SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING CAMPUS, USM,

14300 NIBONG TEBAL, PULAU PINANG

EXPERIMENTAL NO.

EML 211/2 ENGINEERING LAB 1 1

SEMESTER II

TITLE : TENSILE TEST AND TORSION TEST

NAME : ATHIFAH FAKHIRAH BINTI MUHAMMAD

GROUP :5
MATRIKS NO. : 133699
DEMONSTRATOR : EN. ABDUL HISHAM BIN SULAIMAN
LECTURER : DR. ASLINA BINTI ANJANG AB RAHMAN
DATE OF EXPERIMENT : 30 MARCH 2017
DATE OF SUBMISSION : 12 APRIL 2017
SIGNATURE : ……………………….
Grader’s comments : Score ( Refer to the Rubric )
Structure/
Figure/ ……/20
………………………………………………………………………
Table
……………………………………………………………………… Intro/ ……/10
……………………………………………………………………… Methodology
……………………………………………………………………… Results ……/20
……………………………………………………………………… Discussion/ ……/40
……………………………………………………………………… Conclusion
……………………………………………………………………… Presentation ……/10
………………………………………………………………………
Total ……/100
TITLE : TENSILE TEST

INTRODUCTION :

Tensile testing is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and provides
valuable information about a material and its associated properties. These properties can be
used for design and analysis of engineering structures, and for developing new materials that
better suit a specified use. Two different materials were tested- Mild steel and Aluminium.
The samples were cylindrical in cross section, with a reduced gage section. The reduced gage
section ensured that the highest stresses occurred within the gage, and not near the grips to
prevent strain and fracture of the specimen ear or in the grips. A sample of each material as
shown in Figure 3 were tested in the Universal Material Tester in Figure 2 . The data was
used to calculate various properties of each material, including the elastic modulus, yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength. The data was then plotted on engineering stress-strain
curves to compare the samples. The data was also plotted on load-elongation graph to
compare the samples. The purpose of this experiment was to gather information about each
material so that important mechanical properties could be determined.

Figure 1 : Test Piece For Tensile

OBJECTIVE:

 To understand the properties of materials from tensile test on mild steel and aluminium
specimens.

APPARATUS :

 Universal Material Tester

 Mild Steel Specimen
 Aluminium Specimen
 Figure 2 : Universal Material Tester

Figure 3 : Aluminium and Mild Steel specimens.

THEORY :

Tensile test is a mechanical test most commonly used on metal. It is conducted by imposing a
series of enhanced standard and measure specimen elongation occurring for each load applied
earlier.

This test can be used to ascertain several mechanical test in design, A specimen is deformed,
usually to fracture with a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the
long axis of a specimen. A “dogbone” specimen configuration was chosen so that, during
testing deformation is confined to the narrow center region and also to reduce the likelihood
of fracture at the end of the experiment.

The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate, and to
continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load and the resulting
elongation. This test typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive and usually
fractured.

The output of such a tensile test is recorded as load of force versus elongation. These load
deformation characteristics depends on the specimen size. Load and elongation are
normalized to the respective parameters of engineering stress and engineering strain.

In the case of mild steel, the relationship between load and elongation is shown in Figure (4)
as following :-
BEBAN

beban
muktamad
takat alah
(atas)
takat beban patah
elastik

takat alah (bawah)

PEMANJANGAN

Figure 4 : Graph of elongation against load.

Engineering Stress is define by the relationship :

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹
𝜎= =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑂

F – instantaneous load applied

Aₒ - original cross sectional area before any force is applied

Engineering Strain is define according to

𝐿 − 𝐿0 ∆𝐿
∈= =
𝐿0 𝐿0

L = Gauge length on load

Lₒ = original gauge length

The following information is usually obtained from the tensile test specimens.

1) Maximum tensile stress, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴0

2) Elongation percentage :

𝐿𝐹 − 𝐿0
%𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100
𝐿0
LF = Final length before fracture

3) Area percentage reduction :

𝐴𝐹 − 𝐴0
%𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100
𝐴0

AF = Specimen diameter before fracture

4) Young Modulus:
It is derived from the early part of the elastic line slope, of the stress-strain diagram.

5) Yield Point:
It is the stress value corresponding to yielding of mild steel.

6) Yield stress:
It is used and define as the stress produced by a load that is not propotional in
elongation equal to a certain percentage of the gauge length.
Example : 0.2% of the gauge length, 50 mm
( Refer to Figure 5 )
TEGASAN

0.2%
TEGASAN BUKTI
[N/mm2]

0.05 0.1 TERIKAN

Figure 5 : Stress – Strain Diagram.

PROCEDURE :

 We measured the length and diameter of each sample. We also find the area and
initial length of the sample using the standard area reduction and elongation gauges.
 The sample was installed on the Universal Material Tester.
 A load was applied according to the specified rate until the sample fractured.
 The length and the diameter of the end sample were measured. The percentage
reduction in area and length was determined using the gauge reduction in area and
elongation gauge.
 The theoretical area percentage reduction and elongation percentage with the gauge
reduction in area and elongation analytic value measurement was compared.

RESULT :

Type of specimen : Aluminum and Mild Steel

1. Initially, the length and diameter of Aluminium and Mild Steel was taken as shown in
Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 before carrying out the experiment. The average diameter of
Aluminium was 6.14 mm with average length 33.16mm. While the average diameter taken
for Mild Steel is 6.18mm with average length of 32.43mm.

Table 1: Diameter and length for aluminum

Diameter , d (mm) Length , l (mm)

1 2 3 Average, d 1 2 3 Average, l
6.14 6.14 6.15 6.14 32.83 33.42 33.25 33.16

Table 2 : Diameter and length of mild steel

Diameter ,d (mm) Length , l (mm)

1 2 3 Average, d 1 2 3 Average, l
6.18 6.18 6.19 6.18 32.47 32.28 32.53 32.43
2.After the test was carried out, the length and diameter of the end of the sample was
measured to calculate the Percentage Reduction in Area and Length. The comparison for
Aluminium was shown in Table 3 while for Mild Steel was shown in Table 4.

Table 3 : Comparison between theoretical and experimental value of aluminium

Value area percentage of reduction, (%) Value elongation percentage , (%)

Theory Experiment Percentage Error Theory Experiment Percentage Error
60.00 57.00 5.00 14.00 13.54 3.29

Table 4 : Comparison between theoretical and experimental value of mild steel

Value area percentage of reduction, (%) Value elongation percentage , (%)

Theory Experiment Percentage Error Theory Experiment Percentage Error
60.00 56.00 6.67 15.00 14.83 1.13

|Theoretical Value – Experimental Value|

Percentage Error = x 100%
The𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

a) Percentage error for Aluminium :

|60.00−57.00|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 5.00%
60.00

b) Percentage error for Mild Steel

|60.00−56.00|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 6.67%
60.00

CALCULATION :

For aluminium,

Maximum Tensile Stress :

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 5.944
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2 = 200.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑜 0.614 × 10−2
𝜋( )
2

Young’s Modulus, E = gradient of graph 1.1 at elastic line slope

209.550−161.065
=
7.487−1.139

=7.638 MPa
Yield stress (0.2%) = 77.836 MPa (from graph 1.1 )

Yield strength = 161.065 MPa (from graph 1.2 )

For Mild Steel,

Maximum Tensile Stress :

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 13.662
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2 = 455.46 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴0 0.618 × 10−2
𝜋( )
2

Young’s Modulus ,E = gradient of elastic slope in graph 1.1

483.196−133.599
=
5.452−0.407

=69.30 MPa

Yield stress (0.2%) = 90.560 MPa (from graph 1.1)

Yield strength : 389.270 MPa (from graph 1.2)

3. The analytic value measurement produced from the experiment was shown in Table 5 and
Table 6.

Table 5: Reading and information for Aluminum.

Time ,t (s) Distance, s Force, F Elongation Stress, σ Test

(mm) (kN) Percentage (MPa)
Strain, EPS
(%)
3:07:31 0.024 0.182 0.081 6.443 1.000
3:07:32 0.146 1.179 0.488 41.707 1.000
3:07:33 0.244 2.291 0.814 81.041 1.000
3:07:34 0.269 3.327 0.895 117.662 1.000
3:07:35 0.342 4.554 1.139 161.065 1.000
3:07:36 0.488 5.081 1.628 179.715 1.000
3:07:37 0.610 5.263 2.035 186.158 1.000
3:07:38 0.781 5.407 2.604 191.244 1.000
3:07:39 0.977 5.580 3.255 197.347 1.000
3:07:40 1.294 5.695 4.313 201.416 1.000
3:07:41 1.416 5.743 4.720 203.112 1.000
3:07:42 1.611 5.829 5.371 206.164 1.000
3:07:43 1.782 5.896 5.941 208.537 1.000
3:07:44 2.051 5.925 6.836 209.555 1.000
3:07:45 2.246 5.925 7.487 209.550 1.000
3:07:46 2.417 5.944 8.057 210.233 1.000
3:07:47 2.686 5.896 8.952 208.537 1.000
3:07:48 2.881 5.772 9.603 204.129 1.000
3:07:49 3.125 5.580 10.417 197.347 1.000
3:07:50 3.345 5.446 11.149 192.600 1.000
3:07:51 3.516 5.311 11.719 187.853 1.000
3:07:52 3.735 5.148 12.451 182.089 1.000
3:07:53 3.931 4.947 13.102 174.968 1.000
3:07:54 4.199 4.650 13.997 164.456 1.000
3:07:55 4.517 4.362 15.055 154.284 1.000
3:07:56 4.761 4.094 15.869 144.789 1.000
3:07:57 5.029 3.720 16.764 131.565 1.000
3:07:58 5.332 2.991 17.741 105.795 1.000
3:07:59 6.055 -0.115 20.182 -4.069 1.000
 Table 6: Reading and information for Mild Steel.

Time ,t (s) Distance, s Force, F (kN) Elongation Stress, σ Test

(mm) Percentage (MPa)
Strain, EPS
(%)
3:15:54 -0.024 0.230 -0.081 8.138 1.000
3:15:55 0.024 1.285 0.081 45.437 1.000
3:15:56 0.049 2.378 0.163 84.093 1.000
3:15:57 0.122 3.777 0.407 133.599 1.000
3:15:58 0.220 6.855 0.732 242.446 1.000
3:15:59 0.317 9.520 1.058 336.711 1.000
3:16:00 0.342 11.0006 1.139 389.270 1.000
3:16:01 0.415 12.253 1.383 433.351 1.000
3:16:02 0.586 12.924 1.953 457.087 1.000
3:16:03 0.903 13.470 3.011 476.414 1.000
3:16:04 1.172 13.624 3.906 481.840 1.000
3:16:05 1.318 13.547 4.395 479.127 1.000
3:16:06 1.489 13.652 4.964 482.857 1.000
3:16:07 1.636 13.662 5.452 483.196 1.000
3:16:08 1.904 13.536 6.348 478.788 1.000
3:16:09 2.148 13.489 7.161 477.093 1.000
3:16:10 2.368 13.279 7.894 469.633 1.000
3:16:11 2.588 13.221 8.626 467.598 1.000
3:16:12 2.783 13.020 9.277 460.477 1.000
3:16:13 2.954 12.972 9.847 458.782 1.000
3:16:14 3.247 12.607 10.824 445.897 1.000
3:16:15 3.564 12.310 11.882 435.385 1.000
3:16:16 3.906 11.946 13.021 422.500 1.000
3:16:17 4.370 11.304 14.567 399.781 1.000
3:16:18 4.663 10.690 15.544 378.080 1.000
3:16:19 5.078 9.741 16.927 344.510 1.000
3:16:20 5.444 8.811 18.148 311.619 1.000
4. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.1 to determine the Yield
Strength, Maximum Tensile Stress, Yield Stress(0.2%) and Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.

Graph 1.1 : Stress vs. Strain Graph between Aluminium and Mild Steel.

5. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.2 is to determine the Elongation
until fracture point of the two materials. It can be deduced that Mild Steel has a higher
ductility and Aluminium is more brittle when the graph shows that Mild Steel experience a
greater value of Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and more elongation upon fracture.

Graph 1.2 : Load vs. Elongation graph of Aluminium and Mild Steel.
DISCUSSION :

1. From the graph 1.1 , Stress vs. Strain between Aluminium and Mild Steel, the
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) for Aluminium is 210.233 MPa and the Ultimate
Tensile Strength for Mild Steel is 483.196 MPa . Then the Yield Strength for
Aluminium is 117.662 MPa and the Yield Strength for Mild Steel is 242.446 MPa.
2. From graph 1.2 , it can be deduced that Mild Steel has a higher ductility and
Aluminium is more brittle when the graph shows that Mild Steel experience a greater
value of Ultimate Tensile Strength then Mild Steel due to the higher toughness or
energy to failure because of greater yield deformation. The Mild Steel take more
elongation upon fracture then the Aluminium.
3. The theoretical area percentage reduction of Aluminium is 60.00% while the
experimental value measurement is 57.00% with 5.00% percentage different .Then
the theoretical area percentage reduction of Mild Steel is 60.00% while the
experimental value is 56.00% with 6.67% percentage different. The different in
values for area percentage for area percentage reduction and elongation percentage is
due to some analytical error.

4. There were differences between the theoretical and analytical value of Elongation
Percentage, and area reduction percentage that we obtained from the experiment. The
differences were caused by a few factor :

 Although the data were recorded by the computer but we need to spin the handle
manually. This may cause the inconsistent of the speed of turning the handle. Thus
error may occur and there will be some differences between the analytical and
theoretical values.
 Frame stiffness will cause the differences as well. System compliance incorporates the
mechanical compliance, or system slack, that exists in the testing frame, the load cell
and the accessories, and has a significant implication on the total stiffness of the
system. A testing system with low stiffness used in this type of compression
application on springs will consistently yield lower peak load results than a similar
system with a higher stiffness.
 The specimens may not be gripped properly as we gripped the specimens manually.
The specimens may not break in the centre area which we initially measured and
recorded. Then we may not able to get the accurate data for this experiment.

5. In order to obtained a minimum percentage error some precaution step need to take :

 Use the pure specimens so that type of material contains in a specimens are same.
 Use digital measurement apparatus to record the accurate reading of the specimens
 Clean the specimens earlier before start the experiment and make sure to check the
specimens in a good condition in order to get accurate result.
CONCLUSION :

Tensile test are used to determine the maximum load can applied to the specimens to
undergo the elastic and plastic deformation until the fracture part. Also we can fine the
modulus of elasticity of the specimens, percentage area reduction and the elongation
percentage beside known the stress and the strain of the specimens. Its very useful to applied
in the industry. Beside carbon contain in a specimen disturb the fracture and the process.

REFERENCES :

1.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strength_of_materials.

2. Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright-The Science and Engineering

of Materials, Sixth Edition -CL-Engineering (2010)

3.Engineering Lab Manual Textbook, USM for EML211/2.

4.A Textbook of Strength of Materials by Dr.R.K.Bansai.

TITLE : TORSION TEST

OBJECTIVE :

 To conduct a torsion test on a mild steel and brass sample to determine the shear
modulus at the proportional limit and the modulus of rigidity

APPARATUS :

 Torsion Test Machine

 Torque meter
 Micrometer
 Protractor

Figure 1 : Techquipment SMI MK II Torsion Test Machine

THEORY :

General equation that describes the behaviour of a round material in torsion is:

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

T – Torque (N.m)

J – Polar moment of inertia (𝑚𝑚4 )

G – Modulus of rigidity(N/𝑚𝑚2 )

𝜃 – Rotation angle (radian)

L – Sample length (mm)

𝜏 – Shear stress on radius, r (N/m𝑚2 )

Torque

Angle of twist
graph

Figure 2 : Graph Torque against Angle of Twist Graph.

Figure 2 shows the relationship between torque and angle of twist of a metal in torsion.

In elastic and plastic range, the stress on the surface of the material is proportional to d3 and
torque (T). Actual relation of the surface stress with d and T is dependent on the
characteristics, stress strain of the materials.

In curvature elastic range, the relationship can be expressed as:

16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑3
𝜃𝑑
While the surface strain is 2𝐿
Torsion Testing Machine

Torsion testing machine that is used is SMK I made by Techquipment MK 11. The load is
applied by hand through a reduction gear box 60:1. Torque exerted on mild steel rod will
result in the movement and the movement of mild steel rod relative to the deflection of the
arm will be measured by the linear metre capacity connected to a digital torque metre. Angle
of twist can be obtained from three sources. For accurate measurement in the range of
elasticity, A protractor with 0.1◦ small scale is attached to the input shaft gearbox. Another
small scale protractor 1◦ is also attached to the output shaft gearbox and can be used to take
readings in the plastic range. A counter device is also fitted to the gearbox input shaft reads
the amount of rotation (1 rev = 6◦)

Pair of hexagonal socket is used to hold the sample at both ends. Accurate measurements of
the angle of twist can be made using the SM2 Torsiometer which can be fitted on the sample
material. By knowing the angle of twist, strain can be measured. Deflection armed is returned
to its original position after loads is applied, by using level handle and, dial indicator. Torque
meter and the torsion test machine can be calibrated using the calibration arm by applying
known calibration weight on the shaft torque.

PROCEDURE :

1. Torque meter and the torsion test machine was checked for consistency by conducting
a calibration. Calibration was done by installing calibration arm and imposes a load of
5kg to the calibration arm. Due to the calibration arm is 500mm, the meter reading is
24.50 ± 0.5 Nm
2. The length and diameter of the test sample was measured.
3. The sample was fit in torsion tester machine.
4. Manually we turned the wheel in 1 complete clockwise direction that will turn the
input shaft approximately 6 degree.
5. We returned the reading on the dial gauge to 0 by turning the handwheel level.
6. The torque reading shown by the torque meter and the angle of twist were recorded.
7. The above procedure was repeated until the specimen in the plastic range. After the
yield point, the angle of 12 degree was added on each additional rate for mild steel
and 60 degree for brass.
RESULT :

1. Initially, the length and diameter of Mild Steel and Brass was taken as shown in Table
1.1 and Table 1.2 before carrying out the experiment. The average diameter of Mild
Steel was 6.14mm with average length 74.86mm. While the average diameter taken
for Brass is 6.15mm with average length of 74.75mm.

Type of the specimen : Mild Steel

Table 1.1 : Reading diameter and length of mild steel.

Diameter ,d (mm) Length , l (mm)

1 2 3 Average, d 1 2 3 Average, l

6.15 6.11 6.17 6.14 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0

Type of specimen : Brass

Table 1.2 : Reading of diameter and length of brass

Diameter , d (mm) Length , l (mm)

1 2 3 Average, d 1 2 3 Average, l

6.13 6.24 6.08 6.15 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0

2.After the test was carried out, the shear stress and modulus of rigidity was calculated. The
comparison for brass and mild steel was shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 : Different value from theoretical and experimental value.

Specimen Category Theoretical value Experimental value Percentage

(Nmm-2) (Nmm-2) Error ( % )

Brass Shear stress , ԏmax 500 190.47 61.91

Modulus of 40000 36.63 99.91

rigidity ,G

Mild Shear stress , ԏmax 700 92.41 86.80

steel
Modulus of 80000 18.54 99.98
rigidity , G

|Theoretical Value – Experimental Value|

Percentage Error = x 100%
The𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

a) Percentage error for Brass :

Shear stress , ԏmax :

|500−190.47|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 61.91%
500

Modulus of rigidity ,G :
|40000−36.63|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 99.91%
40000

b) Percentage error for Mild Steel

Shear stress , ԏmax :

|700−92.41|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 86.80%
700

Modulus of rigidity ,G :
|80000−18.54|
Percentage Error = x 100% = 99.98%
80000
CALCULATION :

For Brass :

Convert angle (°) to angle (rad) as below :

angle (°) × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) =
180

6×𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) = = 0.105 rad
180

16𝑇
Shear stress , ԏmax =
𝜋𝑑 3

16 ×8.7
=
𝜋 (6.15×10−3 )3

=190.47 MPa

Modulus of rigidity , G (MPa)

From equation

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

We arranged

𝜏𝐿
𝐺=
𝑟𝜃
𝑁
19.05 ×75.00𝑚𝑚
𝑚
G=
3.08 𝑚𝑚 ×12.5664

G = 36.63 MPa.
For Mild Steel :

Convert angle (°) to angle (rad) as below :

angle (°) × 𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (rad) =
180

6×𝜋
Angle , 𝜃 (𝑟𝑎𝑑) = = 0.105 rad
180

16𝑇
Shear stress, , ԏmax =
𝜋𝑑 3

16 ×4.2
=
𝜋 (6.14 × 10−3 )3

= 92.41 MPa

Modulus of rigidity, G ( MPa )

From the equation

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

We arranged

𝜏𝐿
𝐺=
𝑟𝜃
𝑁
9.24 ×75.00𝑚𝑚
𝑚
G=
3.07 𝑚𝑚 × 2.7227

G = 82.91 MPa
3.The analytic value measurement produced from the experiment was shown in Table 3.1 and
Table 3.2 .

Table 3.1 : The reading for mild steel

No Angle of Angle of Torque, T Shear Stress , Shear Strain
twist , (°) twist , (rad) (Nm) ԏ x 107 (Nm-
2
)
1 6 0.1047 1.9 4.18 0.0429
2 12 0.2094 1.7 3.74 0.0857
3 18 0.3142 1.7 3.74 0.1286
4 24 0.4189 2.0 4.40 0.1715
5 30 0.5236 2.0 4.40 0.2143
6 36 0.6283 2.0 4.40 0.2572
7 96 1.6755 2.9 6.38 0.6858
8 156 2.7227 4.2 9.24 1.1145
9 216 3.7699 4.0 8.80 1.5431
10 276 4.8171 2.3 5.06 1.9718
11 336 5.8643 1.6 3.52 2.4005
12 396 6.9115 1.6 3.52 2.8291
13 456 7.9587 2.0 4.40 3.2578
14 516 9.0059 3.2 7.04 3.6864
15 576 10.0531 2.6 5.72 4.1151
16 636 11.1003 2.0 4.40 4.5437
17 696 12.1475 1.6 3.52 4.9724
18 756 13.1947 1.6 3.52 5.4010
19 816 14.2419 1.6 3.52 5.8297
20 876 15.2891 1.7 3.74 6.2583
21 936 16.3363 2.0 4.40 6.6870
22 996 17.3835 1.6 3.52 7.1156
23 1056 18.4307 2.0 4.40 7.5443
24 1116 19.4779 2.2 4.84 7.9730
25 1176 20.5251 2.1 4.62 8.4016
26 1236 21.5723 2.2 4.84 8.8303
27 1296 22.6195 2.0 4.40 9.2589
28 1356 23.6667 2.0 4.40 9.6876
29 1416 24.7139 2.0 4.40 10.1162
30 1476 25.7611 2.1 4.62 10.5449
31 1536 26.8083 2.2 4.84 10.9735
32 1596 27.8555 2.3 5.06 11.4022
33 1656 28.9027 2.0 4.40 11.8308
 Table 3.2 : The reading for brass

No. Angle of twist Angle of twist Torque, T Shear Stress , ԏ Shear Strain
, 𝜃 (°) , 𝜃 (rad) (Nm) x 107 (MPa)
1 6 0.1047 1.0 2.19 0.0429
2 12 0.2094 1.3 2.85 0.0859
3 18 0.3142 1.8 3.94 0.1288
4 24 0.4189 2.4 5.25 0.1717
5 30 0.5236 2.6 5.69 0.2147
6 36 0.6283 2.6 5.69 0.2576
7 42 0.7330 3.1 6.79 0.3005
8 48 0.8378 3.1 6.79 0.3435
9 54 0.9425 3.2 7.01 0.3864
10 60 1.1519 3.2 7.01 0.4732
11 66 1.2566 3.2 7.01 0.5152
12 72 1.4661 3.5 7.66 0.6011
13 84 1.6755 3.9 8.54 0.6870
14 96 1.8850 4.0 8.76 0.7729
15 108 2.0944 4.2 9.20 0.8587
16 120 2.3038 4.3 9.41 0.9446
17 132 2.5133 4.8 10.51 1.0305
18 144 2.7227 4.6 10.07 1.1166
19 156 2.9322 5.3 11.60 1.2022
20 168 3.1416 5.3 11.60 1.2881
21 180 3.3510 5.5 12.04 1.3739
22 192 3.5605 5.6 12.26 1.4598
23 204 3.7699 5.6 12.26 1.5457
24 228 3.9794 5.7 12.48 1.6361
25 240 4.1888 5.6 12.26 1.7174
26 252 4.3982 5.6 12.26 1.8033
27 264 4.6077 5.9 12.92 1.8892
28 276 4.8171 5.9 12.92 1.9750
29 288 5.0265 6.1 13.36 2.0609
30 300 5.2360 6.2 13.57 2.1468
31 312 5.4454 6.2 13.57 2.2326
32 324 5.6549 6.3 13.79 2.3185
33 336 5.8643 6.3 13.79 2.4044
34 348 6.0737 6.5 14.23 2.4902
35 360 6.2832 6.6 14.45 2.5761
36 372 6.4926 6.6 14.45 2.6620
37 384 6.7021 6.7 14.67 2.7479
38 396 6.9115 6.6 14.45 2.8337
39 408 7.1209 6.8 14.89 2.9196
40 420 7.3304 7.0 15.33 3.0055
41 432 7.5398 7.4 16.20 3.0913
42 444 7.7493 7.4 16.20 3.1772
43 456 7.9587 7.5 16.42 3.2631
44 468 8.1681 7.5 16.42 3.3489
45 480 8.3776 7.6 16.64 3.4348
46 492 8.5870 7.7 16.86 3.5207
47 504 8.7965 7.7 16.86 3.6066
48 516 9.0059 7.8 17.08 3.6924
49 528 9.2153 7.8 17.08 3.7783
50 540 9.4248 7.9 17.30 3.8642
51 552 9.6342 7.9 17.30 3.9500
52 564 9.8437 8.0 17.52 4.0359
53 576 10.0531 8.2 17.95 4.1218
54 588 10.2625 8.2 17.95 4.2076
55 600 10.4720 8.2 17.95 4.2935
56 612 10.6814 8.3 18.17 4.3394
57 624 10.8909 8.3 18.17 4.4653
58 636 11.1003 8.3 18.17 4.5511
59 648 11.3097 8.3 18.17 4.6370
60 660 11.5192 8.4 18.39 4.7229
61 672 11.7286 8.4 18.39 4.8087
62 684 11.9381 8.5 18.61 4.8946
63 696 12.1475 8.5 18.61 4.9805
64 708 12.3569 8.6 18.83 5.0663
65 720 12.5664 8.7 19.05 5.1522
4.The information produced was then projected into graph 1.1 to determine the torque and the
angle twist. Based on the experiment value of torque of mild steel is lower than brass.

Graph 1.1 Torque against angle of twist (rad) of Brass and Mild Steel.

5. The information produced was then projected into graph 1.2 to determine the shear stress
at proportional limit and the modulus of rigidity. Based on the experiment value of shear
stress of brass is lower than mild steel. This may concern of carbon contains in the specimens
where carbon contains in mild steel is higher than aluminum and brass. While the value
modulus of rigidity, G for brass is higher than aluminum. All of this consider based on type
of material contains in a specimen.

Graph 1.2 Shear Stress against Shear Strain of Brass and Mild Stee1.
DISCUSSION:

1) From graph 1.1the shear stress at proportional limit of brass is 190.47 MPa while the
actual value is 500 MPa with a percentage error of 61.91%. The shear stress at
proportional limit for mild steel obtained from the experiment is 92.41 MPa and the
theoretical value is 700 Mpa with the percentage error of 86.80%. The different value
of the shear stress at proportional limit of the specimens due to analytical error.
2) The modulus of rigidity of mild steel in the experiment is 18.54 MPa while the actual
value is 40000 MPa with a percentage error of 99.91%. The modulus of rigidity of
brass obtained from the experiment is 36.63MPa but the actual value is 80000MPa
with a percentage error of 99.98%.
3) The difference between the theoretical values and experimental values may be due to
some factors such as :
i) The specimens may have imperfection condition such as corrosion
ii) Calibration error of the instruments
iii) Parallax error when setting the dial gauge back to zero
iv) Non consistent angular velocity on the torsion machine
4) For mild steel, 6 degree is already suitable to be used in elastic region but 30 degree is
more suitable than 12 degree in the plastic region. For brass, 6 degree and 60 degree
used in elastic and plastic region respectively are suitable.
5) We can know the yield point has reached or not for brass and mild steel when the
torque meter shows a constant reading.
6) Several precaution steps need to take before carry out the experiment :
i. Check the specimens in a good condition in order to get accurate result.
ii. Calibrate the specimens before carry out the experiment.
iii. Make sure the eyes is perpendicular to the scalar reading and get the average
reading to get an accurate result.
iv. Use a good condition specimens that will produced a better result.

CONCLUSION :

- The shear stress at proportional limit for brass and mild steel are 190.47 MPa and
92.41MPa respectively from the experiment
- The modulus of rigidity for mild steel and brass are 18.54 MPa and 36.63 MPa
- From the experiment, mild steel is stiffer than brass

References:

- Engineering Lab Manual Textbook, USM for EML211/2.

- Materials Science and Engineering. Ninth Edition. W.D. Callister
- Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright-The Science and
Engineering of Materials, Sixth Edition -CL-Engineering (2010)
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strength_of_materials.