ions of spin ½ in a cubical box, there can be two fermions having spin quantum numbers + ½ and ½ respectively.

associated with each set of the quantum numbers nx, ny, and nz. The two different spin states with spin quantum
numbers + ½ and - ½ are represented by arrows pointing in opposite directions in Figure 12.3(a). The value 𝜇 (0) of
the chemical potential at the absolute zero of temperature is called the Fermi energy and is denoted 𝜀 f. The Fermi
temperature Tf is defined by the equation

𝜀 f =k Tf (12.3)

Summarising at T = 0 the N fermions occupy all the N single particle states having energy eigenvalues up to the
Fermi energy. It will be shown in Section 12.1.6 that the Fermi energy s and the Fermi temperature T f, are given in
terms of m, N. V and the spin degeneracy g by equation (12.10), which is

3
For example, it is shown in Problem 12.7 that the Fermi temperature of a gas of He atoms at STP is 0.07K, which
2
is much less than room temperature. On the other hand, it will be shown in Section 12.2.1 that the Fermi temperature
of the free electrons in copper is 8 x 104K, which is much greater than room temperature.

The Fermi—Dirac distribution function for an absolute temperature T<< Tf It shown in Figure 12.2(b).
The example chosen is T = 0,1 Tf,. The numerical values for this case are developed in Problem 12.1. According to
equation (12.6). which will be introduced in Section 12.1.4, when T = 0.1 Tf the value of the chemical potential 𝜇
(T) is 0.991 𝜀f, f(𝜀) which is only just below the Fermi energy *. It can be seen that at low values of a much less
than s, 1(a) is very close to unity. For T — 0.11,, the large changes in f(s) are confined to an energy range of about
kT on either side of the Fermi energy s. In this energy range some of the fermions, which at I = 0 would have
occupied single particle states having energy eigenvalues just below the Fermi energy, will, at a temperature << Tf.
be found in single partide states having energy eigenvalues just above the Fermi energy, as shown for the case of
eight identical fermions of spin in Figure 12.3(b). The Ferrmi.-Dirac distribution function is equal to 0,5 when s i 𝜇
(T) 0.9918 𝜀 in Figure 12.2(b).

According to equation (12.2). for a single particle state having an energy eigenvalue equal to (𝜇 (T) + x),
which is x above 𝜇 (T), the value of the chemical potential at the temperature T, we have

For a single particle state having energy eigenvalue (𝜇 - x), which is x

Figure 12.3—Pictorial representation of the variation of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(𝜀) with the single
particle energy eigenvalue 𝜀 for a system consisting of 8 identical fermions of spin ½. The two different direction
of thearrow represent the two states with spin quantum number + ½ and – ½ respectively. (a)At T=0, all the single
particle states above 𝜀f are empty. (b) Whwn T<<Tf, some of the fermions, which at T=0 would be in single particle
states just above 𝜀f. In this case, the chemical potential 𝜇(𝑇) is just below the Fermi energy 𝜀f. (c) Whwn T>Tf,
f(𝜀) is less than 0.5 for the single particle ground state, and the chemical potential 𝜇(𝑇) is negative.

Below the chemical potential 𝜇(𝑇),

The reader can check by direct substitution that

The quantity [I - f(𝜇 - x)] is the probability that there is no fermion in the single particle state having energy
eigenvalue (𝜇 - x). Hence the probability f(𝜇 + x) that there is a fermion in a single particle state having an energy
eigenvalue x above the chemical potential 𝜇 (T) is equal to the probability that there isa vacancy (hole) in the single
particle state having an energy eigenvalue x below the chemical potential. This leads to the similar shapes of the
shaded areas above and below the chemical potential 𝜇 (T) in Figure 122(b).

The variation of the Fermi—Dirac distribution function f(𝜀) with 𝜀 for the case when T l.5Tf, is shown in
Figure 12.2(c). In this case f(𝜀) is less than 0.5 for the single particle ground state, and f(𝜀) decreases continuously
with increasing 𝜀. The case when T> Tf, is illustrated in Figure 12.3(c) for system consisting of eight identical
fermions of spin ½ . It will be shown in Section 12.1.7 that, in the high temperature classical limit when T>>Tf, f(𝜀)
is proportional to exp(-𝜀 /kT) and f(-𝜀/𝑘𝑇) and f(𝜀) is very much less than unity at all energies.

For a given value of a, the expression for f(𝜀). given by equation (12.2), depends on the variables 𝜇 and T.
The volume V and the number of particle N do not appear explicitly in equation (12.2). What, then, happens to the
average number of fermions f(𝜀) in a single particle state of energy eigenvalue 𝜀. If, for example, N, the total number
of fermions, is doubled at fixed values of V and T? The answer is that if N is changed, the value of the chemical
potential 𝜇 is changed. (Reference: equation (12.5) of Section 12.1.4.) A change in 𝜇 at constant temperature T leads
to a change in f(𝜀), the average number of fermions in the single particle state of energy eigen-value 𝜀. [An
illustrative example is developed in Problem 12.4.] Similarly, a change in the volume V of the box at constant N and
T, changes 𝜇 and hence f(𝜀). (A change in 𝑉 also changes the energy eigenvalues of the single particle states.]
The dependence of f(𝜀) on the absolute temperature T, at fixed V and N. comes via changes in both p and Tin
equation (12.2).
This is illustrated by the differences between Figures 12.2(a), 12.2(b) and 12.2(c). [For fixed V and N. the energy
eigenvalues care unchanged.]

12.1.3 The energy spectrum (a Ideal fermion gas

The average number of fermions n(𝜀) d𝜀 in single particle states which have energy eigenvalues between 𝜀 and (d
+ 𝜀) is given by the product of D(𝜀) cia, the number of single particle states (orbitals) having energy eigenvalues in
the energy range a to (a + da) and f(s). the mean number of fermions in each of these single particle states. Using
equations (12.1) and (12.2), we have

(12.4)

At the absolute zero of temperature, T = 0, 𝜇= 𝜀f and n(𝜀) is proportional to 𝜀 1/2 for fermion energies up the Fermi
energy g. and n(s) ti zero for 𝜀 > 𝜀f, as shown in Figure 12.1(b). If the temperature is increased a little above the
absolute zero, but with T << T f. some of the fermions which at T = 0 would have been in single particle states
having energy eigenvalues just below the Fermi energy, now occupy some of the single particle states having energy
eigenvalues just above the Fermi energy. When T << Tf,. that is when kT<< 𝜀 f, the energy distribution of the
fermions is only changed significantly in the vicinity of the Fermi energy, as shown in Figure 121(b) At much
higher temperatures when T>> Tf, that is when kT>> 𝜀 f, large proportion of the fermions will be in single particle
states having energy eigenvalues well above the Ferinienergy.It will be shown in Section 12.1.7 that, in the classical
limit, when T T,, the Fermi-Dirac energy distribut ion goes over to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distnbution, which was
developed in Section 4.9 of Chapter 4.

12.1.4 The chemical potential of an Ideal fermion gas

The value of the chemical potentialp(T, V, N) in equations (12.2) and (12.4) has not yet been determined. It
is being assumed that there is no interchange of fermions between the ideal fermion gas and the container.
In the case of the ideal fermion gas. It is the fermions in the other single particle states which act as the particle
reservoir for the single particle state chosen as the small system for the application of equation (12.2). which was
derived from the grand canonical distribution in Section 11.3 of Chapter 11. The total number N of fermions in the
ideal fermion gas is equal to the integral of equation (12.4) from 𝜀 = 0 to e = ∞. We have

(12.5)

This is an integral equation which can be solved numerically to determine the chemical potential p in terms of T, V
and N. If N, V or T is changed, the chemical potential p is also changed.

The variation of the chemical potential 𝜇 of an ideal fermion gas with absolute temperature T is show in Figure 12.4.
(Reference: Turner and Betts [Ia).) At I = 0, the chemical potential 𝜇 (0) is equal to the Fermi energy 𝜇 f,where 𝜀 f is
given by equation (12.10). When T is very much less than the Fermi temperature T,. the chemical potential p is only
just below the Fermi energy. As the temperature increases lurther the chemical potential decreases significantly, and
is zero at a temperature just below the Fermi temperature T1. As T increases above the Fermi temperature, the
chemical potential gets more and more negative. [This variation in the value of the chemical potential 𝜇 with T is
illustrated by the position of iin FIgures 12.3(a), 12.3(b) and 12.3(c). for the simple case of eight Identical fermions
of spin [1 Changes in V and N at a fixed value of T Icad to a change in the value of p through their effects on the
values of cj and T,to be used in Figure 12,4.
It is possible to interpret the main features of Figure 12.4 in terms of the Fenni—Dirac distribution function f(s).
given by equation (12.2). According so equation (12.2), when a Is equal to p. f(s) is equal to 0.5. Hence (or an deal
fermion gas. the chemical potential is equal to that value of energy at which f(s). the mean number of fermions in the
single particle state. is equal to 0.5., At the absolute zero of temperature, p is equal to the Fermi energy a. When the
temperature is just above the absolute zero, only fermions which at T 0 would have been in single pat-tide states
having energy eigenvalues just below the Fermi energy a1 are in excited single particle states having energy
cigenvalues just above s. The energy at which the mean occupancy f(s) is equal to 0.5 remains dose to. but just
below, the Fermi energy 5,. As the temperature is increased further, more and more fcnnions occupy excited single
particle states above the Fermi energy, and the value of the energy at which f(s) is equal to 0.5, moves to lower and
lower energies until eventually f(s) is equal to 0.5 for the single particle ground state. At this temperature p is equal