Homework 1 MA

Process of Science: Geometric Distance Measurements
Learning Goal:
Explain the simple geometric reasoning that astronomers use to measure the distances and sizes of
otherwise inaccessible objects.
How do astronomers know the distances to the objects that they study? This question is important
because knowing an object’s distance determines whether it is a relatively small, faint object that is
nearby, or a large, bright object that is far away. Using simple geometric reasoning, astronomers can
measure distances of many astronomical objects and begin to hypothesize what the nature of those
objects might be.
Part A
Geometric reasoning can be used to measure distances both on Earth and in space. Surveyors on Earth
and astronomers both use the geometric technique of triangulation to determine the distances and sizes
of remote objects. In order to determine the distance using the triangulation method, a few key
geometric components must be known. Once the baseline and the sightline angles are determined, then
the distance can be calculated with simple geometric reasoning.
In the figure below, label the essential components used to triangulate the distance to the tree located
on the opposite side of the river (assume the baseline remains constant).
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

Hint 1. How does an observer’s distance affect triangulation angles?
The figures show Observer A at two different distances away from a tree. Angle B _________ and angle
C ________ when Observer A is farther from the tree.
The figure shows a distances relation between triangulation angles. There is a right triangle with
Observer A at the right angle, Observer B at the B angle and the Object of interest at the C angle. The
distance between Observer A and the Object of interest is almost equal to the distance between the
observers. The figure shows a distances relation between triangulation angles. There is a right triangle
with Observer A at the right angle, Observer B at the B angle and the Object of interest at the C angle.
The distance between Observer A and the Object of interest is approximately two times shorter than the
distance between the observers.
ANSWER:
increases, increases
increases, decreases
decreases, decreases
decreases, increases
Hint 2. How does keeping a fixed baseline affect triangulation angles?
What would happen to the shape of the triangle in the figure if the distance between observers
remained fixed, but the distance between the object and observer A increased? (To help approach this
problem, consider sketching the triangle before and after the distance is increased.)
ANSWER:
The triangle’s shape would become longer and narrower. The figure shows a right triangle with one
side on the left three times longer than another one at the bottom. The right angle is between these
sides.
The triangle’s shape would remain the same. The figure shows a right triangle with one side on the left
two times longer than another one at the bottom. The right angle is between these sides.
The triangle’s shape would become shorter and wider. The figure shows a right triangle with one side on
the left three times shorter than another one at the bottom. The right angle is between these sides.
ANSWER:
D Baseline
B Distance to object
C Right angle
E Angle that increases with increasing distance to object
A Angle that decreases with increasing distance to the object
Correct
Surveyors use triangulation to measure distances to objects on Earth. The same technique can also be
used to determine the distance to nearby astronomical objects. Astronomers use Earth’s diameter as
the baseline in the triangulation method to measure distances to planets and other objects in our solar
system.
Part B
One way to triangulate the distance to many remote objects, such as stars, is to observe the shifts in
their location relative to more distant background objects. This apparent shifting of an object’s location
with respect to the background objects is known as parallax. Parallax is represented in the figure, where
the top image shows the parallax shift that is observed along a baseline that runs from one side of Earth
to the other. The bottom two images show what the observer sees from opposite sides of Earth. Using
triangulation, the distance to the object can be calculated with simple trigonometric relations.
Use the figure to determine how the measured parallax changes in each of the following situations:
The figure shows a scheme of a parallax occurring. A small sphere labeled as “object in space” is located
between the Earth and bright dots labeled as “background objects”. A line connecting the center of the
aforementioned sphere with the center of the Earth is shown. A plane that passes through the center of
the Earth and is perpendicular to the aforementioned line is shown. Two points lying in that plane on
the opposite points of the Earth’s surface are marked as A and B. Points A-stroke and B-stroke are
shown in region of background objects on lines that pass through the object of observation and points A
and B, respectively. An angle between those lines is labeled as “parallax”. Two cutaways are shown,
representing background objects and the object of observation as seen from points A and B. It is shown
that positions of the object of observation with respect to the background objects are different in those
cases.
Match the words in the left column to the appropriate blanks in the sentences on the right. Make
certain each sentence is complete before submitting your answer.
Hint 1. How the length of the baseline affects parallax?
Changing the length of the baseline affects the size of the measured parallax. A smaller baseline creates
a narrower triangle for any given distance to the remote object, whereas a larger baseline would create
a wider triangle for any given distance to the remote object. The angles of the narrower triangle will be
smaller than that of the wider triangle. Use this information to help answer how the size of the parallax
is dependent on the baseline of the triangle.
ANSWER:
1. As the distance to the object increases, parallax decreases.
2. As the size of baseline increases, parallax increases.
3. As the distance to background objects increases, parallax remains the same.
Correct
Measuring the parallax of a foreground object with respect to a more distant background of objects
allows for the use of geometric triangulation to determine the distance to the foreground object. The
key components include the baseline over which parallax is measured, the parallax that is measured,
and the distance that is determined. Astronomers have used this technique to determine distances to
the Moon and planets in the solar system. Parallax has also been used to determine distances to stars,
but a much larger baseline involving Earth’s orbit around the Sun is necessary to accurately measure
parallax.
Part C
Once the distance to a remote object is determined via triangulation, one can measure the angular
diameter of the object and convert that to an actual diameter. For relatively small angular diameters of
a few degrees or less, the corresponding linear diameter can be approximated using the following
expression:
Diameter=Distance×(Angular Diameter)(57.3 degrees)
The figure below illustrates that the diameter of a remote object increases with its distance and its
measured angular diameter.
The figure shows an observer in the circle which is depicted as an arrow – 360 degrees. There is a distant
object as a sphere of unknown diameter, which is observed by the observer from two directions (lines)
to diametrically opposite sides of the sphere. The angle between these paths is the Angular diameter.
The distance to the object is known, and depicted as an arrow between the observer and the circled line
that passes through the object.
Consider the Moon and Sun. Their angular diameters are both equal to about .5 degree. If the Sun is
roughly 400 times more distant than the Moon, how much bigger is the Sun’s diameter than the
Moon’s?
ANSWER:
about 400 times bigger
about 400 times smaller
about 800 times bigger
Correct
Proportional reasoning shows that the Sun, being about 400 times more distant than the Moon, must be
about 400 times larger in order to have the same angular diameter as the Moon, because angular
distance is proportional to diameter divided by distance:
(Diameter×(57.3 degrees))Distance=Angular Diameter
Venus in the Sky: Phases and Implications
Part A
In Ptolemy’s Earth-centered model for the solar system, Venus’s phase is never full as viewed from Earth
because it always lies between Earth and the Sun. In reality, as Galileo first recognized, Venus is
__________.
We see a full moon when __________.

ANSWER:
the Moon is between its waning and waxing crescent phases
the sunlit half of the Moon faces toward Earth
the Moon is directly between Earth and the Sun
ANSWER:
never full because Earth’s shadow falls on Venus at the time when it would otherwise be full
full whenever it is on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, although we cannot see the full Venus
because it is close to the Sun in the sky
never full because the sunlit side of Venus never faces directly toward Earth
full whenever it lies directly between Earth and the Sun
Part B
Imagine that Venus is in its full phase today. If we could see it, at what time would the full Venus be
highest in the sky?
The Sun is highest in the sky at __________.

ANSWER:
sunset
noon
dawn
ANSWER:
at noon
just after sunset
just before dawn
midnight
Part C
When would a new Venus be highest in the sky?
Venus’s phase is new as viewed from Earth when __________.
ANSWER:
Venus is on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth
the angle between the Sun and Venus (as viewed from Earth) is at its maximum
Venus is directly between Earth and the Sun
ANSWER:
midnight
at noon
just before dawn
just after sunset
Part D
When would you expect to see Venus high in the sky at midnight?
For Venus to appear high in the sky at midnight, it would have to be __________.
ANSWER:
located in the opposite direction as the Sun from Earth
located in the same direction as the Sun from Earth
located directly between Earth and the Sun
ANSWER:
in its waxing gibbous phase
in its waxing crescent phase
in its full phase
in its waning crescent phase
never
Part E
In Ptolemy’s Earth-centered model for the solar system, Venus always stays close to the Sun in the sky
and, because it always stays between Earth and the Sun, its phases range only between new and
crescent. The following statements are all true and were all observed by Galileo. Which one provides
evidence that Venus orbits the Sun and not Earth?
ANSWER:
We sometimes see gibbous (nearly but not quite full) Venus.
We never see Venus at midnight.
We sometimes see a crescent Venus.
We need a telescope to observe the phases of Venus.
Sorting Task: Testable and Not Testable by Science

Part A
Listed following are a series of statements that each make a claim. Classify these as either testable by
accepted methods of science or non-testable by accepted methods of science. Be sure to note that this
question does not ask whether a statement would pass or fail a test; it only asks whether it is testable in
principle.
ANSWER:
testable by science
Bacteria acquire resistance to antibiotics through changes in their DNA.
Mars once had liquid water on its surface.
People born under the sign of Sagittarius are twice as likely to be teachers as anyone else.
There will be a solar eclipse next Tuesday at 11 a.m.
Earth orbits the Sun every 365.25 days.
not testable by science
Hurricane Katrina was an act of God.
Vince Young is the greatest quarterback of all time.
Ranking Task: Altitude of a Star

Part A
Listed following are the latitudes of several locations on Earth. Rank these latitudes from left to right
based on the maximum altitude (on the meridian) at which the celestial equator passes through the
local sky, from lowest altitude (nearest the horizon) to highest altitude (farthest above the horizon).
The celestial equator always makes a half-circle across your sky (except at the North and South Poles),
extending from due east on your horizon to due west on your horizon and crossing the meridian at
__________.
ANSWER:
an altitude equal to your latitude
an altitude equal to 90° minus your latitude
the zenith
ANSWER:
latitude 70 degrees N
Part B
Listed following are the latitudes of several locations on Earth. Rank these latitudes from left to right
based on the maximum altitude (on the meridian) at which you would see a star with a declination of 0°,
from lowest altitude (nearest the horizon) to highest altitude (farthest above the horizon).
The diagram show a person standing on the Earth's surface looking up at the sky in the direction or
altitude indicated.
Part B concerns a star with declination 0°. This declination means __________.
ANSWER:
the star is the North Star
the star is only visible from latitude 0°
the star is located on the celestial equator
ANSWER:
Part C
Listed following are the declinations of five different stars. Rank these declinations from left to right
based on the maximum altitude (on the meridian) each star reaches for an observer at latitude 60°N,
from lowest altitude (nearest the horizon) to highest altitude (farthest above the horizon).
Part C asks you to determine the maximum altitude of different stars at latitude 60°N. The following
three facts should help you understand how to proceed to the correct answer.
ANSWER:
dec = -20 degrees
dec = -5 degrees
dec = +0 degrees
dec = +10 degrees
dec = +30 degrees
Sorting Task: Solstices and EquinoxesPart A
Listed following are observable characteristics of equinoxes and solstices in the continental United
States (which means temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere). Match each characteristic to the
corresponding equinox or solstice.
Which of the following is not true when the Sun has declination = 0°?
ANSWER:
The Sun rises due east.
The Sun sets due west.
It is the summer solstice.
The Sun is located on the celestial equator.
ANSWER:
spring equinox
the Sun rises due east today, but will rise slightly north of due east tomorrow
summer solstice
longest day (most daylight) of the year
the noontime Sun reaches its highest point of the year
fall equinox
the Sun has declination 0 degree today, but will have a negative declination tomorrow
winter solstice
the noontime Sun casts the longest shadows
the Sun crosses the meridian 23.5 degrees lower in altitude than the celestial equator
sunset occurs at its farthest point south of due west for the year
Ranking Task: Lunar Phases II
Part A
The following figures show a top view of Earth, sunlight, and six different positions of the Moon as it
orbits Earth. Note that the distances shown are not drawn to scale. Rank each of the six lunar positions
from left to right based on the amount of the Moon’s illuminated surface that is visible from Earth, from
greatest to least. (If two diagrams have an equal amount of illumination as seen from Earth, put one on
top of the other.)
We see a full moon in our sky only when __________.
ANSWER:
the Moon and Sun are on opposite sides of Earth
Earth’s shadow does not touch the Moon at all
exactly half the Moon is illuminated by sunlight
We see a “half moon” (in which the Moon in our sky is half dark and half light) in our sky only when
__________.
ANSWER:
the Moon is 1/4 or 3/4 of the way around its orbit (starting from when it is on the same side of Earth
as the Sun)
exactly half the Moon is illuminated by sunlight
Earth’s shadow covers half of the Moon
ANSWER:
•Greates t Background Image

The figure shows Earth, located at the center of the circular orbit of the Moon. The counterclockwise
rotation direction is indicated on the orbit. Sunlight is represented by arrows directed to the left. The
right halves of Earth and the Moon are lit, and the left halves are dark. The Moon is located at the 9-
o'clock position relative to Earth.
• Background Image
•Least Background Image
Part B
Shown following are five different phases of the Moon as seen by an observer in the Northern
Hemisphere. Imagine that tonight the Moon is in the waxing gibbous phase (as shown at the far left
(labeled “first”) in the following ranking box). Rank the pictured phases from left to right based on the
order in which you would see them over the next four weeks, from first seen to last.
We see about 3/4 of the Moon’s face illuminated at waxing gibbous phase. What do we see about three
to four days later?
ANSWER:
a full moon
a crescent moon
a “half moon” (in which the Moon in our sky is half dark and half light)
Which of the following correctly describes what we mean by “waxing” and “waning” phases of the
Moon?
ANSWER:
Waxing means we phases in which we can see large craters on the Moon, and waning means phases in
which we can’t.
Waxing means we see less than half the moon illuminated, and waning means we see more than half.
Waxing means phases that we see as the moon approaches full moon, and waning means phases that
we see after full moon.
It takes the Moon approximately one month (29.5 days; think “moonth”) to complete one cycle of
phases. herefore, when the task asks you to think about what you see over the next 4 weeks, it is really
asking you to place the photos in the correct order for which they appear over one complete lunar cycle,
starting from the waxing gibbous phase shown at the far left of the ranking box.
ANSWER:
First
waning gibbous phase
third quarter phase
waning crescent phase
waxing crescent phase
first quarter phase
Last
Vocabulary in Context: Describing Eclipses of the Sun and Moon
Part A
Match the words in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences in the right-hand
column. Use each word only once.
ANSWER:
1. A solar eclipse that occurs when the new moon is too far from Earth to completely cover the Sun can
be either a partial solar eclipse or a(n) annular eclipse.
2. Anyone looking from the night side of Earth can, in principle, see a(n) total lunar eclipse.
3. During some lunar eclipses, the Moon's appearance changes only slightly, because it passes only
through the part of Earth's shadow called the penumbra.
4. A(n) total solar eclipse can occur only when the Moon is new and has an angular size larger than the
Sun in the sky.
5. A partial lunar eclipse begins when the Moon first touches Earth's umbra.
6. A point at which the Moon crosses Earth's orbital plane is called a(n) node.
Conceptual Self-Test 1.1
Part A
If Earth rotated twice as fast as it currently does, but its motion around the Sun stayed the same, then
ANSWER:
the night would be half as long.
the night would be twice as long.
the year would be half as long.
the length of the day would be unchanged.

Part A
When a thin crescent of the Moon is visible just before sunrise, the Moon is in its
ANSWER:
waning phase.
quarter phase.
waxing phase.
new phase.
Part A
Suppose that instead of being inclined to Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon’s orbit was in the same
plane as Earth’s orbit around the Sun. (Click “Show Moon with flat orbit” to see this situation.) In this
hypothetical situation, approximately how many solar eclipses would occur each year?
ANSWER:
The Moon’s shadow always points directly __________.
toward Earth
away from Earth
toward the Sun
away from the Sun
ANSWER:
A solar eclipse occurs when __________. Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon
the Sun’s shadow falls on the Moon.
the Moon’s shadow falls on Earth
ANSWER:
How often does a new moon occur?
once a week
once a month.
once a year
ANSWER:
0
1
2
12
24
Part B
In reality, the Moon’s orbit about Earth is tilted (by about 5°) with respect to Earth’s orbit about the Sun.
As a result, the actual number of solar eclipses that occur each year is approximately _____.
ANSWER:
A solar eclipse occurs when __________.
Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon
the Sun’s shadow falls on the Moon.
ANSWER:
We have a new moon approximately __________.

once a week.
once a month
once a year
ANSWER:
0
2
12
24
Part C
What conditions must exist for a solar eclipse to occur?
True or False? A full moon occurs when the Sun and the Moon are on opposite sides of Earth.
ANSWER:
True
False
True or False? The Moon’s shadow falls on Earth during every new moon.
ANSWER:
True
False
ANSWER:
A solar eclipse occurs when __________.

the Sun’s shadow falls on the Moon
ANSWER:
The only condition is that the phase of the Moon must be new.
The phase of the Moon must be new and the Moon must be passing through Earth’s orbital plane.
The only condition is that the phase of the Moon must be full.
The phase of the Moon must be full and the Moon must be passing through Earth’s orbital plane.
Part D
What conditions must exist for a lunar eclipse to occur?

ANSWER:
A lunar eclipse occurs when __________.
the Sun’s shadow falls on the Moon
True or False? Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon during every full moon.
ANSWER:
True
False
True or False? A new moon occurs when the Sun and the Moon are on the same side of Earth.
ANSWER:
True
False
ANSWER:
The only condition is that the phase of the Moon must be new.
The phase of the Moon must be new and the Moon must be passing through Earth’s orbital plane.
The only condition is that the phase of the Moon must be full.
The phase of the Moon must be full and the Moon must be passing through Earth’s orbital plane.
Part E
If you could change the layout of the solar system, which of the following would cause a lunar eclipse to
occur at least once every month in this hypothetical situation?
The Moon’s orbit about Earth is tilted with respect to Earth’s orbit about the Sun. In the animation, the
segment of the Moon’s orbit located above Earth’s orbit is white and the segment below Earth’s orbit is
blue.
A lunar eclipse occurs when __________.
the Moon passes through Earth’s shadow

the Moon passes through the Sun’s shadow
Earth passes through the Moon’s shadow
ANSWER:
Make the Moon orbit Earth twice as fast.
Change the Moon’s orbital plane so it tilts the opposite way.
Relocate the Moon to twice its current distance from Earth.
Change the Moon’s orbital plane so it is in the same plane as Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
Chapter 1 Multiple-Choice Problem 47

Part A
When the Moon is directly opposite the Sun in the sky, its phase is:
ANSWER:
waxing or waning crescent.

first or third quarter.
new.
waxing or waning gibbous.
full.
Ranking Task: Kepler’s Second Law of Planetary Motion

Learning Goal:
To understand the meaning of Kepler's second law of planetary motion.
Parts A through C all refer to the orbit of a single comet around the Sun.
Part A
Each of the four diagrams below represents the orbit of the same comet, but each one shows the comet
passing through a different segment of its orbit around the Sun. During each segment, a line drawn from
the Sun to the comet sweeps out a triangular-shaped, shaded area. Assume that all the shaded regions
have exactly the same area.
Rank the segments of the comet’s orbit from left to right based on the length of time it takes the comet
to move from Point 1 to Point 2.
Rank from longest to shortest. If you think that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as
equal, drag one on top of the other(s) to show this equality.
According to Kepler’s second law, as a planet or other object moves around its orbit, it sweeps out equal
__________ in equal __________.
ANSWER:
distances / areas
areas / times
distances / times
ANSWER:
•Longest Background Image
The diagram shows an elliptic orbit with the horizontal major axis and the Sun in its left focus. A comet
moves clockwise from point 1 located in the top right quarter of the ellipse to point 2 located at the
rightmost point of the ellipse. A line drawn from the Sun to the comet sweeps out a shaded area.
moves clockwise from point 1 located in the top right quarter of the ellipse to point 2 located not far
from point 1 also in the top right quarter of the ellipse . A line drawn from the Sun to the comet sweeps
out a shaded area.
moves clockwise from point 1 located at the bottommost point of the ellipse to point 2 located in the
bottom left quarter of the ellipse. A line drawn from the Sun to the comet sweeps out a shaded area.
moves clockwise from point 1 located in the bottom left quarter of the ellipse to point 2 located in the
top left quarter of the ellipse. A line drawn from the Sun to the comet sweeps out a shaded area.
•Shortest Background Image
Part B
Consider again the diagrams from Part A, which are repeated here. Again, assume that all the shaded
areas have exactly the same area. This time, rank the segments of the comet’s orbit from left to right
based on the distance the comet travels when moving from Point 1 to Point 2.
ANSWER:
Suppose two cars both drive for one hour. Which statement is true?
They both go the same distance.

The one that goes faster travels farther.
The one that goes slower travels farther.
ANSWER:
out a shaded area.
Part C
Consider again the diagrams from Parts A and B, which are repeated here. Again, assume that all the
shaded areas have exactly the same area. This time, rank the segments of the comet’s orbit based on
the speed with which the comet moves when traveling from Point 1 to Point 2.
Rank from fastest to slowest. If you think that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as equal,
drag one on top of the other(s) to show this equality.
According to Kepler’s second law, planets and other objects orbiting the Sun move fastest when they are
__________.
ANSWER:
traveling toward the Sun
traveling away from the Sun
nearest to the Sun
farthest from the Sun
ANSWER:
•Fastest Background Image

out a shaded area.
•Slowest Background Image
speed must also be faster when it is closer to the Sun. In other words, the fact that that the comet
sweeps out equal areas in equal times implies that its orbital speed is faster when it is nearer to the Sun
and slower when it is farther away.
We'll now leave the comet behind, and instead consider the orbit of an asteroid in Parts D through F.
Part D
Each of the four diagrams below represents the orbit of the same asteroid, but each one shows it in a
different position along its orbit of the Sun. Imagine that you observed the asteroid as it traveled for one
week, starting from each of the positions shown. Rank the positions based on the area that would be
swept out by a line drawn between the Sun and the asteroid during the one-week period.
Rank from largest to smallest. If you think that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as equal,
According to Kepler’s second law, as a planet or other object moves around its orbit, it sweeps out equal
__________ in equal __________.
ANSWER:
distances / areas
areas / times
distances / times
ANSWER:
•Largest Background Image
The diagram shows an elliptic orbit with the vertical major axis and the Sun in its lower focus. An
asteroid is at its aphelion. It revolves clockwise.
asteroid is located in the top left quarter of the orbit. It revolves clockwise.
asteroid is located in the bottom right quarter of the orbit. It revolves clockwise.
asteroid is at its perihelion. It revolves clockwise.
•Smallest Background Image
Part E
Consider again the diagrams from Part D, which are repeated here. Again, imagine that you observed
the asteroid as it traveled for one week, starting from each of the positions shown. This time, rank the
positions from left to right based on the distance the asteroid will travel during a one-week period when
passing through each location.
Consider two triangles that represent the swept-out area in some time period as an object orbits the
Sun. If one triangle is short and squat (where the object is close to the Sun) and the other is long and
thin (where the object is far from the Sun), then the object must have moved __________.
ANSWER:
the same distance in both cases
farther in the case where the triangle is short and squat
farther in the case where the triangle is long and thin
ANSWER:
Part F
Consider again the diagrams from Parts D and E, which are repeated here. Again, imagine that you
observed the asteroid as it traveled for one week, starting from each of the positions shown. This time,
rank the positions (A–D) from left to right based on how fast the asteroid is moving at each position.
Rank from fastest to slowest. If you think that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as equal,
According to Kepler’s second law, planets or other objects orbiting the Sun move fastest when they are
__________.
ANSWER:
traveling toward the Sun
traveling away from the Sun
nearest to the Sun
farthest from the Sun
ANSWER:

Ranking Task: Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion

Part A
The following diagrams all show the same star, but each shows a different planet orbiting the star. The
diagrams are all scaled the same. (For example, you can think of the tick marks along the line that passes
through the Sun and connects the nearest and farthest points in the orbit as representing distance in
astronomical units (AU).) Rank the planets from left to right based on their average orbital distance from
the star, from longest to shortest. (Distances are to scale, but planet and star sizes are not.)
Consider a planet with an elliptical orbit around the Sun. Its average distance from the Sun is
__________.
ANSWER:
half the distance along a line from the nearest to the farthest points in its orbit
the distance across the orbit at the place where the ellipse is narrowest
the distance from the Sun to the nearest point in its orbit
the distance from the Sun to the farthest point in its orbit
ANSWER:

The diagram shows a planet orbiting a star. The orbit is circular. A line with tick marks along it passes
through the star. The diameter of the orbit is equal to 10 scale divisions.
The diagram shows a planet orbiting a star. The orbit is elliptic. A line with tick marks along it passes
through the star and connects the nearest and farthest points in the orbit. The distance from the star to
the nearest point in the orbit is equal to 2 scale divisions; the distance to the farthest point is equal to 5
scale divisions.
the nearest point in the orbit is equal to one scale division; the distance to the farthest point is equal to
2 scale divisions.
Part B
The following diagrams are the same as those from Part A. This time, rank the planets from left to right
based on the amount of time it takes each to complete one orbit, from longest to shortest. If you think
that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as equal, drag one on top of the other(s) to show
this equality. (Distances are to scale, but planet and star sizes are not.)
Kepler’s third law states that for any planet orbiting the Sun, the orbital period squared (p2 ) is equal to
the average orbital distance cubed (a3), or p2=a3 . This implies that __________.
ANSWER:
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun has a longer orbital period than a planet with a
smaller average distance from the Sun
a planet travels faster when it is in the part of its orbit closer to the Sun than it does in the part that is
farther from the Sun
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun has a shorter orbital period than a planet with a
The time a planet takes to complete one orbit is called its __________.
ANSWER:
orbital period
perihelion
semimajor axis
ANSWER:
scale divisions.
2 scale divisions.
Part C
The following diagrams are the same as those from Parts A and B. This time, rank the planets from left
to right based on their average orbital speed, from fastest to slowest. If you think that two (or more) of
the diagrams should be ranked as equal, drag one on top of the other(s) to show this equality.
(Distances are to scale, but planet and star sizes are not.)
Kepler’s third law states that for any planet orbiting the Sun, the orbital period squared (p2) is equal to
the average orbital distance cubed (a3), or p2=a3. This implies that __________.
ANSWER:
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun travels at a faster average speed than a planet with
a smaller average distance from the Sun
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun travels at a slower average speed than a planet
with a smaller average distance from the Sun
ANSWER:
2 scale divisions.
scale divisions.
Part D
Each of the following diagrams shows a planet orbiting a star. Each diagram is labeled with the planet’s
mass (in Earth masses) and its average orbital distance (in AU). Assume that all four stars are identical.
Use Kepler's third law to rank the planets from left to right based on their orbital periods, from longest
to shortest. If you think that two (or more) of the diagrams should be ranked as equal, drag one on top
of the other(s) to show this equality. (Distances are to scale, but planet and star sizes are not.)
Suppose Earth doubled in mass. How would Earth’s orbital period around the Sun change?
ANSWER:
The orbital period would decrease, but by less than half.
The orbital period would increase, but by less than double.
The orbital period would remain exactly one year.
The orbital period would double to two years.
The orbital period would fall in half to six months.
Kepler’s third law states that for any planet orbiting the Sun, the orbital period squared (p2) is equal to
the average orbital distance cubed (a3), or p2=a3. This implies that __________.
ANSWER:
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun has a shorter orbital period than a planet with a
a planet with a large average distance from the Sun has a longer orbital period than a planet with a
ANSWER:
Shortest
Longest

The diagram shows a planet orbiting a star. The orbit is circular with the radius equal to 2 astronomical
units. The mass of the planet is equal to three Earth masses.
units. The mass of the planet is equal to one Earth mass.
unit. The mass of the planet is equal to two Earth masses.
unit. The mass of the planet is equal to one Earth mass.
Review and Discussion 1.10
Part A
How much of the Moon’s surface is lit by the Sun at any one time?
ANSWER:
Three quarter of the Moon is lit by the Sun constantly.

All surface of the Moon is lit by the Sun constantly.
Quarter of the Moon is lit by the Sun constantly.
Half of the Moon is lit by the Sun constantly.
Part B
Why do we see different phases of the Moon?
Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences.
ANSWER:
The phase of the Moon depends on what portion of the Moons side that faces Earth is lit by the Sun,
which in turn is determined by where the Moon is in its orbit around Earth.
Ranking Task: Gravity and Newton’s Laws
Part A
The following five diagrams show pairs of astronomical objects that are all separated by the same
distance d. Assume the asteroids are all identical and relatively small, just a few kilometers across.
Considering only the two objects shown in each pair, rank the strength, from strongest to weakest, of
the gravitational force acting on the asteroid on the left.
The force of gravity follows an inverse square law, meaning that the strength of the force declines with
the square of the distance between two masses. But if the distances between pairs of objects are all the
same, as in Part A, then the strength of gravity depends only on __________.
ANSWER:
the size of the larger mass in the pair
the size of the smaller mass in the pair
the product of the two object masses (M1×M2)
the sum of the two object masses (M1+M2)
ANSWER:
Weakest force
Strongest force
•Strongest force Background Image

The diagram shows an asteroid and the Sun that are separated by the distance d.
The diagram shows an asteroid and Earth that are separated by the distance d.
The diagram shows an asteroid and the Moon that are separated by the distance d.
The diagram shows two asteroids that are separated by the distance d.
The diagram shows an asteroid and a hydrogen atom that are separated by the distance d.
•Weakest force Background Image
Part B
The following diagrams are the same as those from Part A. Again considering only the two objects
shown in each pair, this time rank the strength, from strongest to weakest, of the gravitational force
acting on the object on the right.
ANSWER:
According to Newton’s third law __________.
the strength of the force that the object on the left exerts on the object on the right has to be exactly
the same (but in an opposite direction) as the force the object on the right exerts on the object on the
left
the gravitational force exerted by the asteroids on the left will be equal for each pair of objects because
all the asteroids have the same mass
to find the force on the object on the right, you just have to divide the asteroid mass by the mass of the
object on the right
ANSWER:
Weakest force
Strongest force

Part C
The following diagrams are the same as those from Part A. This time, rank the pairs from left to right
based on the size of the acceleration the asteroid on the left would have due to the gravitational force
exerted on it by the object on the right, from largest to smallest.
According to Newton’s second law, the greater the force exerted on an object, the greater the object’s
_____.
ANSWER:
mass
acceleration
distance
velocity
ANSWER:
Smallest acceleration
Largest acceleration
•Largest acceleration Background Image

•Smallest acceleration Background Image
Part D
Consider Earth and the Moon. As you should now realize, the gravitational force that Earth exerts on the
Moon is equal and opposite to that which the Moon exerts on Earth. Therefore, according to Newton’s
second law of motion __________.
Newton’s second law of motion states that force equals mass times acceleration, or F=ma. Suppose you
have already calculated the gravitational force, which we will call Fg , attracting Earth and the Moon.
Then the amount of acceleration of Earth due to this force is __________.
ANSWER:
Fg divided by the mass of the Earth

Fg divided by the mass of the Moon
Fg divided by the acceleration of the Earth
Fg divided by the acceleration of the Moon
ANSWER:
the Moon has a larger acceleration than Earth, because it has a smaller mass
Earth has a larger acceleration than the Moon, because it has a larger mass
the Moon and Earth both have equal accelerations, because the forces are equal
Ranking Task: Newton’s Law of Gravity
Part A
Each of the following diagrams shows a spaceship somewhere along the way between Earth and the
Moon (not to scale); the midpoint of the distance is marked to make it easier to see how the locations
compare. Assume the spaceship has the same mass throughout the trip (that is, it is not burning any
fuel). Rank the five positions of the spaceship from left to right based on the strength of the
gravitational force that Earth exerts on the spaceship, from strongest to weakest.
For the situations shown, the two objects we are concerned with are Earth and the spaceship, which
both have constant masses. Therefore, the strength of gravity between them: __________.
ANSWER:
increases with the square of their distance apart
increases in direct proportion to their distance apart
decreases with the square of their distance apart
decreases in direct proportion to their distance apart
ANSWER:
Weakest force
Strongest force

The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is close to
Earth.
The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is near the
midpoint of the distance, closer to Earth.
The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is at the
midpoint of the distance.
midpoint of the distance, closer to the Moon.
The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is close to the
Moon.
Part B
The following diagrams are the same as those from Part A. This time, rank the five positions of the
spaceship from left to right based on the strength of the gravitational force that the Moon exerts on the
spaceship, from strongest to weakest.
For the situations shown, the two objects we are concerned with are the Moon and the spaceship,
which both have constant masses. Therefore, the strength of gravity between them __________.
ANSWER:
increases with the square of their distance apart
increases in direct proportion to their distance apart
decreases with the square of their distance apart
decreases in direct proportion to their distance apart
ANSWER:
Weakest force
Strongest force

The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is close to the
Moon.
midpoint of the distance, closer to the Moon.
The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is at the
midpoint of the distance.
midpoint of the distance, closer to Earth.
The diagram shows a spaceship on the way between Earth and the Moon. The spaceship is close to
Earth.
Part C
The following diagrams show five pairs of asteroids, labeled with their relative masses (M) and distances
(d) between them. For example, an asteroid with M=2 has twice the mass of one with M=1 and a
distance of d=2 is twice as large as a distance of d=1. Rank each pair from left to right based on the
strength of the gravitational force attracting the asteroids to each other, from strongest to weakest.
To calculate the gravitational force between two objects we __________, and then multiply by the
gravitational constant G.
ANSWER:
add the two masses together, divide by their distance

multiply the two masses together, divide by their distance
square the two masses, divide by their distance
add the two masses together, divide by their distance squared
multiply the two masses, divide by their distance squared
ANSWER:
Weakest force
Strongest force

The diagram shows a pair of asteroids. Both asteroids are labeled with M = 2. The distance between
them is labeled with d = 1.
The diagram shows a pair of asteroids. The smaller asteroid is labeled with M = 1, the larger one is
labeled with M = 2. The distance between them is labeled with d = 1.
The diagram shows a pair of asteroids. The smaller asteroid is labeled with M = 1, the larger one is
labeled with M = 2. The distance between them is labeled with d = 2.
Part A
Suppose you are in an elevator. As the elevator starts upward, its speed will increase. During this time
when the elevator is moving upward with increasing speed, your weight will be __________.
If you are in an elevator that is accelerating upward, you will feel __________ while the elevator
__________.
ANSWER:
a downward force; moves upward with increasing speed
a downward force; moves upward at constant speed
light-headed; floor drops away from you
ANSWER:
greater than your normal weight at rest
equal to your normal weight at rest
less than your normal weight at rest
Part B
Suppose you are in an elevator that is moving upward. As the elevator nears the floor at which you will
get off, its speed slows down. During this time when the elevator is moving upward with decreasing
speed, your weight will be __________.
Suppose you throw a ball straight up. It begins going upward quickly (as fast as you throw it), but it
gradually slows down until it comes to a stop at the top of its flight, and then starts heading back down.
During the time that the ball is still on its upward path but with a slowing speed, its acceleration is
__________.
ANSWER:
downward
upward
zero
ANSWER:
greater than your normal weight at rest
equal to your normal weight at rest
less than your normal weight at rest
Part C
As you found in Part A, your weight will be greater than normal when the elevator is moving upward
with increasing speed. For what other motion would your weight also be greater than your normal
weight?
As you can see in the video, you become weightless in free-fall. What kind of acceleration do you have in
free-fall on Earth?
ANSWER:
downward acceleration, meaning your downward speed continually gets faster
upward acceleration, meaning your downward speed continually gets slower
zero acceleration, meaning you move downward with constant speed
ANSWER:
The elevator moves upward with constant velocity.
The elevator moves downward with constant velocity.
The elevator moves upward while slowing in speed.
The elevator moves downward while slowing in speed.
The elevator moves downward while increasing in speed.
Part D
If you are standing on a scale in an elevator, what exactly does the scale measure?
Hint 1. How does your mass change while you accelerate upward?
True or False? As you accelerate upward, you have more mass than when you are stationary.
ANSWER:
True
False
True or False? While you accelerate downward, Earth exerts a smaller-than-normal gravitational
attraction on you.
ANSWER:
True
False
ANSWER:
your mass
the force you exert on the scale
the gravitational force exerted on you by Earth
Process of Science: Galileo and Kepler’s Contributions to the Model of the Solar System
Learning Goal:
Sketch the major contributions of Galileo and Kepler to the development of our understanding of the
solar system.
With the publication of the Copernican model of the solar system, scholars began to take the
heliocentric theory more seriously. However, it was the work of Galileo and Kepler that paved the way
for the widespread acceptance of the heliocentric model. As a result of Galileo's observational evidence
and Kepler's theoretical innovations, the geocentric model was ultimately rejected.
Part A - Galileo's observational contributions
Galileo Galilei was the first scientist to perform experiments in order to test his ideas. He was also the
first astronomer to systematically observe the skies with a telescope. Galileo made four key
observations that challenged the widely accepted philosophical beliefs on which the geocentric model
was based, thus providing support for the heliocentric model. From the following list of observations,
which are the key observations made by Galileo that challenged widespread philosophical beliefs about
the solar system?
Check all that apply.
Some of the basic philosophical principles upheld since the times of the ancient Greeks were
contradicted by Galileo's observations of the solar system. One principle was that the heavens were
perfect and that Earth was imperfect. Two of Galileo's observations disproved this principle by showing
imperfections on the surfaces of celestial objects. Look closely at the list of observations in Part A to
determine which two describe imperfections Galileo saw on the surfaces of celestial objects.
Another philosophical principle commonly accepted since the time of the ancient Greeks was that all
objects in the universe orbited around Earth. However, two of Galileo's observations disproved this
principle by showing that one planet orbits the Sun, not Earth, and that another planet has satellites
that orbit around it. Consider which observations from the list in Part A fit these descriptions.
Galileo was the first to observe planets visible to the naked eye with a telescope. Which planets did
Galileo not observe with his telescope?
ANSWER:
Jupiter
Mercury
Venus
Neptune
Uranus
Saturn
Mars
ANSWER:
Neptune has orbiting moons.

Uranus has a ring system.
The Moon has a smooth, featureless surface.
Venus is only seen in a crescent phase.
Jupiter has orbiting moons.
The Sun has sunspots and rotates on its axis.
The Moon has mountains, valleys, and craters.
Venus goes through a full set of phases.
Part B - Kepler's contributions

Johannes Kepler used decades of Tycho Brahe's observational data to formulate an accurate description
of planetary motion. Kepler spent almost 30 years of his life trying to develop a simple description of
planetary motion based on a heliocentric model that fit Tycho's data. What conclusion did Kepler
eventually come to that revolutionized the heliocentric model of the solar system?
Both Ptolemy's geocentric model and Copernicus' heliocentric model provided an explanation for the
observed motion of the planets in the sky. Kepler set out to describe planetary motions in a way that
matched Tycho's precise observational data.
The solar system models developed before Kepler's time assumed that the planets followed
__________.
ANSWER:
circular orbits
elliptical orbits
hyperbolic orbits
ANSWER:
Kepler confirmed that Venus orbits the Sun.
Kepler confirmed that the planetary orbits are circular.
Kepler explained retrograde motion.
Kepler determined that the planetary orbits are elliptical.
Part C - Observational proof of the heliocentric model
Astronomers have made many observations since the days of Galileo and Kepler to confirm that the Sun
really is at the center of the solar system, and that the planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits.
Which observation(s) could you make today that Galileo and Kepler could not have made to confirm that
the heliocentric model is correct?
Every astronomical object has a spectrum, which consists of light from the object that has been split into
constituent wavelengths. Doppler shifts are shifts in the lines of a star's spectrum caused by its motion
toward or away from Earth. The amount of shift depends not only the star's motion, but also on the
motion of Earth. You can calculate how fast and in what direction Earth is moving by analyzing the
spectrum of a star moving toward or away from Earth.
If an extrasolar planet happens to pass between us and its parent star, the light from the star will dim as
the planet blocks some of the star's light. This event is called a transit. Think about whether observing
such an event would provide evidence in favor of the heliocentric model.
Stellar parallax is the _____ in a star's position with respect to more distant background stars, which
occurs as the location of the observer changes.
ANSWER:
apparent shift
actual shift
lack of shift
ANSWER:
Doppler shifts in stellar spectra of nearby stars
Orbital periods of Jupiter's moons
Stellar parallax in nearby stars
Transit of an extrasolar planet
Process of Science: Explaining the Motions of the Planets
Learning Goal:
Discuss how the observed motions of the planets led to our modern view of a Sun-centered solar
system.
To ancient astronomers, the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the stars seemed fairly simple.
However, the motions of the planets, which were more complicated, were harder to account for. It was
a challenge for astronomers to explain the observed motions of the planets and to relate those motions
to variations in planetary brightness. This tutorial examines two competing models of the solar system
and how each of these models explained the motions of the planets. This tutorial also discusses the
model that ultimately led to our correct understanding of the solar system.
Part A
Two competing models attempt to explain the motions and changing brightness of the planets:
Ptolemy's geocentric model and Copernicus' heliocentric model.
Sort the characteristics according to whether they are part of the geocentric model, the heliocentric
model, or both solar system models.
Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.
Mars is shown orbiting the center of an epicycle (dashed circle) that orbits Earth along a deferent (solid
circle). You can see how the epicycle causes the observed retrograde motion of Mars as it travels around
the dashed orange loops. The planet is brightest when it is closest to Earth on the epicycle. Study this
video to help decide which characteristics listed in Part A belong to the geocentric model.
From the video, you can see that Earth, being closer to the Sun than Mars, travels more quickly in its
orbit than Mars. If we follow each line of sight between Earth and Mars as the planets move along in
their orbits, we see that Mars appears to change direction during parts of the video. As Earth catches up
to Mars and passes by it during orbit, Mars appears to move westward in the sky with respect to the
background stars. Mars is also brightest when it is closest to the Earth. Study this video to help decide
which characteristics listed in Part A belong to the heliocentric model.
Both Ptolemy and Copernicus incorrectly explained the motions and orbital paths of the planets by
basing their models on Greek ideologies of perfect form and motion. What were the Greek ideologies
for perfect form and motion?
ANSWER:
an oval and non-uniform motion
a circle and uniform motion
an oval and uniform motion
a circle and non-uniform motion
While epicycles and deferents are most commonly associated with Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the
solar system, Copernicus’s heliocentric model also included epicycles and deferents. It wasn’t until
Kepler discovered that planets follow elliptical orbits that a heliocentric model was developed without
epicycles.
ANSWER:
Geocentric
This model is Earth-centered.
Retrograde motion is explained by epicycles.
Heliocentric
This model is Sun-centered.
Retrograde motion is explained by the orbital speeds of planets.
Both geocentric and heliocentric
Planets move in circular orbits and with uniform motion.
The brightness of a planet increases when the planet is closest to Earth.
Epicycles and deferents help explain planetary motion.
Part B
Copernicus's heliocentric model and Ptolemy's geocentric model were each developed to provide a
description of the solar system. Both models had advantages that made each an acceptable explanation
for motions in the solar system during their time.
Sort each statement according to whether it is an advantage of the heliocentric model, the geocentric
model, or both.
Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.

Launches a video showing Ptolemy's geocentric model.
This video shows the geocentric model, which explained the observed motions of the planets with a
complex system of circular orbits. In comparison, the heliocentric model had a much simpler explanation
for retrograde motion—the different orbital speeds of the planets.
Any model that explains the motions of the planets must also be able to accurately predict the future
positions of the planets for any given time. Both Ptolemy's geocentric model and Copernicus’s
heliocentric model used epicycles to accurately explain the observed paths of the planets in the sky over
short periods of time.
Ptolemy's geocentric model and Copernicus's heliocentric model both followed the teachings of
Aristotle in regards to perfect form and motion. The geocentric model was influenced by the religious
doctrine of the time and situated Earth in a very special place in the universe. At that time, what was the
common belief about Earth's location in the universe?
ANSWER:
Earth is at the center of the universe.
Earth is at the edge of the universe.
Earth is halfway between the center and the edge of the universe.
ANSWER:
Heliocentric
Explained planetary motions and brightness changes most simply
Geocentric
Rooted in widely accepted religious beliefs regarding Earth's place in the universe
Both geocentric and heliocentric
Predicted planetary positions accurately over relatively short time periods
Planetary orbits and motions based on Greek ideologies of perfect form and motion
Part C
The geocentric model, in all of its complexity, survived scientific scrutiny for almost 1,400 years.
However, in modern astronomy, scientists seek to explain the natural and physical world we live in as
simply as possible. The complexity of Ptolemy's model was an indicator that his theory was inherently
flawed. Why, then, was the geocentric model the leading theory for such a long time, even though the
heliocentric model more simply explained the observed motions and brightness of the planets?
Copernicus's heliocentric model correctly placed the Sun at the center of the solar system. However,
Copernicus still used uniform circular motion and small epicycles to make his model agree with
observations. Therefore, his model did not make more accurate predictions than the geocentric model.
Stars appear to shift against a background of distant stars as Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun.
Ancient astronomers tried to observe stellar parallax to determine if Earth was in motion. However,
such small shifts in the positions of the stars could not be seen with naked eye observations, which led
ancient astronomers to the conclusion that the Earth was stationary.
The geocentric and the heliocentric models both conformed to the philosophical belief of perfect form
and motion. The geocentric model also conformed to a religious doctrine, while the heliocentric did not.
What was this religious doctrine?
ANSWER:
The Sun is at the center of the universe.
The planets orbit Earth on epicycles.
Earth spins on its axis.
Earth is at the center of the universe.
ANSWER:
Ancient astronomers did not observe stellar parallax, which would have provided evidence in favor of
the heliocentric model.
The geocentric model conformed to both the philosophical and religious doctrines of the time.
The heliocentric model did not make noticeably better predictions than the geocentric model.
From Earth, all heavenly bodies appeared to circle around a stationary Earth.
The complexity of the geocentric model was appealing to most ancient astronomers.
Vocabulary in Context: Kepler's Planetary Orbits

Part A
A vocabulary in context exercise in which students match words to definitions describing elliptical
planetary orbits, applying ideas from Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion.
Aphelion is the point at which an object orbiting the Sun is farthest from the Sun.
An ellipse is a type of oval that happens to be the shape of bound orbits. An ellipse can be drawn by
moving a pencil along a string whose ends are tied to two tacks; the locations of the tacks are the foci
(singular, focus) of the ellipse.
A focus is one of two special points within an ellipse that lie along the major axis; these are the points
around which we could stretch a pencil and string to draw an ellipse. When one object orbits a second
object, the second object lies at one focus of the orbit.
Eccentricity is a measure of how much an ellipse deviates from a perfect circle. It is defined as the
center-to-focus distance divided by the length of the semimajor axis.
Perihelion is the point at which an object orbiting the Sun is closest to the Sun.
A semimajor axis is half the distance across the long axis of an ellipse; in your textbook, it is usually
referred to as the average distance of an orbiting object, abbreviated a in the formula for Kepler's third
law.
ANSWER:
1. Earth is located at one focus of the Moon's orbit.
2. According to Kepler's second law, Jupiter will be traveling most slowly around the Sun when at
aphelion.
3. Earth orbits in the shape of a/an ellipse around the Sun.
4. The mathematical form of Kepler's third law measures the period in years and the semimajor axis in
astronomical units (AU).
5. According to Kepler's second law, Pluto will be traveling fastest around the Sun when at perihelion.
6. The extent to which Mars' orbit differs from a perfect circle is called its eccentricity.

Part A
According to Copernicus, the retrograde motion for Mars must occur:
ANSWER:
at quadrature, when Mars lies exactly 90 degrees east or west of the Sun.
at superior conjunction, when Mars lies on the far side of the Sun.
at opposition, when the Earth overtakes Mars and passes between Mars and the Sun.
at greatest elongation, when Mars can get up to 47 degrees from the Sun.
at inferior conjunction, when Mars laps the Earth and passes between us and the Sun.

Part A
The Ptolemaic model probably persisted for all these reasons EXCEPT:
ANSWER:
it accounted well for Galileo's observations of the phase cycle of Venus.
it was consistent with the doctrines of the Catholic Church.
it had the authority of Aristotle behind it.
it explain why stellar parallax was not observed by the Greeks.
it used perfect circles, which appealed to geometry.

Part A
If Earth's orbit around the Sun were twice as large as it is now, the orbit would take
ANSWER:
less than twice as long.
more than two times longer to traverse.
two times longer.

Part A
A major flaw in Copernicus's model was that it still had
ANSWER:
Earth at the center.
circular orbits.
retrograde loops.
the Sun at the center.

Part A
If the Sun and its mass were suddenly to disappear, Earth would
ANSWER:
suddenly change its orbital speed.
stop spinning.
fly off into space.
continue in its current orbit.

Part A
Figure 2.26(b) in the textbook ("Orbits") shows the orbits of two stars of unequal masses. If one star has
twice the mass of the other, then the more massive star
ANSWER:
has half the gravity of the less massive star.
has twice the eccentricity of the less massive star.
moves more rapidly than the less massive star.
moves more slowly than the less massive star.

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Process of Science: Geometric Distance Measurements

Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

Hint 2. How does keeping a fixed baseline affect triangulation angles?

Venus in the Sky: Phases and Implications

We see a full moon when __________.

The Sun is highest in the sky at __________.

Sorting Task: Testable and Not Testable by Science

Ranking Task: Altitude of a Star

Sorting Task: Solstices and EquinoxesPart A

•Greates t Background Image

Conceptual Self-Test 1.1

Conceptual Self-Test 1.5

We have a new moon approximately __________.

What conditions must exist for a solar eclipse to occur?

Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon

What conditions must exist for a lunar eclipse to occur?

the Moon passes through Earth’s shadow

Chapter 1 Multiple-Choice Problem 47

waxing or waning crescent.

Ranking Task: Kepler’s Second Law of Planetary Motion

They both go the same distance.

•Fastest Background Image

•Fastest Background Image

Ranking Task: Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion

•Longest Background Image

•Longest Background Image

Review and Discussion 1.10

Three quarter of the Moon is lit by the Sun constantly.

Why do we see different phases of the Moon?

Ranking Task: Gravity and Newton’s Laws

•Strongest force Background Image

According to Newton’s third law __________.

•Strongest force Background Image

•Largest acceleration Background Image

Fg divided by the mass of the Earth

Ranking Task: Newton’s Law of Gravity

•Strongest force Background Image

•Strongest force Background Image

add the two masses together, divide by their distance

•Strongest force Background Image

Part A - Galileo's observational contributions

Check all that apply.

Check all that apply.

Neptune has orbiting moons.

Part B - Kepler's contributions

Part C - Observational proof of the heliocentric model

Check all that apply.

Process of Science: Explaining the Motions of the Planets

Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.

Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.

Check all that apply.

Vocabulary in Context: Kepler's Planetary Orbits

Chapter 2 Multiple-Choice Problem 9

Chapter 2 Multiple-Choice Problem 3

Conceptual Self-Test 2.7

Conceptual Self-Test 2.2

Conceptual Self-Test 2.9

Conceptual Self-Test 2.10

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