death or that one
floats above the scene and observes everything that happens.
Ketamine trips typically include such out-of-body experiences
and floating scenes.
But near-death experiences and ketamine highs still include
numerous differences and variations of that which has previ-
ously been described. 30
In “Psychedelic Chemistry” (2000) the following is added to
the characteristics of near-death experiences:
Ring (one of the most important near-death researchers) was
able to classify 5 stages in the NDE:
1. “Feeling of peace and satisfaction
2. Feeling of a separation from the body
3. Entrance into a dark intermediate world (high speed
movement through a tunnel: Tunnel-Experiment)
4. Appearance of bright light and
5. Submersion in light
It has been reported that 60 % of the people who had a NDE
experience reached stage one and only 10 % submerged in the
light.” 31
2.7. Mixed-consumption 32
In professional literature one can find reports of experiences
involving the mixed-consumption of ketamine with a wide
variety of psychoactive substances. Most consumers of psy-
choactive substances do not consume only one substance but
12
rather mixed various substances. This simultaneous misuse
or the dependency on numerous substances is called poly-
toxicomania. Today those in the field of medicine choose the
formulation “psychological and behavioural disorders through
the use of multiple substances and consumption of other psy-
chotropic substances” as a diagnosis, as seen for example in
ICD 10.
In the diagnosis catalogue (ICD-10) this is position F19:
“This category is to be used when the consumption of two or
more psychotropic substances are involved and it is not clear
which substance caused the disorder. This category is also to
be used only one or none of the substances consumed can not
be surely identified, since many consumers often don’t know
themselves what they have taken.” 33
In the following section I would like to give an overview of vari-
ous combinations possible.
2.7.1. Ketamine and “Downer”
A “downer” is a range of different substances which all have
a calming and relaxing effect on the body and mind and
which often cause euphoric conditions and are characterised
by a high psychological and physical dependency potential.
So-called downers, for example benzodiacepine, barbiturates
and opioides, can have even stronger effects when taken with
ketamine, because these substances reinforce each other in
their calming and relaxing effects, this can, in turn, result in
breathing depression and respiratory standstills which can
make intensive medical treatment necessary. 34
In addition to this barbiturates and opiates in combination
with ketamine can lengthen the recovery phase and that
means it can take much longer for the consumer to feel fit af-
ter the effects of the substances have already disappeared.
2.7.2. Ketamine and GHB
The effect profiles of ketamine and GHB do not complement
each other very well due to the fact that GHB increases physi-
cal sensitivity while high doses of ketamine respectively numb
physical sensitivity. Still some experienced consumers de-
scribe the alternating consumption of GHB and ketamine as
being rather stimulating. A stable, basic constitution in both
psychological and physical respects is an absolute prerequisite
for such “hot and cold baths”.
2.7.3. Ketamine and Alcohol
The combination of alcohol with ketamine brings a high possi-
bility of nausea and vomiting as well as the risk of a breathing
depression. After consuming alcoholic beverages one should
avoid the consumption of ketamine.
2.7.4. Ketamine and Amphetamines, Metamphetamines
and Cocaine
These combinations can lead to an overstimulation of the
symphatic nervous system (symphaticus). That means it can
cause an increase in blood pressure, heart rate and heavy
breathing.
2.7.5. Ketamine and Ecstasy (MDMA)
According to consumers the consumption of a small amount
of ketamine together with ecstasy gives the effect of the ec-
stasy more “colour” and therewith more vivid visions. This is
described by most consumers as being very pleasant, favour-
able and enriching. It is also reported that this combination
brings back the memory of the first ecstasy experience, which
is described by most consumers as being heavenly. This initial
experience can not be “revisited” by the continued consump-
tion of ecstasy alone. High ketamine doses in combination
with ecstasy consumption leads to a loss of connection to
the world of physical surroundings. The effect profile of ket-
amine in high doses diametrically opposes the effect profile of
ecstasy. That means that the effects of these two substances
are completely different. Ecstasy strengthens perception and
intensifies the connection between the consumer and the
physical environment, while with ketamine the consumer of-
ten completely loses his/her connection to the outside world.
Most consumers who have had experiences with ecstasy com-
13
bined with high doses of ketamine vehemently advise others
against trying this combination.
2.7.6. Ketamine and LSD
According to Hans Cousto, the combination of ketamine
and LSD appears to be a popular in the party-setting as well
as in the scope of psychonautical trips. In the party-setting
ketamine is taken at the climax of the LSD effect in order to
brighten or intensify the effect. It can also be taken nasally in
small doses in order to lengthen the LSD trip. High doses of
ketamine are also often taken at the end of an LSD trip due to
the fact that the simultaneous end of both the LSD and the
ketamine trip can make the fading of the effect of LSD softer
and more pleasant. In addition to this the recovery phase after
a trip is therewith distinctly more pleasant and relaxed than
it would be otherwise. This combination is considered unsuit-
able for young, inexperienced drug consumers because it re-
quires a certain amount of experience to be able to deal with
this high. 35
ZAs an illustration I would like to describe the experience of D.
M. Turner who, while walking through Death Valley, consumed
350 µg of LSD ( a doses which would, for most people, be a very
strong psychedelic doses) at the beginning and an unknown
amount of ketamine at the end of his trip.
“[…] As I sat down to rest and closed my eyes, my mind was
filled with visions of desert creatures, like snakes and scorpi-
ons - with pictures which are typical of desert trips. The next
vision was the exact reproduction of a sabre-toothed tiger. […]
As my thoughts moved further back into the past I saw crea-
tures from the era of dinosaurs which travelled this region in
prehistoric times. As I sat and thought about the past I realised
that I must have developed out of such creatures. […] Then my
mind opened and time stretched into eternity. […]
As the full moon stood high in the sky I arrived at the salt lakes
and, at this spot which is the lowest point of the United States,
I took the ketamine. I felt myself become part of the earth and
penetrated the deep layers of the “spirit” of planetary con-
sciousness. It is common for me and other people who take
ketamine to become a part of the earth spirit.” 36
37
see: ChEck iT! Homepage. URL: www.checkyourdrugs.at, January 2006
38
see: Dr.Jansen Karl, Ketamine:Dreams and Realities, MAPS, Florida, 2001, 266ff
39
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 6
40
see: Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine. Ronin Publishing inc., California1. 1999, 77
41
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 6
42
see: Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine. Ronin Publishing Inc. California. 1999, 82ff
2.8. Specific Risks
2.8.1. Physical
There is a wide range of negative physical effects of ketamine
consumption from nausea and vomiting to cardiac arrhyth-
mia and coma.
Vomiting and nausea are very common side effects of ketamine
consumption, luckily the life-saving reflexes, for example the
swallowing reflex and the gag reflex, are still active under the
influence of ketamine, otherwise there would more frequently
be complications resulting from these side effects.
The consumption of ketamine can also lead to nystagmus (an
involuntary trembling of the eyeball), dizziness, incoherent
speech, increased pulse rate and high blood pressure as well
as life-threatening cardiac arrhythmia.
There are also isolated reports of ketamine causing cramps,
spasms and epileptic seizures. Muscle stiffness, paralysis, deep
sleep and anaesthesia can also occur with very high doses.
Extreme caution is advised when it comes to the analgetic
effects of ketamine, since these can extremely increase the
consumer’s risk of accident and injury. 37
Jansen also lists heavy sweating, increased tear production, a
hoarse voice, shortness of breath and dizzy spells as general
physical effects of ketamine consumption. Ketamine injec-
tions can also cause coughing, headaches and incontinence.
Many studies deal with the influence of ketamine on the im-
mune system. However the majority of these reports show
that ketamine, in contrast to most other anaesthetics, does
not appear to have effects of any kind on this system.
In a few cases the consumption of ketamine has also been
connected to a strong increase in body temperature, but this
is strongly debated and the conclusion has been made that
ketamine does not lead to an overheating of the body. 38
2.8.1.1. Ketamine Overdose
Ketamine is principally considered to be a relatively safe psy-
chotropic substance. That means that the danger of an acute
14
intoxication is rather low. Risky behaviour resulting from the
consumption are the real danger caused by this substance.
From 1987 to 2000 seven deaths in the USA and five deaths
in the European Union have been connected in some way to
ketamine consumption. However in only three of these cases
ketamine was diagnosed as the cause of death. 39
An overdose of ketamine is therefore extremely seldom. The
experienced “psychonaut” John Lilly consumed ketamine nu-
merous times daily over the course of months without observ-
ing subjective physiological damage. A person who consumes
ketamine is more likely to die of an accident than of an over-
dose of the substance. 40
The above-mentioned John Lilly had to be rescued by friends
who found him floating face-down in an isolation tank. He had
emerged himself in the tank in order to intensify the out-of-
body experience caused by ketamine consumption. He could
no longer distinguish whether the near-death experience
which he just had was of a psychedelic nature or if it was actu-
ally real. For the non-fiction writer D.M.Turner help came too
late. He drown in his own bathtub after consuming ketamine.
Marcia Moor, co-writer of a book on the topic of ketamine
entitled “Journeys Into the Bright World”, also died under the
influence of ketamine. She went into a forest on a cold winter
night in January in order to consume ketamine and ended up
freezing to death. 41
An overdoses of ketamine with fainting and comatose con-
ditions can also be life threatening. With a substance like
ketamine where outwardly one can hardly tell the difference
between the normal “high” and an overdose it is very impor-
tant to know what, how much of and how the substance was
consumed.
2.8.2. Psychological
Ketamine consumption is connected with a wide range of un-
desirable psychological effects, for example: anxiety, panic at-
tacks, flashbacks, post-traumatic stress function obstructions,
sustained perception disorders, mania, depression, suicide,
sleeplessness, nightmares, paranoia, hallucinations, deteriora-
tion of personality and aggression.
Consumers repeatedly describe the feeling of not really exist-
ing or that the world around them seems to be surreal.
Karl Jansen believed that this long list of psychological side
effects have more to do with the psyche of the sufferer than
with the actual effects of the substance. The connection with
the substance is perhaps only coincidental. Psychoactive sub-
stances offer an understandable explanation for the problems
of their consumers.
What Jansen is suggesting here is called predisposition. Pre-
disposition is the medical expression for susceptibility. What
this refers to is the susceptibility to specific illnesses. That
means that psychological side effects, for example depres-
sions, could arise from a predisposition and therefore possibly
do not have to have anything to do with the consumption of
the substance.
Jansen also wrote that some people who have never con-
sumed drugs, but still suffer from psychosis, tend to claim
that someone must have put something in their glass. This
is used as a possible and acceptable explanation for the fact
that something entirely uncontrollable and unexplainable is
happening within them.
There are, however, also effects which are definitely connected
to the substance, for example a higher dopamine level, from
which one comes to the conclusion that there is a connection
between the substance and the development of paranoia.
Also automatic physical movement which occurs without the
conscious excertion or according to the will of the consumer
can be attributed to ketamine. The danger of accidents during
such activity is naturally great.
At this point it is important to mention that all studies that
exist in reference to the psychological side effects of ketamine
have been studies of ketamine in its medicinal use. The con-
sumption of the substance as a “recreational drug” throws a
completely different light on the situation. Here one can not
for example forget the role of other substances which were
taken before and/or after the consumption of ketamine. I
would also like to mention the set and the setting once again.
An unfavourable setting leads more easily to an undesirable
result. The expectations of the individuals taking the sub-
stance are an important part of the set. Knowing this it was
15
possible to find out for example that the key to a pleasant and
positive ketamine experience was to influence the experience
from outside. For instance a warm and emphatic feeling can be
developed through a doctor who knows how to emphasise the
positive effects of ketamine. In the exact same way, according
to Jansen, a negative influence can be achieved, for example
through the demonization of the substance in the media.
2.8.2.1. Bad Trip
A so-called “bad trip” can appear in several different forms.
Anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, paranoia, panic attacks
and aggression are all common characteristics of a “bad trip”.
If a consumer has had a bad trip it can help to take that per-
son to a quiet place, without party lights and with few other
people. The consumer should not be left alone and some
consumers reported that it helps to speak to the sufferer in
a calming voice and to touch them. Whispered conversations
and making faces are counterproductive in such situations.
If it isn’t possible to maintain a certain amount of identity
the consumer usually loses consciousness. In such cases and
in the case of long-term symptoms it is essential to acquire
medical intervention. 42
2.9. Possible Long-term Effects
2.9.1. Psychological Long-term effects
Until today it has not been possible to make any unequivo-
cal statements in regard to the long-term damage caused by
ketamine consumption. As with almost every other substance
it is assumed that there are risks corresponding to the amount
and frequency of ketamine consumption. It is also known that
a degree of tolerance can be developed to the substance and
that brain and nerve damage are possible with frequent use.
The experiences which are usually made with ketamine are
connected to positive and pleasant feelings. When one stops
taking ketamine after a consumption phase a return to the
“normal” mood occurs. So it is possible to occasionally suffer
from a depression or depressive phase after a period of chronic
ketamine consumption. Hereby the question must be put as
43
see Jansen, Dr. Karl. Ketamine:Dreams and Realities. MAPS, Florida. 2001,244f
44
Eve & Rave Homepage. URL: http://www.eve-rave.net/presse/presse05-02-21.html, Safer Sniffing,
Redaktion Webteam www.eve-rave.net Berlin , Pressemitteilung vom 19. Februar 2005
45
ICD-10, Internationale statistische Klassifikation der Krankheiten und verwandter Gesundheitsprobleme
10.Revision, Deutsches Institut für medizinische Dokumentation und Information; Band I, Urban & Schwar-
zenberg, Version 1.0, 1994, 306
46
ICD-10, Internationale statistische Klassifikation der Krankheiten und verwandter Gesundheitsprobleme
10. Revision, Deutsches Institut für medizinische Dokumentation und Information; Band I, Urban & Schwar-
zenberg, Version 1.0, 1994, 306
47
see: Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine, Ronin Publishing inc., California1, 1999,76f
48
see: Jansen, Dr. Karl. Ketamine:Dreams and Realities. MAPS, Florida. 2001, 166f
49
see: Jansen, Dr. Karl. Ketamine:Dreams and Realities. MAPS, Florida. 2001, 18
50
Springer, A. Pleasure and death – deadly pleasure, in: Sucht und Suchtbehandlung.
Problematik und Therapie in Österreich. Editors. Brosch and Mader. LexisNexis Verlag, Vienna. 2004, 330
to whether or not the chronic use of the substance was used
as a form of self-medication for treating an already existing or
latent depression.
Ketamine can trigger a phase of mania in manic-depressive
subjects. The substance has an anti-depressive mechanism
and can reverse the effects of the stabilising medication called
lithium®. Lithium® works against manic phases and it has
been shown that it has several important effects which are
the exact opposite of those produced by Ketamine. 43
2.9.2. Physical Long-term effects
Varying long-term physical effects of ketamine consumption
can arise through the different forms of consumption.
As with other substances, long-term nasal consumption can
be very harmful to the mucous membranes in the nose. In
extreme cases it can lead to a hole in the nasal septum. The
sense of smell can also be damaged by chronic nasal con-
sumption. Disorders in the sense of smell can be of toxic ori-
gin, for example damage to olfactory epithelia or fila olfactoria
caused by the chemical effects of corrosive vapours or can be
the result of nasal consumption of substances like cocaine,
amphetamines or ketamine. Damage to the sense of smell
can have a seriously detrimental effect on the quality of life. If
one can not smell one is missing an important aspect of sen-
sory orientation. A regular nasal irrigation is recommended to
spare the strained nose. The best method for cleansing is to
prepare a salt solution with one teaspoon of salt in one cup of
luke warm water. Dip the tip of the finger in this solution and
then sniff the solution from the finger tip. If necessary breath
in very deeply to assure that the solution is breathed right
down into the throat. 44
Further long-term damage can be caused through the injec-
tions by intravenous and intramuscular consumption. Abso-
lutely hygienic conditions are essential by such forms of con-
sumption. (see section: safer use)
Illnesses like HIV and hepatitis C can, in the worst cases, be
the results of unclean substances, needles, syringes or other
instruments. The development of infections of the prick point,
16
abscesses or phlegmones are also dangers of injection.
2.10. Ketamine dependency
Before I start with this section it is important for me to explain
the difference between damaging use and substance depen-
dency. Here are the definitions of both as found in the ICD 10:
“Damaging Use
consumption of psychotropic substances leading to adverse
health effects. These can appear in the form of physical dis-
orders, for example in the form of hepatitis after the self-
injection of the substance, or in the form of a psychological
disorder, for example, a depressive episode caused by massive
consumption of alcohol.” 45 (ICD 10 F1x.1)
“Dependency Syndrome
A range of behavioural, cognitive and physical phenomenon
which develops after repeated substance use. Typically there is
a strong wish to take the substance and difficulties in control-
ling the consumption and continued use of the substance in
spite of damaging results. The use of the substance acquires
the foremost priority in comparison to other activities or du-
ties. An increase in tolerance is developed and sometimes also
physical withdrawal syndrome.
Dependency syndrome can occur as a result of the consump-
tion of individual substances (e.g., tabacco, alcohol or diaz-
epam), a substance group (e.g., opiate-like substances), or to
a wide spectrum of pharmacologically different substances.”46
(ICD 10 F1x.2)
In professional literature one finds proof that ketamine has a
very high psychological dependency potential. D.M. Turner also
stated his need to fight against dependency, after which he
gave ketamine the name “psychedelic heroin”. 47
It is highly probable that ketamine has a higher dependency
potential that any other psychedelic substance.
The amount of consumers which had lost control of their
ketamine consumption has been estimated by Jansen to
be around 15 %. Jansen includes authors like Moore, Lilly and
Turner in this group. 48
In my research I was also confronted with consumers who told
me of physical withdrawal symptoms after attempts were
made to stop consuming ketamine after a long, intensive
phase of consumption. In particular symptoms like fever, cold
sweats, sleeplessness and the like were described.
In spite of the fact that I was unable to find any hints of a
physical dependency in the professional literature, it still ap-
pears as if there are consumers who suffer from somatic ef-
fects after discontinuing consumption.
Jansen states that the following characteristics are convincing
proof of dependency syndrome:
1. A strong compulsion to consume the substance without
setting an appointed time or amount of substance to be
taken.
2. A development of tolerance
3. The consumption of ketamine has a higher priority than
other activities which previously were of more importance
to the consumer.
4. The neglect of things which were considered to be inter-
esting or which caused pleasure.
5. More and more time is spent in procuring and consum-
ing the substance, in recovering from the effects, in talking
about and thinking about the substance.
6. Discussions about the consumption arise within the
family and friends, relatives and/or acquaintances express
worry and concern.
7. In spite of clear signs of damaging effects, for example
problems with the memory or negative influences on re-
lationships, the consumer persistently refuses to stop con-
suming.
8. A pause in consumption is followed by an excessive, un-
controlled consumption phase.
The change from one consumption form to another, for ex-
ample from nasal to intramuscular consumption, can also be
a sign of an existing dependency and can lead to higher physi-
cal risk. 49
In my opinion it is important to consider the fact that with the
17
change to a form of consumption involving the use of a nee-
dle an important natural barrier has been crossed. With the
crossing of this barrier the intravenous consumption of other
substances is a distinct, new possibility. Here one should also
mention the so-called “needle-craze”. This means the wish to
experience the physical administration, the actual setting of
the needle, involved in intravenous or intramuscular consump-
tion. This term is often used in connection with opiate depen-
dency and should, in my opinion, also be mentioned here.
There are many possible explanations for how a person can
become addicted to ketamine. Alfred Springer discusses vari-
ous points of consideration on the topic of risky drug use in his
work entitled “Pleasure and death – deadly pleasure” (2004).
Springer claims that in the desire to experience the extreme
conditions of the ketamine high (e.g., NDE) there is a principle
of so-called “dark hedonism”. Hedonistic motivation can also
have “dark” aspects. It can border on tragedy and include a
desire for pain or danger. Mystical conditions and the feeling
of the proximity of death (near-death experiences) brought
about by the consumption of ketamine can be experienced as
being pleasurable.
“If we stay within the psycho-analytical frame of reference
we can assume that individuals who were badly traumatised
during a very early stage of development are more likely to be-
come victims of the dangers of destructive narcissistic needs.
Such personalities possibly make up the hard core of consum-
ers who, when choosing from all drugs available, still decide to
take those drugs which most consumers have experienced to
be “terrible”.” 50
This can then be applied to the ketamine consumer and espe-
cially to dependency to ketamine.
Still:
“The similarity of the desired dissociative condition to hysteric
conditions, […] allows the assumption to be made that the
population concerned is not limited to individuals who have
been extremely disturbed at a very early stage of development
but also includes people whose psychological organisation
has reached a relatively high level and can still be tempted by
the experiences which can be brought about by the consump-
tion of so-called “new” drugs.” 51
52
Springer A., Pleasure and death – deadly pleasure, in: Sucht und Suchtbehandlung.
Problematik und Therapie in Österreich. Hrsg. v. Brosch, Mader. LexisNexis Verlag, Vienna, 2004, 330
53
see: Estler, Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Schattauer, Stuttgard5 ,2000, 197ff
54
see: Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Notfallsmedizin. URL: http://www.agn.at/html1.php?hid=16, January 2006
55
see: (S)-Ketamin. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Aspekte. Hrsg. v. R. Klose. U. Hoppe.
Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2002,17ff
56
see: (S)-Ketamin. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Aspekte. Hrsg. v. R. Klose. U. Hoppe.
Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2002,81ff
57
see: Estler, Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Schattauer, Stuttgard5 ,2000, 20
58
see: (S)-Ketamin. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Aspekte. Editors R. Klose and U. Hoppe.
Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. 2002, 93f
Increased consumption and a dependency mechanism also in-
crease the risk because these result in decisive changes in the
impulse structure and impulse economy. The desire for near-
death experiences and to play with death can develop into a
strong desire for the real experience of death. 52
Ketamine dependency and the treatment thereof are possibly
comparable with cocaine dependency. An exhaustive psycho-
logical, physical and social treatment should be carried out.
18
3. The medicinal use of ketamine
3.1. Ketamine in emergency medicine
Ketamine is used as an injected anaesthetic in emergency
medicine. Injected anaesthetics are substances which dis-
play a very fast anaesthetic effect when administered in the
adequate dosage. The immediate onset of the effect and the
very limited ability to control the effect are important charac-
teristics of injected anaesthetics 53
Ketamine causes analgesia and sedation, that means it is both
pain killing and calming. At the same time protective reflexes
(coughing, swallowing) and spontaneous breathing are still
maintained. The stability of circulation, the low risk of breath-
ing depression, and the maintenance of the protective reflexes
are the most important desirable effects of ketamine.
Ketamine is, in a legal sense, not an addictive drug and is
therewith much easier to use than other substances, for ex-
ample opiates.
Due to its characteristics ketamine is to be favoured when per-
forming short and painful operations. Among other things, it
is suitable for use as a pain killer in difficult rescue operations,
in the case of skull and brain traumas, certain respiratory ill-
nesses, for example, status asthmaticus and shock and there-
fore it is often used in emergency medicine. 54
3.2. Ketamine in internal medicine
Ketamine is used as a mono-anaesthetic in internal medicine
and distinguishes itself through its dissociative effects. That
means a good analgesia (pain killing effect) has been achieved
even without the patient completely losing consciousness.
Due to its psychoactive side effects ketamine is seldom used
as a mono-substance with adults. Ketamine is used more of-
ten as a medication for children since with them these side
effects appear less frequently. 55
3.3. Ketamine in the treatment of chronic pain
Ketamine has a proven acute analgesic effect, but in the treat-
ment of chronic pain one must be aware of the validity of its
use over the long term. It seems as though ketamine is one
of the few substances which can possibly, in specific cases,
19
be used as a prophylactic against chronic pain. Data suggests
that ketamine can diminish the increase in sensitivity to pain.
There are however still problems with the practical use of ket-
amine in long-term therapy. It is not clear if the cessation of
therapy is the result of a loss of effectiveness on the long term
or of the side effects. 56
3.4. Side effects of ketamine
The undesirable effects are, most importantly, the increase in
blood pressure and heart rate at the beginning of anaesthesia.
Nausea, vomiting and headaches can all appear in the wak-
ing phase. 57 In medicinal use the particularly undesirable and
unpleasant side effects are the psychological phenomenon
which those ketamine consumers who use ketamine outside
of its medicinal context as a treatment are looking for. Hal-
lucinations, confusion and nightmares are often a reason for
the cessation of chronic treatment of outpatients. These side
effects can return after a few days or weeks. Since these side
effects are extremely dose dependent the occurrence of psy-
chological side effects can be avoided through careful dosage
adjustment. In emergency medicine one must also take into
consideration the fact that a loss of interactive capabilities
eliminates the chance of constructive conversation. In addi-
tion to this there are reports in professional literature of com-
plaints made against medical personnel as a result of negative
dream experiences in patients in the waking phase.
In medical practise it is of course very important to inform
the patients, when possible before initiating treatment, of the
potential side effects and therewith reduce possible anxiety.
Before starting therapy it is usually very helpful to make ar-
rangements in which it is made clear that the patient is not
required to endure the side effects and that the treatment can
be stopped at any time. 58
These undesirable effects are more seldom and less pro-
nounced in children and youths. That means that ketamine is
particularly suitable for use as a medication for children under-
going short, painful operations. It has been used, for example,
very successfully in the treatment of child burn victims.
59
see: Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine. Ronin Publishing inc., Califormia. 1999, 14ff
60
see: Kelly, Kit. The little book of ketamine. Ronin Publishing inc., Califormia. 1999, 14ff
61
mündliche Auskunft: ChEck iT! Rechtsberatung, Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, März 2006

4. The legal status of ketamine 61

3.5. The use of ketamine in psychotherapeutic practice An other group of researchers used ketamine in the treatment In Austria ketamine is classified neither as an addictive nor as
of chronically ill patients in order to prepare them for death. a psychotropic substance. The substance is however available
In the mid 1980s the Russian psychiatrist Evgeny Krupitsky They discovered that this helped to reduce the fear of death. on prescription only. In the course of my research I was unable
studied the use of ketamine in the treatment of alcoholics. He In “The little book of ketamine” Kit Kelly writes that ketamine to find any penal provision regarding the possession of this
also planned to study the effects of ketamine in the treatment should be given as the first of three injections in state ordered substance by unauthorised persons. As a result, when some-
of post-traumatic stress. It is doubted that ketamine can be executions. She believed that in this way the death of the one is caught with ketamine he/she can not be criminally
particularly useful in the psychotherapeutic context, since the worst of all offenders could then be transformed into an ec- prosecuted due to a lack of suitable regulation in the illegal
substance interferes with all cognitive abilities and therewith static experience at the expense of the state. 60 drug code.
causes expressive communication to be impossible. Apart
from that, a high doses of ketamine would most likely cut the
patient off from his/her environment and severe the tie of the
patient-therapist relationship.
On the other hand the psychiatrist Karl Jansen supports the
argument that ketamine has a therapeutic and psychothera-
peutic effect. He states that the changed state of conscious-
ness has in itself therapeutic potential.
According to Jansen ketamine consumption also causes a re-
duced feeling of worry in regard to death and has a connec-
tion to an increasing occurrence of selfless actions. The ket-
amine experience can supposedly be a decisive turning point
which can lead to positive life changes. The consumption of
ketamine can also have effects which are similar to those of
electro-shock therapy used in treating clinically depressed pa-
tients. Investigations exist which suggest that ketamine also
has anti-depressive characteristics. There are signs that the
substance can be capable of reducing anxiety and phobias.

The psychotherapist Stan Grof, who studied psychedelic

substances and their therapeutic effects over the course of
many years, referred to ketamine as an “absolutely amazing
substance” and endorsed the noteworthy philosophical and
spiritual revelation of this substance. 59

In “The little book of ketamine” Kit Kelly (1999) describes the

investigations carried out by two Iranian psychiatrists who
exposed their patients, under the influence of ketamine, to
frightening situations. These psychiatrists reported that this
treatment was successful in reducing the anxiety so signifi-
cantly that the patients could released from the psychiatric
ward.

20 21
62
Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Leitbild Glossar
63
see: Perspektiven der Drogenarbeit und –politik, Ein Lesebuch anlässlich des 10jährigen Bestehens des
Vereins Wiener Sozialprojekte, Hrsg.v. G.Schinnerl, P.Neubauer, 2000, 8
64
see: Cousto Hans, Fachinformation: Ketamin – Mischkonsum. Dissoziatives Anästhetikum, 2005, 6
65
ChEck iT! Homepage. http://www.checkyourdrugs.at, January 22, 2006
66
ChEck iT! Homepage. http://www.checkyourdrugs.at, January 22, 2006
67
Eve & Rave Homepage. URL: http://www.eve-rave.net/presse/presse05-02-21.html, Safer Sniffing,
Redaktion Webteam www.eve-rave.net Berlin , Pressemitteilung vom 19. Februar 2005
5. „Risk Reduction“and „Safer use”
5.1. Risk reduction
“Risk reduction begins before any damage is done and there-
with also before any suffering can be caused by the damage.
The goal of risk reduction is to prevent damage/suffering even
when the fundamental conditions remains.” 62
The term risk reduction is thematically connected with the
concept of low threshold drug-related social work. The expres-
sion “low threshold” describes the easy, non-bureaucratic ac-
cess to help and the pragmatic approach for providing help
which is tailored to the needs of those who are seeking help
and is usually not abstinence-oriented. 63
In the context of low threshold drug-related social work
risk reduction is an approach which aims to prevent or at
least minimise possible consequential damage and suffer-
ing caused by long-term substance misuse. One example of
this approach is the following informational publication.
I would like to list several points which should be helpful in
keeping the risks of the ketamine high to a minimum.
• The hallucinations caused by ketamine consumption can
be very dark and intense, if one feels insecure or unwell
one should abstain from the consumption of dissociative
anaesthetics.
• Always take only a very small dose with very slow repeti-
tion.
• Ketamine should not be consumed when one is alone. It
is advisable to have a sober person as a “look out”. These
rules are especially applicable to ketamine trips which are
taken in bathtubs or other water containers.
• In order to avoid the risk of accidents ketamine should
always be consumed in a sitting or lying position. Many
consumers suggest that a warm, calm atmosphere, for ex-
ample under the covers in bed, is very pleasant. All candles
should be put out. One should go to the toilet before the
trip, due to the fact that incontinence is often a result of
the trip and some consumers are unable to move once the
substance has begun to have its effect.
• One should not eat anything in the last six hours before
22
consuming ketamine since this is the easiest way to avoid
nausea or vomiting.
• Intravenous consumption should be carried out slowly
(over the course of one minute), otherwise the consumer
can suffer from breath depression and a sharp rise in blood
pressure.
• Activities which require co-ordinated movements, for ex-
ample driving a car, should not, under any circumstances,
be attempted.
• Mixed-consumption with alcohol, benzodiacepines, bar-
biturates and opiates increases the risk of breath depres-
sion. 64
• “Ketamine and PCP can reach the placenta and can enter
the mother’s milk.. During pregnancy and in the breastfeed-
ing phase one should absolutely abstain from consuming
such substances.” 65
5.2. Safer use
In the section on “safer use” I would like to name important
factors which help to prevent the consumption-related risks of
ketamine. That means I will describe how one can consume a
certain substance in a certain way with the least possible risk
and with the least possible damage to one’s health.
When consuming ketamine orally one must bear in mind that
the effects can set in very slowly. In order to avoid an overdoses
one should remember this and wait before taking another
dose. 66
The nasal consumption of ketamine, as well as any other
psychotropic substance, dries out the nasal mucous mem-
branes and is therewith a strain on the very sensitive nose. I
found a press report on the topic of “safer sniffing” written
by Eve&Rave, a drug-checking project in Switzerland. Here I
would like to relate its information for consumers.
“The following is to be considered for safer sniffing:
1. In general one should pay attention to cleanliness and hy-
giene. This is especially important when one is sniffing in the
toilet facilities of bars/clubs or the like since these areas are
known to have more pathogens than other areas. […].
2. The nose should be freed of all mucus and the nostrils free
of all crusted particles before one starts to sniff. Strongly con-
gested or dirty nostrils should be rinsed thoroughly with a mild
salt solution. […] In any case it is advisable to regularly moisten
mucous membranes which have been dried out through nasal
drug consumption. In this connection the use of nasal sprays
should be avoided since these can dry out the nasal mucous
membranes still more.
3. The lines must be well-prepared. The substance should be
crushed as finely as possible into powder and placed on a
clean, freshly polished mirror or an other dry, smooth surface.
The finer the powder is the smaller the chances are that bigger
particles of the substance will get caught in or attach them-
selves to the nose hairs and therewith damage the mucous
membrane of the nose.
4. The tube should be clean and should not have any sharp
edges. Rolled banknotes are not advisable not only because
banknotes are known to be extremely dirty but also because
they are printed with very poisonous ink […]. Therefore it is
advisable to […]make a new tube out of a fresh, clean piece
of paper after each sniff. Plastic straws are also not suitable,
especially when these have been cut with a knife. The sliced
edges are often very sharp and there is a danger of injuring
the nose.
5. The tube should never be shared. Hepatitis viruses can be
transferred by the shared use of sniffing tubes, and not just
through sex or the shared use of needles or syringes. The shar-
ing of sniffing tubes is especially dangerous when a nose has
been injured since this would allow even the smallest particle
of blood to attach itself to the tube and be transferred to an-
other person.. […]
6. Approximately ten minutes after sniffing the nose should be
cleaned. In general blowing the nose into a tissue is enough. If
the nose is very dirty it should be cleaned with a salt solution.
Since the nose is covered with a sensitive mucous membrane
which is covered with hair and particles of powder can get
caught in these hairs it is possible for bloody skin irritations to
develop and that necrosis occurs. Intense necrosis can result in
an opening in the nasal septum. Bloody skin irritations in the
nose often lead to the development of boils and, in extreme
23
cases, also to the development of carbuncles.
7. If a nostril is bloody or if a boil or carbuncle ha developed in it
this nostril should not in any case be used for sniffing psycho-
tropic substances. When one has chronic sniffles one should
generally abstain from the nasal application of substances
since the danger of additional infections and the development
of boils is respectively high under these conditions.
8. A too frequent nasal application of psychotropic substances
can lead to damage of the olfactory mucous membranes and
can therefore have a negative effect on the sense of smell. Due
to the fact that the sufferers of this condition do not notice
(smell) anything themselves they first out about their situa-
tion from other people who tell them about their strong body
odour or about the stench in their living quarters. […]
9. The nose is much more than a fleshy addition to the face,
with two holes and through which one breathes and into
which one can put a sniffing tube. The nose has various func-
tions, the interference of which can lead to a noticeable de-
crease in the quality of life. For this reason everyone who uses
their nose for the application of substances should take care
of their nose. This care includes, for example, the careful ap-
plication of pure, natural oils using a cotton bud or a paper
handkerchief. The oil must be spread gently on the entire inner
surface of the nostril. One should not forget to oil the region of
skin under the nose since troublesome skin irritation can also
arise there. […] If in spite of this care an unpleasant burning
sensation still remains, one should stop sniffing for a while. In
the case of repeated nose bleeds or the continuation of the de-
velopment of boils the nasal application of substances should
be stopped and a doctor should be consulted!“ 67
In the case of intramuscular and intravenous consumption it
is absolutely necessary to always use a fresh, sterile syringe
and needle in order to avoid phlegmones and “shakers”. These
syringes and needles should not be shared since sharing can
lead to the transmission of illnesses like hepatitis and HIV.
If for some reason you do not have a fresh syringe and needle
you can carry out an “emergency disinfection”. Both the sy-
ringe and the needle should be rinsed thoroughly with cold
water several times. After that the syringe and needle should
each be immersed separately in boiling water for 20 minutes.
One more, although not as effective, method of carrying out
68
see: „Das gsunde Gansl – eine medizinsche Sonderausgabe“, Sozialmedizinsche Drogenberatungsstelle
Ganslwirt, Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Vienna, 6
69
see: medizinische Merkblätter, Sozialmedizinsche Drogenberatungsstelle Ganslwirt,
Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Vienna, 6
70
vgl. ChEck iT!– eine Einrichtung stellt sich vor, Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Vienna, 2005
the “emergency disinfection” is to thoroughly rinse in an io-
dine solution and an alcohol solution. 68
Intramuscular and intravenous consumption should take
place in the most hygienic conditions possible. Before and af-
ter the injection one should wash the hands and skin should
be cleaned with a fresh swab soaked in alcohol.
With intravenous consumption it is safest to use the large
veins in the arm. Longer, thicker needles lie better in the veins
and are therefore gentler to the vein. After the injection one
should always press a dry swab on the injection point in order
to avoid the development of bruising or calluses. When intra-
venous consumption is frequent one should always chose a
new point of injection and veins should be regularly treated
with vein salve. 69
24
6. Empirical Section
6.1. Introduction to empirical section
I have been working as a freelance employee for the secondary
preventive project ChEck iT! since March 2004. My main duty
is to work as a scene observer, in particular in the Goa and Free
techno scenes. In the last year I have observed an increase in
ketamine consumption. In my opinion at the moment there
appears to be a ”ketamine trend“. I was repeatedly confronted
with ketamine consumers at scene events. In this connection
I asked myself several questions regarding this substance and
decided to try to answer these questions in my thesis. These
questions were used as the basis for my empirical work.
I wanted for example to find out more about specific consump-
tion patterns and forms and about specific issues or problems
arising from the special characteristics of ketamine.
In the following section I will describe my methods in more
detail, present my results and combine these with the theory.
In order to make everything more clear I would like to begin
with a short description of ChEck iT!.
6.1.1. ChEck iT! 70
ChEck iT! is a co-production of the Association of Viennese
Social Project (“Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte”), the clinical
institute for medicinal and chemical laboratory diagnostics
of the Vienna General Hospital and the Vienna Social Founda-
tion (“Fonds Soziales Wien”). ChEck iT! covers a special field of
addiction prevention and is the only institution of its kind in
Austria or the European Union.
ChEck iT! is anchored in the drug concept of the city of Vienna
and is financed through funds from the Vienna Social Founda-
tion and the Austrian Ministry of Health and Women’s Issues
(“Bundesministeriums für Gesundheit and Frauen” or BMGF).
The target group of the institution is young consumers of psy-
choactive substances, so-called recreational drugs.
ChEck iT! meets those people who are interested in their of-
fers – in the sense of streetwork – there, where they spend
time with their friends and where they come into contact with
psychoactive substances. That means on site at techno parties
and other events staged by the electronic music scene.
25
Since 1997 ChEck iT! has been the only institution in Austria
which offers a high quality, anonymous and free chemical
analysis of psychoactive substances.
The chemical tests offer us an opportunity to get in contact
with consumers, to give objective information and to warn
consumers about particularly risky substances. In addition
to this they provide us with basic information for the early
recognition of new trends as well as for scientifically based
studies on consumption habits, what is being offered, long-
term effects and for use in developing concrete steps in the
field of health promotion. This information allows for up to
date methods for preventing substance abuse and reducing
demand..
ChEck iT! pursues an acceptance approach. Drug consumption
is not approved of, but provides a repeated starting point for
information and advice. Potential consumers of psychoactive
substances are taken seriously and can tell someone about
their concerns, problems and wishes.
The production of information material, like posters, booklets,
substance flyers, and the ChEck iT! homepage are also an im-
portant part of the services offered by this institution. They
make it possible for those interested to get important infor-
mation at any time, regardless of whether it is for themselves
or for passing on to friends and acquaintances.
6.2. Method and Approach
The hypothesis of this thesis is that the consumption of ket-
amine causes changes in social and conflict-related behaviour.
In order to verify or falsify this hypothesis I created a stan-
dardised questionnaire. This questionnaire was then filled out
with ketamine consumers at various techno events and within
the framework of my work with ChEck iT!.
Of course it was very important for me to be able to estab-
lish a feeling of trust between myself and the consumers on
site. If this would not have been possible we would most likely
not have been able to find anyone willing to fill out the ques-
tionnaire with me. It was very important for me to be able to
conduct my work in a calm atmosphere and to make it clear
to those answering that not all questions absolutely had to
be answered. I also made it clear that questions which were
answered must be done so honestly and with a due amount
of consideration.
In this regard it must also be mentioned that many of those
questioned were not sober at the time of questioning. That
means some of those questioned gave answers under the
influence of psychoactive substances. This has, in my opinion,
both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, this
made people more talkative and helped to lower the inhibition
threshold. It was, for example, less unpleasant for these people
to talk about their ketamine consumption and the changes
which arose as a result of it. On the other hand, some of those
questioned could not really concentrate on the content of the
conversation and I had to repeat some questions several times.
Naturally I made sure to choose conversation partners whose
communication skills were not too extremely impeded.
An basic attitude of acceptance toward the consumers was
very important for me. Firstly, because I believe that accep-
tance is a necessary prerequisite for respectful contact and
secondly, because this attitude encourages feelings of trust
between the clients and myself.
When talking about such “delicate” subjects I find it particu-
larly important to have enough time and the right space for
discussion. It is essential to be able to answer questions and
deal with insecurities, for example concern regarding the
anonymity of the answers, before beginning. This sometimes
caused me to be caught in discussions about ChEck iT!, my re-
sults and the validity of my questionnaire, before being able to
lead a constructive conversation about ketamine.
6.3. Explanation of method choice
As mentioned above, I chose to use a standardised ques-
tionnaire (see Appendix) to collect my data. This instrument
seemed to me to make sense because it was necessary to
choose a survey method which could be used where we found
the ketamine consumers. That meant that I went to various
techno parties with my questionnaire.
In this setting I could not have carried out interviews or even
thought of recording the interviews on tape because techno
parties are much too loud. There is never a suitable place for
26
such conversations, no calm and quiet room. Outside of this
party – setting it would have been difficult for me to find ket-
amine consumers, and since the purpose of my work was to
find out more about ketamine as a recreational drug it made
sense for me to carry out my research on site.
Of course it would have been possible for me to find ketamine
consumers at conventional drug counselling centres, but ket-
amine is used in a different way in the traditional drug scene.
The data collected from these clients would therefore not be
suitable for my purposes and would not have had any connec-
tion to my topic of ketamine as a recreational drug. It was very
important to me to be able to fill out the questionnaire with
the consumer, in order to be able to start a conversation with
them. In this way I was not limited to working with the facts
and data which the questionnaire provided, but was also able
to make other observations. The same goes for my personal
presence at the events, just being there provided me with
the chance to observe consumers, with or without filling out
questionnaires. Of course personal observations lack objec-
tivity, but I still feel that my assessments provide a valuable
additional factor to my research. It is also important to stress
the fact that my interpretation of the results is in no way the
only “right” one, everyone who wants to can come to their own
conclusions based on this data.
One more important factor which influenced my choice of
method was the fact that I wanted to acquire data on ket-
amine consumption patterns and forms in the party scene.
For this purpose qualitative research, for example interviews,
would not have had much validity since very few clients could
be questioned in this way.
6.4. Questionnaire Development
After it had become clear to me that I should carry out the
empirical part of my work with a questionnaire (see Appendix)
I had to decide what exactly the question was that I wished to
answer with the results. During this process I looked at other
studies and attempted to develop my questionnaire in a way
that would make it possible to compare my results with those
of other researchers. Another important basis for my question-
naire were the questionnaires from ChEck iT!. These question-
naires were helpful examples and also made it possible for me
to make my data useful for ChEck iT!.
It was also very important for me to formulate the questions
in a way which could be seen as free of judgement and gen-
der-neutral.
In my questionnaire there are many open questions without
allotted answer format, even though questions with allotted
answers are preferable in written questionnaires with an open
question form. My reason for choosing this form of question-
ing is based on the fact that this approach encourages the
development of a conversation with those being questioned.
Another important consideration involved in the creation of
the questionnaires was the length. Naturally I wanted to have
all of my questions answered, but it is also important to make
sure that the questionnaire is not too long. It was also neces-
sary to cut some questions and to re-formulate others.
Once I had chosen and carefully formulated all of the ques-
tions I put them into a sensible order and revised the formal
conditions. Instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire
were not necessary since I would be present while the subjects
filled out the form. In this way I was able to answer any ques-
tions which might arise in detail.
Before I officially started my survey I carried out a preliminary
test. I tested the questionnaire on two clients in order to find
out how long the questionnaire took to complete, if every-
thing was clearly understandable and if anything needed to
be changed. This test showed that some changes in the layout
would be useful, some questions needed to be re-worded and
that the co-operative completion of the questionnaire would
take approximately 20 minutes.
6.5. Description of the survey
The survey was carried out at various events in the Goa and
free-techno scenes because past experienced had brought
to my attention that ketamine consumption is comparative-
ly high in these scenes. This way I could be sure to come in
contact with many ketamine consumers. A project practicum
which I had previously carried out in these scenes in winter
27
2003/2004 confirmed the fact that ketamine was relatively
frequently consumed in the free-techno scene.
In the course of scene observation a fellow student and I col-
lected data in various sub-scenes of the techno scene. We
asked, among other things, which substances the people had
already consumed. In the free-techno scene 23.1 % of those
questioned (n=26) said that they had already used ketamine,
whereas when we questioned a comparably large group of
people (n=22) at a “Biosphere” event, an event in the commer-
cial techno scene, 0 % of those questioned said that they had
consumed ketamine. A further 38.5 % of those people asked
in the free-techno scene said that they could possibly try
ketamine in the future. In comparison, 0 % of the “Biosphere”
attendees could imagine trying ketamine some time in the
future. These figures strengthened my impression that there
are significantly more ketamine consumers in the free-techno
scene than in other scenes.
Another reason why I chose these particular scenes for my
survey is that these were the scenes for which I had been
responsible in my work with ChEck iT!. That meant that I had
already been able to make the necessary contacts for begin-
ning my work. This was particularly helpful in my attempts to
find out when the events would take place and in procuring
free tickets.
Here I would like to describe these two scenes in more detail:
6.5.1.1. Free-techno scene
The origins of the free-techno scene lie in England at the end
of the 1980s (Summer of Love). The scene describes itself as
being freedom-loving and close to nature. Most of the events
take place in the outdoors, for example in quarries, forest
clearings, fields, etc. In the colder seasons or in bad weather
the events are moved to old, unused factories, condemned
buildings or the like.
The scene is organised through individual “sound systems”. A
“sound system” is a group of people who collectively buy the
sound equipment which is required for making music. The
equipment is usually quite extensive and ranges from items
like record players and huge sound speakers to complete mu-
sic studio facilities. It is difficult to estimate how many “sound
systems” are active in Austria’s techno scene, personally I know
of approximately 20.
The basic idea of the free-techno scene is to move from one
place to another undisturbed and to have parties wherever
one decides to do so. This scene can be found in nearly all
European countries and a strong network has been estab-
lished. This network can be seen in so-called technivals in
various countries (Czech Republic, Spain, Holland, Italy...) where
“soundsystems” from different countries meet and make one
huge event together. At such technivals one can expect to see
several thousand visitors.
Most technivals take place in summer and there is a large
“community” which travels from one technival to the next.
Free-techno parties take place in Austria all year round. As far
as I know there is on average one party every two weeks in
Vienna and its surroundings, Lower Austria and Burgenland.
The individual parties are organised by one or more sound sys-
tems. The spread of information on coming parties is carried
out via word-of-mouth, flyers and so-called “infolines”.
The infoline is always a different mobile phone number with
a mailbox message describing how to get to the party. As of 11
p.m. on the day of the party one can call the infoline to find out
where the “venue” is.
This complicated access is used to keep the police away and
also to make sure that only a “selected community” comes to
the parties. These “chosen few” should all share the same basic
political ideals of freedom and anti-capitalism. The motto of
the free-techno scene is “Free Music for Free People”!
One main goal is to have parties to which no one has to pay
an entrance fee. This means that expenses like taxes and
rent need to be drastically minimised if the organisers wish
to avoid losing money. Venues for which little or no rent is to
be paid are chosen. Most parties are not registered in order to
avoid paying taxes. The sale of beverages is also carried out
privately and usually without tax. In rare cases factory build-
ings are broken into in order to throw parties there.
This means that most of these parties are illegal and as such
they are sometimes cleared out by the police. The special con-
ditions to be found in the free-techno scene make it difficult to
28
carry out streetwork based social work. I will discuss this point
in more detail later in this thesis.
6.5.1.2. Goa Scene
Goa or goa-trance is the term for a style of music which is
sometimes also called psychedelic-trance. It is a techno style
which originated in the mid-90s in the Indian state of Goa. It
was initiated mainly by foreign, often Israeli, backpack tourists.
The culture arising from this style and strongly connected to
this music propagates a positive view of life and strongly sup-
ports the ideas and symbols of the hippie generation. Music
and culture are combined with psychedelic drugs, which in
turn influence both aspects. In this way the expression “music
to see” emerged. When one observes the Goa partygoers one
often sees signs of the hippie generation, for example the way
the people dress is often very similar to the fashion of the late
1960s and 70s. In the Goa scene one notices that the average
age of the partygoers is distinctly higher than at other “tradi-
tional” techno parties.
Due to its Indian roots the music is very strongly connected
to Indian religions. The sound of a prayer wheel often ac-
companies the steady beat of the music and the walls are
often decorated with fluorescent portrayals of Ganesha, the
elephant god.
6.5.2. The Realisation
In order to collect enough data I visited approximately 10
events organised by the scenes mentioned above. However it
was not always possibly for me to fill out the questionnaires.
Sometimes the events were held in inconvenient locations in
which the lighting and infrastructure simply did not allow the
questioning to be carried out.
On other days the atmosphere at the party was simply not
very good and that made it very difficult to motivate the party-
goers to fill out the questionnaire with me. Of course my own
personal motivation also played a role. Sometimes I simply
couldn’t get past my own reluctance to verbally accost various
people- this sometimes happened on evenings when I was
alone at events and not working in the ChEck iT! tent.
In the end there were five events at which I was actually able
to fill out questionnaires and acquired data for my survey:
1. Free-techno party in Lower Austria
2. Technival (Free-techno and Goa) in Hungary
3. Festival –Urban Art Forms in Wiesen, Burgenland
4. Free-techno and Goa party in Ernst Kirchweger House,
Vienna
5. Free-techno party in the “Arena”, Vienna
Of course I was still able to make observations at the other
events at which I did not fill out questionnaires. Some parties,
especially the technivals in summer, lasted several days which
made it possible to fill out many questionnaires. At two of the
five above mentioned parties I worked with the ChEck iT! team
on site and at the other three I was alone.
When I worked alone it was more difficult to collect data. I con-
stantly had to explain what I was doing, who I was and why I
was interested in other people’s ketamine consumption.
In such cases helped a lot that I had enough contacts in the
scene and therewith had a certain nearness to the scene. Due
to this the people I questioned were not particularly distrust-
ful. In the very sceptical and critical free-techno scene it most
likely would have been extremely difficult to find people who
were willing to fill out my questionnaire with me if I didn’t
have the appearance of one who belonged to, or at least knew
something about, the scene.
I believe that the work with young recreational drug consum-
ers requires social workers to have a certain nearness to the
scene and at least the appearance of belonging to the scene.
This target group is especially difficult for social workers to
reach because they, unlike consumers in the street scene, don’t
see themselves as needy clients. Through a certain scene-
nearness inhibition thresholds can be lowered and this would
allow for low threshold work to be done. This way the services
which are offered would more likely be accepted.
Through my connection to the ChEck iT! stand on site I was
spared from constantly having to explain why I was there or
why I was asking questions about the consumption of illegal
substances. That was naturally very pleasant for me and it also
helped to make the clients less inhibited to talk with me. Un-
fortunately this also meant that I was more likely to be forced
29
to discuss ChEck iT! projects and in the free-techno scene there
just happens to be a wide range of prejudices, reservations and
rumours about and against the ChEck iT! project!.
I found it important to try my best to create a relatively calm
atmosphere for conversation while filling out the question-
naires. For example I made sure to avoid the possibility of
curious people standing too close by and listening in on the
conversation and answers.
As mentioned above, it was often necessary to answer ques-
tions and calm all insecurities before starting with the ques-
tionnaire. The greatest insecurities arose in regard to the eval-
uation of the data. Many of those questioned feared that my
results would be used to “demonise” ketamine. In most cases
I was able to explain the goals of my research and therewith
dismiss concerns. Still there were people who, for various rea-
sons, refused to fill out the questionnaire with me.
Some of the reasons given were, for example, that they sim-
ply didn’t want to speak openly about their consumption of
ketamine or they were sceptical of my work. One should not
forget that the people at these events were there to have fun
and therefore that were not necessarily interested in spending
20 minutes talking to me and answering my questions. They
preferred to talk to their friends or to dance. Although all of
these reasons for not answering were legitimate, it was still
sometimes a bit depressing when one person after the other
expressed no interest in filling out the questionnaire with me.
6.6. Evaluation of Data - SPSS
The evaluation and processing of my data was carried out in
the SPSS (“Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” or “Su-
perior Performance Software System”). After I finished the
outline of my questionnaire I designed a so-called input mask
in the statistical called SPSS. All of the questions in the ques-
tionnaire which I wanted to process using the SPSS were given
variable names, for example the question “How old were you
when you consumed ketamine for the first time?” was given
the variable name “erstkons”. Then a code plan was created for
each variable. For practical reasons I wrote this directly on the
questionnaire at the time of questioning, so that I would not
constantly have to check the plan while entering the data.
 Frequency Percent Cumulated Percent Compulsory school 13
Wien 20 32,3 32,3
Styria 2 3,2 35,5
LA 29 46,8 82,3
UA 2 3,2 85,5
Bgld 4 6,5 91,9
Szbg 5 8,1 100,0
Total 62 100,0
Figure 3: SPSS Table “What federal state do you come from?” [n=62]
71
Raab-Steiner, E. Skriptum-Sozialforschung, 4th Semester Summer semester 2004, fh-campus Vienna, 12
71
see: Pill Testing – Ecstasy & Prevention. Editors A. Benschop and M. Rabes, et al. Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. 2002, 114
For example, I always coded the answer “no” with “0“, “yes”
with “1” and “no comment” with “99”.
Some of my survey questions are not provided with variable
names because they are not meant to be processed using the
SPSS. These questions are marked for analysis of content.
I always tried to enter the data into the data matrix as quickly
as possible. The data matrix of the SPSS is a large rectangular
matrix in which each line represents one person, or one filled
questionnaire, and each column represents one variable. That
means that all of the questions in a questionnaire are listed
horizontally and all answers to a question vertically. In order
to be able to determine which line belongs to which ques-
tionnaire I numbered the questionnaires consecutively. While
processing the results I discovered several aspects of the ques-
tionnaire which should have been done differently. However I
was still able to analyse the results which was interested in.
One of the questions required to be slightly re-coded after the
fact which naturally required a certain amount of extra effort.
At this point I would like to present and interpret the results
of my survey.
6.7. The Results
Here I would like to describe and therewith create a picture of
the group of people who were questioned. Then I will analyse
and interpret each of the individual questions from my ques-
tionnaire in sequence.
6.7.1. Demographic Data
In the months of June, July, August and January I filled out
questionnaires with a total of 62 people. 60 of these 62 sub-
jects had already consumed ketamine at some point in time
and therefore fit into my target group. The two people who
had not yet consumed ketamine still wanted to fill out the
questionnaire. They felt that it was important for them to
express their opinions about ketamine because both had, in-
dependently from one another, had very intense experiences
with the substance in their circle of friends.
30
The first question of my questionnaire was if the subject had
ever consumed ketamine. If the answer was yes I continued
with the questionnaire. If this question was answered with
no I stopped questioning, with the exception of the two cases
mentioned above. The rest of the “non-consumer” group is not
included in any of my calculations. Naturally the number of
people belonging to this group was distinctly higher than 62.
The group questioned is made up of 59.7 % male and 40.3%
female subjects, that means 37 males and 25 females were
questioned.
The age of those questioned ranged from 18 to 42, whereby
the average age or median was 24. (“The “median” is the point
in the measuring scale at which both above and below half of
the measured amount can be found” 71).
All those questioned were Austrian citizens of which 72.6 %,
or 45 subjects, felt they belonged to the “Austrian” segment
of society. 16 subjects, or 25.8 %, questioned referred to them-
selves as “world citizens”. In my opinion this answer reflects
the principles and values of the free-techno scene. At the tech-
nival in Hungary I also questioned only Austrian citizens. This
was partly due to difficulties in communicating with people
from other nations and also due to the fact that this technival
took place in a location very close to the Austrian/Hungarian
border and the majority of the visitors were Austrians.
(Figure 3: SPSS Table “What federal state do you come from?”)
The high amount of Lower Austrians can be explained by the
fact that two of the events at which I carried out the survey
were located in Lower Austria (LA). The event in Wiesen in
Burgenland does not show itself distinctly in these number.
Here it should be mentioned that the Festival Zone in Wiesen
is more comprehensive, here one expect to find visitors from
all over Austria. The second largest group, as can be seen in
this table, is from Vienna.
In answer to the question about the current living situation
the most common answer (27.4 %) was alone/independent. 23
% of the subjects said that they lived with a partner and the
Apprenticeship/ Vocational School 1
Certificate of apprenticeship 31
Vocational school w/o diploma 13
Highschool 1
Highschool 21
College/Technical College 18
University/Academy Graduate 1
0 5
Figure 4: Representation of Education Level [n = 62]
same amount said that they still lived with their parents or
guardians. Only ca. 5 % of those questioned lived with a part-
ner and child(ren). There is therefore no single living situation
which can be recognised as occurring significantly more than
the others.
In the variable “highest level of education” most, or 38.7 %, of
those asked answered with highschool graduation diploma.
30.6 % had completed an apprenticeship, 16.1 % had complet-
ed only compulsory education, 12.9 % had visited a vocational
school without graduating, and 1.6 %, or one person, had also
graduated from a university or college.
This variable gives information only on the level of studies al-
ready completed and should not be confused with information
on the actual amount of education. For example, people who
would soon be graduating were recorded as having completed
only compulsory education because they had not actually
graduated from highschool yet at the time of questioning.
The variable “education level”, which I would now like to de-
scribe in detail, includes the variable “highest level of educa-
tion”, meaning the highest level of education which has been
completed up to this point, and “current education”, meaning
education currently taking place.
In order to arrive at this variable it was necessary to re-code
everything after entering the data completely.
(Figure 4: Representation of Education Level)
13 % of the subjects had completed the compulsory educa-
tion level. One person was in the process of completing an
apprenticeship and approximately 31 %, or 19 people, had al-
ready completed an apprenticeship. 13 % of the subjects had
attended a vocational school without graduating, and 1.6 %,
or one person attended a college or university with gradua-
tion. Approximately 21 % of those questioned had graduated
from highschool and 18 % are currently carrying out further
studies at higher level institutions. One person was a college
or university graduate.
The main difference between this and the variable described
above is that the variable “educational level” was widened to
31
10 15 20 25 30 35
include the category university/college student. In this way
the group which was formerly assigned to everyone who had
completed only high school has been further divided into one
group which stopped education after graduating from high-
school and another group which is currently involved in fur-
ther education (university, college, academy, etc.). In summary
one can say that more than half of those questioned have not
graduated from highschool. I do not think that the level of
education of the people I questioned is particularly striking.
The answers to the question about the current job situation
are not in my opinion particularly expressive. 33.9 % of those
asked said that they are unemployed. However this group
includes people who are currently studying at institutions of
higher learning or are still attending highschool because I un-
fortunately failed to provide an appropriate possible answer
for this group. This means that it is not clear how many people
in this relatively large group are really unemployed. 32.2 % of
those questioned stated that they were employed full-time,
the same percentage claimed to be part-time employed. One
person refused to answer this question.
In regard to the question about monthly 41.9 % of those
questioned said that they earned less than 500 Euros. 25.8 %
answered with “between 500 and 999 Euros” and 21.0 % an-
swered “between 1000 and 1499 Euros”. 3.2 % of those asked
answered that they had a monthly income of “between 1500
and 1999 Euros” and “2500 Euros or more”. 3.2 % of the subjects
refused to answer this question. Here I must mention that I did
not specify in the question if these income brackets were net
or gross totals and did not clearly define what sources or kinds
of income were meant. That means that those questioned
could have understood this question differently and answered
accordingly. The real value of these results is therefore in my
opinion questionable.
The demographic data showed clearly that the characteristics
of the group I questioned are distinctly different from those
of consumers in the commercial techno scene. For example,
17.2 % of the subjects from the study “Pill Testing – Ecstasy &
Prevention” in Vienna had foreign ethnic backgrounds. 72
 Alcohol 94
Cigarettes 86
Cannabis 77
Speed 58
Cocaine 53
73
see: Pill Testing – Ecstasy & Prevention. Editors. A. Benschop and M. Rabes et al. Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. 2002, 67 Ecstasy 27
Ketamine 23
74
vgl. Pill Testing – Ecstasy & Prävention, Hrsg. v. A. Benschop, M. Rabes u.a. Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam, 2002, 67
Magic Mushrooms 21
LSD 21
Methamphetamine 11
Sleeping pills / Tranquillizers 11
Crack/ Cocaine base 8
Poppers et al 8
Heroin 8
Natural Drugs 7
Others 5
GHB 5
2-CB 0
3MCV 0

0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 5: Monthly Prevalence [n =62]

The majority of those I questioned expressed that they felt
that they belong to the Austrian segment of the population
and I did not question even one person who did not have Aus-
trian citizenship. My observations also confirmed this demo-
graphic data. I think this can be explained by the fact that the
various sub-scenes simply attract different types of people.
For example, the characteristics of the Goa- and free-techno
scenes are possibly not so interesting or easily accessible for
youths and young adults who come from families which have
been living in Austria for two or three generations.
6.8. Consumption patterns
In the next section I would like to analyse all the questions
which deal with ketamine consumption and the consumption
of other psychoactive substances and interpret the answers. By
the following questions the total number of those questioned
is 60, because as already mentioned above two subjects can
not be included since they did not consume ketamine.
6.8.1. Age of Initial Consumption
In order to find out at what the average age of first time ket-
amine consumers was I asked the question: How old were you
when you consumed ketamine for the first time?. The answers
showed that the youngest of my subjects was 15 and the old-
est was 38 at the time of initial consumption. On average
those asked were approximately 20 years old when they tried
ketamine for the first time. The median was 19.5 years of age.
This average age for initial consumption is in comparison to
ecstasy distinctly higher.
In the scientific evaluation study Pill Testing - Ecstasy and Pre-
vention it is stated that the ecstasy consumer is, on average, 17
years old at the time of initial consumption. 73
I think that due to its characteristics ketamine is not neces-
sarily a substance which one tries out at the beginning of
an experimental phase involving psychoactive substances. In
contrast, from what I have observed ecstasy is one of the first
illegal substances, with the exception of cannabis, to be tried.
This most certainly has something to do with the popularity
of these substances.
When one considers the fact that 50 % of those questioned
consumed ketamine for the first time at an age under 20, that
is still rather young for the initial consumption. Especially
when one considers certain characteristics of the substance,
for example the dependency potential.
6.8.2. Motivation for Initial Consumption
In order to find out why the consumers decided to try ket-
amine for the first time I asked the question: “What was the
reason for the initial ketamine consumption?” This question
allowed for multiple answers.
73.3 % of those questioned answered that curiosity was the
reason for consumption. 21.7 % answered that they had heard
good things about the substance and 46.7 % took ketamine
simply because it was offered to them. 13.3 % stated that they
felt a need for a stimulating substance and 23.3 % wanted to
consume a consciousness changing substance. The answer:
“Everyone I know consumes ketamine” was given by 8.3 %. 11.5
% of those asked also chose the answer “other reason” whereby
most of the answers given here were simply variations on the
other possible answers. For example “... wanted to know why
so many people find it so great”, which is basically the same
answer as “I was curious” or “I heard good things about it”.
Two answers which were given here are in my opinion note-
worthy. These two subjects claimed that they were not aware
of the fact that they had consumed ketamine the first time
they consumed it. They took something without knowing
what it was. This answer is alarming because it suggests ex-
tremely flippant and risky behaviour.
6.8.3. Setting
The question of the location of consumption or occasions at
which ketamine is usually consumed and the people with
whom one consumes was also to be answered through my
questionnaire.
41.7 % of the ketamine consumers I questioned answered that
they usually consumed ketamine at parties. 34.7 % usually con-
sumed ketamine at home. Other answers to the question “in
which situations do you usually consume ketamine?” included which situations do you usually consume ketamine?”, where
“when it is offered to me” (8.3 %), “always” (5.6 %), “when out- the majority of those questioned answered “at parties”, these
doors” (2.8 %), “with cocaine” (2.8 %) and “with LSD” (2.8 %). results suggest that many consumers want to consume ket-
The last answer is confirmed by statements in professional amine at parties but would prefer that others do not do so
literature, according to which an LSD trip in combination with because when too many people at a party consume ketamine
ketamine is supposedly very pleasant. Ketamine is also said the atmosphere is negatively effected. My observations at vari-
to make the effects of LSD last longer (see section on mixed ous events validate the majority of the answers given to this
consumption). question. When there was a lot of ketamine circulating there
In response to the question “with whom do you usually con- was often a strangely unpleasant atmosphere. Several times
sume ketamine?”, 65.2 % gave the answer “with friends“. 20.3 there were fights and I would describe the atmosphere as be-
% said that they consumed ketamine alone and 5.8 % with ing aggressive and irritated.
acquaintances. 4.3 % claimed that they didn’t care who they
took it with and 4.3 % said that they consumed ketamine with 6.8.5. Monthly prevalence
a “look out”. That means with a person who stays with the
consumer but remains sober. Although 4.3 % is not a lot I was The monthly prevalence shows on how many days in the last
still surprised that there were ketamine consumers who found month a certain substance was consumed.
such security measures important.
This question was asked openly and I categorised it later. Mul- (Figure 5: Graph – Monthly prevalence)
tiple answers were possible.
This graph shows that, for example, 94 % of those questioned
6.8.4. Changes in atmosphere caused by ketamine
had consumed alcohol in the last 30 days. What you can not
see on this graph is the number of days on which alcohol, or
My next question was: “How is the atmosphere at parties
the other substances, were consumed. I had to calculate a par-
where more ketamine is consumed than is usual?” Since I did
allel.
not have allotted answers for this question I had to catego-
On average alcohol was consumed on 11.5 days, the median
rise the answers retrospectively. This was only perfunctorily
was 10. I find these figures interesting considering the fact
possible. In order to make the answers clearer I will provide
that alcohol consumption in the techno scene used to be quite
examples of answers.
seldom and it was even considered to me “uncool” to drink it.
I categorised 78.3 % of the answers as “negative atmosphere
77 % of those questioned consumed cannabis. Here the me-
changes”. In this category I put answers like oppressive, muf-
dian was 19 and the average was approximately 18.
fled, extreme, irritated, aggressive, negative, not good, exagger-
ated, unpleasant, confused, tiresome, primitive and stressful.
The high percentage of subjects who had consumed cocaine
I categorised 7.2 % of the answers as “positive atmosphere-
in the last 30 days is noteworthy – the graph shows that it was
changes”. Some examples of this were: amusing, there was a
53 %. Cocaine therefore lies in front of ecstasy and extremely
psychedelic atmosphere and funny. 12 % of those questioned
close behind speed. The cocaine median was 3 and the spread
could not answer this and 2.4 % saw no difference between
reaches from one to ten days in the last thirty.
parties where more than the usual amount of ketamine was
23 % of those asked had consumed ketamine in the last thirty
consumed and other parties.
days. The spread ranges from one to 28. That means that
These results show that the parties at which large amounts
someone claimed to have consumed ketamine on 28 of the
of ketamine are consumed are not very popular, even among
last 30 days. The median lies at 3.5.
ketamine consumers. In connection with the question “in

32 33

I was amazed to see that 8 % of my subjects had consumed
crack or cocaine base in the last month. That would mean 5
people and this figure seems to be very high.
Under “others” (Sonstiges) laughing gas, substitol and the Aga
– toad (a toad which secretes a hallucinogenic substance) were
listed. The substance 3MCV is a so-called “fake-substance”.
That means that this substance does not really exist. I placed
this in my questionnaire in order to test the honesty of my
subjects and since no one claimed to have consumed 3MCV it
appears that the group questioned answered truthfully.
6.8.6. Mixed consumption
In order to find out what substances ketamine was usu-
ally mixed with I asked the question: “When you consumed
ketamine the last time did you also consume the following
substances 6 hours before and/or 6 hours after?” Multiple an-
swers were possible here.
The analysis of this question revealed that 45.2 % of those
questioned mixed ketamine with cannabis. 43.5 % stated that
they had drunk alcohol 6 hours before or after consuming ket-
amine and 27.4 % mixed ketamine with speed. Several subjects
told me that they always mix ketamine with speed in order to
have the hallucinogenic effect from ketamine and still have
the energy to continue dancing.
25.8 % had consumed no other substance the last time they
consumed ketamine. 8.1 % mixed ketamine with cocaine and
6.5 % mixed it with LSD. 3.2 % also mixed ecstasy with their
last ketamine consumption and 1.6 %, respectively, mixed ket-
amine with mushrooms, metamphetamines and sleeping pills
or sedatives.
I think that the mixed-consumption with alcohol is seen by
most consumers as not being mixed-consumption since alco-
hol is often not recognised as a psychoactive substance. This
is however problematical since the mixture of alcohol with
ketamine increases the risk of a breathing depression. (see
section mixed-consumption)
Some consumers described the influence of cannabis during
the “crash” phase of the ketamine high as being very positive.
The mixed-consumption of ketamine with LSD and cocaine is
described as very pleasant in regard to its narcotic effect.
34
6.8.7. Form of Consumption
How ketamine is primarily consumed in its function as a recre-
ational drug also interested me. The graph below shows that
85.5 % of those questioned consumed ketamine nasally. 1.6 %
took ketamine orally and 9.7 % consumed ketamine intramus-
cularly.
(Figure 6: Graph – Form of Consumption)
One can therefore say that when consumed as a recreational
drug ketamine is usually consumed nasally. I do not find this
result surprising since most of the substances consumed in
the techno scene are consumed nasally.
Still one should not forget the 9.7 % which prefers intramus-
cular consumption and must note the special concerns related
to this form of consumption.
6.9. Evaluation of Qualitative Questions
I would like to present and analyse all of the questions which
were asked openly and which could not be categorised retro-
spectively.
6.9.1. What makes ketamine interesting?
I received many different answers to the question: “What
makes ketamine interesting?” Part of the group questioned
answered that the psychedelic hallucinogenic effects of the
substance were particularly tempting for them and that ket-
amine “brought them into an other world”. Another answer
was that ketamine had a consciousness expanding effect and
because of that it was interesting. Other answers included
that it was simply something different or that the occasional
ketamine high was quite nice.
Some subjects said that ketamine was interesting because “it
blows you away”, “it has a warm, soft effect”, or because one
doesn’t feel anymore, it “finishes” you or makes you extremely
awake, or because it is relaxing and chills you out and because
it has a calming effect.
I would like to discuss this last block of answers in more detail.
Answers like “it blows you away”, it “finishes you off” or the
Nasal 53
Oral 1
Intramuscular 6
[Absolute values] 0 10 20
Figure 6: Form of Consumption [n = 62]
special emphasis on the “warm and soft” effect reminds me of
the vocabulary used to describe the effects of opiates.
I think that it is most likely exactly these characteristics which
are responsible for the fact that a psychological dependency
on ketamine can develop. These characteristics are also the
reason why ketamine is repeatedly referred to as “psychedelic
heroin” in professional literature. To “finish yourself off” or
“blow yourself away” are expressions which are not typical of
the recreational drug scene. Other substances like speed or ec-
stasy, also cocaine are popular in the party setting due to their
driving, performance enhancing and stimulating effect. With
that I would like to say that ketamine addresses very specific
needs, for example the need for deep relaxation or to simply
“not notice anything more” and it is exactly this effect which
make this substance dangerous and dependency possible.
In any case ketamine, with its psychedelic effect on the one
hand and its sedative effect on the other, is unique and atypi-
cal as a recreational drug.
6.9.2. Changes in relationships through ketamine consumption
In response to the question if relationships or friendships with
other consuming friends were influenced or changed through
ketamine consumption 61.3 % of those asked answered with
“no”. The remaining 38.7 % expressed that both positive and
negative changes were experienced. An example of a positive
change is the statement that the consumers looked after each
other more while they were consuming ketamine and there
was more of a feeling of unity.
Some people mentioned that some of the negative changes
were that conversations tended to increasingly revolve around
ketamine, fights occurred regarding the business aspects of
the substance and its consumption and truthful relations
within relationships were interfered with.
One person said that they were hardly ever sober when to-
gether with consuming friends, being together was always
seen as an opportunity to consume ketamine. Some of those
questioned that relations with each other became more ag-
gressive and that others appeared to have become more
greedy.
35
30 40 50 60
Similar results were seen in regard to the question if relation-
ships or friendships with non-consuming friends had changed.
66.1 % of those questioned said that nothing had changed and
33.9 % claimed that ketamine did have an influence on friend-
ships.
Answers to the question of how ketamine influenced friend-
ships or relationships included, for example, that problems or
a feeling of distance arose when one person was high and the
others weren’t or that non-consuming friends expressed the
opinion that the consumption of ketamine was primitive. An-
other common answer was that non-consuming friends were
worried about their consuming friends or had no understand-
ing for the consumers’ actions. Consumers also couldn’t share
their ketamine experiences with non-consuming friends.
The answers to this question also suggested that the con-
sumption of ketamine caused changes to the social environ-
ment and increased aggressiveness.
For me it was surprising to hear such answers because it is
usually not particularly easy to admit such things and this re-
quires at least a minimum of willingness for reflection. When
looking at the answers this way the percentage of people who
perceived changes is quite high. It is completely clear that the
consumption of any psychoactive substance will have an in-
fluence on interpersonal relationships in one way or another.
Unfortunately I do not have any data which enables me to
make comparisons between ketamine and other substances
in this regard. That would be the only way to find out which
influences or changes are unique to ketamine.
This question also produced answers which gave me the im-
pression that in individual cases some very risky consumption
takes place, for example, that conversations increasingly re-
volve around ketamine consumption and in connection with
this fights break out. This suggests that the substance has
reached a certain level of priority in the life of the consumers.
Correlations
Consumed ketamine with expectations Negative ketamine experiences

Spearman-Rho Consumed ketamine with expectations Correlation coefficient 1.000 0.542(**)

Sig. (2-sided) . .000

N 62 62

Negative ketamine experiences Correlation coefficient 0.542(**) 1.000

Sig. (2-sided) ,000 .

N 62 62

** The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-sided).

Figure 7: Correlation according to Spearman, negative experiences

6.9.3. Changes in Friend
53.2 % of those questioned answered the question: “Have you
noticed that your friends have changed as a result of or have
been influenced by ketamine consumption?” with yes. 46.8 %
with no. Here the scope of the changes listed is very wide. The
following were listed as examples of changes: two deaths in
connection with ketamine, dependency, criminal offence, fa-
milial problems, depressions and increased aggression.
The consumption change to heroin was also described as well
as changes in personality, for example, consumers were de-
scribed as indifferent, greedy, dishonest and bad. Some of the
answers were quite unexpected and this often led to long con-
versations. One very extreme example of this was the occur-
rence of two ketamine-related deaths in one circle of friends.
Here I also heard about aggressive behaviour. Characteristics
like greedy and dishonest have already appeared in several
questions. The described greed suggests very strongly to me
that ketamine dependency plays a role here.
6.9.4. Changes in those questioned
As was expected, in contrast to the previous question, here the
majority of those questioned gave a negative answer. “Only”
16.1 % of the subjects answered the question: “Have other
people told you that they have observed changes in you, or has
your mood changed, since you have started consuming ket-
amine?” with “yes”. But five people stated that they had been
observed to be more aggressive and more irritable.
Some had already been accused of taking ketamine too often.
I do not find it particularly surprising that 79 % of those asked
answered this question with “no”. For one thing I can imagine
that not all changes are commented on by other people, not
even by good friends. Secondly, it is most likely quite difficult
for the consumers to take comments seriously and admit that
they are true.
4.8 % of those questioned did not answer this question.
6.9.5. Changes in the life of those questioned
When asked if something in their life had changed since the
first time they consumed ketamine 75.8 % of the subjects an-
swered with “no”. 4.8 % did not answer this question and 19.4
% answered with “yes”.
They gave examples of changes like unemployment, convic-
tions, cessation of studies, loss of driver’s licence, positive
and negative physical experiences and extreme perception of
feelings. In contrast to the questions above, the percentages
given here do not so easily reflect consumption-related socio-
pathological changes. One must say that a very large amount
of self-reflection must exist in order to be able to give a posi-
tive answer to this question. It is possible that a connection
between some changes and the consumption of ketamine
can not always be recognised. It is naturally also possible that
there really were no consumption-related changes in the
group I questioned.
6.9.6. Negative Experiences with Ketamine
62.9 % of those asked said that they had not had any negative
experiences with ketamine. 1.6 %, or one person, did not an-
swer this question and 35.5 % admitted to have had negative
experiences with ketamine.
Speed – for its counter-effect, self discipline, peace and goods
friends nearby were the main answers to the question about
what would have helped in these negatives situations. Some
of those asked also said that they had needed medical help.
Here too it would have been advantageous to have had a com-
parable study with an other substance, as it goes I can not say
if 35.5 % of the subjects having negative experiences is a lot or
little. I would estimate I would say that this is not particularly
many, still one should not underestimate the negative experi-
ences caused by psychedelic substances.
Extremely frightening and far-reaching experiences can oc-
cur and these must in some way be dealt with. Naturally this
process does not always have to happen with the help of so-
cial workers or psychological professionals. The role of social
workers who work with this target group is much more the
role of an idea transmitter. It is important for them to be able
to convince the consumers that such experiences are not just As a conclusion to this section I would like to present the re-
“bad trips” and that such experiences are to be taken seriously. sults from the question: “Do you have the feeling that you are
Consumers must find out what one needs to be able to come well-informed about ketamine?”.
to terms with such experiences and make something positive 54.8 % of my subjects answered this question with “yes”. 35.5
out of them. % feel that they are not well-informed and 8.1 % said that they
knew at least something about ketamine. 1.6 % did not answer
One more interesting question which I asked in regard to this this question.
subject was if there was a connection between the expecta- For me it is clear that more education on this subject is defi-
tions of the consumers and the negative experiences. In order nitely needed. Relatively risky consumption is taking place,
to calculate this statistically I divided the answers to question since people are taking this substance while admitting that
4 of my questionnaire (“What was the reason for the initial they do not think that they are well-informed about it.
ketamine consumption?”) into two categories, namely “had All in all the results of my empirical research set high demands
specific expectations” and “had no specific expectations”. I also on social work. In the next section of this work I will address
divided the variable “negative experiences” into two categories these demands and discuss what social work activities or proj-
“had negative experiences” and “had no negative experiences”. ects with ketamine consumers should or could look like.
These two newly created variables were then calculated in the
SPSS using the Spearman – Rho correlation.
(Figure 7: Correlation according to Spearman)
This table shows that a weak correlation exists between the
two variables, that means that there is a connection.
The correlation coefficient was 0.542. That means that a slight
to middling correlation exists. In my opinion the connection is,
in spite of the relatively low correlation coefficient, still quite
distinct. One must take into consideration that most likely not
all consumers who really had specific expectations actually re-
alised this and answered this question accordingly.
According to the correlation consumers who took ketamine
with specific expectations more frequently had negative expe-
riences than consumers who had no expectations. I think that
this can possibly be explained by the theory that consumers
who expect something specific from the substance are most
likely using the consumption of the substance as a form of
compensation for something else in their life. The pressure
and the disappointment resulting from unfulfilled expecta-
tions quite likely leads to negative experiences with ketamine.
In addition to this there is possibly a psychological instability
which also should be compensated for through consumption.
Nevertheless psychological instability connected with psyche-
delic substances leads to an increase in negative experiences.

36 37
7. The relevance of results
The following section is the most important and most inter-
esting chapter of this thesis. I will now explain how my hy-
pothesis has been verified and show how my results can be
combined with social work. I will describe the projects and
programmes designed for recreational drug consumers which
are currently being offered by various social work institutions
and make suggestions regarding what is still needed, if some-
thing is needed.
The results of the empirical research have verified the hypoth-
esis of my thesis. In evaluation of almost all questions revealed
that a tendency toward aggressive and irritated behaviour is
caused by the consumption of ketamine. The number of con-
sumers who admitted to have observed a consumption-related
change in others or even in themselves is high enough to legit-
imate the assumption that this change is not occurring only
in “isolated cases”. When one takes into consideration the fact
that the group questioned consisted of a mixture of people
with varying consumption patterns- therefore also consumers
who had tried ketamine only a few times- the results of my
analysis appear to be even more unequivocal.
The evaluation of the questions which were aimed at finding
out more about the change in atmosphere is extremely clear.
The vast majority of those questioned stated that the atmo-
sphere at events worsened when too much ketamine was con-
sumed. Here it was also said that the atmosphere was more
aggressive and irritable.
The questions regarding changes in friends and acquaintanc-
es and those questioned personally also suggested that con-
sumption-related changes included an increase of aggression
and a worsening of the general atmosphere or mood.
Although I had expected the results to be like this I was still
surprised that they were supported so clearly by my subjects.
I did not expect so many of those questioned in my research
to be able or willing to talk openly about such changes. If 80
% of those questioned had stated that they had observed a
significant negative change starting with the initial consump-
tion of ketamine, these results would not have been realistic
and I would either have doubted the validity of my research
method or I would have been confronted with a truly alarming
situation.
38
All in all I find that the results verify the claim that the con-
sumption of ketamine leads to socio-pathological changes.
Of course this does not mean that every ketamine consumer is
a ”psychological wreck“ with a distinctly high aggression level.
Still the consumption of ketamine can cause problems and
negative changes which should not be underestimated and
which call for professional help or support of some kind. This is
particularly important if the current ketamine trend continues
and therewith the number of ketamine consumers increases.
This brings me to my next subsection in which I would like to
address the relevance of my results for the practice of social
work in more detail.
7.1. Relevance of results for social work
The target group of recreational drug consumers is a hard
group to find access to, but one institution in Austria, namely
ChEck iT!, has made it their job to provide support services for
this group. The “Verein Dialog” has recently begun to offer a
special youth support service at their office in the 10th district
of Vienna. However this institution does not do any streetwork
and does not work with only one specific group of clients. This
means that this institution is a service meant for youths who
are actively seeking help and counselling. It can provide help
directly or show youths where they can go to get the help
they need. However I think that only a small amount of rec-
reational drug consumers actively seek help or even think of
themselves as drug consumers with problems. They are most
likely deterred by institutions which are connected with the
traditional drug scene.
ChEck iT! is regularly on site at events in the techno scene and
offers information, counselling and the chemical analysis of
psychoactive substances. One problem for ChEck iT! is that it
can not reach the free-techno scene. There are various reasons
for this, for example, as was mentioned above, the events
which take place in the free-techno scene are usually not reg-
istered and are usually held at locations which are not particu-
larly easy to find or reach. This makes it impossible for ChEck iT!
to effectively and regularly reach this scene using its current
method of operation. The only chance to attend free-techno
events is when a party takes place in a legal location in Vienna, These two factors suggest that topics which are otherwise
for example in the “Arena” or “Ernst Kirchweger House”. But it to be found in work with “traditional” drug consumption are
is precisely the free-techno scene which, in my opinion, has now suddenly becoming current issues in work related to rec-
the largest amount of ketamine consumers with perhaps the reational drugs. The self-destructive components of ketamine
most risky consumption patterns. Another factor which limits consumption and the “dark hedonism” described by Springer
the efficacy of ChEck iT!’s work is the fact that they are cur- also remind one more of opiate consumers than recreational
rently limited to visiting, on average, only one event a month. drug consumers. This change results in high demands on so-
It is however necessary to work with this target group much cial work and calls for more intense work in the techno scene,
more frequently in order to build a relationship. or in some of its sub-scenes.
The aspects which make relationship building this more
necessary with ketamine consumers than with “normal” rec-
reational drug consumers are related to the special character-
istics of the substance.
Of course I do not wish to suggest that a more intensive social
work programme involving the whole drug scene is not neces-
sary. There are several facts in relation to ketamine which are
especially alarming, for example the fact that a relatively high
psychological dependency potential for this substance has
been observed. Several answers to the questions in my ques-
tionnaire led me to the conclusion that some of the individu-
als questioned were already dependent. Ketamine consumers
were repeatedly described using the adjective “greedy”. This
word is also used very often in connection with the cocaine
which is also known to be a substance with a very high psycho-
logical dependency potential. It is possible to find correlations
between ketamine and cocaine consumers. One such correla-
tion can be seen in the relatively high monthly prevalence of
cocaine which was consumed by our ketamine-consuming
subjects.(see Figure 5: Graph – Monthly prevalence).
One other factor which struck me in regard to ketamine con-
sumption is the ritual of consumption and preparations for
consumption practised by ketamine consumers. This is very
atypical behaviour for recreational drug consumers. The pro-
cess of transforming the liquid ketamine into a powder form
is one example of the atypical behaviour to which I am refer-
ring. This process is often called “Aufkochen” (“cooking”). This
expression is actually more common in the “traditional” drug
scene and describes a process in the preparation of intrave-
nous consumption. Another example of ketamine’s unique
features is that it is also, although not usually, consumed in-
tramuscularly.
39
8. Conclusion
In conclusion one could say that there is currently no insti-
tution which provides regular, target-group adequate, low
threshold services for those in the recreational drug consum-
ing scene, and in particular in the free-techno scene.
That means that this scene does not receive any social medi-
cal attention, with the exception of the few events where
ChEck iT! works on site. My focus is on the free-techno scene
because I met proportionately more ketamine consumers in
this scene than in others and I found that the “ketamine trend”
in this scene was the strongest. Here there is also a higher
amount of risky consumption of various substances. This as-
sessment is also reflected in the observations which I made
during my research in 2003/ 2004.
I think that the work done with this work must be carried out
on two levels. First, there is a need for streetwork, or scouting
social work, which offers the opportunity of building contacts
on site and through which information and counselling, as
well as “safer use” and “risk reduction” messages can be pre-
sented. The work on site should be carried out as follows: there
should be a team of social workers and doctors who regularly,
that means 3-4 times per month, attend events in the free-
techno scene. One of the important prerequisites of this team
is that it has a thorough knowledge of its target-group be-
cause otherwise it would be difficult to even get to the events.
Without the proper knowledge the team would have access
to the scene-internal information which is spread by word of
mouth and flyers.
Other working principles which are important include, for ex-
ample, voluntary contact, anonymity, low threshold approach-
es and objectivity. It is necessary for the team to be made up of
social workers and doctors because there are regularly, espe-
cially in the free-techno scene, medical emergencies. At these
events there are no first aid providers or security personnel
on site making medical emergencies quite problematic. One
should also not forget that ketamine consumption also often
leads to fights which can also result in the need for medical
attention. Through the lack pain sensitivity caused by the
ketamine high consumers can also injure themselves without
even noticing it.
40
Other important services which should be offered are infor-
mation and counselling. In order to be able to effectively trans-
mit knowledge on “risk reduction“ and “safer use” information
materials are naturally extremely important. One could, for ex-
ample, distribute inhalation tubes for nasal application along
with an information sheet or brochure containing information
on nasal consumption. The distribution of one-way syringes
and needles to intramuscular consumers could be combined
with information on application procedure and the impor-
tance of using clean needles and syringes and how to dispose
of the used ones.
In addition to the work on site it is also necessary to react to
the fact that a psychological dependency on ketamine can oc-
cur. Physical withdrawal symptoms have also been described.
At the present I can not say if there will be a need for the treat-
ment of ketamine dependency within this framework of social
work. But I can imagine it could become necessary. A drop-in
centre with psychosocial care and possibly medical support
would then be important. I do not think it would be a good
idea to integrate such a drop-in centre into an already exist-
ing drug counselling centre because the group of recreational
drug consumers does not identify itself with “traditional” drug
users. The recreational drug consumers would therefore not
be likely to visit such centres. I also think that an institution
which specialises on this consumers of this group of substanc-
es should be established. This group is large enough to make
the creation of such a centre necessary. Alone the number of
speed and cannabis consumers would legitimise its establish-
ment. It is important to provide counselling and care for such
consumers.
Here a low threshold approach is also important. There should
be days when people can simply come to visit, just like youth
centres. This would give people the chance to take a look at
everything, see what is offered and then decide for themselves
if there is any programme or service which they would like or
need to take advantage of. Consumers to whom contact has
already been made on site can be directed there. That means it
would also be advantageous for the same team to work both
on site and at this drop-in centre.
Now that I have presented my thoughts considering the care
and services to be provided for ketamine consumers I would
now like to address another topic, namely what is the con-
sumption of ketamine a compensation for. Here I will provide
suggestions of what a possible list of social work-related ser-
vices could include.
I think that the ketamine high is sought after because it satis-
fies a basic need. Firstly, one reaches a state of total relaxation
through the consumption of ketamine. This feeling is increas-
ingly hard to achieve without some sort of help in our stressful,
fast moving world. Secondly, the extreme psychedelic experi-
ences of the ketamine high are something new and exciting.
Many youths and young adults find it difficult to understand
their feelings and to recognise their own needs.
For many it has become a problem to even know if one feels
alright or not. They don’t know if they are scared or not, or even
if they are sad or happy. I think that this condition can cause an
extreme feeling of emptiness. Our society has already tried to
fight against this feeling through the development of several
trends. For example, extreme sports like bungee jumping and
the like are used to give one the feeling of excitement which
seems to be lacking. I would also include body cult practices
like piercings and so-called “brandings” as belonging to these
trends . The experiences which one has when bunjee jump-
ing are definitely so extreme that one is almost forced to feel
them and admit that they exist.
I believe that the experiences with psychoactive substances
work in much the same way. The “normal” high of ecstasy
often isn’t enough. In contrast, a substance like ketamine can
still impress, due to the fact that it can possibly lead to a truly
extreme effect, namely the near-death experience. In order to
be effective here it is necessary to provide a whole range of
social- pedagogical services.
My suggestion would be to provide experience-oriented peda-
gogical services which provide a “kick”, but do not involve the
consumption of any substance. This could include a hike up
a mountain, a sailing tour or building a hanging bridge in a
forest. The connection of such services with a chance of being
out in nature has the additional, positive effect of making it
easier to “turn off” the stimulants and stress found in daily life
and concentrate on one’s self. This leads to a sensitisation to
41
one’s own body and to nature and often helps people to learn
how to relax.
I think that such services would be welcomed in the free-tech-
no scene, since this scene is already interested in nature. If this
scene is already being cared for in an other way it would defi-
nitely not be difficult to carry out such actions in addition. One
could, for example, offer such an excursion in the course of a
festival which runs for several days. Of course such experience-
and outdoor pedagogical services are not the only way to deal
with these certain needs. Still, in my opinion, such methods
appear to be very well suited for this particular target group.
In conclusion, one can say that, as a substance, ketamine is
very special and unique, and its characteristics cause com-
pletely new problems and force one to address new aspects
of recreational drug use. I think the provision of a social care
concept dealing with the consumption of substances like ket-
amine would be a major step in the right direction. One should
take the problems which arise as a result of the consumption
of so-called recreational drugs seriously, but at the same
time make sure that those youths and young adults who are
consuming these drugs does not feel stigmatised. This group
should also not have the feeling that social workers are trying
to change them. Low threshold drug-related social work with
an approach which shows the acceptance and understanding
of its clients is, in my opinion, the right concept for this type
of work.
 74
Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 69
75
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 373
76
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 67
77
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 559
78
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 1169
79
ChEck iT! Concept
80
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 1297
81
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 1448
82
ChEck iT! Concept
83
see: medizinische Merkblätter, Sozialmedizinsche Drogenberatungsstelle Ganslwirt,

Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte, Vienna, 6

84
see: Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch. Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.KG, Berlin259 , 2002, 1646

9. Epilogue 10. Glossary

All of those people who showed an interest in my work and
motivated me were a great support while writing this work.
Very special thanks go to the entire ChEck iT! team which pro-
vided me with information and practical support. In particular
I would like to thank Sophie who promoted the publication of
this work with so much energy and Alex, who placed all of his
knowledge at my disposal for the evaluation of the question-
naire.
I would also like to thank Professor Dr. Heinz Wilfing for his
good and supportive supervision of my thesis.
Furthermore I would like to thank my family and all of my
friends. The arguments and discussions on drug policy related
topics with you helped me to clearly express my positions and
to find my way.
Finally I would like to thank all those who filled out my ques-
tionnaire and therewith shared their experiences with me and
without whom I would not have been able to form an impres-
sion on my topic and write this thesis. Party on…
• Analgesics:
“Annulment of sensitivity to pain.” 74
• dissociative anaesthesia:
Dissociation means the splitting of consciousness 75 and an-
aesthesia is the state of insensitivity to pain, temperature and
touch stimulators. 76 A dissociative anaesthesia is therefore a
condition in which one has drifted away or is dazed. The body
is completely free of the feeling of pain, but one is not men-
tally stunned.
• GABA:
Gamma-aminobutyric acid, is a neurotransmitter which can
be found in 30 % of the synapses in the central nervous sys-
tem. The GABA receptor is the site of action for many hypnot-
ics and narcotics. 76
• Neurotransmitters:
are small molecules that are stored in vesicles and are set
free through action potential (electric impulse) in the central
nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system and
carry out stimulation transmission 78 (for example noradrena-
line, dopamine, serotonine).
• Recreational drugs:
“The expression “Freizeitdrogen” is based on the English term
“recreational drugs” or “recreational drug use”, this refers
to the pattern of consumption and goes beyond the field of
“classical” party drugs. At ChEck iT! we understand the term
recreational drugs to include the widest variety of both legal
and illegal substances - for example from biogenic drugs to
cannabis to opiates – which all have one aspect in common,
they are or were at least initially consumed by users in a rec-
reational setting.” 82
• Shaker:
A “shaker” is a slang expression which refers to an acute reac-
tion of the immune system to contaminated injection solu-
tions. The characteristics, which can carry on for several hours
and disappear of their own accord, are essentially like those of
a strong case of the flu (sweating, chills, shivers, nausea, fever,
headache…). 83
• Thalamus:
largest grey brain matter mass in the diencephalon. It is con-
nected to other parts of the central nervous system and serves
as a shifting station for optical and acoustic paths. 84

• Party drugs:
“Party drugs” are, in general, the psychoactive substances of
the amphetamine- and amphetamine derivative group, in
English speaking countries these substances have also be-
come known as “dance drugs”, they are also often referred to
as ”recreational drugs“. 79

• Phlegmone:
A phlegmone is a spreading inflammation of the connective
tissue with local and general inflammation symptoms. 80
A phlegmone is characterised by a reddish, painful, hot swelling.

• Receptors:
are sensory cells for the reception of stimuli particularly from
outside. One needs receptors for orientation and communica-
tion between the organism and the environment. 81

42 43
11. Appendix
11.1. Questionnaire:
Ketamine Consumption - Social Changes and Conflict Behav-
iour
1. Do you know ketamine, Special K, K, vitamin K, Keta...;
q 1.Yes
q 2.No
2. Have you consumed ketamine before?
q 1.yes
q 2.no
3. How old were you when you consumed ketamine for the
first time?
4. What was the reason for the initial ketamine consumption?
(multiple answers possible)
q 4a.I was curious
q 4b.I had heard good things about it
q 4c.It was offered to me
q 4d.I had a desire for a stimulating substance
q 4e.I had a need for a consciousness changing substance
q 4f. Everyone I know consumes ketamine;
q 4g.other reason ____________________
5. In what situation(s) do you usually Ketamine?
5a. And with whom?
6. How is the atmosphere at parties where more than the
usual amount of ketamine is consumed?
7. Please try to estimate on how many days you consumed the q Natural Drugs changed in their lives since? (e.g. Criminal offence, trouble
following substances in the last 30 days? q Crack/Locaine base with police...)?
q 3MCV
Alcohol …Day(s) q 2CB q yes, how?
Cigarettes …Day (s)
Sleeping pills & Tranquillizer …Day (s)
Cannabis …Day (s) 9. How do you usually consume ketamine? q no
Speed …Day (s) q nasal
Ecstasy ...Day (s) q oral
Methamphetamine …Day (s) q i.v. 15. Have other people told you that they have observed chang-
LSD …Day (s) q smoked es in you, or has your mood changed, since you have started
Magic Mushrooms …Day (s) q i.m. consuming ketamine?
Cocaine …Day (s) q other way____________
Heroin …Day (s) q yes, how?
GHB (“liquid ecstasy” …Day (s)
Ketamine (Special K) … Day (s)
Poppers/Sniffing substances …Day (s) 10. Approximately how much money do you spend per month q no
Natural Drugs (windrose, salvia divinorum, etc.) …Day (s) on ketamine?
Crack/cocaine base …Day (s)
3 MCV …Day (s) 16. Has anything in your life changed since the first time you
2-CB (Micros) …Day (s) 11. Why is ketamine interesting for you as a drug? consumed ketamine (e.g. Criminal offence, trouble with po-
(Others) …Day (s) lice,...)?
8. When you consumed ketamine the last time did you also
consume the following substances 6 hours before and/or 6 12. Is your work or are your studies influenced or changed by 17. Have you already had negative experiences with ket-
hours after? (multiple answers possible): your ketamine consumption? If so, how? amine?
Ä The last time I consumed ketamine I didn’t consume any q no
other substances 13. Are your relationships/friendships influenced or changed q yes
q Alcohol through ketamine consumption? If so, how? What would you have needed in this situation? What would
q Sleeping pills or tranquillisers have helped you?
q Cannabis with friends who also consume:
q Speed
q Ecstasy 18. What is it like to “crash” after using ketamine?
q Methamphetamine with friends who don’t consume:
q LSD
q Magic Mushrooms 19. Do you have the feeling that you are well-informed about
q Cocaine ketamine, or is there something that you would still like to
q Heroin 14. Have you noticed that your friends have changed or been know?
q GHB influenced as a result of ketamine consumption? Has their
q Poppers/ Sniffing substances mood been different since the initial use? Has anything

44 45
 12. Bibliography
And now a few questions about you personally: 27. School Education
Which level of education do you have? • ChEck iT!. Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte. Eine Einrichtung stellt sich • Sozialmedizinische Drogenberatungsstelle Ganslwirt. Verein Wie-
20. Gender: Incomplete complete in progress vor, Vienna 2005 ner Sozialprojekte. Medizinische Merkblätter, Vienna
qm Compulsory school o o o
qf Apprenticeship/ • Cousto Hans. Fachinformation: Ketamine-Mischconsumption. Dis- • Turner, D.M. Der Psychedelische Reiseführer. Nachtschattenverlag,
Vocational School o o o soziatives Anästhetikum 2005 Germany2 1997
21. How old are you? ___________ Vocational school
w/o diploma o o o • Deutsches Institut für medizinische Dokumentation und Informa- • Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte. Leitbild.
Vocational school tion, ICD-10. Internationale statistische Klassifikation der Krankheiten
22. Which federal state do you come from? w/ diploma o o o und verwandter Gesundheitsprobleme. 10.Revision.Version 1.0., Band
q Vienna Highschool o o o I. Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1994
q Carinthia College/Technical College o o o
q Lower Austria University/Academy o o o • Estler. Pharmakologie und Toxikologie. Schattauer, Stuttgard5 Internet Addresses
q Salzburg 2000
q Burgenland • Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Notfallsmedizin URL: http://www.agn.at
q Tyrol 28. What is your current employment situation? • Hoppe, U. and Klose, R.. (S)-Ketamin. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Aspe- (as at 03/06)
q Upper Austria q Full-time employment (> 20 Hours/Week) kte. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg 2002
q Vorarlberg q Part-time employment (< 20 Hours/Week) • ChEck iT! Homepage. URL: http://www.checkyourdrugs.at (as at
q Styria q unemployed ‡ since when ___________ • Jansen, Karl. Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. MAPS, Florida 2001 03/06)

23. What is your nationality? 29. How high is your monthly income: • Kit, Kelly. The little book of Ketamine. Ronin Publishing Inc., Kaliforn- • Erowid. URL: http://www.erowid.org (as at 03/06)
q Austrian q less than 500€ ien1 1999
q Other country: _____________ q between 500 and 999€ • Eve&Rave Homepage. URL: http://www.eve-rave.net (as at 03/06)
q between 1000 and 1499€ • Lilly, John C. Der Scientist. Sphinx Verlag, Basel 1984
q between1500 and 1999€ • Internetlexikon. URL: http://catbull.com/alamut/Lexikon/Mittel/
24. To which group in the population do you feel you belong? q between 2000 and 2499€ • Neubauer, P.and Schinnerl, G. Perspektiven der Drogenarbeit und Ketamin.htm (as at 03/06)
q Austrian q 2500 or more. –politik. Ein Lesebuch anlässlich des 10jährigen Bestehens des Verein
q Other group: _______________ Wiener Sozialprojekte. Vienna 2000 • Rebmann Ralf. URL: http://www.gifte.de (as at 03/06)
Thank you for your participation!
25. Are your parents employed? What are their professions? Books and Periodicals • Pschyrembel. Klinisches Wörterbuch.Walter de Gruyter GmbH&Co.
________________ KG, Berlin259 2002
• Benschop, A., Rabes M. et al. Pill Testing. Ecstasy & Prävention, Rozen-
berg Publishers, Amsterdam 2002 • Raab-Steiner, Elisabeth. Skriptum Sozialforschung. 4.Semester.
26. What is your current living situation: Sommersemester 2004. Fh-Campus Vienna
q living alone/ independent • Brosch and Mader. Sucht und Suchtbehandlung. Problematik und
q alone with child(ren) Therapie in Österreich. LexisNexis Verlag, Vienna 2004 • Richard ,N. and Trachsel, D. Psychedelische Chemie. Nachtschatten
q with partner Verlag, Germany3 2000
q with parents/ guardians • ChEck iT!. Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte. Concept
q partner and child(ren) • Sozialmedizinische Drogenberatungsstelle Ganslwirt. Verein Wie-
q together with others • ChEck iT!. Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte. Booklet. Universal Druckerei ner Sozialprojekte. Das g’sunde Gansl. Eine medizinische Sonderaus-
q other Leoben, Vienna 2002 gabe, Vienna

46 47
13. List of figures Author
Figure 1:
various Ketanest® Infusion bottles 7 Magistra Evi Baumgartner

Figure 2: Counsellor at events for Check iT! since winter 2003;

chemical structure of ketamine 7 Special topics: Free-techno scene and ketamine.
Social worker in the public medical drug counselling centre
Figure 3: Ganslwirt.
SPSS Table “What federal state do you come from?” 30

Figure 4:
Representation of Education Level 31

Figure 5:
Graph – Monthly prevalence 33

Figure 6:
Graph – Form of Consumption 35

Figure 7:
Correlation according to Spearman, negative experiences 36

48 49
ChEck iT!
ChEck iT! means Information and Counselling
ChEck iT! works with youths and young adults who consume
psychoactive substances like ecstasy, speed, or cannabis as a
part of their free-time activities. ChEck iT!’s goal is to prevent
the problems and damage to health which can result from the
consumption of psychoactive substances. We try to increase
knowledge of the effects and risks of such substances, and
prevent the risky consumption of and development of depen-
dency on these substances.
• Information, Counselling and crisis intervention are offered
by the ChEck iT! Homebase within the framework of event-
supervision, as well as online and via telephone. Once a week
a legal advisor is available to provide legal information and
counselling.
• In order to be able to offer information on the risks of drug
consumption we carry out anonymous substance analyses
free of charge at the events which we supervise. This service
is carried out in co-operation with the Medical School of the
University of Vienna.
• The web site www.CheckYourDrugs.at offers exhaustive in-
formation on substances, including their effects, related risks
and dangers as well as on topics regarding health promotion.
In addition to this it provides event tips, the results of drug-
checks, as well as a “talk base” as a platform for the exchange
of ideas and information amongst peers.
ChEck iT! is the centre of competence in the field of recreation-
al drug consumption
Science and secondary preventive research
• ChEck iT! observes the developments in drug consumption
and in the drug black market. Through the chemical-toxicolog-
ical analysis of the drug samples it is possible to gain knowl-
edge of the nature and compound structures of the drugs
which are being consumed. In addition to this scientific stud-
ies on consumption patterns and motives, concerns, problems
50
and the social situation of the consumers are carried out.
• The scientific findings of these analyses serve as a basis for
the quick, well-founded and pragmatic development of depen-
dency preventing and/or consumption reducing measures.
• ChEck iT! is part of both national and international informa-
tion and early-warning systems dealing with psychoactive
substances. ChEck iT! monitors research results and warnings
regarding questionable substances and passes this informa-
tion on to these networks.
• The research results are submitted in the form of articles in
professional publications or as reports and are presented at
conventions or conferences or to political decision makers in
the form of concepts.
Creation of secondary preventive information material
ChEck iT! produces information material on topics which are
related to the field of recreational drug consumption and
secondary preventive methods. Our information material
specialises on youth- and young adult consumption and is
designed to be used by all those who work with this target
group. A list of the information material available as well as a
order form can be found at www.vws.or.at .
Continuing Education for Multipliers
ChEck iT! strives to pass on the benefits of its years of experi-
ence and the scientific findings resulting from its work with
recreational drug consumers to multipliers.
• ChEck iT! offers further education on, and carries out projects
with, those who are involved in work with this target group
(youth social workers, teachers, those offering apprenticeship
opportunities, etc.).
• ChEck iT! offers practicums for psycho-social occupations.
51
 Eva Baumgartner

Ketamine as a Recreational Drug

on the risks of consumption-related socio-pathological changes and specific conflict behaviour,
and their relevance for secondary preventive institutions
ChEck iT! is a co-operative scientific project of Masthead

Editor and Media proprietor:

Association of Viennese Social Projects

Institute for medical and
(“Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte”)
chemical lab diagnostics
Rotenmühlgasse 26, A- 1120 Vienna
email: vws@vws.or.at,
ChEck iT! regularly supervises students who are writing a thesis on topics related to recreational drugs. We are particularly pleased Web: http://www.vws.or.at
that, through this very informative, hands-on work, we have the opportunity to make this topic accessible to those who are inter-
ested in it and all those who work with this target group. The author Magistra (FH) Evi Baumgartner and the ChEck iT! team are Author:
pleased to have been able to contribute to the transfer between theory and practise. Magistra(FH) Evi Baumgartner

Editorial Processing:
Magistra Sophie Lachout

Graphic Design / Illustrations:

Magister Bernhard Faiss

Printing:
Reproprint

Copyright:
© 2007 Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte & E. Baumgartner
This work is in its entirety protected by copyright.
The use of this work in any form without the explicit consent of the Association of Viennese Social Projects
(“Verein Wiener Sozialprojekte“) and
E. Baumgartner is prohibited.
This applies in particular to copying, translating, micro-filming and saving in electronic systems.

ChEck iT! is financed through funds from

the Viennese Dependency and Drug Co-ordination (“Sucht und Drogen Koordination Wien”), non-profit companies
and the Ministry of Health and Women’s Issues (“Bundesministerium für Gesundheit und Frauen”). Further inquiries:

+43 1 585 12 12
www.CheckYourDrugs.at
HomeBase Gumpendorfer Straße 8, 1060 Wien