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Music Educators Journal
http://mej.sagepub.com/
Practice Makes Perfect? : Effective Practice Instruction in Large Ensembles

Stephanie Prichard
Music Educators Journal 2012 99: 57
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458458
The online version of this article can be found at:

http://mej.sagepub.com/content/99/2/57
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National Association for Music Education
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What is This?
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by Stephanie Prichard
Practice Makes
Perfect?
Effective Practice Instruction
in Large Ensembles
Abstract: Helping young musicians learn how to practice effectively is a challenge faced
by all music educators. This article presents a system of individual music practice instruc-
tion that can be seamlessly integrated within large-ensemble rehearsals. Using a step-by-step
approach, large-ensemble conductors can teach students to identify and isolate difficult pas-
sages, select appropriate practice strategies, and make improvements to their playing. This
model of practice instruction draws on Albert Bandura's concept of observational learning, as
well as music education research.
The examples in
Keywords: band, junior high, middle school, modeling, observational learning, orchestra,
practice, rehearsal this article form a
blueprint for using
Sarah is a seventh-grade trombonist. She participates in band at school and practices
three to five times a week at home. Sarah enjoys band and always completes the weekly modeling as a means
practice log that her teacher, Mr. Parker, assigns. Mr. Parker writes practice assignments
on the homework board in the front of his classroom, and Sarah carefully copies her
of effective practice
practice assignment into her planner each day at the end of band rehearsal. instruction for young
In spite of her conscientiousness and desire to succeed, Sarah often becomes frus-
trated or distracted while practicing. She does not have a quiet practice space at home
musicians.
or an established routine when she practices. Sarah’s mother wants to help her daughter
and has recently begun to set a timer for thirty minutes each time Sarah practices. This
way, her mother hopes Sarah will be less frustrated and able to focus all her attention on
practicing until the timer goes off.
Sarah practices between 100 and 120 minutes each week, enough to earn an A on
her practice log. Most days, Sarah focuses at least twenty minutes of her practice session
on the sections of music that Mr. Parker assigns for home practice. Despite her good prac-
tice habits, Mr. Parker has noticed that Sarah continues to make similar mistakes in her
band music as well as on her weekly playing tests. Although Sarah regularly practices the
sections Mr. Parker assigns, certain passages seem to trip her up each time.
Copyright © 2012 National Association

for Music Education
Stephanie Prichard is a doctoral candidate in music education at the University of Colorado, Boulder. She can be contacted at DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458458
stephanie.prichard@colorado.edu. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.nafme.org 57
S
arah is not atypical in her practice be more important than the amount of even when students are able to identify
behaviors and challenges. Many time spent practicing. Although music a variety of practice strategies, observa-
young musicians—even those who educators may rightly believe that regu- tional studies of practicing have shown
practice regularly—have difficulty mak- lar or frequent practice is necessary, par- that students most often run straight
ing improvements on their own, whether ticularly in the early stages of learning through music, using few strategies and
in rehearsal or during home practice. how to play an instrument, they must rarely stopping to fix errors.12
Developing the skills needed to become find ways to help students increase the Given the data about typical practice
musically independent is one of the most accuracy of their independent practice behaviors of young musicians, it is evi-
important yet most challenging goals for through productive use of specific prac- dent that some type of practice instruc-
students in a large-ensemble rehearsal tice strategies. Teaching practice strate- tion is needed. Practice instruction may
setting. Music educators are responsible gies in the context of large-ensemble increase students’ ability to identify and
for equipping students with the tools and rehearsals may be one effective way to implement appropriate practice strate-
strategies necessary to be effective, inde- accomplish this. gies, thus improving productivity dur-
pendent practicers. One way to approach Students who organize their prac- ing individual practice sessions. One
this challenge is to examine the concept tice time through goal setting are likely way to introduce practice strategies in
of self-regulated music practice. to achieve higher levels of performance large-ensemble rehearsals is through
than those who do not.7 Practice records modeling.
Self-Regulated Practice and logs are often used as tools in guid-
ing students’ independent practice. Modeling
Much of the research literature about There are, however, frequent discrep-
music practice incorporates self-regu- ancies between the practice strategies Modeling practice behaviors may be
lated learning theory.1 Self-regulated students are able to articulate and the a way to increase students’ practice
learners are those who are “metacogni- strategies that they actually use during efficacy (belief in their own ability to
tively, motivationally, and behaviorally independent practice.8 This suggests achieve successful music practice), prac-
active participants in their own learn- that students may need to be made more tice motivation, and successful use of
ing process.”2 Advanced, self-regulated aware of the strategies they apply or practice strategies.13 Psychologist Albert
musicians are able to set specific goals omit when practicing. Even when stu- Bandura discussed observational learn-
for their practice sessions, engage in dents are made aware of various practice ing as one of the key components of
strategic planning, self-instruct, use strategies, however, they often lack the his social cognitive theory of learning.
effective strategies to accomplish goals, knowledge or ability to make use of spe- Observational learning is also known
and assess their own performance.3 cific strategies for the purpose of error as imitation or modeling, and it encom-
Results of music education research correction during independent practice. passes four main components: atten-
suggest that while advanced musicians Additionally, given the demands associ- tion, retention, motor reproduction, and
are able to effectively use strategies such ated with strategic practice, motivation reinforcement.14
as slowing, adding on, or “whole-part- may play a role: students who are more First, students must give their full
whole” repetition for the improvement motivated to practice tend to articulate attention to significant features of the
of overall performance, younger musi- and implement more practice strategies modeled behavior. Second, students
cians are considerably less productive than do students who are less motivated.9 must encode modeled behaviors into
and less self-regulated in their independ- Middle school instrumentalists most their long-term memory. This process
ent practice sessions.4 It should be noted, often use repetition as a practice strat- is known as retention and could occur
however, that young musicians who do egy. However, results of observational through students’ verbal description of
exhibit self-regulatory characteristics are studies of students’ practice sessions a particular modeled behavior. Third,
more likely to practice harder, achieve have indicated that while students may motor reproduction must occur. Students
greater success, and be more confident repeat passages of music, they often fail need to be able to independently repro-
in their abilities than are peers who do to correct errors, and as such, practice duce a modeled behavior. This means
not possess the tools necessary for self- mistakes repeatedly.10 Other practice that students also possess the physical
regulated practice.5 strategies commonly identified, though capability to perform the modeled skill.
not necessarily used by young musi- Finally, students need to receive positive
Practice Strategies cians, include slowing, use of a tool (e.g., reinforcement for correctly demonstrat-
metronome, method book, CD), simplifi- ing a modeled behavior.15
Performance success is correlated not cation through clapping, counting, nam- For a teacher to effectively model a
with practice time but, rather, with the ing notes, pinpointing difficult sections, behavior or strategy for a student, the
number of accurate trials of a given piece analyzing the key or meter, and adding modeled behavior must be relevant to
or passage during practice.6 That is, the on.11 These strategies are typically more a student’s circumstances. That is, mod-
quality of students’ practice may actually effective than repetition alone. However, eling or describing a practice behavior
58 Music Educators Journal December 2012

outside the context of a piece of music
is considerably less effective than dem- FIGURE 1
onstrating an effective practice strategy
based on a piece of music that students
Slow Practice
are currently learning.16 For example,
demonstration of slow practice in a
passage of students’ music contain-
ing difficult sixteenth-note runs would
be helpful, relevant, and ultimately Source: Frank Ticheli, “Portrait of a Clown” (Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach Music,
effective. 1988).
Although there are several types
of models, the most relevant modeling
practices in this context are live and
cognitive modeling. A live model is an
in-person demonstration of a particular
skill or behavior (e.g., a teacher mod-
FIGURE 2
eling a practice strategy as students Adding On
observe).17 Live modeling is a commonly
used teaching tool in ensemble rehears-
als. Teachers often model technical or
stylistic elements of music for their stu-
dents. Cognitive modeling, perhaps a
Source: Frank Ticheli, “Portrait of a Clown” (Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach Music,
less-frequently-used technique, involves 1988).
explicitly talking through a thought pro-
cess about a specific skill or situation.18
Cognitive modeling, used in combina-
tion with live modeling, may be an effec-
tive means of helping young musicians repertoire, practice instruction doubles Monday: Slow Practice
increase their application of useful prac- as repetition of challenging sections of
tice strategies and independent practice students’ concert music. •• Performance difficulty: This
productivity. The suggestions in the fol- Using Frank Ticheli’s “Portrait of recurring melody (Figure 1) presents
lowing section are just a few examples of a Clown,” I have devised a one-week a technical challenge for students.
ways in which, using modeling as a tool, practice instruction plan that allows The fast tempo, combined with
practice strategies can be introduced and for time spent modeling and reviewing melodic skips and chromaticism, cre-
rehearsed in large-ensemble rehearsals. specific practice strategies.19 First, I creates a need for independent practice.
ated a lead sheet from the “Portrait of a •• Cognitive model: “When I approach
Practical Application Clown” score. A lead sheet is a collection a melody like this that is technically
of melodic and accompaniment figures challenging, I know that I will
Music education researchers have sug- from a given piece of music, written out, be more successful if I use my
gested that the way to increase students’ usually using music notation software, metronome to slow down the tempo
capacity for effective independent prac- so that the full ensemble can practice and practice until I am able to play it
tice may be to provide practice instruc- them in unison. (All figures in this arti- perfectly.”
tion. How, though, within an already cle are published courtesy of Manhattan •• Live model: After describing and
jam-packed rehearsal schedule, can Beach Music.) This is a helpful teaching labeling the cognitive model, the
instrumental music teachers find the tool, particularly when the music edu- teacher demonstrates how to practice
time to incorporate practice instruction? cator is working with young or inexpe- using a metronome to play through
The following set of activities is just one rienced groups, as it allows for unison this phrase at an appropriately slow
possibility. Each practice strategy activity learning and rehearsal of challenging tempo (as opposed to the 160 beats
could take place in as little as ten min- passages. For more experienced ensem- per minute marked in the score).
utes. When working with younger or less bles, the use of lead sheets cuts down on •• Student practice: After modeling,
experienced groups, however, it may be wait time for all sections of the ensemble students must have a chance to
helpful to spend as much as fifteen to and affords all students the opportunity practice the skill of playing through
twenty minutes working with these strat- to practice challenging musical material. the phrase slowly. This can occur
egies. As each practice strategy can be (The unidentified quotes in this instruc- individually or as a group. Following
introduced and rehearsed using concert tion plan are the teacher’s words.) practice, there should be a brief
www.nafme.org 59
discussion of whether students found students could be given two to students’ help to identify the spe-
this strategy to be helpful—and this three minutes to practice this skill cific error. The teacher then models
applies to all strategies. Additionally, independently. practicing the measure in question,
students could be asked to identify adhering to the written slurs and
other passages in “Portrait of a asking students to identify when he
Clown” as well as passages in other
Wednesday: Whole-Part-Whole or she has played it correctly. Addi-
pieces of music where slow practice •• Performance difficulty: Rather tionally, the teacher could model
might be helpful. than slurring groups of notes as written writing a T at the points where
(Figure 4), students have begun to slur articulation should occur.
parts of this phrase, seemingly without •• Student practice: As in all effective
Tuesday: Adding On
attention to Ticheli’s markings. In modeling scenarios, students must
•• Performance difficulty: This particular, the third and fourth measures have a chance to practice this
recurring melody (Figure 2) still of this phrase are challenging for many strategy following the teacher model.
presents a technical challenge for young players. This strategy could be practiced as a
students. While yesterday’s “slow •• Cognitive model: “I’ve noticed in class or independently.
practice” lesson may have been band rehearsal that, although we’re
helpful for some students, others all slurring, not everyone in my
Thursday: Chunking
are still stopping or giving up in the section is playing the slurs exactly as
middle of a phrase. they’re written. I’m going to play this •• Performance difficulty: Clarinets
•• Cognitive model: “When I see a whole phrase, then zero in on the are having trouble performing each
challenging section like this, I know part that I really need to practice, and two-measure phrase correctly (Figure
that it might be helpful to start by then put that part back into context 5). One clarinetist has mentioned that
playing just the first few notes, and of the phrase.” this section is difficult because “[the
then gradually add more and more.” •• Live model: The teacher plays the phrases] all look the same.”
•• Live model: Following the cognitive whole phrase, making an articula- •• Cognitive model: “This section
model, the teacher demonstrates the tion error in measure 4, where the seems repetitive, but the notes
technique of adding on. In this case, students have been playing incor- actually change slightly each time,
it may be helpful to ask students to rectly. The teacher could then ask which can make it tricky. It will help
watch their part and finger along. students to identify which measure to break this larger phrase down into
The teacher plays the following needs the most work and also enlist two-measure ‘chunks.’”
(Figure 3):
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
Whole-Part-Whole
Adding On
1 2 3
Source: Frank Ticheli, “Portrait of a
1988).
Clown” (Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach
Music, 1988).
If students are more technically pro- FIGURE 5

ficient, this strategy could also be used Chunking
with larger segments of music—perhaps
beginning with two measures and add-
ing two measures at a time, eventually
building up to playing the entire phrase.
•• Student practice: This particular
practice strategy lends itself to an “I
1988).
play, you play” activity. Alternatively,

FIGURE 6
Self-Recording
Source: Frank Ticheli, “Portrait of a Clown” (Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach Music, 1988).
•• Live model: The teacher models necessary to record their practice through asking a question as simple as
playing the first two measures, asking at home, this type of technology is “Does this excerpt need more practice?”
students to follow along on their own becoming increasingly prevalent. The practice log system is in contrast
lead sheet and to raise a hand when Some students may already possess a to the “number-of-minutes” approach
the teacher has performed the first device that will allow them to record to keeping track of practice time. In the
two measures correctly. When the first and listen to their performance (e.g., beginning, teachers can also choose to
two measures have been performed a smartphone, an MP3 player, a provide students with practice targets
correctly, the teacher moves on to the tape recorder, or software, such as (i.e., technical or musical challenges and
second chunk of two measures. This GarageBand or Audacity). where these challenges occur in ensem-
strategy also lends itself to (1) requiring •• Live model: The teacher turns ble repertoire) as well as appropriate
multiple correct repetitions before on a recording device and models strategies, scaffolding the experience
moving on or (2) students’ identifying playing through this phrase several until students have gained enough expe-
differences between chunks of music, times. The ensemble then listens rience to diagnose and select appropri-
aiding their understanding of the to the recording together and ate strategies on their own.
phrase as a whole. makes a judgment about whether As students accumulate knowledge
•• Student practice: This strategy the difference in articulation was of more strategies, “Practice Strategy Pot-
could be practiced as a class (“I play, noticeable or provided enough of pourri” may be a helpful in-class activity.
you play”) or in by pairs of students a contrast. The teacher could also In pairs, in sections, or as a full ensem-
who practice chunks together, model repetition of this process to ble, students can identify challenging
assessing each other’s success truly achieve the desired result. sections of music and then select strat-
before moving on to the next set of •• Student practice: This strategy egies that may be appropriate to use in
measures. could easily be practiced in an practicing those sections. This activity
ensemble setting. The teacher could can be limited to one piece of music, or
record the full ensemble performing it can be opened up to include all pieces
Friday: Self-Recording a line from the lead sheet in unison, in students’ folders. Practice Strategy Pot-
•• Performance difficulty: In a or could record various sections of pourri can also serve as a starting point
restatement of the A theme, Ticheli instruments separately, and then for formulating goals to be included as
varies the articulation for two ask students to listen and assess the assignments in students’ practice logs,
measures (Figure 6). Students may be overall success of articulation. and rehearsed through home practice.
caught off guard by this change, or Ultimately, it is crucial for students to
they may not be playing the tenuto Practice Logs begin taking responsibility for the iden-
articulations in a way that presents tification of difficult sections, selection of
enough contrast with the accents and Modeling and rehearsing practice strate- appropriate strategies, execution of strat-
staccato articulations. gies in the ensemble setting is the first egies contributing to individual improve-
•• Cognitive model: “Every time I play step toward helping students achieve ment, and reflection on effectiveness of
this section, I forget about the tenuto greater success in their independent execution.
articulations, and therefore don’t play practice. Practice logs should include
them as well as I should. I’m going details such as excerpt practiced, strat- Effective Strategies = More
to play through this phrase a few egy used, and time spent. In addition, it Musicianship
times, record myself, and see if I can may be helpful to ask students to eval-
truly hear a difference.” While all uate their level of success with each The examples provided in this article
students may not have the equipment excerpt. This could be accomplished are in no way exhaustive, but they are
www.nafme.org 61
intended to be used as a blueprint for High School Musicians,” Journal Journal of Research in Music
practice instruction. The combination of of Research in Music Education 55 Education 32 (2006): 350–62.
cognitive and live modeling is a power- (2007): 359–75; and Peter Miksza,
9. Austin and Berg, “Exploring Music
Stephanie Prichard, and Diana
ful tool, as it provides young musicians Practice.”
Sorbo, “An Observational Study of
with a system for thinking about musical Intermediate Band Students Self- 10. Susan Hallam, “The Development
problems as well as executing practice Regulated Practice Behavior,” Journal of Expertise in Young Musicians:
strategies successfully. When weighing of Research in Music Education Strategy Use, Knowledge Acquisition,
the cost versus the benefit of dedicating (forthcoming). and Individual Diversity,” Music
a portion of rehearsal time to practice Education Research 3 (2001): 7–23;
2. Barry J. Zimmerman and Dale H. Miksza, Prichard, and Sorbo, “An
instruction, the value seems clear: prac- Schunk, Self-Regulated Learning and Observational Study”; and Rohwer and
tice strategies can be taught through con- Academic Achievement: Theoretical Polk, “Practice Behaviors.”
cert music. This provides an opportunity Perspectives (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 2001), 284. 11. Austin and Berg, “Exploring Music
for repetition and solidifying challeng-
Practice”; Rohwer and Polk, “Practice
ing elements of the repertoire while also 3. Siw Nielsen, “Self-Regulating Learning Behaviors.”
equipping students with the tools nec- Strategies in Instrumental Music
Practice,” Music Education Research 12. McPherson and Renwick, “A
essary to become more constructive in
3 (2001): 155–67. Longitudinal Study.”
their home practice. As young musicians
gain the ability to practice productively, 13. Dale H. Schunk and Barry J.
4. Peter Miksza, “Relationships among
Zimmerman, “Influencing Children’s
their levels of individual musicianship Impulsiveness, Locus of Control,
Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulation
and accountability increase. By mod- Gender, and Music Practice,” Journal
of Reading and Writing through
eling effective practice strategies, music of Research in Music Education 54
Modeling,” Reading and Writing
educators can assist young musicians in (2006): 308–23.
Quarterly 23 (2007): 7–25.
becoming more thoughtful, deliberate, 5. McPherson and Renwick, “A
14. Albert Bandura, Social Foundations of
and ultimately, more effective in their Longitudinal Study.”
Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
independent music practice. 6. Robert A. Duke, Amy L. Simmons, and Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Carla Davis Cash, “It’s Not How Much; Hall, 1986).
NOTES It’s How,” Journal of Research in 15. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory
Music Education 56 (2009): 310–21. (New York: General Learning Press,
1. Gary E. McPherson and James M. 1977).
7. Miksza, “Effective Practice.”
Renwick, “A Longitudinal Study of
16. Ibid.
Self-Regulation in Children’s Musical 8. James Austin and Margaret H. Berg,
Practice,” Music Education Research “Exploring Music Practice among Sixth 17. Bandura, Social Foundations, 72.
3 (2001): 169–86; Peter Miksza, Grade Band and Orchestra Students,”
18. Ibid.
“Effective Practice: An Investigation Psychology of Music 34 (2006):
of Observed Practice Behaviors, 535–58; and Debbie Rohwer and 19. Frank Ticheli, “Portrait of a Clown”
Self-Reported Practice Habits, and Jeremy Polk, “Practice Behaviors of (Brooklyn, NY: ManhattanBeachMusic
the Performance Achievement of Eighth-Grade Instrumental Musicians,” .com, 1988).
[On sticking to favorite composers in each era:] “There is a proverb in France that says, ‘Only idiots never change their minds.’
From this point of view, I’m the perfect idiot.”
—Pierre Boulez, quoted in

Joshua Jampol, Living Opera (2010)
“There is something marvelous in music. I might almost say it is, in itself, a marvel. Its position is somewhere between the
region of thought and that of phenomena; a glimmering medium between mind and matter, relation to both and yet differing
from either."
—Heinrich Heine, retrieved from

www.quotationpark.com/topics/music.html

Examining Progress across Time with Practical Assessments in Ensemble Settings

Lorrie S. Crochet and Susan K. Green
DOI: 10.1177/0027432111435276

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Mar 7, 2012
What is This?

by Lorrie S. Crochet and Susan K. Green
Examining Progress
across Time with
Practical Assessments
in Ensemble Settings
Abstract: This article provides the rationale for effective music assessment that tracks individual
progress across time and offers examples to illustrate assessment of a range of music-learning
goals. Gauging progress across time helps students become more mastery-oriented, while show-
ing more effort and positive attitudes. As instruction and assessment become more focused on
individual students, practices such as private lessons within the group setting and individual per-
formance assessment emerge. Examples based on current strategies used by practicing teachers
illustrate these practices.
Keywords: assessment, instruction, performance, progress Two university
What essential skills do preservice teachers need to be able to assess their ensemble students
effectively and fairly? Although our expertise is in different fields—one of us is a music educa- faculty members
tor and the other is an educational psychologist—we both have experience working with future explore assessment
music educators. In this article, we provide a rationale for effective music assessment that tracks
individual progress across time and offer examples that illustrate assessment of a range of musi- practices that help
cal goals using best practices.
educators document
individual progress
Importance of Assessing Progress Gauging progress toward goals is also
in music learning in
important to help students focus on their own
One of the most powerful motivators we have learning more than simply on their grade or on the classroom and
seen in classrooms—for teachers as well as comparing themselves to others. Research has
students—is concrete evidence of student shown that even in our competitive society rehearsal hall.
progress. Our observations dovetail with (and classrooms), teachers can help their stu-
thirty-five years of research demonstrating that dents become more mastery-oriented and less
articulating goals energizes learners and pro- centered on comparisons to and judgments of
vides them with direction.1 Furthermore, con- others. Such practices produce students with
crete feedback on progress toward those goals more positive attitudes about learning who
enhances motivation and learning by provid- are willing to attempt challenging tasks and
ing opportunities for needed adjustments in exert more effort.2 Classroom assessment strat-
efforts to reach the goals. egies stressing individual improvement across
Lorrie S. Crochet is an associate professor of music and director of bands at Winthrop University, Rock Hill, South Carolina. Susan for Music Education
K. Green is a professor of educational psychology in the Richard W. Riley College of Education at the same institution. They can DOI: 10.1177/0027432111435276
be contacted at crochetl@winthrop.edu and greens@winthrop.edu, respectively. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.nafme.org 49
time and emphasizing the importance of instruction and assessment tend to focus outweigh any large-group assessment.
student effort are a key facet in eliciting on the whole group, with the teacher The private lesson within the group set-
this kind of motivation from students.3 directing and making decisions.6 Com- ting exemplifies a more student-centered
Our teacher education program and mon ensemble and class assessments mindset. In addition to being proactive
many others capitalize on this research include unison tizzling (sizzling, hissing, rather than reactive, it offers students the
about the value of progress monitoring buzzing), counting aloud, clapping, and opportunity to (1) make musical judg-
by requiring teacher candidates to com- chanting rhythms and syllables. Such ments, (2) think critically, (3) become
plete an “internship work sample” (IWS). assessments may help improve the group more invested in the ensemble’s musical
During student teaching, the teacher can- performance, but they cannot provide a product, and (4) become more interac-
didates design goals for a music unit that systematic measure of individual student tive in the daily process of music making.
generally lasts one to two weeks. The progress. As instruction and assessment Students assist with error detection and
candidates measure student understand- become more focused on individual offer solutions to problem areas within
ing and skills before the unit, they teach students rather than the group, other the music. Instead of framing playing
the unit, and then they measure gains in approaches are needed. tests as punishment for lack of prepara-
student understanding and skills after the tion, they can be viewed as part of the
unit. A typical music unit could address process of preparing for a performance
Student-Centered Instruction
a particular musical element (e.g., form, or learning about music. Students identify
style, texture) or a music composition to Because the IWS requires individual data, and discriminate errors in style, balance,
be performed by an ensemble, including instruction must become more student- attacks, releases, and note and rhythm
all of the musical skills necessary to give a centered. When we began this process, errors through recorded examples of the
high-quality performance of the selected the music faculty decided that record- ensemble or during daily rehearsals.
composition. ing the entire ensemble and listening as The teacher guides the students to
an adjudicator to solve large-ensemble success. Students in the class are taught
problems would address the assessment that each will be given individual focus,
Teacher-Centered Instruction requirement. But the need to document but that in the music classroom, it takes
We have found that our music education individual progress compelled us to place in front of the ensemble or class.
students have difficulty devising practical look at student-centered assessment and All students in the group are expected to
and useful assessments that track individ- instruction. The teacher can no longer respond to the teacher just as they would
ual progress across time. They and their listen from a distance and hide errors to in a private lesson (verbally and with
mentor teachers, especially beyond the make the large ensemble sound better. eye contact). All students should come
elementary level, focus primarily on the We must focus on individuals and their to class with the understanding that they
musical performance of the larger group. improvement over time. As an added are part of a musical creation and that it
Typical large-ensemble rehearsals tend to benefit, improved performance of indi- is an ongoing process that will result in
become teacher-based and reactive.4 The vidual students should also result in bet- a performance, which may or may not
director detects an error, stops the group, ter overall ensemble performance and be better than what they produce in the
announces the error, and begins again higher motivation.7 rehearsal hall.
with the whole ensemble either from the Moving from teacher-centered class- If an error is made by an individual,
beginning of the current musical selection rooms and assessments toward student- the teacher should use that moment as a
or at the nearest rehearsal number. The centered classrooms and assessments teachable moment for the entire group.
teacher addresses the individual or small has become the goal. As instruction and Students can be taught that errors are
section responsible for the error. Out of assessment become more focused on not bad. Instead, errors benefit every-
frustration, teachers often assign playing individual students rather than the group, one in the ensemble by allowing the
tests to resolve individual performance practices such as (1) private lessons teacher the opportunity to teach. Students
errors. We have found that this type of within the group setting and (2) individ- respond well to the thought that musi-
performance assessment produces fear ual performance assessment emerge. cal performances are never perfect, and
and anxiety rather than an opportunity that because performers are not comput-
for students to become better musicians. ers, they should expect errors. Musicians
Many teachers see insurmountable
Private Lessons, Group Setting
strive for perfect technique, but every
barriers to implementing more effective Ideal music instruction, whether in a gen- great performance is marred by error
assessment of individual progress. These eral music classroom or a secondary large even though the error may be too small
barriers include performance pressures, ensemble, can be viewed as a private les- for most listeners to detect.
large numbers of students in music class- son within the group setting. Individuals Students can be encouraged to use
rooms, poor teacher-student ratios, and should be contributing artists in the pro- critical listening as they participate in the
time limitations.5 Beyond the typical error cess of a musical creation.8 The respon- assessment of problem excerpts in the
correction in rehearsals just described, sibility of teaching individuals should far music being rehearsed. Directors should
50 Music Educators Journal March 2012

FIGURE 1
Rating Form for Key Element of Quality of an Excerpt from Sanctuary
Ticheli—“Sanctuary” Excerpt, measures 51–57

Circle the number that describes the performance on each characteristic listed for Alto Saxophone I and Horn I and II, where 1 is needs
significant work and 3 is exemplary.
Rehearsal (1/21) Rehearsal (2/25) Performance (3/18)
Nobly Nobly Nobly

123 123 123
Comments: Comments: Comments:
Marcato Marcato Marcato

123 123 123
Mysterioso Mysterioso Mysterioso

123 123 123
Lontano Lontano Lontano

123 123 123
begin this process by identifying prob- written dynamic of this excerpt?” “How the excerpt can be further isolated so that
lem areas in the group’s performance and many crescendos did you hear?” “Did the the students can hear the problem and
questioning students. The following sce- horns move with the alto saxophone?” resolve it.
narios demonstrate informal assessment “Did you hear any intonation prob- Systematic assessment of individual
strategies. lems?” and “How would you perform this progress can be woven into this process
In measure 51 of Frank Ticheli’s excerpt more musically?” This type of using simple rubrics, checklists, or rat-
Sanctuary, the melodic line is to be interactive rehearsal allows all students ing scales.9 For example, using the rating
played by Alto Saxophone I and Horn in a large ensemble to be actively scales in Figures 1 and 2, both teacher
I and II. The part is marked to be per- engaged throughout the rehearsal and and students could rate aspects of a per-
formed nobly starting at mezzo forte. This trains their ears to discriminate formance of an excerpt at several points
beautiful melody sings forward through When performing the first four across rehearsals to document progress
several dynamic levels, including three measures of Ralph Vaughan William’s and see gains over time. Similarly, a
crescendo/decrescendo phrase markings. English Folksong Suite, third movement, director can anticipate a specific place
Using the private lesson within the group “March,” the woodwinds may have diffi- in a piece that may be problematic for
setting model, the teacher would ask the culty matching articulations. To solve this each section (e.g., making sure all six-
saxophone and horn sections to perform problem while teaching each individual, teenth notes are even in a sixteenth-note
the passage with the expectation that all it is necessary to identify the section or run for the clarinets) and then design
players in the ensemble would be listen- players performing the passage with the a brief rating scale to use at two differ-
ing critically. After the excerpt is played, desired style, and then ask all students ent points across the period of prepara-
the teacher would question the listen- to identify which section(s) meet that tion for a piece. Comparison of ratings
ers with such questions as “What is the desired standard. If the problem persists, by both instructor and individuals within
www.nafme.org 51
FIGURE 2
Rating Form for Key Element of Quality of an Excerpt from The Hounds of Spring
Reed—The Hounds of Spring Excerpt, measures 16–22
Using the following scale, please rate the woodwinds’ ability to play the sixteenth notes with rhythmic clarity.
1 = numerous individual errors (uneven or incorrect notes)
2 = few individual errors (uneven or incorrect notes)
3 = clear with a steady beat by all players
Rehearsal (1/21) Rehearsal (2/25) Performance (3/18)
123 123 123
each section can yield important data South Carolina. Laney determines the once or twice during each nine-week
for discussion, evaluation, and further music excerpt to be assessed in a cho- grading period. Laney finds that assess-
instruction. The instructor may need to ral class on a given day. She informs the ing sight-reading with the same process
take a few minutes of class time or find students that they will be recording this works well. She does note that it is neces-
an alternate sectional time to slowly prac- excerpt so that they can prepare outside sary to change to a different sight-reading
tice the problem area with the clarinets. of class. She distributes eight handheld excerpt or line each time the recorder is
The difficulty may be a result of errors in recorders and labeled blank cassette passed. In response to the concern that
fingerings, tempo, pulse, or rhythm, and tapes. The ensemble sings the material she must listen and assess student cas-
the student may be practicing the error to be assessed, and eight students record settes outside of class, Laney says that she
instead of solving the problem. Many their performance while participating would rather listen to music than grade
times, directors will identify the error but within the group. The recorders are then papers like teachers in other disciplines.
leave out the critical step of teaching how passed to other members of the ensem- To take this idea one step farther,
to resolve the error. ble, and this continues until all students music teachers can design a standard yet
have had the opportunity to record the simple rating form to be kept in a folder
Individual Performance excerpt. Using the recorders allows stu- that could be kept across time, document-
dents to sing freely and eliminates per- ing individual student progress across
Assessment formance anxiety that may be caused by semesters and even years on the basis of
Noting an ensemble’s progress as stu- singing alone in front of their peers. The recordings such as Laney’s. Such docu-
dents prepare a piece for a performance students hand in their cassette tapes after mentation can be energizing for students
is one important element of examining all students have recorded, and Laney and teachers to see progress beyond
musical progress that benefits student and listens to the excerpts and assesses them a single piece or short-term effort. See
teacher. In addition, the need to observe using a performance rubric. This type of Figure 3 for an example.
and track individual students’ increasing individual assessment allows for each Beverly Laney also offers an indi-
skill and musical understanding as they student’s musical growth in the areas of vidual assessment for general music
progress through a music program across voice quality, diction, technical develop- classes or lessons that can be assessed by
time is the second key element. ment, and intonation. Laney makes com- answering true or false, or by making a
A key element of individual pro- ments at the end of each tape, offering choice between two options. Examples of
gress over time is skills development for encouragement, praise, and instruction. these units include learning about one’s
solo and group performance. Assessment Students are responsible for listening performance instrument (instrumental or
tools for individual progress may include to themselves sing and to Laney’s com- voice) or music theory and history. Pro-
recorded excerpts and using SmartMusic ments. This encourages self-assessment methean Interactive Whiteboards allow
or a combination tailored to instructional and allows students to hear their improve- music teachers to use voting clickers
needs. ment over time. Laney mentions that within the ensemble or class. Each clicker
An example of the use of recorded these recordings offer her students “vir- can be assigned a student name or set up
excerpts comes from Beverly Laney at tual voice lessons” within a group setting. for anonymity. Laney uses the clickers to
South Pointe High School in Rock Hill, The choral classes at South Pointe record guide her instruction, so she chooses for

FIGURE 3
Rating Form Using Recorded Excerpts
Winthrop School District Music Department Student Assessment—Secondary
Name ________________________________________________________________ Instrument ________________________________________________________________
Assessment Period Date Excerpt Performance Note Accuracy Rhythmic Musical

Fundamentals & Intonation Accuracy Interpretation
Year 1
September 1–October 15
October 15–December15
January 15–March 15
March 15–May 15
Year 2
March 15–May 15
Year 3
March 15–May 15
Year 4
March 15–May 15
Year 5
March 15–May 15
Year 6
March 15–May 15
Rubric:
1 – Student performs with more than 5 errors and with an immature level of musical expression based on years/months of experience.
2 – Student performs with 3–5 errors and with an inconsistent but more mature level of musical expression based on experience.
3 – Student performs with 0–2 errors and with a consistent and mature level of musical expression based on experience.
Performance fundamentals—posture, instrument-body relationship, hand position, posture, characteristic tone quality (resonant with clarity, enunciation)
Note Accuracy & Intonation—correct fingerings, pitches, and marked articulations, intonation in all playable/singable ranges
Rhythmic Accuracy—performance of printed rhythms, pulse stability, and tempo
Musical Interpretation—phrasing, style, dynamics, attacks, releases, shape
www.nafme.org 53
students to remain anonymous. The class instrument. Doll has set up the Grade- Teaching at all levels for most music
views the results on the whiteboard in a book portion of SmartMusic, and the instructors has always included engaged
pie-chart format. students enroll in the appropriate class student involvement and interaction.
Mike Doll, former band director at as users. Doll sends the assignment to The responsibility of teaching preservice
Rawlinson Road Middle School in Rock each student in the band, and the student teachers, and specifically, the IWS, has
Hill, South Carolina, uses SmartMusic pulls up the assignment that is an excerpt clarified our thoughts and subsequently
technology. This relatively inexpensive with instructions for “Flight of the Thun- our instruction concerning assessment
software allows students to record an derbird.” The student records the excerpt with our students, both in the ensem-
excerpt given specific directions. It also at the tempo established by Doll either ble setting and in the classroom. It has
makes a digital recording of the music at home or during band time in one of enriched our thinking about quality
for the student to review before submit- two practice rooms. Students can prac- assessment that enhances individual
ting his or her score. Doll can look at the tice and record the excerpt until they are musical skills related to performance as
assessment score and offer additional happy with it, then submit their work to well as to music appreciation and discern-
feedback on other musical elements, such Doll. He is able to listen to the recorded ment. Helping our teacher candidates
as dynamics, intonation, and style, from excerpts within a recording of a complete focus on these issues makes them better
the recording that is submitted. He can ensemble. music educators. They also learn to fos-
also make written comments, which can In terms of tracking individual stu- ter progress and greater love for music
be viewed by the student or the parent by dent progress across longer periods among their students.
logging in to the SmartMusic Gradebook. than a single piece, SmartMusic provides
In addition, SmartMusic provides a record opportunities for analysis and archiving
of the time spent practicing the exam- individual student progress in a relatively Notes
ple and the tempo that was achieved. efficient manner that is useful for student
1. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, “Building
Doll reports that SmartMusic technology and teachers. There is a portfolio within a Practically Useful Theory of Goal
has been “the biggest change in the way SmartMusic to archive examples of stu- Setting and Task Motivation,” American
I teach in fourteen years, and it perme- dent performance over time. Students Psychologist 57 (2002): 705–17.
ates everything I do.” Doll uses SmartMu- can be tracked from their entrance into 2. Carol Ames, “Classrooms: Goals,
sic assessment tools for scales, all-state the music program in sixth grade until Structures, and Student Motivation,”
band preparation, method book assign- the time they exit the program in twelfth Journal of Educational Psychology 84
(1992): 261–71.
ments, and preparation of large-ensemble grade with recorded examples of their
music. The program has improved to the performances. 3. Susan Green and Robert Johnson,
Assessment Is Essential (New York:
point that it can serve instrumental music Of course, a program such as Smart-
McGraw-Hill, 2010); Frederick Burrack,
students at all levels. Numerous concert Music is only one component of an “Enhanced Assessment in Instrumental
band compositions, solo accompani- effective music program. Teachers must Programs,” Music Educators Journal 88,
ments, and skill-building exercises, as offer students not only written feedback no. 6 (2002): 27.
well as more than twenty band and string or scores through technology but oppor- 4. Bernadette Scruggs, “Constructivist
method books, are included, all with tunities for students to work with the Practices to Increase Student
accompaniment and all with assessment. teacher for brief periods of interaction Engagement in the Orchestra
Classroom,” Music Educators Journal
In addition, SmartMusic has the capability to guide them toward their performance 95, no. 4 (2009): 53–59.
to allow any composition that is written goals.
5. Mitchell Robinson, “Alternative
using Finale software to be converted into Assessment Techniques for Teachers,”
a file that can be used for assessment in
SmartMusic. This feature is useful for high
Engaging Students Music Educators Journal 81, no. 5
(1995): 28.
school marching band arrangements, all- As we have explored ways to look at 6. Deborah Blair, “Stepping Aside:
state band preparation, and concert band individual progress, we have been able Teaching in a Student-Centered Music
compositions that are not currently in to encourage our student teachers to do Classroom,” Music Educators Journal
the SmartMusic library. If the composi- so as well. One intern recently designed 95, no. 3 (2009): 42–45.
tion is not in SmartMusic, but you have an IWS around Robert Sheldon’s “Eagle 7. Burrack, “Enhanced Assessment,” 30.
a recording of it, you can simply import Mountain Overture,” in which he focused 8. Julie Brown, “Student-Centered
the recording to be used for practice and students on improving articulation. His Instruction: Involving Students in Their
recording purposes with your students. assessments included peer critiques of Own Education,” Music Educators
Journal 94, no. 5 (2008): 30–35;
Doll chose Richard Saucedo’s “Flight specific articulations within instrument Margaret Berg, “Promoting ‘Minds-On’
of the Thunderbird” for performance groupings and instructor’s evaluations Chamber Music Rehearsals,” Music
with the eighth-grade band. SmartMusic before the unit and after the unit on each Educators Journal 95, no. 2 (2009):
has two “Flight of the Thunderbird” per- student’s performance of articulations 48–55.
formance assignments specific to each required in the composition. 9. Burrack, “Enhanced Assessment.”

Developing Listening Skills through Peer Interaction

Erik Johnson
DOI: 10.1177/0027432111423440

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Dec 20, 2011
What is This?

by Erik Johnson
Developing Listening
Skills through Peer
Interaction
Abstract: Teachers who conduct ensembles of any ability level know that many skills are
required for students to successfully participate. Often neglected or overlooked are the skills
that students must have to interact musically with their peers. This article focuses on listen-
ing as a way to help make successful ensemble collaboration a reality. The method comprises
three levels of listening that provide structure for student interaction in an ensemble rehearsal.
Interaction is divided into three levels driven by what students hear, giving students the abil-
ity to organize an overwhelming number of possibilities into manageable segments. Based on
peer teaching research as well as real-life application, this article addresses the ability of teach-
ers to shape a participant structure where all students are given the chance to have a voice
and develop individual ownership. By giving individual students and peers the opportunity to
solve musical problems, the traditional teacher-centered power structure of the typical ensemble
rehearsal is redefined. The benefit of raised awareness based on listening and musical interac- Active listening in
tion in a rehearsal can also fuel creative development in other areas of the music curriculum,
such as composition and evaluating music and performance.
ensembles where
Keywords: conducting, creativity, ensemble, listening, peer interaction, practice, rehearsal, sen-
participants are
ior high school part of the decision-
making process can
promote greater
I
t is the last period of the day as Sarah, Matt, teacher, Mr. Smith, announces that they will
and Michael unhurriedly walk to band re- be working on “The Gum Suckers’ March” student engagement
hearsal at Central High School. Sarah plays again. Mr. Smith calls out the measure num-
second clarinet, Matt plays second trumpet, bers, and they begin. He stops after sixteen
in music learning.
and Michael plays mostly keyboard percus- measures and tells the trumpets and clarinets,
sion. The band has been learning the same “No, it’s too heavy—listen to Michael play it
three pieces for the past four weeks. As some on the xylophone.” Michael plays the part.
of the most motivated students in the band, Mr. Smith then adds the trumpets and clari-
Sarah, Matt, and Michael sit down in their nets. After four measures he says, “Good!”
chairs and get out their music. They think si- and moves on. But Matt, the second trumpet
lently to themselves a familiar thought, “I’m player, knows it was not good; he continues,
tired of working on the same things every day. silently frustrated.
I never get the chance to share my ideas about Music is an aural art form in which
the music!” As the rehearsal begins, their listening skills are essential to successful
for Music Education
Erik Johnson is a doctoral candidate in music education at the University of Colorado at Boulder and conducts the Greater DOI: 10.1177/0027432111423440
Boulder Youth Symphony and Wind Ensemble. He can be contacted at Domisol@aol.com. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.nafme.org 49
balance, blend, tone color, and mutual
phrase direction. In two different stud-
ies, Lucille Alexander and Laura Dorrow,
in 1983, and Andrew Goodrich, in 2007,
highlight peer interaction as substan-
When You’re Serious About Music, tial to the development of individual
musicianship.1
Media, Education & the Performing Arts What follows is a simple idea using
listening as a way to help make successful
ensemble collaboration a reality. I have
Bachelor Degree Programs tried to distill approaches to peer inter-
• Jazz/Commercial Music Mus.B. action suggested in modern pedagogical
• Music Education Mus.B. literature and apply them to the ensem-
ble rehearsal. Use of this rather straight-
forward technique, in my experience,
Masters & Doctoral can improve not only the “product” of
Degree Programs the ensemble—its performance in con-
cert—but also the quality of musicianship
• Master of Music M.M.
developed by each member of the group.
• Doctor of Musical Arts D.M.A.
Participant Structure in Music
Ensemble Rehearsals
Scholarships Available
The first step in creating successful col-
laboration in a rehearsal is to understand
the underlying power structure that is
present. Traditionally, conductors have
held the majority of power in ensemble
rehearsals, whereas ensemble members
are primarily receivers of information.
This leaves the ensemble member with
only the power to prepare his or her own
part and to listen to what the conductor
says.
The traditional participant structure
is focused primarily in one direction:
from the teacher to the student. Anything
that happens beyond that occurs largely
through informal means. For example,
Visit us at www.ftc.edu for Monthly Open House Dates
631.656.2110
if a conductor were to focus his or her
www.facebook.com/fivetownscollege attention on intonation in the clarinet
section, it would be a matter of chance
305 N. Service Road Dix Hills, New York 11746 www.ftc.edu whether the trumpets picked anything up
that would increase their ensemble skill.
Recognizing the need to have eve-
ryone engaged and learning, a conduc-
collaboration with other musicians. As These aspects of musical production tor will often ask the trumpets to listen
strong musicians ourselves, we music and performance are constantly and to what is being said to the clarinets in
teachers know the importance of col- often very well addressed in band or hope that some transfer of information
laboration in a rehearsal. To collaborate orchestra rehearsals led by a conduc- will happen without providing any direct
successfully, students must perform at tor. Often neglected or overlooked is instruction. The problem with this type
tempo with correct notes, articulation, the development of skills that students of participant structure is again that the
and dynamics. Additionally, students must have to interact with their peers instruction is primarily in one direction.
must have well-developed concepts of for a successful outcome. These col- The student, even when attentively listen-
phrasing, intonation, and tone quality. laborative skills include how to create ing to the clarinets, is left with relatively

little power to develop a deeper under- take advantage of a participatory learning again. Then something out of the ordi-
standing of the important concepts being opportunity. This is the great strength of nary happens. Mr. Smith says, “We have
addressed. On a practical note, it is often peer interaction in learning. been working on this music for a while
intimidating for students to ask questions For example, as the teacher works now. Raise your hand if you have ever
in this traditional participant structure, with the clarinets on intonation, it is the had an idea that I haven’t thought of to
where information flows primarily from teacher’s sense of pitch that determines make this music better?” After a brief
the expert teacher to the novice student— what the individual players should do. A hesitation, most of the ensemble raises
and this is particularly true when the stu- clarinet player may well be able to hear their hands. Mr. Smith responds, “Today
dent is not in the group or section being that a note or a chord is out of tune, even you will get a chance to make some of
specifically addressed. if unable to discern whether the pitch is your ideas happen.” Sarah, Matt, and
sharp or flat. Unless directly asked by the Michael’s interest is piqued, and they
Change the Participant teacher to comment on the pitch, how- sit up in their chairs. Individual enthu-
Structure ever, the clarinet player is highly unlikely siasm is higher than it has been as the
to raise his or her hand and volunteer a students share their ideas with each
Traditional instruction, identified in a 1995 comment. Indeed, it is far more likely other. As the rehearsal progresses, the
publication by James Wertsch and Chi- that the teacher will tell the student how ensemble improves dramatically as stu-
kako Toma as initiation-response-evalu- to make the adjustment. Removing the dents focus on listening and collabo-
ation instruction (IRE), creates a limited, authority figure from a musical ensemble rating. Because of the ideas generated
univocal participant structure. In an IRE by enabling peer interaction is a power- during rehearsal, many students stay
scenario, the teacher initiates a response ful way to encourage student participa- after the period ends, engaging in spon-
by asking a question for which the stu- tion and active learning, with far-reaching taneous, student-led sectionals.
dent is aware that there is a “correct” or beneficial effects on students’ playing and This revised approach, based on listen-
sought-after answer. Any response the stu- overall approach to music. ing, creates a participant structure driven
dent makes to the question will be evalu- A participant structure that is by student interaction. No longer does
ated as correct or incorrect. If the answer designed to encourage student-to-student Mr. Smith show the students what to do
is correct, the teacher praises the student interaction allows the clarinet player to by guiding their attention to things that
and no new learning takes place. If the collaborate with a stand partner or other need to be fixed, but rather, he provides a
answer is incorrect, the student is simply section member, experimenting with dif- forum for students to discuss and discover
told the correct answer, a process that ferent pitches and developing a deeper new ways to collaborate for themselves.
serves primarily to reinforce the teacher- understanding of intonation. In this man- In the following, I have outlined a
centered power structure. This type of ner the students take responsibility for method to assist in making student-led
instruction perpetuates a participant struc- their own learning in a way that engages collaboration a reality.
ture controlled by the teacher, in which their attention, involves their active par-
the student has control over only his or ticipation, and fosters their ability to listen
her individual preparation.2 and adjust. Such an interaction also builds Levels of Listening
Changing the participant structure in a sense of working together, so essential Broken down into simple levels of
a classroom transforms the power struc- for ensemble performance. And it lets the listening, ensemble skills can become
tures in a learning situation as well. As students build skills that will transfer to transparent and easily understood. The
the participant structure is changed, the their playing in general, so that what was following is a description of what I call the
students are introduced to environments a specific exercise designed to improve “Three Levels of Listening” that can help
where the power structure is not yet one spot can have ripple effects across a students and teachers isolate ensemble
determined, and they feel more empow- player’s way of thinking about and creat- skills into practical and manageable
ered to voice their own opinions. Class- ing music in general. segments.
rooms with an interactive participant
structure, in which students are given 1. Level 1 Listening: Anything that is
the opportunity to share and develop A Listening-Driven Participant heard or observed as needing col-
knowledge with their peers, can lead to a Structure laboration between two musicians
much more meaningful learning environ- Designing a participant structure that performing the same part (e.g., two
ment. In a situation where no authority focuses on active listening is essential. players playing second clarinet need-
figure is present to validate or contradict Imagine if the vignette at the beginning of ing to match the pace of a decrescendo
a student’s opinion, even those students this article had gone something like this: and release, or the length of staccato
who otherwise typically remain silent articulation; two tuba players needing
often will participate in discussion. Thus, As the rehearsal begins, Mr. Smith to stagger breathe to create continuity
those who generally feel that they have announces that the ensemble will be in a phrase; two flute players matching
no power in a learning environment can working on “The Gum Suckers’ March” tone quality to improve intonation).
www.nafme.org 51
FIGURE 1
Sample Listening Slip
Name/ Listening Partner Comments You Made Comments Made to You

Date Level
Addressed
Matt 3rd level— Sarah I told Sarah that we are My Ds are flat, and I crescendo at
Green Grainger Dawson out of tune when we play the end of m. 29 too soon. Also my
mm. 24–31. Also, I can’t accents are too strong to match the
hear the accents in m. 4 clarinet.
2. Level 2 Listening: Anything that is listening skills, the teacher simply needs Zone of Proximal Development
heard within a section of instruments to outline each of the listening levels to
that is in need of collaboration (e.g., the students, identify what level needs At first glance, teachers seeing this type
a section of trumpets playing a major to be addressed, and let the students of interaction among students may per-
chord where a crescendo needs to be interact with each other for five to six ceive it as something of a controlled
led by the lowest sounding note; low minutes. Students will begin having chaos. However, in spite of the chaos, it
reeds matching and balancing a spe- conversations built around their knowl- becomes apparent very quickly that indi-
cific pitch or sonority; first and sec- edge level, conversations that will natu- vidual student knowledge, ability, and
ond flutes sounding in octaves where rally develop and deepen over time as attitude spread throughout the ensem-
the lower note must be played more their listening skills improve. Students ble. This is an example of what Lev
strongly; two percussionists playing who have better listening skills will help Vygotsky called the “zone of proximal
toms and bass drum that together develop these in students whose skills development.”3
create a compound line). are less developed. In the “ZPD,” a person with less expe-
3. Level 3 Listening: Anything that is Having rehearsed this way, I can rience or less ability can perform above
heard within the entire ensemble that testify to the success of this approach. his or her ability level when there is a
could be made better through collabo- The students typically interact on a very joint problem-solving goal shared with
ration (e.g., principal string players sophisticated level, which often pro- someone who has a higher level of abil-
communicating phrase shape together vides invaluable information to me as the ity or experience. The ZPD creates an
by deciding what instruments hand teacher about their understanding. In my opportunity for individual growth just
lines off to each other and when that experience, it does not take long for stu- by providing the presence and interac-
must happen; horn and euphonium dents to start asking to see the score so tion of another, more expert person. A
sharing a melody in unison that must they can visually confirm a collaboration participant structure based on listening
be phrased together; bass and tim- that needs to take place! levels allows students to be pulled into
pani playing a similar rhythmic figure the ZPD through interactions with other
students—a process that develops and
that must be in tune and accented in Reciprocal Interaction teaches collaborative ensemble skills.
the same spot; upper woodwinds
playing a line that must be accented Beyond the typical norms of respect and The scope of the interaction that takes
together where tone matching is very decency, the only rule that must be set place in this kind of rehearsal is managea-
important). concerning student interactions is that ble and productive. Simply saying, “Okay,
the interaction must be reciprocal. The let’s have a five-minute level 2 listening
The idea behind the creation of dis- conversation must not be dominated by rehearsal on measures 48 to 65” gives the
crete levels of listening is that sections of one person. Students who give ideas and students a specific and manageable task
rehearsal time can be devoted to allowing comments should expect comments in through which they can be productive
students to talk and rehearse together in return. To facilitate reciprocal input, stu- and learn. The approaches to listening
one of three levels. The students decide dents are asked to turn in a short, indi- they explore in this exercise enrich their
for themselves whom or what part to vidually completed slip—to be stapled approach to music overall, with notice-
approach. Even in an environment where to their partner’s slip—with details about able benefit to the ensemble both in pas-
students have developed only limited what was discussed (See Figure 1.) sages addressed directly by the students

and in other passages not specifically established curriculum and what is genu-
discussed as well. inely interesting to the student. Additional Resources for
Subconsciously, skills are also devel- The teacher’s role in the third space is Encouraging Peer Interaction
oped through the listening exercise and the to listen and guide student comments in Brown, J. K. 2008. “Student-Centered
benefits of the ZPD that can be applied to a way that supports the curriculum of the Instruction: Involving Students in Their
myriad other situations the students might course. In the third space, student com- Own Education.” Music Educators
encounter. Deborah Hicks, in a study pub- ments are given serious attention not just Journal 94, no. 5: 30–35.
lished in 1996, called this “intertextuality,” by the teacher but also by everyone in the Hourigan, R. M. 2009. “The Invisible
a means for constructing knowledge by room. Listening-based participant struc- Student: Understanding Social Identity
the transfer of skills from multiple con- tures in rehearsal provide an optimal forum Construction within Performing
texts. In the case of the listening exercises for productive peer interaction and the Ensembles.” Music Educators Journal
described here, these include but are not development of a constructive third space. 95, no. 4: 34–38.
King, A. 1990. “Enhancing Peer Interaction
limited to social interaction skills, meta-
and Learning in the Classroom through
processing, and critical thinking.4 Student Ownership Reciprocal Questioning.” American
Educational Research Journal
Peer Interaction and the Opportunities to develop ownership of
27:664–87.
skills and ideas are provided when using a
Third Space participant structure that allows students to
Lisk, E. 2007. The Creative Director:
Conductor, Teacher, Leader. Galesville,
Peer interaction in the form of peer share knowledge. Randi Engle and Frank MD: Meredith Music Publications.
teaching in the music classroom has been Conant describe four guiding principles Sindberg, L. K. 2009. “Intentions and
identified as an effective way to promote for fostering productive disciplinary Perceptions: In Search of Alignment.”
student interaction, raise student achieve- engagement: problematizing, authority, Music Educators Journal 95, no. 4:
ment, and boost student confidence.5 As accountability, and resources.8 Through 18–22.
a participant structure, peer teaching in an empowering participant structure such St. John, P. A. 2006. “Finding and Making
music provides students with the oppor- as the Three Levels of Listening, students Meaning: Young Children as Musical
Collaborators.” Psychology of Music
tunity to develop authority, ownership, can work with others to address different
34:238–61.
and confidence. These benefits enhance ways to achieve a desired sound. Students
Williams, D. A. 2007. “What Are Music
the strength of their identity as musicians assume authority to make decisions about Educators Doing and How Well Are We
as well as their technical skill. which musical objectives, among the thou- Doing It?” Music Educators Journal 94,
In an article published in 2007, sands of possibilities, need immediate atten- no. 1: 18–23.
Andrew Goodrich described peer inter- tion to create a higher-quality performance.
actions occurring across a yearlong study Through the process of reciprocal conversa-
of an excellent high school jazz ensem- tion, students hold each other accountable listening—based participation empow-
ble in rehearsal as the primary founda- by agreeing or presenting an alternate view. ers students, giving them the opportunity
tion of student success. Students verbally The resources in this scenario are to develop ownership of their ideas and
interacted with each other by frequently the students themselves and their shared engage in persuasive discourse. Such a
asking questions, making comments, knowledge. Of course, the teacher and rich learning environment (described in
and modeling on their instruments. The the score are always available when an 2004 by Lindsay Cornelius and Leslie Her-
power of this participant structure was item, topic, or technique needs clarifi- renkohl) in which every student is given a
totally in the students’ hands, which cation. At that point, the expert teacher voice also can address issues such as social
allowed them to have a high degree of can steer the students toward a variety of barriers, motivation, and self-confidence.9
authority and ownership.6 additional resources, including record-
Goodrich’s work explores not only ings, technical exercises, tuners, metro- Modification and Future
the benefit of varied participant structure nomes, breathing devices, and so on.
in rehearsal but also the so-called third Listening-based participant structures
Directions
space identified and described in 1999 that allow students to share ideas offer a Developing student ensemble skills
by Kris Gutierrez, Patricia Baquedano- vibrant alternative to traditional IRE dis- through a discourse-intensive participant
López, and Carlos Tejeda.7 The third course patterns. The IRE learning structure structure is a great way to address devel-
space is an arena beyond the traditional often results from situations in which a opment of listening skills. Ideally, many
roles of the teacher and student, in which teacher feels under time pressure to share other types of instruction will be used
student interest and discourse drive the information and “educate” students by to complement this method and address
curriculum. In the third space, student dispensing cherished knowledge. Even a the varied experiences a student needs
comments driven by individual and col- few minutes devoted to a listening-based to receive a high-quality music education.
lective interest work as a means to con- active learning project transforms the par- However, this listening-based strategy
nect the gap between the previously ticipant structure in a classroom. Active can also help support elements of the music
www.nafme.org 53
curriculum beyond performance skills. For
example, placing an emphasis on listening-
driven interaction addresses an important
skill for chamber ensemble collaboration.
Students can also develop a more com-
plete understanding of a composition, such
as chord structure, through peer interac-
tion. Perhaps the most useful element of
this method is the individual responsibility
required of each member of the ensemble.
Creating a forum for interaction has as its
underlying premise the assumption that
each student has something to bring to the
table. Thus, they must be prepared.
Modifications to this strategy can be
made for different situations. When a
taP, taP . . .
teacher is pressed with an urgent dead-
line, such as an upcoming performance, a
more traditional approach might be used
to get the ensemble ready more quickly.
However, as music educators, we must
ask, “What are the students getting out
of this experience that will help them
(who's there?)
develop as musicians and in turn, allow
a lifelong passion for music to develop?” You are! Singing, dancing, playing, and making a difference
Giving students the opportunity to share in children’s lives—and in your own. Teach our much-loved
their knowledge and ideas with their
peers is a great way to enliven and gener- research-based family and preschool programs, and enjoy the
ate enthusiasm for musical collaboration. support of our creative and energizing teaching community.
Flexible and powerful, listening-
There’s a workshop near you.
based peer interactions can change the
participant structure of a musical ensem-
ble temporarily to encourage and develop
listening skills, interactive skills, and stu-
dent ownership of their own learning.
®
Notes the joy of family music
1. Lucile Alexander and Laura Dorrow, “Peer
Tutoring Effects on the Music Performance
of Tutors and Tutees in Beginning Band
Classes” [Electronic version], Journal of (800) 728-2692 • musictogether.com
Research in Music Education 31, no.
1 (1983): 33–47; Andrew Goodrich,
“Peer Mentoring in a High School Jazz
5. Alexander and Dorrow, “Peer Tutoring 8. Randi A. Engle and Frank C. Conant,
Ensemble, Journal of Research in Music
Effects”; Alice-Ann Darrow, Pamela Gibbs, “Guiding Principles for Fostering
Education 55, no. 2 (2007): 94–114.
and Sarah Wedel, “Use of Class-wide Peer Productive Disciplinary Engagement:
2. James V. Wertsch and Chikako Toma, Tutoring in the General Music Classroom,” Explaining an Emergent Argument in
“Discourse and Learning in the Update: Applications of Research in Music a Community of Learners Classroom,”
Classroom: A Sociocultural Approach,” in Education 24, no. 1 (2005): 15–26; Cognition and Instruction 20, no. 4
Constructivism in Education, ed. Leslie Goodrich, “Peer Mentoring.” (2002): 399–483.
P. Steffe and Jerry Gale (Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995), 159–74. 6. Goodrich, “Peer Mentoring.”
9. Lindsay Cornelius and Leslie R.
3. Lev S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society 7. Goodrich, “Peer Mentoring”; Kris Herrenkohl, “Power in the
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Gutiérrez, Patricia Baquedano-López, Classroom: How the Classroom
Press, 1978). and Carlos Tejeda, “Rethinking Diversity: Environment Shapes Students’
4. Deborah Hicks, “Discourse, Learning, Hybridity and Hybrid Language Practices Relationships with Each Other and with
and Teaching,” Review of Research in in the Third Space,” Mind, Culture, and Concepts,” Cognition and Instruction 22
Education 21 (1995/1996): 49–95. Activity 6, no. 4 (1999): 286–303. (2004): 467–98.

Don't Watch Me! : Avoiding Podium-Centered Rehearsals

John P. Graulty
DOI: 10.1177/0027432110370565

http://mej.sagepub.com/content/96/4/53.citation
Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Jun 7, 2010
What is This?

by John P. Graulty
Don’t Watch Me!

Avoiding Podium-Centered
Rehearsals
S
o many conductors regularly implore they reduce sublimely beautiful ensemble music
their ensembles to “watch me!” But do making down to mere part checking? They have
they really want to relieve their ensem- come to understand, from years of podium-cen-
ble members of their equal—perhaps tered rehearsals, that ensemble music making is
even greater—responsibility in the music-mak- nothing more than delivering their part to the
ing process? I think not. One of the main ob- conductor for inspection and commentary.
jectives of rehearsal should be to encourage the In professional ensembles, too, although the
ensemble members to become maximally en- relationship may be a bit different, the reality is
gaged participants in the music-making process often the same. Professionals believe the con-
through increased self-awareness, thus freeing ductor (perhaps because he or she is paid more
Rehearsals can
the conductor to focus on those responsibilities than the rest?) should shoulder the bulk of the be opportunities
that are uniquely his or her own. responsibility for musical accuracy and quality.
In my years of working with both student In fact, they often demand it. I can recall play- for partnerships
and professional ensembles at many different ing clarinet in a professional chamber orchestra between ensemble
levels, I have found that ensemble members with a colleague who enjoyed reminding the
tend to approach the ensemble rehearsal pro- conductor regularly of his awesome responsi- directors and
cess somewhat passively, thinking that it is pri- bility. For example, when this particular player
marily the conductor’s responsibility to do the discovered an absolutely obvious note error in musicians in which
bulk of the listening, monitoring, and correcting. the part, rather than simply correcting it and the players take
Perhaps this is because ensemble members have moving on, the individual insisted on stopping
been trained from their earliest student experi- the rehearsal and asking the conductor to cor- more responsibility
ences to focus on the conductor and to serve
and respect the “maestro”—the “teacher”—the
rect the mistake, wasting valuable rehearsal time
and annoying the conductor and several other
for the quality of
one we all must please, the “checker,” the fixer ensemble colleagues. the music that is
of all problems, the judge and jury of musical Conductors also play a significant role in
“correctness.” I was always dumbfounded when, creating a podium-centered atmosphere by performed.
even as a collegiate conductor, students would encouraging ensemble members to become
occasionally approach me asking to be excused overly reliant on them. Due in part to well-devel-
from an upcoming rehearsal by saying, “I can’t oped egos, a lack of confidence in the ability
make rehearsal tomorrow, but I know my part,” of the ensemble members who actually make
as if the primary reason for rehearsing was for the music, or simple naiveté, many conductors
the conductor to check in on individuals’ abilities insist on placing themselves at the center of the
to execute their parts correctly and accurately. music-making process all the time, correcting
How do students have such a shallow under- this, dictating that, controlling everything! In The
standing of the rehearsal process, and how is it Creative Director: Alternative Rehearsal Tech-
Copyright © 2010 MENC: The National
Association for Music Education
John P. Graulty is Dean of Fine Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences at Merced College in California. He can be contacted at DOI: 10.1177/0027432110370565
john.graulty@mccd.edu. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.menc.org 53
niques, clinician and conductor Edward already resides and truly belongs, especially try the passage again. “I try to have them
Lisk describes how “the amount of time we if the ultimate goal is more effective, sponta- involved with problem solving with what-
spend before our organizations activates neous, and convincing music making? The ever musical and technical problems that
the analytical-error detector mode within answer lies in how we rehearse and how occur in the rehearsal. . . . Instead of just giv-
us.” He goes on to warn that “when we are we invite the ensemble members to engage ing an answer I might go through a variety
consistently working with formula structure in the music-making process. My conduct- of appropriate things for the particular issue
(eliminating errors), a tendency to stifle the ing mentor, Frank Battisti, often proclaimed that always involves them,” says conductor
students musical potential is possible.”1 Even (as I am sure other great conductors past Larry Rachleff, at Rice University’s Shepherd
from the audience member’s vantage point, and present have) that rehearsal is where School of Music.6 After all, is this not one
the conductor, located front and center, we come to learn each other’s parts, not our of our primary objectives as a conductor,
elevated on a podium, seems all-powerful. own.4 How true! But how might conductors, to guide the ensemble members’ listening
But as most honest conductors will readily provided they have done all their home- so that they can make subtle corrections in
admit, it is not really so. Conductors are not work in advance by thoroughly absorbing execution? Although this may seem like an
all-powerful. In fact, wielding all the power all aspects of the score and formulating an inefficient and time-consuming process at
and control for the performance is, I dare intimate knowledge of how the parts should first, the goal is to jar the ensemble members
say, not even a desirable end for either the fit together, encourage and help ensemble out of the passive rut of delivering their part
ensemble or the conductor, from an aes- members become aware of other parts, of to the front desk and waiting for an inspec-
thetic or practical standpoint. what is going on around them? tion and correction from the conductor.
Harvard Business School professor Again, Rachleff reminds us, “The more
Robert Austin and theatre dramaturg Lee Build Partnerships with the we involve [ensemble members] in deci-
Devin, in Artful Making: What Managers Ensemble sion-making as we guide them, the longer
Need to Know about How Artists Work, imply the learning remains, and the more they
parallels between how theatre companies When you as the conductor stop the rehearsal
can transfer it to other situations.”7 It also
and music ensembles work. In the excerpt to address a challenge, before telling the
has much more impact, for example, if the
below, replace actor with musician, play ensemble why you are stopping, ask them
percussion section hears from the trumpet
with music selection, and script with score: if they know why you are stopping. Pamela
section, rather than the conductor, that they
Gearhart, retired conductor from Ithaca
Individual actor [musician] pre- seem a bit too heavy in a particular sec-
College, explains her use of questioning in
sentations, done in parallel, will be
rehearsals: tion. This kind of shared rehearsal process
inconsistent with each other, based on increases musical sensitivity among and
different assumptions about how the Instead of telling, ask questions. between sections exponentially! In the end,
play [music selection] will unfold. When This hits the old problem of “I can’t play if they begin listening to elements of bal-
the group members convene to try out and listen too!” I say, “I am sorry, you ance, intonation, blend, articulation, phras-
what they’ve individually prepared, have to do both.” I may ask, for example, ing, and rhythmic alignment as carefully as
their efforts combine messily, providing “What is out of tune in this chord? Why I do, the need to stop and “fix” problems
ample evidence of the script’s [score’s] did I stop? What was wrong? Can you will decrease—they will begin to hear
lack of controlling detail. But a primary tell me who has a parallel line with you? and correct problems quickly—on the fly.
purpose of the rehearsals is, of course, Who has an answering phrase to you?” A rehearsal process that progresses in this
to coordinate.2 Or, “Can the third horn sing the viola manner engages the ensemble members
Devin and Austin explain that while part?” The brass plays and I say to the in a new kind of musical partnership in
the play’s director (again, one could second violins, “Tell me, what did Boro- which many of the traditionally understood
easily substitute conductor for direc- din write dynamically for the brass?” All
roles of the conductor fade away or, rather,
tor) serves a role in refining the coor- this makes them more active instead of
are transferred back to the players. For
dination, in many instances, the actors passive.5
example, players may rediscover that the
(substitute ensemble members) play conductor establishes tempo but does not
an equally important role, through fre-
I often tell my ensemble members that if
they are listening as attentively as I am, they maintain it—this is the ensemble’s respon-
quent iteration (run-throughs), in com- sibility. Moreover, those responsibilities that
should have a good idea why I am stopping
ing up with the most workable solutions are exclusively the conductor’s, elements
before I tell them why. If they do not know,
for pulling the individual roles together that cannot be determined democratically,
before blurting out an answer or corrective
into a cohesive whole. It is not all top- such as pacing, phrasing, inflection, and
advice, try the section again, and ask the
down direction.3 large formal nuances, begin to emerge with
question, again. If they still do not know
So, how can conductors unburden why—and they should know why if they greater clarity, both for the ensemble and
themselves by shifting more of the respon- are truly engaged in active listening—sim- the conductor. Perhaps most important,
sibility for good ensemble music mak- ply raise their aural awareness by offering a encouraging the players to become more
ing back on the players, where it in reality small clue as to what you are hearing, and active partners in the music-making process
54 Music Educators Journal June 2010

increases their sense of ownership, pride, Listen More than Talk! rehearsal back in our flat-floor, low-ceiling
and responsibility in the uniquely wonder- rehearsal hall in Germany. But that is reality.
ful act of ensemble music making—creating From my experience as an ensemble mem- While conductors must make every attempt
music with and between others. ber, I have come to believe that when possible, they just cannot hear everything.
This kind of attentive, responsible lis- conductors stop to talk about something I often remind my forty-piece ensemble
tening may be developed even during they believe must be “fixed” (and music is that they have eighty ears to my two and to
never “broken” to begin with), most play- please use them.
the tuning process in school ensembles. I
ers lapse into what I call “Peanuts mode.”
have witnessed on many occasions direc-
tors going through the entire ensemble
They have been encouraged through years Try Monk Rehearsals
and years of routine rehearsal techniques
holding an electronic tuner in front of each A monk rehearsal, as the name suggests,
to be so passively engaged that they hear
player to correct intonation. Unfortunately, is conducted entirely in silence, except for
the conductor speaking as Charlie Brown
however, electronic tuners often encour- and his classmates in the classic Peanuts the music making, of course. The ensem-
age players to bypass the listening process cartoon hear their teacher: “Wa-wa-wa-wa. ble members and conductor take a vow of
entirely because they turn the process of Wa-wa-wa-Wa-wah!” They simply pretend silence—no talking for the duration of the
tuning from an aural exercise into a visual to be engaged in what the conductor is rehearsal. All musical communication must
one (is the needle straight up?). Unwittingly, telling them, wait for the “wa-wa” to end, be transferred through gesture, and gesture
directors are developing their players’ sense and tune in to the critical instruction at the alone. When I first tried this with an ensem-
of sight rather than their sense of hearing. end of the diatribe indicating where in the ble, I experienced an unexpected benefit
Used this way, tuners are actually counter music the conductor will resume rehears- right at the beginning of rehearsal. The
to establishing good intonation practices. ing: “Wa-wa-wa-wa. Let’s start at letter B.” students came into the rehearsal thinking
Why not put the tuner away (after getting But what if the conductor did not immedi- they could not make any sound whatso-
at least one player in the ensemble tuned ately provide the answer? What if, instead ever, so the usual desensitizing racket that
to a standard pitch), and ask other players of a correction, the conductor asked the occurred before most rehearsals, with per-
to comment on whether individual pitches players to identify the problem? I have tried cussionists bashing away and trumpet play-
sounded are higher or lower than the ref- it, and here is what happens. The ensemble ers running unsuccessful tests of their high
erence pitch? When other students in the members perk up, open up their ears, and range, was missing. That rehearsal began
ensemble know they might be called upon start listening to what is going on around from an atmosphere of unforgettable quiet
randomly to correct the pitch of another them and across the ensemble. They take anticipation bordering on a sort of sacred
player, directors might be surprised at how more responsibility for how their contri- reverence—beautiful!
much more quiet and attentive the rest of bution is mixing with the whole, because As educator Gerald Olson explains,
the ensemble becomes during the tradition- they know they may be called upon at any “Most teachers talk too much; I try to talk lit-
ally mundane and passive tuning process. moment to assume the traditional role of tle. If we talk too much, there’s no need for
the conductor and comment specifically on them ever to look.”10 Monk rehearsals, per-
Allow players the freedom to give the wrong
how well the process is going. In fact, I am haps more than any other technique, under-
answer. Austin and Devin write, “Willing-
amazed at some of the answers I hear back score the most important functions of the
ness to work at risk is vital in artful making,
from a newly awakened ensemble. Some- conductor while increasing the ensemble
in part because exploration is uncomfort-
times they hear things I missed! As Larry members’ level of engagement in the music-
able. Exploration requires a willingness
Rachleff reminds us, “A conductor can fool making process. Neither the ensemble
to supply partial answers, to float trial nor the conductor can rely on the normal
balloons, to look goofy, and to get things himself by believing the conductor is the
only person hearing what is happening in rhythm of knowing that if something goes
‘wrong.’”8 Any truthful professional player awry, they can simply stop and talk about
the rehearsal. They will be incorrect if they
will readily admit that it is often difficult to it. Both quickly realize that this new reality
think that the kids cannot hear.”9
discern whether he or she is sharp or flat to demands a new kind of clarity and sensitiv-
Although the best seat in the house for
the prevailing pitch. Players know they are ity that resides only in the interplay between
hearing should be on the podium, it often
out of tune, but which way do they need sound and gesture. It is always amazing—
is not, depending on the acoustic proper-
to head to find consensus? If students seem and refreshing—to me and my players just
ties of the hall or the rehearsal space. When
confused about pitch matching, admit that it I conducted the Band of the United States how much can be accomplished—even
is sometimes difficult and encourage them Air Forces in Europe on tour, I recall arriv- corrected—without saying a word! When
to experiment by bending the pitch up and ing at wonderful concert halls, especially intonation problems arise, for example,
down until they find consensus. While this in England, where the stage had built-in my only recourse is to visually identify, in
may seem time-consuming at first, training risers that were sometimes quite high. At a general sort of way, where I hear the dis-
students to use their ears in adjusting into- the sound check before the concert, I was agreement. The players then must zero in
nation will have long-term benefits and will always shocked and a bit humbled to hear with their own ears and find out specifically
ultimately increase rehearsal efficiency. things I had not heard in two full weeks of where the discrepancy lies and find consen-
www.menc.org 55
sus. The players learn that they must read tiny iPod earphones anytime, anywhere, as Notes
the conductor’s gestures carefully, and the mere accompaniment to other daily tasks,
conductor realizes that his or her gestures how will I develop the kind of active, 1. Edward Lisk, The Creative Director:
Alternative Rehearsal Techniques
must be absolutely clear and intentional, acutely aware listening skills I need to be (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music
because they both know that there will be an effective ensemble participant? More Publications, 1991), 112.
no opportunity to discuss the problem. And important, how will I develop the broader 2. Robert Austin and Lee Devin, Artful
what better way to build toward a sponta- skill of hearing and processing multiple Making: What Managers Need to Know
sonic inputs with the sensitivity and aware- About How Artists Work (Upper Saddle
neous and exciting performance, where the River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2003), 36.
conductor and ensemble must rely solely on ness to make informed decisions about my
3. Ibid., chap. 3.
the interplay between gesture and sound? place and role in the increasingly complex
global society in which I live and function? 4. Battisti’s personal reflection, shared with
Oddly enough, one of the most diffi- the author during a conducting lesson at
cult matters to address in monk rehearsals, Music educator–conductors must fully the New England Conservatory.
from my experience, is the mundane task of understand and advocate for the intrinsic 5. Joseph L. Casey, Teaching Techniques and
indicating to the ensemble where to begin ways in which ensemble music making Insights for Instrumental Music Educators
uniquely encourages the development of (Chicago: GIA, 1991), 155.
again. I keep a small dry-erase board on the
podium if the charades-style technique of, the following vitally important skills: higher- 6. Ibid., 151.
say, tapping the top of my head to indicate order synthesizing and problem solving, 7. Ibid., 151.
that we are restarting at the top or pointing critical thinking, communal responsibility, 8. Austin and Devin, Artful Making, 117.
to my eye for letter I fails. But it is amazing and empathy.13 At a time in America when 9. Casey, Teaching Techniques, 151.
how little I need to resort even to the dry- our president is demanding more individ- 10. Ibid., 130.
erase board. My players love monk rehears- ual civic responsibility in addressing the 11. Harold Abeles, Charles Hoffer, and Robert
als and often beg me to do more of them. fundamental challenges facing our soci- Klotman, Foundations of Music Education
ety, we need to promote more democratic (New York: Macmillan, 1984), 201–2.
They feel monk rehearsals are much more
efficient and fun. I must agree. They help ensemble experiences that fully engage 12. Julia Lowell and Laura Zakaras,
individual ensemble members. These core Cultivating Demand for the Arts: Arts
the ensemble and the conductor get right Learning, Arts Engagement, and State
curricular experiences in our schools can Arts Policy (Arlington, VA: RAND
to the heart of what is most rewarding and
go a long way toward countering the notion Corporation, 2008), 3.
satisfying about ensemble music making—
that ensembles are mere service providers 13. Kevin F. McCarthy, Elizabeth H. Ondaatje,
how, with maximum engagement and sen-
for school ceremonial, social, and athletic Laura Zakaras, and Arthur Brooks, Gifts
sitivity, musicians can partner to achieve of the Muse: Reframing the Debate about
functions. Attentive music making offers the
beautiful musical gestures without uttering the Benefits of the Arts (Arlington, VA:
kind of experiences that will help our stu- RAND Corporation, 2004), chaps. 4–5.
a word.
dents achieve their potentials in whatever
Some Broader Implications they choose to do in life.
HereoAwn.d..
If ensemble experiences in our educa-
tion system are really about fostering and
developing Bloom’s highest-order think-
ing skills, including problem solving using
multiple perspectives and inputs,11 we as N
conductor-teachers must replace traditional
podium-centered rehearsals with those that …is a new collection of 13 dazzling
pieces minus soprano recorder plus a
actively and regularly engage all members
unique concluding monarch butterfly
of our ensembles in deep listening and cre-
musical, “Everything Good Takes Time.”
ative problem-solving behaviors. In an era Judith Thomas and her Emmy
where iPods and portable CD players have award-winning son Chris Thomas have
allowed human beings to hear extraordi- created a wonderful sequel to their
narily high-quality music in a passive mode first book, Three to Get Ready, using
anytime, anywhere, while walking, jogging, such diverse styles as reggae, early
washing dishes, reading, even working, the music, gypsy, funk, African, ragtime, gospel and more. Enjoy
skill of actively and deeply engaging live leading your students to comfort and facility on the soprano
music is fast becoming a lost art. Passive lis- recorder while singing, moving, and improvising—which are
tening is replacing active listening. Is it any all very much at home in the Orff classroom!
wonder that eighteen- to twenty-four-year-
TO ORDER Here and Now, (CD, Student Activity Sheets,Teacher’s Guide)
olds are currently the least likely to attend $29.95 plus $4 shipping and handling. CALL MUSE MANIFEST: 805.566.9536
live performances?12 If I can hear the Berlin or E-MAIL musemanifest@cox.net
Philharmonic or the Backstreet Boys on my

Constructivist Practices to Increase Student Engagement in the Orchestra Classroom

Bernadette Scruggs
DOI: 10.1177/0027432109335468

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - May 29, 2009
What is This?

by Bernadette Scruggs
Constructivist Practices
to Increase Student
Engagement in the
Orchestra Classroom
Y
our students unpack as soon as in the classroom. Two second violins on
they enter the classroom. By three the back row are bow fighting, one cel-
minutes after the bell, they are list has his head resting upon his instru-
warmed up and ready for their ment, and a viola player is completing a
conductor to lead them down new musi- history homework assignment. How can
cal paths. You take the podium to work these students be so “disengaged” while
diligently for the next forty-five minutes rehearsing such outstanding music?
on the four selections you have chosen Rehearsal engagement is an important
for the upcoming concert. Mid-rehearsal, concept sometimes neglected by conduc-
you look around the room and notice that tors. For students, to be engaged means
you seem to be the most engaged person that they are actively involved with the
You can engage your

students in rehearsal
by increasing their
participation at every
level—from repertoire
selection to guest-
conducting your
ensembles.
Three focused violinists. (Photo by Shaun Scruggs)
Copyright © 2009 MENC: The National
Bernadette Scruggs is a recent graduate of the Ph.D. program in music education at Georgia State University. Association for Music Education
She teaches orchestra at Peachtree Ridge High School in Gwinnett County, Georgia, and can be reached at DOI: 10.1177/0027432109335468
bernadette_scruggs@gwinnett.k12.ga.us. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.menc.org 53
music during the rehearsal. Even if the Teacher-centered classrooms rarely ship and then internalize what they learn
director leads a perfect rehearsal, he or involve students as musical leaders. This from that relationship until they are able
she has not necessarily engaged students may be because so many conductors to function independently. This area of
in a meaningful musical experience. This have been trained in the traditional model immediate potential is known as the zone
may be because conductors neglect to of rehearsal techniques where students of proximal development.5 Bruner and his
ask students for their input in regard to are required to produce music from their colleagues describe the task of a teacher
the rehearsal or because the music liter- instruments, but not much else. Student in this process as one of scaffolding.6
ature is selected without benefit of stu- musicians are capable of much more than The learner and the teacher must work
dent assistance. Another possibility is that they are typically allowed to share. If stu- together to construct knowledge. The
directors are less concerned with student dents are allowed to provide leadership, learner completes the tasks that he or
understanding than with student perfor- it is often in an administrative role, such she can perform in a competent manner,
mance. All of these practices could be as taking attendance and filing music. In and the teacher steps in to offer support,
described as consistent with a teacher- fact, this type of student assistance pro- or scaffolding, as necessary. The goal
centered classroom. vides valuable help to the busy orches- of scaffolding is to put students in their
As a teacher with twenty-two years of tra director. If student aid is beneficial, zone of proximal development so they do
experience in the ensemble classroom, I however, why limit this support to cleri- more than they can do by themselves and
have incorporated a broad range of class- cal tasks? In light of current educational work at the peak of their capability, but
room practices. In my earlier years, I used practice, the teacher-centered practices not beyond.7 The teacher must determine
mostly teacher-centered practices because traditionally incorporated by many con- when scaffolding is needed and when to
that is the way I was trained. Seven years ductors may need to be viewed through gradually remove support, a technique
ago, partly in reaction to being a student a different lens to offer students the best known as fading, so that the learner
again and realizing how difficult it was to possible instruction. can function independently.8 Although
listen to an instructor for hours at a time, I many subject areas have incorporated this
began to integrate a variety of constructiv- learner-centered theory, most instrumen-
ist techniques. A subsequent experiment
Constructivist Practices tal teachers continue to embrace teacher-
to determine whether small ensembles The addition of constructivist educational centered classrooms.
would increase my students’ musical practices could promote student musical
understandings led to the realization that understanding and student engagement Suggestions for Engagement
these student-driven experiences had cre- and provide a student-centered frame-
ated the most outstanding students of my work for the orchestra classroom. In the Orchestra students can provide various
career. This research was the real begin- 1930s, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky types of musical leadership within the
ning for the evolution of my classroom described the theories that encompassed classroom. It is the constructivist teacher’s
practices. social constructivism. Vygotsky’s theories responsibility to assess each student’s
were not well known in the United States prior knowledge and guide him or her
Teacher-Centered Practices until the 1970s, when his works were toward an appropriate leadership role.
translated into English. Vygotsky believed Incorporating individual student strengths,
The arrangement of chairs and stands in that all human learning is formed within both administrative and musical, into
the string orchestra classroom is a telling a social context. Prior to his work, most the classroom will enrich the classroom
indicator of teacher as leader. All chairs learning theories had focused on the indi- experience for everyone while allowing
and stands face the teacher.1 The podium vidual and had not considered the role of students to feel ownership in their pro-
is the epicenter of the classroom. Gen- others in the learning process.3 Construc- gram. It is important to note, however,
erally off limits to students, the podium tivism focuses on the understanding pro- that constructivist rehearsal practices are
is figuratively a throne for the monarch cess of the individual with the assumption not limited to orchestra classrooms, but
of the classroom. This typical classroom that each learner brings his or her own can be used effectively by choral (see the
arrangement is indicative of the rehearsal knowledge to the classroom.4 Although sidebar called “A Constructivist Approach
style of many conductors. Students are in this knowledge may need to be supple- with Choruses”) and band directors (see
the classroom to provide their individual mented, adjusted, or completely revised, the sidebar on “Constructivist Approaches
part of the whole performance, and they it serves as the basis for what will be con- in the Band Class”) as well.
accomplish this by following the teacher’s structed in the classroom.
instructions. Good performances are the To summarize the social constructivist
goal, and whether or not students achieve
Selecting Repertoire
viewpoint, children become members of
individual musical growth might be of society after learning from more knowl- As a first step toward engaging orchestra
secondary importance in the teacher-cen- edgeable members of society. Children members, all players could assist in select-
tered classroom.2 learn in an interactive social relation- ing concert literature. Allowing student

among the members of the group.
After the students are made aware of
these musical considerations, the teachers
should provide the orchestra with several
worthy choices of repertoire and students
can participate in deciding on final selec-
tions. To aid in finding suitable repertoire,
teachers might wish to consult one of the
excellent textbooks that address this issue.
Teaching Music through Performance in
Orchestra, volumes 1 and 2,10 and Strate-
gies for Teaching Strings11 offer practical
guidelines for music selection as well as
repertoire lists compiled by many of our
country’s leading orchestral educators.
Other music suggestions may be obtained
from a state music organization’s required
performance evaluation repertoire list
and from colleague recommendations.
Lists, however, do not substitute for a
teacher’s discriminating choice of reper-
toire based on musical value and learn-
ing needs of students. Presented with a
variety of acceptable choices, students
can sight-read through the selections and,
after proper preparation, use their skills to
make an informed decision of whether or
not each piece is a good choice for their
concert.
When considering concert repertoire,
the last and most significant question for
the students and the director is, Will the
students, conductor, and audience take
pleasure in and gain from the rehearsal
and the performance of each selection?12
Taking time to fully discuss and reflect
upon this query should allow only the
Concert photo with cello soloist. (Photo by Edward Scruggs) repertoire best suited to all of the organi-
zation’s needs to be performed. Students
are captivated by a diverse range of musi-
input on repertoire can be an extremely zone of proximal development.
cal styles and are better able to partici-
valuable strategy, but teachers must be The next consideration of repertoire
pate in repertoire selection than teachers
certain their students have the founda- selection should be the performance
may realize. If given a choice in concert
tion to make informed musical decisions. strengths and weaknesses of the group.9
programming, they will likely be more
To begin, the directors must facilitate a While the experienced director is gener-
interested during the concert preparation
discussion with student musicians about ally aware of these, students may not be
period, which should make rehearsals
what constitutes good programming. aware of their ensemble as a whole. Stu-
more productive.
Programming for festivals or contests is dents and director should have a frank dis-
generally different than for spring “pops” cussion about their ensemble’s strengths
concerts, so the reason for the concert and keep these factors in mind as they Rehearsal Engagement
and the audience must first be considered. sight-read new music. Although the music
Additionally, the program should reflect a should challenge the string orchestra, The model of most rehearsals is predict-
variety of styles, and this diversity should music that is too far beyond the technical able. Students play a brief section of
pique the audience’s interest and stretch capability of any particular section in the the music, followed by a conductor cri-
the players’ musical abilities into their orchestra can lead to serious frustration tique. While the front two rows are usu-
www.menc.org 55
ally on task with their leader, the longer throughout their education to sit quietly in lins swap parts, or having a topical story
this rehearsal style continues, the more class and to pay attention to the teacher. or joke ready to share. The idea is to
students are lost to inattentiveness. To To listen and then make intelligent and change the tenor of the rehearsal when
address this problem, a seat rotation sys- thoughtful remarks requires more energy it becomes ponderous. Not only will this
tem can be put into place. The type of than some students may initially be will- energize students, but it may also provide
student who generally sits on the front ing to expend in class. the same result for the director.
row will play well in any location, while To further engage students in the Movement is a clear physical indica-
the back row dweller will be required to rehearsal process, students can be tor of engagement with the music. Stu-
remain focused when under the watchful involved with creating the rehearsal dents who are involved with the music
eye of the director. objectives. This could be done at the sway while they play. They may lift their
Although a seat rotation system may beginning of each rehearsal or, even more scrolls when they make entrances and lift
keep certain students more directed, for effectively, at the end to plan for the next their bows together with the other play-
additional rehearsal enhancement, direc- day’s rehearsal. Spending a few post-class ers for the last note. While some students
tors could incorporate varied seating lay- moments with students to create plans for move instinctively, others have to be
outs on a regular basis. For example, cellos the next rehearsal offers a host of added coached about when and how to move.
and basses could sit in the front rows of benefits. Students can readily recall what Teacher or student modeling can be an
the orchestra, while violins and violas areas need the most attention and which effective approach to assist those students
could occupy the back rows. Another selections received the least concentra- with musical movement. When student
seating scenario would allow players to sit tion during that day’s rehearsal. Addition- movement becomes one of the rehearsal
where they like within the orchestra with- ally, it will give students time to reflect aims, not only must the students be more
out regard to their instrument. If it seems on their daily individual progress. This actively engaged but concerts also appear
that this “mix-and-match” approach might type of brainstorming activity can also almost choreographed. Students who are
cause behavioral issues, a variation might provide an excellent closure activity for truly engaged in their performance are as
be to use an assigned mixed quartet seat- the day’s proceedings. Incorporating any wonderful to watch as they are to hear.
ing. A further seating modification would of these techniques to improve rehearsal If a director observes that students’ bow
call for the orchestra to set up either in a engagement should encourage the mean- arms are the only sign of motion in his or
circle or in parallel lines, with the director ingful dialogue between teacher and stu- her orchestra, much is being lost.
in the middle and the students facing each dent that is a staple of the constructivist
other. Each of these rehearsal placement classroom.14
adaptations would allow students to hear Incorporating Student
their ensemble from an entirely different
vantage point. Rehearsal engagement and Physical Response to Music Conductors
musical maturity should improve through When a director’s focus during rehearsal
the heightened level of watching, listen- Noticing the students’ level of engagement
can assist the conductor with an analysis is on the score, paying attention to periph-
ing, and adjusting that a new seating per- eral events in the ensemble is difficult. An
spective requires from performers. of time management skills during rehears-
als. Unfortunately, what seems fascinating easy remedy for this is to allow a capable
Players could be encouraged to con- student to direct a section of the music,
tribute to their orchestra education by to adult musicians may not hold the same
appeal for a student player. Because of which enables the teacher to focus solely
constantly analyzing their group’s per- upon the members of the string orchestra.
formance. Rather than immediately cor- this, a teacher may need to ask himself
or herself some illuminating questions In the beginning, the ensemble may have
recting performance errors, the director difficulty playing well for a student con-
can call upon students located all around about the general atmosphere of rehears-
als. For example, how long do the stu- ductor, but with practice, the novelty will
the ensemble to make their own recom- wear off and students will concentrate on
mendations in regard to improving per- dents remain engaged in the rehearsal
and at what point do they begin to watch their performance. This variation in the
formance. When students are not aware rehearsal routine will allow the director
of who will be called upon next for an the clock in anticipation of the bell? The
most vital question to answer is, What to observe student engagement, posture,
opinion, they will begin to pay closer bowings, and individual student progress
attention to what is occurring in other sec- techniques are incorporated to allay this
response when their attention does wan- as well as the musical performance. In
tions. Allowing students to self-evaluate this role, the director continues scaffold-
is consistent with the constructivist view der? Having a store of motivational tools
on hand can be valuable when rehearsal ing for the class as he or she monitors the
that assessment should be incorporated rehearsal. To improve the experience for
into the learning process so that students pacing becomes sluggish (see “Resources
for Increasing Rehearsal Engagement” all, directors must make certain that play-
play a greater role in judging their own ers are respectful of all student conduc-
progress.13 Students may not enjoy this sidebar). These techniques can be as
simple as having the first and second vio- tors, not only the more popular ones.
technique at first. They have been trained

A Constructivist Approach with Choruses
by Patrick K. Freer, Georgia State University
Many of the ideas found in the accompanying article can be adapted Singing circles: Have students arranged in single-file circles (small
to the choral rehearsal environment. Some of the constructivist-oriented or large, homogeneous or heterogeneous). Each voice part may form an
approaches can be replicated in any setting—orchestral, choral, or individual circle, or you might have multiple concentric circles. Singing
band—while others require a bit of modification for choral situations. into the center of the circle helps students hear others within the circle,
Here are some learner-centered rehearsal strategies that I have used with a while standing with backs toward the center of the circle—perhaps facing
variety of ages, from elementary through high school. the wall—encourages students to listen carefully to others in the ensemble,
since they will lack the visual cues they may have previously relied upon.
Selecting Repertoire
Range inspector: Assuming that students are aware of their current Physical Response to Music
ranges and tessituras, students can examine potential pieces for singability. Dynamic feet: Have students stamp (lightly!) their feet to the rhythm of
This allows students to have substantive input regarding repertoire used in their vocal line while remaining vocally silent. The stamping should reflect
class. Teachers can certainly limit the choices to ensure specific styles or the dynamics of the printed vocal line, including crescendos, decrescendos,
genres are included in the repertory. and so on. This works especially well with polyphonic music. The accom-
paniment might be played if applicable.
Rehearsal Engagement
Opposing teams: Begin by dividing the choir into two or three groups Encouraging Musical Independence
(by voice part or ensembles) and have students sing only when conducted Musical prediction: Before handing out a new piece of music, read
by you. Turn to each group at varying times (by phrase or page) to alter- the text aloud. Have students predict how the composer would have set
nate between different groups. This will force students to “audiate” (hear each musical element (melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, texture, form,
the music internally) when not singing. For an extra challenge, assign a dynamics) based on the text only. Compare the predictions with the printed
blank wall as a group; silence will ensue when you “conduct” the wall for score.
a phrase. Dividing the ensemble into equal choirs (rather than voice parts) Become the composer: Distribute a new piece of music. From the
can be a strategy to help students understand the concepts of “ensemble” printed score alone (no sound), ask students how the composer set each
and “blend.” musical element and how they arrived at their answers. This facilitates the
Substitute plans: Imagine (if necessary) that you will not be present for navigating of choral scores. Use a system for identifying locations within
the next day’s rehearsal. Ask students to write the lesson plan that the sub- the music, such as by page-system-measure (“2-3-5” equals page 2, system
stitute teacher will need to follow. Be as specific about methods, techniques, 3, measure 5).
and time limits as practical. When you arrive the next day, teach the lesson Jump start: When students are in groups, each group can ask for a
exactly as the students indicated. Discuss afterward about how to improve specified number of “jump starts.” These will be moments of teacher assis-
on the lesson plan next time. tance (scaffolding) that you will provide in response to specific needs iden-
Timekeeper: Give a specific amount of time to rehearsal segments; let tified by the students.
a student tell you when time is up; if time expires, you need to ask permis- Detail detector: Let students examine the score of a new piece for any
sion to borrow more time. This works especially well with a student who has markings or notation that they do not understand. This will give an indica-
attentional difficulties! tion of what concepts and skills need to be taught before the piece itself.
If using a student conductor seems Students as Musical Leaders on hand to assist their peers with coach-
like an impossible scenario, professional ing or to answer their questions about
colleagues could be brought in to direct When the time arrives to hear individual the excerpts while the director is hearing
the group. Much can be learned by both students play, for a seating audition or a other students play. Allowing students
students and teacher with the addition performance grade, student leaders can to act as leaders in the audition process
of other music educators. Students will be invaluable in choosing the evaluative can provide important assistance to the
value the remarks made by a new leader, excerpts. After the conductor, who best instructor and improve the performance
even if they have heard them a thousand knows the trickiest passages or the sec- experience for all players.
times before from their director, and the tions that require the most musicianship Once the evaluative excerpts have
teacher will benefit from another educa- besides the students in the section? Prin- been heard, the need for sectionals or
tor’s perspective. cipal players can determine the number individual tutoring may be revealed. Sec-
of passages to be played and mark other tion leaders can guide their contempo-
students’ parts. The same players will be raries through the music, especially if the
www.menc.org 57
director and principal players have already
decided upon and marked passages from Constructivist Approaches in the Band Class
the music to be covered during this time. by David E. Myers, University of Minnesota
For individual students, research has indi-
cated that peer tutoring has been shown The suggested approaches for orchestra are easily adaptable to band classes. Here are some
to be an effective method to motivate and additional strategies to consider:
inspire struggling students.15 Not only 1. Empower musical leadership and responsiveness. Without instruments, model a simple axial
does peer tutoring offer a bonus for the movement activity or synchronous body percussion. Discuss with students why they were (or were
tutee, but it also gives adept players more not) able to follow your lead. Continuing the flow, repeat the activity, “passing” the leadership
to do than to sit, bored, through repeated to a student. Use eye contact, a nod, or a hand gesture to indicate the transfer of leadership. The
rehearsals that are mainly designed for new leader is responsible for continuing the activity. Divide into groups of six to eight students,
those who cannot play the music. “passing” the leadership randomly from student to student. Reflect on “cues” used to transfer
Accomplished student performers can leadership. Discuss effective leadership qualities. With instruments, take turns modeling impro-
also assist the director by creating the con- vised pentatonic patterns that are imitated by the group. Encourage leaders to vary expressive
cert program. Using skills taught for music qualities. Have students analyze factors that contributed to successful modeling-imitation. Con-
selection, students can help determine sider how these factors may influence ensemble performance. “Rehearse” a well-known piece
the order of pieces based on musical con- without a conductor, while considering how musicians may “lead” and “respond” from within
trast and styles. While directors are often the ensemble. Reflect on the experience. Extend the activity through small-group improvisation
hassled by the necessary preparations for in which students take turns “leading” and “accompanying.”
a concert, students can offer a fresh per-
spective for program design. What might 2. Encourage collaborative problem finding and problem solving. Divide students into mixed-
be considered a chore by a director could instrument groups of six to eight players. Select two or three short themes from a work that has
be a chance for several students to show not yet been rehearsed. Hand out the notation of the themes in concert key without expressive
creativity and feel ownership. Addition- markings. Assign students the tasks of (1) playing each theme in unison, collaboratively deter-
ally, researching the music’s history for mining tempo, articulation, and dynamics and (2) creating a one- to two-minute composition
program notes is an excellent enrichment using the themes. Perform the compositions, having the class analyze the decisions made by
project for the proficient player. each group. Have students reflect on the problems they needed to solve and how they solved them.
Project the score on a screen, looking for the themes and analyzing the ways in which the com-
poser addressed the “problems” encountered by the students. In unison, sing thematic excerpts
Encouraging Musical from the conductor’s score, and then play the instrumental parts as indicated. Discuss relation-
ships among the parts, try trading parts among various instruments, and analyze the musical
Independence
result of the composer’s decisions versus other potential decisions that could have been made.
In addition to regular rehearsals with the
3. Discover scale patterns and keys. Model an ascending major scale on your instrument. Ask
string orchestra, students should be urged
students to match the starting tone on their instruments by ear. Maintaining a musical flow,
to form small ensembles. Although many
model the lower four tones of the scale, having students echo. Create multiple patterns using
string orchestra teachers have students
these four tones. Repeat with the upper four tones. Model/echo the entire scale ascending, then
participate in solo and ensemble evalua-
descending. Have students take turns modeling and echoing patterns using the scale tones. Give
tion experiences, this is usually done for a
the students a different starting tone, challenging them to play a major scale. Have students take
fraction of each year, immediately before
turns leading patterns to reinforce pitch relationships. Apply the strategy to minor scales and
and ending immediately after the event.
modes. As students gain confidence performing scales and modes by ear, have them notate what
Many teachers feel uncomfortable about
they are playing. Compare notation across different instruments, discovering transposition and
taking time away from rehearsal to allow
intervallic patterns. Invite students to name a scale to be played, asking others to indicate the
small ensembles to practice. This need to
name of the transposed scale for their instruments. Challenge students to identify keys for various
control the rehearsal time is not unusual;
pieces of repertoire and to create and lead warm-ups derived from the relevant scales.
in fact, most instrumental teachers were
raised in this tradition and feel uncom-
fortable about changing the paradigm. tional opportunity to put constructivist musically independent and can give them
However, contemporary learning prac- teaching methods into practice. While the skills necessary toward becoming life-
tices do not support this teacher-centered taking time out of class each week to long musicians.
view of student learning processes, and rehearse in small ensembles might seem Directors can minimize wasted time
clinging to a teacher-centered classroom wasteful at first glance, time invested in by assisting students with music selec-
may minimize students’ learning and chamber ensembles develops students’ tion. Students sometimes have unrealis-
musical understanding. The incorpora- musical awareness and increases their tic expectations of their ability levels and
tion of chamber ensembles in the weekly ability to work as team members. Small will choose music that is either much too
rehearsal schedule provides an excep- ensembles also encourage students to be difficult or too easy. Successful music

selection also requires the players to be Notes 8. Wiggins, Teaching for Musical
Understanding.
in agreement on the same piece, a fairly
impossible task for some ensembles. Lim- 1. Joseph Shively, “In the Face of Tradition: 9. Lynn G. Cooper, Teaching Band and
iting the number of choices to five or six Questioning the Roles of Conductors and Orchestra: Methods and Materials
Ensemble Members in School Bands, (Chicago: GIA, 2004).
selections of an acceptable level can has- Choirs and Orchestras,” in Questioning
ten this process. Students should be given 10. David Littrell and Laura R. Racin, eds.,
the Music Education Paradigm, ed. Lee Teaching Music through Performance
a rehearsal time frame so they can struc- R. Bartel (Waterloo, ON: Canadian Music in Orchestra (Chicago: GIA, 2001); and
ture their rehearsals in preparation for Educators’ Association, 2004), 179–90. David Littrell, ed., Teaching Music through
performance. Having students hear and 2. Ibid. Performance in Orchestra, vol. 2 (Chicago:
critique each other’s ensemble perfor- 3. Virginia Richardson, Constructivist GIA, 2003).
mances is also well worth the time. This is Teacher Education: Building a World of 11. Donald L. Hamann and Robert Gillespie,
an essential part of the ensemble learning New Understandings (London: Falmer, Strategies for Teaching Strings (New York:
1997). Oxford University Press, 2004).
process because students, like teachers,
learn from observing the performances of 4. Ibid. 12. Cooper, Teaching Band and Orchestra.
their peers. 5. Lev S. Vygotsky, Mind and Society: The 13. Jacqueline G. Brooks and Martin G.
Teachers should act as coaches dur- Development of Higher Mental Processes Brooks, In Search of Understanding:
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, The Case for Constructivist Classrooms
ing the sectional and the small-ensemble 1978). (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
rehearsals. Integrating constructivist prac- and Curriculum Development, 1999).
6. Jackie H. Wiggins, Teaching for Musical
tices into the classroom does not mean Understanding (New York: McGraw-Hill, 14. Ibid.
that teachers become peripheral to the 2001). 15. Glenn M. Roswal and Aquilla A. Mims,
string orchestra. In fact, the students will 7. Jackie H. Wiggins and Peter R. Webster, “Effects of Collaborative Peer Tutoring
be quite dependent on their directors “Fostering Revision and Extension in on Urban Seventh Graders,” Journal of
for scaffolding at the beginning of this Student Composing,” Music Educators Educational Research 88 (1995): 275–80.
experience. It will be up to the teacher Journal 91, no. 3 (2005): 35–42.
to know when to begin the process of
fading, which should urge the students to
grow more independent.
Resources for Increasing Rehearsal Engagement
Creating Leaders • Brooks, Jacqueline G., and Martin G. Brooks. In Search of Understanding: The Case for
Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Incorporating constructivist practices and Development, 1993/1999.
students as musical leaders can promote
student engagement in rehearsal. While • Cooper, Lynn G. Teaching Band and Orchestra: Methods and Materials. Chicago: GIA, 2004.
the benefits of constructivism may not be • Hamann, Donald L., and Robert Gillespie. Strategies for Teaching Strings. New York: Oxford
immediate, the real advantages to these University Press, 2004.
new practices will become evident as the
• Littrell, David, ed. Teaching Music Through Performance in Orchestra, vol. 2. Chicago: GIA,
school year continues. Enlisting student
2003.
leaders will enrich and enliven the string
orchestra classroom environment and • Littrell, David, and Laura R. Racin, eds. Teaching Music Through Performance in Orchestra.
grant teachers the advantage of new per- Chicago: GIA, 2001.
spectives. Expecting independent learn- • Richardson, Virginia. Constructivist Teacher Education: Building a World of New
ing practices from student musicians will Understandings. London: Falmer, 1997.
help them to depend upon themselves
instead of encouraging reliance on a • Roswal, Glenn M., and Aquilla A. Mims. “Effects of Collaborative Peer Tutoring on Urban Seventh
teacher. These practices will lead to the Graders.” Journal of Educational Research 88, no. 5 (1995):275–80.
development of a community of leaders. • Shively, Joseph. “In the Face of Tradition: Questioning the Roles of Conductors and Ensemble
If students are given the opportunity to Members in School Bands, Choirs and Orchestras.” In Questioning the Music Education
create their own understanding of instru- Paradigm, ed. Lee R. Bartel, 179–90. Waterloo, ON: Canadian Music Educators’ Association, 2004.
mental performance, and if they feel their • Wiggins, Jackie H. Teaching for Musical Understanding. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
views are valued, they will begin to real-
ize that they are an integral part of the • Wiggins, Jackie H., and Peter R. Webster. Fostering “Revision and Extension in Student
rehearsal process. When students feel that Composing.” Music Educators Journal 91, no. 3 (2005): 35–42.
their presence in class is essential, they • Vygotsky, Lev S. Mind and Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Eds. M. Cole,
become engaged in rehearsal in a way V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, and E. Souberman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
that they never imagined possible.
www.menc.org 59
Effective Time Management in Ensemble Rehearsals

Joseph Manfredo
DOI: 10.1177/002743210609300219

Published by:
On behalf of:
Citations: http://mej.sagepub.com/content/93/2/42.refs.html
>> Version of Record - Nov 1, 2006
What is This?

Effective Time Management
in Ensemble Rehearsals
By Joseph Manfredo
~, &dquo; ~.One;:4£ .ihe most common problems for school music ensembles is the lack of rehearsal time to pre-
,P4~e for public performances. Many rehearsals cancelled shortened due to in-service and vacation
are or
;;~ys. I1;Í,:#~<;Bd.ition, because of illness, field trips, and athletic events, not all students attend any one
>:,:~l1-itar~å!i:JN1usic directors all too often feel they need to eliminate various parts of the rehearsal-such
’a~:próp~1:’ warm-up, tuning, sight-reading, or exercises for developing students’ musicianship-so that
more time be spent on rehearsing performance literature. This approach can be shortsighted, how-
can
ever, because it doesn’t necessarily help students improve their ensemble performance.
Many factors contribute to an effective rehearsal. The single greatest factor that affects rehearsal suc-
cess is pacing-the teacher’s ability to effectively manage time during the teaching period. Ensemble
directors should strive for a learning environment characterized by a consistent level of positive effort
and concentration from students, with a proper balance of time allocated for teacher actions (usually
verbal feedback) and for student actions (performance of music).
Directors must make subjective decisions when rehears-
ing an ensemble, but all directors can and should master
certain strategies and methods for effective ensemble pac-
....... , . -,..
ing. In this article I will share what I have learned from

With good planning and clear ~ my experiences as an ensemble conductor about man-
~ aging rehearsal time; I will focus on content, prepara-
11 ’11I ~· improve
your rehearsal pacing and make
f · ’1
can
time.
~
~ tion, verbal interaction, and error correction. Items in
~
the Suggested Reading list offer insights of other
educators.
Rehearsal Content
To effectively manage rehearsal time, ensemble direc-
should start by carefully considering the types of activ-
tors
ities, or content, commonly found in a rehearsal. A typical
rehearsal normally includes time for the following:
N Setup for teacher and students
N Tuning (for an instrumental ensemble)
0 Warm-up
0 Rehearsal of performance literature
N Sight-reading and other comprehensive musicianship activities
NAnnouncements
N Ending or teardown (putting away instruments, equipment, and folders).
The first step in creating good pacing during the rehearsal is to plan the
appropriate amount of time needed for each segment. Figure 1 summa-
rizes how much time is commonly spent on each type of rehearsal activi-
ty. Most important, the figure shows that ensemble directors may actually
have only thirty minutes out of a fifty-minute period to rehearse music for
performance, reinforcing the need for efficient use of rehearsal time.
With so little time for rehearsing music, the director’s first priority is to
choose literature that doesn’t exceed the students’ technical capabilities.
Directors must also be realistic about the amount of musical content to be
prepared for any single concert. It’s much easier to implement effective
rehearsal pacing techniques if there’s a reasonable amount of literature to be per-
formed, ensuring that the interpretation of each piece can be fully realized in time. In
addition, directors should choose pieces of various levels of difficulty so that all students in the ensem-
ble are challenged but stillDownloaded
able tofrommaster the byentire
mej.sagepub.com concert
guest on July 17, 2013 program.
42
Charles R. Hoffer recommends the &dquo;Rule of Three&dquo; as an effective strategy for organizing daily
rehearsal content. This principle calls for three activities within the rehearsal. That may mean a
warm-up and work on two compositions or excerpts during the total of thirty-six minutes assigned
to warm-up plus rehearsing literature (see figure 1), or it may mean a warm-up of six minutes and
then rehearsal of three compositions or excerpts in the thirty minutes for rehearsing literature.
There are many variables that can influence the director’s planning the content of a rehearsal,
including the compositions’ length and difficulty, as well as the imminence of the performance.
Preparation and Planning
The next step is to be prepared! Each rehearsal must be planned meticulously. A director should
not simply list the order of music for that day but should identi-
fy specific objectives focusing on the most important musical

concepts to be addressed in the rehearsal, as well as activi-
ties necessary to attain those goals. A clear purpose for each
rehearsal involves focusing on no more than three musical
concepts during the rehearsal. Why no more than three
concepts? If students are to master any concept, they need
substantial time to experience in-depth learning. Limiting
the number of concepts within a single rehearsal allows
students to address and experience those concepts in a
variety of ways throughout the period.
Preparation is not only about developing broad goals
and objectives, but also about comprehending your topic-
that is, the music being rehearsed. Studying scores and
developing a true understanding of the music being taught
is crucial forwell-paced and sequenced instruction. The
ensemble director should understand the music’s composi-
tional techniques (form, harmony, and instrumentation);
expressive components (dynamic structure, style, and
color); and pedagogical issues (fingerings, bowings, diction,
Joseph Manfredo is an assistant professor of

music at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign. He can be reached at
manfredo@uiuc.edu.

dent attentiveness and time on-task is
to limit the director’s comments to
ten- to twenty-second intervals.
Keeping verbal directions as concise
as possible helps the director to focus
on that day’s specific goals, maintain-
ing the students’ requisite energy and

concentration. If students learn by
doing, remember that in an ensemble
rehearsal the &dquo;doing&dquo; is playing the
music, not listening to the director
talk.
Occasionally, however, a thirty-sec-
ond verbal episode is needed, espe-
cially for more complicated excerpts.
This extended period allows the direc-
tor to use teaching tools such as
Figure &dquo;
1. Rehearsal Content
,
During ’
a Fifty-Minute Class Period O
graphic organizers and other visual
aids that require more time for presen-
and so on). In addition to increasing teachers and concluded that experi- tation. It’s been my experience that the
knowledge, score
proper preparation enced teachers spend less time speak- complexity of the musical excerpt, as
allows the ensemble director to hear ing and use more time for student per- well as the depth of the solution,
more accurately on the podium, to formance than their inexperienced motivates students to stay on task.
4
rehearse more effectively and effi- counterparts. Compared to the director’s verbal
ciently, to demonstrate more self-con- The interaction between teacher feedback, student performance
fidence and the ability to handle any and students must be effective episodes must be significantly
deviation from expectations, and to be because students rely on clear, con- longer-twenty seconds to two min-
more expressive, thereby making the cise, and unambiguous information. utes-so that students become more
composition come to life for the stu- In addition, they thrive on specific active participants and learners. They
dents. feedback, rather than general com- need sufficient time to make musical
One of the more important out- ments-either positive or negative- decisions and even fix things on their
comes of effective preparation is that to develop a greater appreciation and own. Inaddition, longer time seg-
it allows the ensemble director to han- enjoyment of the music they’re play- ments allow students to put the details
dle the unexpected events that typical- ing. Strong eye contact and a person- presented into a broader musical con-
ly occur in rehearsals. The best plan- alized style help strengthen communi- text, providing them with a more in-
ning will never work 100 percent of cation. For example, directors might depth comprehension of the litera-
the time, for it’s virtually impossible to limit the number of times they address ture. Finally, students enjoy making
anticipate and control student ensemble sections by their instrument music and actively performing for
progress and achievement. The ability or part (clarinets, violas, or sopranos), extended periods of time.
to &dquo;read the group&dquo; and make split- and instead, use students’ first names. One final recommendation is to
second judgments that affect the Finally, an occasional humorous com- avoid a long series of short, consecu-
objectives are important skills that the ment to reinforce a particular point tive segments (ten to twenty seconds)
ensemble director must acquire. That helps keep rehearsals alive and stu- of teacher talk and student perform-
is, &dquo;in-flight&dquo; decisions must ultimate- dents on task. ance. That often results in poor pac-
ly determine the2 teacher’s response to It’s best not to stop conducting ing, student frustration, and an inef-
students’ needs.2 until you know what you’re going to fective rehearsal.
Verbal Feedback
say Curiously, many young ensemble
conductors tend to stop the ensemble Error Correction ~
Verbal feedback is a critical issue in if something sounds wrong, but then How much time should a director
rehearsal pacing. Effective teachers they pause while they search for spend rehearsing any single section of
must be able to judge the proper ratio something to say-with the result that music? This is a common struggle for
of teacher talk to student perform- they revert to the catch-all phrase, student and novice teachers. The
ance. Research on the effect of teacher &dquo;Let’s do that again.&dquo; When stopping teacher must determine the balance
verbal feedback on instructional pac- the ensemble, the director must know between too much time, which results
ing has resulted in significant and reli- what to say; must provide clear, con- in addressing too little musical con-
3
able recommendations.3 Numerous cise, and specific information; and tent, and too little time, which results
research projects have compared the should focus comments on the goals in lack of mastery of musical content.
amount of time for verbal feedback of that day’s rehearsal, so students can Hoffer’s principle of rehearsal organi-
between inexperienced (student and better understand their relevance. zation, the &dquo;Rule of Three,&dquo; will help
novice teachers) and experienced A general
Downloaded rule for bymaximizing
from mej.sagepub.com guest on July 17, 2013stu- those directors who have yet to devel-
44 . , ., .. - . , .., m .
m , , , ,
op spontaneous decision-making
skills. Observing master teachers in s
Suggested Reading o 0
rehearsal will provide a model to fol-

low. The effective director develops an The discuss classroom management for ensembles:
following resources
intuitive feeling, developed through
experience, that allows for adaptation &bullet; Bauer,William I. "Classroom Management for Ensembles." Music
of daily performance standards to the Educators Journal 87, no. 6 (2001): 27-32.
situation, whether it’s an initial read-
ing of the composition, a first or sec- &bullet; Brendell, Jenna K. "Time Use, Rehearsal Activity, and Student Off-Task
ond attempt to solve a problem, or Behavior during the Initial Minutes of High School Choral Rehearsals."
refinement of the passage. In addition,
Journal of Research in Music Education 44, no. I (1996):6-14.
the ensemble director must take into
account the number of rehearsals
&bul et; Copley, Edith, Diane Heaney, David Hoffecker, Michele McCall-
until the performance.
Naughton, Christa Opriessnig, and Lizabeth Wing. "Choral Music
The solution to this challenge Teacher Rehearsal Behaviors:An Essay on Knowing What We Do."
begins with teacher preparation, as Update:Applications of Research in Music Education 9, no. I (1990):23-30.
discussed earlier. The ensemble direc-
tor must first determine the objective &bullet; Duke, Robert A. Intelligent Music Teaching. Austin,TX: Learning and
of that rehearsal-that is, the level of Behavior Resources, 2005.
performance students should attain by
the end of the day. The key to the suc- &bul et; Moore, Marvelene C., with Angela L. Batey and David M. Royce.
cessful pacing of error correction Classroom
within the rehearsal is to determine
Management in General, Choral, and Instrumental Music
Programs. Reston, VA: MENC, 2002.
the objectives in relationship to the
entire unit of study-the number of &bul et; Parncutt, Richard, and Gary E. McPherson, eds. The Science and
weeks of rehearsal in preparation for a
Psychology of Music Performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
performance. More challenging per- 2002.
formance concepts, such as harmonic
intonation, uniformity of phrasing, &bul et; Snyder, David W."Classroom Management for Student Teachers." Music
and articulation, should not be Educators Journal 84, no. 4 (1998): 37-40.
addressed during initial weeks of
rehearsal. The director should also &bul et; Ybarra, Mary Ann. "A Look in the Mirror." American Music Teacher 44,
allow sufficient time to revisit each 18-21.
no. 4 (1995):
passage of music previously rehearsed ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
to ensure retention of learning. students’ attention on what they accomplishment and satisfaction.
Finally, the director should focus played correctly, what errors occurred,
all drill and practice on a specific goal and what they need to do to improve Self-Analysis
when rehearsing an isolated excerpt, the performance of the passage. Duke To effectively pace rehearsals, all
so that the rehearsal is structured and calls this identifying the target. The ensemble conductors-young or
deliberate. The director should also director’s verbal feedback has now old-should regularly videotape
use a variety of teaching strategies and established a set of goals, or targets, themselves and analyze their behavior.
rehearsal techniques when practicing for the students to focus on during the Reflective self-analysis can be a very
the passage to prevent student bore- second playing. In addition, the direc- productive means of professional
dom due to the number of repetitions tor may wish to limit the number of development. One of the easiest and
needed for attaining the goal.55 players as well as isolate the passage most effective methods of self-analysis
So how can the ensemble director through slow practice, partial practice, is to tally the number of verbal com-
manage the necessary repetitions of an altered practice, or related practice, ments made in the following cate-
excerpt within a limited rehearsal followed again by verbal feedback. gories:

time? I recommend Robert A. Duke’s When the target has been achieved, N Specific versus general state-
strategy of rehearsal framing.6 In this the ensemble director then incorpo- ments.
technique, students initially play rates all performers into a final N Positive or negative versus direc-
through an excerpt or section from rehearsal, of the excerpt. tive statements. A directive statement
start to finish, while the director This method of rehearsing provides lacks positive or negative reinforce-
a
makes mental notes of concepts to time for student performance as well ment but identifies an action; for
&dquo;
address afterward. The next step is to as effective verbal feedback directed example, &dquo;That needs to be louder.&dquo;
fix the part of the excerpt that needs toward specifically planned goals. It N Statements that address the
improvement; but before starting the also creates an energized classroom planned goals or musical concepts
section, the director must provide spe- environment in which students are versus statements that do not address
cific verbal feedback to guide the stu- actively involved in the learning those goals.
dents. Those comments should focus process, giving
Downloaded them a greater
from mej.sagepub.com sense
by guest on July of
17, 2013 An ensemble conductor can quick-
45
ly determine the effectiveness of his or ensemble rehearsal, beginning with Instruction," Journal of Research in Music
her communication with students by the proper attitude toward rehearsal Education 46, no. 1 (1998): 265-80; and
tallying and then comparing the ratios time-the realization that each Nancy A. Single, "An Exploratory Study of
among these types of verbal interac- minute of instruction is precious. Pacing in Instrumental Music Rehearsals,"
tions. Effective verbal feedback should Through proper preparation, verbal Contributions to Music Education, no. 17
be and directive. The vast
specific interaction, and error-correction tech- (1990):32-43.
majority of teacher comments must niques, the director can create a lively 4. Thomas W Goolsby, "Time Use in
address specific musical concepts in a and well-organized learning environ- Instrumental Rehearsals: A Comparison of
concise manner. An occasional ment. The director’s podium personal- Experienced, Novice, and Student
expression of general satisfaction ity must be energetic and focused so Teachers," Journal of Research in Music
(&dquo;Band, that was excellent&dquo;) is accept- that there is a sense of strong leader- Education 44, no. 4 (1995): 286-303;
able but should rarely be used. Do reg- ship for students to follow. The Goolsby, "Verbal Instruction in
ularly use positive comments, but ensemble conductor can develop Instrumental Rehearsals: A Comparison of
focus these toward individuals or these abilities through self-analysis Three Career Levels and Preservice
small groups; positive comments will and reflection exercises, which result Teachers," Journal of Research in Music
be more powerful when they reinforce in a greater understanding and aware- Education 45, no. 1 (1997): 21-40;
specific students. Negative comments, ness of pacing. Each of these tech- Goolsby, "A Comparison of Expert and
on the other hand, should rarely niques and attributes help with class- Novice Music Teachers Preparing Identical
address individual efforts or behav- room management, student morale, Band Compositions: An Operational
iors. In addition, eliminate any type of performance standards, and a greater Replication," Journal of Research in Music
emotional content in negative state- appreciation for music. Education 47, no. 2 (1999): 174-87.
ments. Figure 2 is a template that you 5. Nancy H. Barry and Susan Hallam,
can use for reflective self-analysis on Notes "Practice," in The Science and Psychology of
effective teacher verbal feedback. 1. Charles R. Hoffer, Teaching Music in Music Performance, ed. Richard Pamcutt
Another useful method of self- the Secondary Schools (Belmont, CA: and Gary E. McPherson (Oxford: Oxford
reflection focuses on the length of Wadsworth / Thompson Learning, 2001) , University Press, 2002), 152-53.
time for each verbal episode. Record a 56-60. 6. Robert A. Duke, "Bringing the Art of
typical rehearsal to examine the 2. Janet Robbins, "Getting Set and Rehearsal into Focus: The Rehearsal
amount of time spent on teacher talk Letting Go: Practicum Teachers’ In-Flight Frame as a Model for Prescriptive Analysis
compared to time for student per- Decision-Making," The Mountain Lake of Rehearsal Conducting," Journal of Band
formance. In effective rehearsals, a Reader, no. 1 (1999): 26-32. Research 30, no. 1 (1994): 78-95. &squf;
majority of instructional time should 3. Mary Ellen Cavitt, "A Descriptive
be given to student performance, with Analysis of Error Correction in
a smaller percentage to teacher talk. Instrumental Music Rehearsals," Journal of
Research in Music Education 51, no. 3
Putting It All Together (2003): 218-30; Robert A. Duke, Carol A.
Ensemble directors can develop Prickett, and Judith A. Jellison, "Empirical
effective instructional pacing in the To advertise in
Description of the Pace of Music
Teaching Music
/
journal,
contact James
onsetler, Advertising
Manager at
703-860-4000 or by
e-mail at
.
Figure’
2. Verbal Feedback
«
Self-Analysis/Reflection Template &dquo;

.
46
Assesment in Instrumental Music : How can band, orchestra, and instrumental ensemble directors best
assess their student's learning? Here are some evaluation tools and techniques to consider
Thomas W. Goolsby
DOI: 10.2307/3399587

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Sep 1, 1999
What is This?

pwciai
Assessment in Music Education
ASSESSMENT
IN
INSTRUMEN
MUSIC
How can band, orchestra,and instrumentalensembledirectorsbestassesstheir
students'learning?Here aresomeevaluationtoolsand techniquesto consider.
he increasing emphasis on Typesof Assessment

assessment in school districts Four types of assessment can be
across the United States has used for evaluation in the instrumen-
created greater demand for tal classroomin a relativelystraightfor-
methods of assessing instru- ward manner; these are placement,
mental music programs. Although summative, diagnostic, and formative
most music educators recognize that assessments.Band and orchestradirec-
frequent evaluation is an essential tors are already familiar with place-
component of effective teaching, new Formativeassessmentis ment and summative assessments,
mandates and public concerns regard- even if they don't identify them as
ing accountability are additional rea-
sons for band and orchestra directors
concernedwithregular such. Placement assessment includes
auditions, challenges, and seating
to expand their use of assessment in monitoring to
ofstudents assignments, all aimed at determining
ensemble settings.
While increasing systematic assess- makesurethatlearning a student'sabilities in order to proper-
ly place the student within a program.
ment initially may seem to be an is takingplace. Summative assessment includes con-
activity that requires more of a concerts, festivals, recitals, and other
ductor/teacher's precious time, it is events where the final "product"of the
most likely an activity that eventually group's learning is publicly demon-
will save time. All too frequently,band stratedand evaluated.
and orchestradirectors rehearsemusic The other two types of assessment
for concerts and find themselves are usually integrated more closely
repeatedlyreminding students of simi- with day-to-day instruction. Diagnos-
lar performance rudiments for each tic assessment is used to determine
musical selection. This practice alone ing is not taking place. The issue of where learning difficulties exist. While
should indicate that maximum learn- "transferof knowledge" is one of the test and assessment writers in mathe-
several concerns addressed through matics, language arts, and science cur-
evaluation. Creating musicians should rently struggle to develop valid and
ThomasW.Goolsbyis associateprofessorof be the goal of all band and orchestra reliable assessment instruments for
musiceducation
intheSchoolof MusicatGeor- teachers-and better musicians will diagnostic evaluation, instrumental
inAtlanta
giaStateUniversity andis thenational prepare musical selections with far music teachers are already masters of
chairof MENC's
SpecialResearch Group greaterease than students who remain
Interest this type of evaluation. Every time a
(SRIG)inMeasurementandEvaluation. unsure of what is expected of them.1 band or orchestradirectorsteps on the
SEPTEMBER 1999 31

podium or stands in front of the class, evaluate their students' work. For will come up with many additional
the majorityof the teaching events are beginners, instrumental music teach- ideas for what may be included on
devoted to identifying problems in ers can select specific selections in the such checklists. The increasingaccessi-
learning and then providing a remedy method book as checkpoints for indi- bility of computers and software pro-
(or at least a quick fix). The most vidual achievement.Without applying gramsfor music educationwill enhance
obvious and frequently used tool for pressureor creatinganxiety,the instru- this type of individual assessment,
diagnostic assessment in instrumental mental director can establish an which is aimed at guiding learning.
music is errordetection. atmosphere of cooperativelearning in
Whereas diagnostic assessment is a beginning band or orchestraclass by Worksheets
concerned with identifying learning giving students many chances to play Beginners through intermediate
problems, formativeassessmentis con- solo for the teacher and their peers. instrumentalists can also be assessed
cerned with the regularmonitoring of Such solo opportunities provide the through a variety of worksheets and
students to make sure that learning is teacher with the means to assess indi- homework assignments. Directors can
taking place. Band and orchestra vidual progress, especially for aspects easily create worksheets to parallel
directors often make the erroneous of good tone quality, and they also their goals and objectives and rein-
assumption that if no errorsare identi- help young players work toward force what they are teaching in class,
fied during a rehearsal,then the stu- reducingperformanceanxiety. especially at the middle school or
dents must be learning. Research in junior high level. Worksheets or ele-
measuring the feedback provided to mentary theory books are frequently
students in relationship to what the used by private piano teachers. Such
teachers ask of the students indicates workbooks are inexpensiveand can be
that, during the vast majority of used to provide instrumentalistswith
rehearsals, students have no way of a working knowledge of theory that
knowing whether they are accomplish- can form the basis of improved sight-
ing what is expected of them.2 This reading, including knowledge of such
sense of accomplishment can come Criteriamayvaryfrom musical elements as key signatures,
only if students are aware of the spe- rhythms, intervals, structural chords,
cific goals of the rehearsalor class-
often a secretknown only to the direc-
piecetopiecebutalways counterpoint, and voice-leading.
Worksheetscan also be used to assess
tor. shouldincludetone basic aspects of music notation, which
Without formative assessment, we we often assume the beginning student
have no way of knowing if the stu- quality. has learned, when many are actually
dents are simply learning our parame- learningthe simple tunes by ear.Work-
ters for tolerance of mistakes, or if sheets designed by the teacher can be
they are learning something about creativeand can help both student and
music. In our rehearsals,we frequently teacher assess students' knowledge of
remind them how to execute articula- dynamic markings, note values, pitch
tions, dynamic markings, phrasing, names, expressive markings, articula-
and so forth. Doesn't the mere fact tions, music terminology,and time and
that we must remind them so fre- Another assessment tool used suc- key signatures.
quently indicate a lack of learning?If cessfully with intermediate and high Commercially available elementary
time were spent on formative assess- school instrumental classes is the theory workbooks can also be pur-
ment-to ensure that students are checklist. Especiallyat the high school chasedfor each studentand can be used
learning what we would like them to level, where the ensemble may com- to assess students' knowledge of such
know-then the concert selections prise three or four grades in one class, concepts as intervals, simple chord
could be preparedwith much greater a band or orchestradirectorcan devise structure, scales, and even chord rela-
efficiency. twelve to fifteen sequential checklists tionships. Examples of this type of
It would follow that one require- to be completed quarterlyby students individual workbook include Theory
ment for effectiveformativeassessment and reviewed by the director. These Worksheetsfor Beginning Band by
is the students' clear understandingof checklists may include technical exer- Denise Gagne (J. Weston Walch),
what they should learn. Periodicevalu- cises, solo or small-ensembleselections Ready-to-Use Music Activities Kit by
ation of these objectives and goals is to be learned, written assignments Audrey J. Adair (Parker Publishing),
used not only to monitor their learn- (including theory or composition Basic Music Theory by Audrey J.
ing, but to reinforce them in the stu- exercisesor written essayson historical Adair (Parker Publishing), Workbook
dents'minds. themes or individual composers), lis- for Band by Forest R. Etling (High-
tening assignments that include writ- land/Etling Publishing), and Basic
andChecklists
Checkpoints ten reviews, and reading assignments. Music Theoryfor the Beginning Band
There are many measurementtools Creative directors who are aware of Student by Frank Campise (Barn-
availableto help instrumentalteachers long-term goals for their ensembles house).
32 MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL

AudiotapeRecordings
For members of intermediate and a
high school ensembles, assessment of
individual progress can be enhanced
by having students prepareand submit
audiocassette tapes of their own per-
formances. Through careful planning,
experimentation, and refinement of
study material,students can be guided
through a five- or six-year curriculum
of performance assignments at their
own individual pace and ability level.
Instrumentalteacherscan select musi-
cal exercises and solo literature to
enable students to demonstratetechni-
cal proficiency and expressive perfor-
mance of music selected from the
most appropriate and best literature
for each instrument-including con- E
cert selections. .2 ,_o
Specific objectives and criteria for

scoring the tapes are required.Criteria Students
needtoclearly
understand
what
theyshould
belearning
ateachrehearsal
andperformance.
may vary from piece to piece but
always should include tone quality. If
students are asked to provide tapes on
a staggered basis and the director is phones, double reeds, trumpets/per- are striving for the best possible
willing to spend two hours per day cussion, and low brass/horns submit sound. These records of individual
evaluating audiotapes (including the tapes on a weekly basis. All assessment student progress are used for deter-
weekend), then as many as 180 stu- tapes are collected on a single day and mining grades and assigning students
dents can submit twenty-minute tapes returned the next week with written to one of the two bands.
each month. For the largest of music comments as another group of tapes is Susan Monroe, a band director at
programs, this would enable an indi- collected. Rice evaluatesapproximate- Cascade Middle School in Auburn,
vidual assessment of each music stu- ly thirty fifteen- to twenty-five-minute Washington, has spent the last five
dent every six weeks; for smaller pro- tapes per week over a six-week period years refining a programin which stu-
grams, it might permit assessment (including orchestra).He is extremely dents at three levels are given sequen-
every four weeks. detailed in his written evaluations, tial assignments to record during class
In programs where this sort of commenting on the performer's periods; these assignments include
assessmenthas been implemented, one strengths, areas that need improve- etudes, solos, technical exercises, and
of the first surprises for the director ment, areasthat have improved (from concert selections. Without disrupting
has been the discovery that many stu- his detailed recordskept for each stu- the rehearsals,students quietly go to
dents do not know how to practice. dent), and aspects that require atten- her office and record as much of their
This and other types of formative tion; he also makes specific comments assignment as they have prepared.
assessmentoften reveal the inaccuracy on tone quality. For those students Usually four students are able to com-
of many of the assumptions we make who seem to have difficulty improving plete the task during each rehearsal.
as teachers. tone quality, he schedules individual Records of overall progressare posted
Two outstanding band directors in lessons during lunch, free periods, or on a board in the rehearsalroom and
the Pacific Northwest use the audio- before or after school to observe serve as the basis for seating assign-
tape technique in different ways.3 embouchure and breathing, check ments (changing on an almost daily
Both directorsplan a series of techni- equipment, and provide individual basis). Students are provided with
cal and lyricalexercisesthat span a stu- instruction to help his playersimprove detailed written comments addressing
dent's three years in the band pro- their sound. Students are allowed to notes, tone quality, rhythm, articula-
gram. Jim Rice, band and orchestra record their tapes at home and submit tions, intonation, and expression/
director at Woodinville High School them every six weeks. Rice also pro- phrasing.This technique of effectively
in Woodinville, Washington, collects vides a practice room equipped with a using class time allows Monroe to
cassette tapes from individuals by sec- recording machine for those students assess each student approximately
tion on a weekly basis (evaluating by who are unable to make recordingsof every three weeks. For those students
section allows him a better reference good quality at home or for the older who are stymied by obstacles, arrange-
for evaluatingtone quality). In two of students (some of whom may have an ments are made for individual lessons
his bands, clarinets, flutes, saxo- eye towarda college music major)who before or after school. Monroe also
SEPTEMBER 1999 33
Form
Figure1. StudentSelf-Evaluation
EnsemblePerformanceCritique
NAME: Selection Performed Section of Selection
CLASS: Date (firstevaluation) Date (second evaluation)
Comments on how I sound within the Comments on how I sound within the
ensemble: ensemble:
The purpose of this exerciseis
to compare two performancesof
the same piece. In the first col-
umn, write comments about your
playing and then about the per-
formance of the entire ensemble.
Comments on how the entire ensem- Comments on how the entire ensem-
Point out good points and bad
ble sounds: ble sounds:
points; use specificmusicalterms.
Consider balance, tone, intona-
tion, rhythm,articulation,etc.
These blocks are for sugges-

tions to improve your playing
and the performance of the
entire ensemble. "How can we How could I improve the ensemble? How could I improve the ensemble?
improve? What should we
improve?"
In a few weeks, we will per-

form and listen to the same sec-
tion and fill in the second col-
How could the entire ensemble sound How could the entire ensemble
umn of blocks to make our com-
better? sound better?
parison.
Scorefor being SPECIFIC: Scorefor RELATIONSHIPS:
Scorefor SUGGESTEDIMPROVEMENTS:
Note: This form is based on a Domain Projectform, HarvardProjectZero'sArts PropelAssessmentProfile.

spends time during each full rehearsal music is performed and recorded and problem to another would score even
reminding students of the importance the director plays both tapes for the higher.
of sound quality and how it is influ- students. The first is a "reminder"of The score for "SuggestedImprove-
enced by such skills as correctposture, how the passage previously sounded, ments" is determined by the number
breathing, and embouchure. She and the second shows the currentlevel of suggested improvements and the
makes frequent in-class assessmentsof of performance. Students complete relationships of the suggested im-
these basics. the second column by answering the provements to the observed problems.
Rice and Monroe both advocatetwo same questions, but this time consid- Also considered is the sophistication
simple principles that are well known ering the improvement of the perfor- of the suggested improvements (e.g.,
to instrumental teachers everywhere. mance (or lack of improvement).This suggesting whom the flutes should lis-
First, they insist on the importance of exercise should be completed on a ten to, as opposed to just suggesting
tone quality:no matterhow many cor- weekly basis using a variety of types that the flutes "listen").
rect notes areplayedin the correctspot, and sections of ensemble literature. Critical to the success of this type
if the music doesn'tsound good, it isn't of assessment is a class discussion fol-
good. Second, they make sure that stu- lowing the first few times it is used
dents areawarethat the quickestway to and after the director scores the
fix the overallsound of an ensemble is papers. The director, knowing the
to have everyone in the group sit with content of the students' comments,
good posture and play with sufficient can call on students who made the
breathsupport. most astute observationsand ask them
to read their papers. This assists the
Self-Evaluation less astute or newer students to under-
One of the primary goals of music
education in general is musical inde- Devoting time to stand what the task is. In informal
studies where this form was used in
pendence. For instrumental music, assessmentwill public school band rehearsals,it was
this goal in part translates to self- noted with great pleasure by the
assessment, not only by and for each eventuallysave time teacher that some of the most success-
individual, but for the full ensemble. in class. ful students who completed this exer-
Perhapsthe most successfullarge-scale cise were "third"clarinets and trum-
project of this type has been the pets-that is, students who were usu-
Domain Project developed by Arts ally less successful in tasks related to
Propel and funded by the Rockefeller performanceskills.
Foundation, Educational Testing Ser- Older students who have complet-
vice, Harvard'sProject Zero, and the ed these exercises over a number of
Pittsburghpublic school system.4 years will often develop keen listening
Figure 1 contains a form derived skills. These skills will often transferto
from the one used in the Domain Pro- students' performancesand individual
jects. Students can use this form to The forms are collected after each practice sessions. This means that
evaluate their own performance and exerciseand scored by the teacher.The more responsibilityfor correct perfor-
that of the group. Through practice designers of Domain Projects encour- mance skills is given to the students
and class discussion, students improve age teachersto consider three areasin and rehearsaltime is saved if during
their listening habits and, over a peri- scoring the student's comments (see class discussions it is made clear what
od of several years, become rather bottom of figure 1). The score for objectives can be achieved and how
astute at listening critically to their being "Specific"(using a given scale- these will lead to good performance
own performances. for example, zero to five) is based on skills.
Copies of this form are kept in each the student's accurate use of musical
student'sband or orchestrafolder. The terms and elements and in identifying GoalsandResponsibility
ensemble plays a particularsection of areas of concern and suggesting solu- Two points bear repeating. First,
a selected piece (for example, a seg- tions. instrumentalteachersneed to continu-
ment of sixteen to sixty-fourmeasures) The score for "Relationships" is ally share their goals, objectives, and
while the director records the perfor- contingent on the student's observa- expectations with their students. Sec-
mance. Students are asked to write tion of connections among problems ond, with these goals in mind, stu-
comments in the first column: the top and among solutions. For example, a dents can assume more of the respon-
blocks address how the individual student who accuratelyidentifies sev- sibility for their own learning, but
sounds and how the entire ensemble eral problems within the ensemble monitoring student learning is still a
sounds, and the bottom two blocks performancewould score higher than primarytask of teachers.
have space for comments on how the a student who identifies only a single Checklistsand forms can be helpful
performancecan be improved. Several problem; however, a student who in teaching critical listening to the
rehearsals later, the same section of comments on the relationship of one continuedonpage 50
SEPTEMBER 1999 35
in
Assessment
Making the music with rwa Music
Instrumental
,
* WyntonMarsalis: Makingthe Music,ATeachers'Guideto Jazz is based
on the 26-partpublicradioseries producedby NationalPublicRadio?
* Learnaboutjazz,its birthplace,
the influenceof blues,swing,andvocalists.
* Kitbookletincludes:information, activities,and resources.
* Two40 minuteaudiocassettes.
* Colorposter. e
Nowon sale forthe low priceof $10.00 Toorder

call
plus $3.50 for shipping. 202-414-2033 continuedfrompage 35
ensemble. Both of these assessment

tools can be altered and adapted by
-B1 any director for any level of instru-
mental music. These tools may prove
particularly useful for directors who
attempt to incorporate the content
standardsfound in the National Stan-
dardsfor MusicEducation.5
Finally, we must assume that
devoting time to assessmentwill even-
tually save time in class-time that
has been wasted as we have repeated
information again and again when
preparingmusical selections. Our task
is to produce musicians, and better
musicianswill produce better music.
Notes
1. Thomas W. Goolsby, "Portfolio Assess-
ment for Better Evaluation," Music Educators
Journal 82 (November 1995), 39-44.
2. Thomas W. Goolsby, "Verbal Instruc-
www.tripledisc.com/ info@tripledisc.com
tion in Instrumental Rehearsals:A Compari-
son of Three Career Levels and Preservice
Teachers," Journal of Researchin Music Edu-
cation 45, no. 1 (Spring 1997), 21-40; Harry
E. Price, "Sequential Patterns of Music
Instruction and Learning to Use Them,"
Journal ofResearchin Music Education 40, no.
1 (Spring 1992), 14-29; Harry E. Price and
Cornelia Yarbrough, "Validation of Sequen-
tial Patterns of Instruction in Music," Cana-
dian Music Educator: Research Edition 33
(1991), 165-74.
3. Goolsby, "Portfolio Assessment for
TheCarnegie
MellonSchoolof Music Better Evaluation," 43.
LCCHOOL 4. "PerformanceAssessment Collaborative
facultyis made up of 87 artist/teachers. . E ?. -: '
i 5_
1-?)^"!
. ,I ii'. |ii: . .7{.~i:
}. :: b . for Education," AssessmentReader,Part II and
Undergraduate and graduateprogramsincluding:
Part V (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate
orchestraland choralstudies * operatheater? Foranapplication
contact:
educationcertification* music engineering? School of Education, n.d.).
AnnetteValenti
Massengill, 5. Consortium of National Arts Educa-
composition* keyboardstudies * Director
of MusicRecruitment
Dalcrozecertification tion Associations, National Standardsfor Arts
Phone:(412)268-4118
Education: What Every Young American
ArtistDiplomaProgram Fax:(412)268-1434
Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Financialaid availableto those who qualify music-admissions@andrew.cmu.edu (Reston, VA: MENC, 1994). ?

Journal of Music Teacher
Education
http://jmt.sagepub.com/
Band and Orchestra Teachers' Rankings of General Pedagogical

Knowledge and Skill
J. Si Millican
Journal of Music Teacher Education 2009 19: 68 originally published online 18 August
2009
DOI: 10.1177/1057083709344045

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Journal of Music Teacher Education
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Band and Orchestra © MENC: The National Association
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General Pedagogical
DOI: 10.1177/1057083709344045
http://jmte.sagepub.com
Knowledge and Skill
J. Si Millican1
Abstract
Classroom management, presentation, and organization skills are significant predictors
in the success or failure of teachers regardless of subject. Elements of this type have
been categorized in the literature as general pedagogical knowledge (GPK). The
purpose of this quantitative study is to determine if a relationship exists between
music teachers’ rankings of importance for GPK variables and the variables related
to primary teaching assignment, grade level, teaching experience, and school size.
Band and orchestra directors (N = 173) ranked the variables organize and plan
instruction; develop rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc.; enforce classroom
rules promptly and consistently; and develop relationships with students highest of
all GPK variables. Some of the findings in this study suggest that band and orchestra
directors may approach their time in classrooms differently based on their teaching
assignment and grade level. Results give an insight into the specific nature of
classroom management as it relates to music settings.
Keywords
general pedagogical knowledge, classroom management, band, orchestra, music
teacher education
Secondary instrumental music teachers in public schools operate in a climate that is
complex and at times overwhelming (Bresler, 1993). This complexity often thwarts
1
University of Texas at San Antonio
Corresponding Author:
J. Si Millican, University of Texas at San Antonio, Institute for Music Research, One UTSA Circle, San
Antonio, TX 78249
Email: si.millican@utsa.edu

Millican 69
researchers’ efforts to study the knowledge and skills teachers utilize in classrooms.
Successful teachers must combine subject matter knowledge, knowledge of students,
general teaching skills, administrative skills, and an awareness of effective sequenc-
ing and curricula to positively affect student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
Teachers apply this complex combination of skill and knowledge within in a distinct
school and community climate that further complicates the selection and delivery of
content. In an effort to categorize these components of teacher knowledge and skill,
Schulman (1987) proposed a framework that has since been applied to the knowl-
edge and skills music educators use in their teaching (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004;
Haston & Leon-Guerrero, 2008; Millican, 2007, 2008).
General Pedagogical Knowledge

This study focuses on elements from the category Schulman labeled general peda-
gogical knowledge (GPK). This particular knowledge and skill set contains elements
related to teaching and presentation skills that all teachers, regardless of subject,
seem to possess (Schulman, 1987). Elements in this category include classroom
management skills, the establishment of rules and routines, and presentation and
communication skills. Anecdotal evidence confirms the importance of managing
materials and students, effectively communicating with students and their families,
and establishing rules and procedures in the instrumental classroom. Much of the
non-research-based literature addresses these basic teacher skills and their applica-
tion to music classrooms.
The research-based literature also supports the practical importance of GPK skills
to classroom instruction. Teachers, administrators, and music education professors
consistently list GPK elements as key components to professional success in the
classroom. For example, when novice teachers rate the overall teaching quality of
their mentors, they frequently cite classroom management and communication skills
as the two elements of teaching they considered most influential in their ratings
(McIlhaga, 2006; Villani, 2002). Principals rate poor lesson implementation and
weak classroom management skills as the top two indicators for teacher ineffective-
ness (Torff & Sessions, 2005). Music educators value these general teaching skills
more highly than they do their musical skills (K. Madsen, 2003; Rohwer & Henry,
2004; Taeble, 1990; Teachout, 1997).
Teacher competency in GPK is a significant predictor of student success in both
traditional and music classrooms. One meta-analysis of 11,000 studies into teacher
effectiveness indicated that classroom management is the number one factor affect-
ing student learning (Wang, Haertel, & Walbert, 1993). Costello (2005) suggested
a moderate correlation between classroom management and communication skills
and ensemble achievement when directors were asked to self-report on these
variables.

70 Journal of Music Teacher Education 19(1)
Previous GPK Research

Previous research suggests that teachers in different musical settings rank these general
elements of effective teaching differently (Millican, 2007; Vallo, 1991). Differences in
the ways band and orchestra directors use their time in class have been reported in other
studies (Stofko, 2002; Witt, 1986); these instructional differences are noticed by the
students in band and orchestra programs (McCreary, 2001). If band and orchestra
directors rank basic teacher skills differently, it may open the door for further investiga-
tion into differences that have yet only been described on an anecdotal basis.
The complexity of teachers’ work serves to frustrate research efforts into the per-
ceived importance of knowledge and skill components in music education. Research
utilizing Likert-type responses to various knowledge and skill items shows that all
knowledge and skills are highly rated by participants (Colwell, 1985). Because of the
indiscriminant nature of these high ratings, most studies have failed to provide a
clear understanding of the ranking of these skills; if every skill is rated very impor-
tant or important, then it is difficult to discern which elements might deserve more
attention in music teacher development (Colwell, 1985).
In an effort to reduce the number of items participants are asked to rate, some
researchers have resorted to separating knowledge and skill elements into various
categories; by evaluating fewer knowledge and skill elements at once, each item may
be ranked in relationship to the others within each category (Millican, 2007). In this
way, a more informative rating of knowledge and skills might be derived because the
complete list of all knowledge and skills is evaluated within discrete categories.
If music teacher educators are to successfully facilitate the development of preser-
vice teachers’ GPK, they must understand how teachers in secondary level music
classrooms value these elements. Items that are perceived by professional teachers as
most important serve as an entry point for music teacher educators to engage their
preservice students in the development of GPK skills. A thorough understanding of
the environmental factors that might influence the perceived importance of the vari-
ous GPK components may help music education faculty better prepare students for
the realities of their eventual teaching assignments. If differences exist in the way
music educators in various instrumental music disciplines rank GPK components,
then these differences cannot be ignored in the undergraduate music education cur-
ricula. The purpose of this study is determine how variables related to primary
teaching assignment, teaching level, experience, and school size are related to teach-
ers’ rankings interact with instrumental music educators’ rankings of GPK.
Method
This study derives GPK elements from a review of research investigating effective
teaching practice in general education and music education settings. Some of these

Millican 71
skills include verbal and nonverbal communication skills (Baker, 1982; C. K.

Madsen, Standley, & Cassidy, 1989; Price, 1992; Price & Yarbrough, 1994; Vallo,
1991; Villani, 2002); maintaining a brisk pace with seamless transitions from activity
to activity (Brand, 1985; Cotton, 1990; Grant & Drafall, 1991; C. K. Madsen et al.,
1989); effective use of eye contact (Grant & Drafall, 1991; Hamann, Baker, McAl-
lister, & Bauer, 2000; C. K. Madsen et al., 1989; Yarbrough & Price, 1981);
developing rules, routines, and procedures (Cotton, 1990; Vartanian, 2002); enforc-
ing classroom rules promptly, consistently, and equitably; organizing room and
materials; and planning and organizing instruction (Cotton, 1990).
I developed an anonymous online questionnaire to gather data. The first section of
the questionnaire asked participants to provide data regarding their primary teaching
assignment, primary teaching level, teaching experience, and school size. The second
portion of the survey presented 10 items identified in the literature review as essen-
tial components of GPK. Participants were asked to rank these 10 items from most
important to least important on a scale from 1 to 10. Participants were also given the
opportunity to include comments.
The questionnaire was pilot tested with band and orchestra directors (N = 70) and
was then presented to participants in the main study. Both sets of participants were
drawn from band and orchestra directors listed as active members of the Texas Music
Educators Association (TMEA). A stratified random sample was drawn based on the
latest available TMEA membership data (see Table 1).
Invitations to participate in the study were sent to 722 school email addresses
drawn from the TMEA database. One reminder email was sent to each potential par-
ticipant. Of the initial invitations, 112 were returned as containing invalid email
addresses. An unknown number of invitations were most likely blocked by spam
filters utilized by many school districts. A total of 212 people completed surveys, and
173 of the questionnaires contained usable data, for an approximate response rate of
28.4%. A general description of the respondents is presented in Tables 2 through 4.
Because the questionnaire asked teachers to provide their subjective rankings of all
of the GPK skills, reliability coefficients were not calculated.
Analysis
There was a general consensus that four of the items—organize and plan instruction;
develop rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc.; enforce classroom rules promptly
and consistently; and develop relationships with students—were the most important
items on the list for each group of teachers regardless of school size, teaching experi-
ence, primary teaching assignment, or primary teaching level. Neither school size
nor teaching experience was a significant influence in the rankings of GPK items
based on Kruskal–Wallis tests.
Despite agreement in the elements that teachers across the board felt were most
important, band and orchestra teachers did rank some of the items differently based

Table 1. Texas Music Educators Association Secondary Members by Division, 2006–2007
Membership Division Middle School or Junior High High School Total
Band 1,676 1,809 3,485

Orchestral 409 295 704
Total 2,085 2,104 4,189
Note: Data from S. Daugherty (personal communication, January 31, 2007).
Table 2. Respondents by Primary Teaching Assignment
n %
Band 80 47.3
Orchestra 89 52.7
Total 169 100.0

Table 3. Respondents by School Size
n %
Small school 50 29.2

Large school 121 70.8
Total 171 100.0

Table 4. Respondents by Teaching Level
n %
Elementary or middle school 77 45.0

High school 94 55.0
Total 171 100.0

on their primary teaching assignment and primary teaching level. A Kruskal–Wallis

test showed significant differences in the way band and orchestra directors ranked
the GPK item transition smoothly from activity to activity, H(1) = 4.14, p < .05. The
median raking of the orchestra directors was significantly lower than the median
rankings of the band directors (see Table 5).
Primary teaching level was a significant factor in how directors differed in their
rankings of develop rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc., H(1) = 9.95, p < .01,
and enforce classroom rules promptly and consistently, H(1) = 9.56, p < .01. Directors
in elementary and middle schools ranked these two items higher than did high school
teachers (see Table 6).

Millican 73
Table 5. Rankings by Primary Teaching Assignment
Band Orchestra
(n = 80) (n = 89)
Grouped Grouped
Rank Median Rank Median
Organize and plan instruction 1 3.26 1 2.96

Develop relationships with students 2 3.75 3 3.91
Develop rules, routines, procedures, 3 4.00 2 3.31
handbooks, etc.
Verbal communication skills (use of voice) 4 4.08 6 5.16
Enforce classroom rules promptly and consistently 5 4.71 4 4.78
Ability to maintain a brisk pace in class T6 6.33 8 6.57
Transition smoothly from activity to activity* T6 6.33 9 7.47
Organize the classroom and materials of 8 6.50 5 4.94
instruction (music, instruments, chairs, etc.)
Nonverbal communication skills (use of 9 6.53 7 6.14
eye contact, space, facial expression)
Written communication skills 10 9.00 10 9.25
(grammar, spelling, etc.)
*Significant at the p < .05 level.
Discussion
There is widespread agreement in the rankings of GPK items across a variety of
diverse teaching settings. The fact that each group ranked organize and plan instruc-
tion; develop rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc.; enforce classroom rules
promptly and consistently; and develop relationships with students as most impor-
tant items helps give clarity to what has often been codified as “classroom
management” in the lexicon of researchers into the concerns of teachers.
Discipline issues remain a primary concern for teachers across a wide variety of
teaching settings, and this finding is consistent with other research that addresses the
concerns of teachers (Conway, 2003; Conway & Zerman, 2004; Haack, 2003). Music
teacher educators are right to emphasize the development of classroom management
skills in their undergraduate students, but this study goes further to help illuminate
just what those skills involve and how education faculty might help develop those
skills. The results of this study may help music teacher educators put a finer point on
the elements that professional educators consider important in the effective manage-
ment of their classrooms. The GPK items that practicing teachers identified as most
important can serve as entry points to engage preservice teachers in specific areas of
development. Specifically, music education students need help in developing plan-
ning and organizational skills; these students also need guidance in developing rules,
procedures, and other organizational materials. Finally, students need to be guided in
their early field experiences, student teaching, and first years on the job as they

Table 6. Rankings by Teaching Level
Elementary or
Middle School High School
(n = 77) (n = 94)
Grouped Grouped
Rank Median Rank Median
Develop rules, routines, procedures, 1 2.82 4 4.38

handbooks, etc.**
Organize and plan instruction 2 3.20 1 3.00
Develop relationships with students 3 3.62 2 3.94
Enforce classroom rules promptly and consistently** 4 4.09 5 5.33
Verbal communication skills (use of voice) 5 5.35 3 4.24
Organize the classroom and materials of 6 6.00 6 5.38
instruction (music, instruments, chairs, etc.)
Nonverbal communication skills (use of eye 7 6.44 8 6.13
contact, space, facial expression)
Ability to maintain a brisk pace in class 8 6.90 7 6.08
Transition smoothly from activity to activity 9 6.93 9 6.91
Written communication skills 10 9.33 10 8.95
(grammar, spelling, etc.)
**Significant at the p < .01 level.
continue to develop their ability to establish and enforce rules and to establish healthy
relationships with students.
The GPK components of teacher education are receiving more emphasis in many
music teacher education programs (Niermen, Zeichner, & Hobbel, 1992). Although
every item in the list is important, the subtle differences in teachers’ rankings of these
items are important to consider. If band and orchestra directors really differ in their
approach as they make transitions between activities in the classroom, then this dif-
ference might be investigated more fully by music teacher educators as they prepare
band and orchestra students to become effective teachers. Even though collegiate
band and orchestra music education students come to preservice programs from dif-
ferent types of ensemble environments, these students are often grouped together in
undergraduate music education coursework. If professional band and orchestra
teachers really do approach their classrooms differently, then these differences may
influence the attitudes and beliefs of undergraduates as they enter music education
programs (Dulloff, 1999; Fuller, Brown, & Peck, 1967; Loughran, 2006). Younger
music education students must be guided as they move through the stage where they
may view materials and procedures from a dualistic “right versus wrong” viewpoint
(Brand, 1988, p. 23). As an example, students with band as their primary experience
cannot necessarily be expected to understand the subtle ways in which the orchestra
experience has affected the overall perceptions of elements of the undergraduate cur-
riculum by orchestral majors (and vice versa).

Millican 75
The differences between band and orchestra directors’ rankings support similar
findings in previous research (Millican, 2007; Stofko, 2002; Witt, 1986). The obser-
vation that band and orchestra directors’ priorities are not identical is not surprising
and is not without precedent in studies of music instruction. Differences have been
shown in the ratings of skills among elementary, instrumental, and choral music
education professors (Rohwer & Henry, 2004) as well as in surveys of music educa-
tion graduates based on their participation in band, choir, and orchestra (Shires,
1990). There are certainly unique sociological factors that are not the direct result of
the personality or conscious decision of ensemble directors (C. K. Madsen et al.,
1989; Stofko, 2002).
Several practical issues should be considered when interpreting the statistical
results of this study. First, although both band and orchestra directors place transition
smoothly from activity to activity in the lower half of the total collection of items,
orchestra directors rank this item nearer the bottom. One underlying factor that may
influence this difference is the generally smaller size of many orchestral classes
when compared to band classes. Smaller classes may have less need for strict, regi-
mented transitions sometimes found in larger classes. No information was collected
from survey participants regarding the size of their classes. No qualification of
“better” or “worse” is implied in the discussion of this finding, but a difference
between orchestra teachers’ approach and band teachers’ priorities is noted.
The findings in this study reinforce the notion that middle school instruction in
band and orchestra is structurally different from instruction in high school settings.
Further investigation, perhaps of a more descriptive nature, is recommended to help
define the different approaches of middle school level and high school level music
instructors in terms of GPK as it is utilized in these settings. Preservice teachers in
instrumental music education need to be guided through early field experiences to
become more acquainted with the structural and procedural differences at various
levels of instruction in the public schools. Their field observations must be directly
tied into the content of their on-campus coursework.
High school and middle school teachers in this study rank the development and
enforcement of rules differently. Although middle school teachers rank develop
rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc. as their number one concern, high school
directors rank this item significantly lower. Although the difference in rankings for
enforce rules promptly and consistently is not as dramatic as the difference in develop
rules, routines, procedures, handbooks, etc., a significant difference still exists
between middle school and high school directors’ rankings of this variable. The
development of rules and routines has long been documented as an important factor
in successful middle school teaching (Gill, 2007; Wormeli, 2001). The development
of rules and routines specific to band and orchestra instruction is perhaps even more
important to teaching at the middle school level than to teaching at the high school
level; the particulars of instrument care, rehearsal discipline, and other structural and
procedural elements in band and orchestra are established during these formative
years (Haughland, 2007; Hinckley, 1994).

Although these two instances may be considered to have statistical significance,

it can be argued that the difference between these rankings lacks practical signifi-
cance. The rankings between band and orchestra directors were among two items
near the middle to bottom of the list, and the differences between teachers in different
grade levels still indicated that they each valued the skills near the top of each respec-
tive list. This may in fact be considered distinction without practical difference.
Finally, it must be acknowledged that great care must be taken before generalizing
the findings of this study to a larger population. The nature of the questions presented
to the participants, the structure of the questionnaire, and the quantitative approach
to data collection are important factors that may limit the applicability of the findings
of this study.
In an attempt to move away from the Likert-type survey question, I chose to pres-
ent teachers with a list of knowledge and skills and asked them to rank the importance
of each item. Many teachers balked at this task, stating that each of these items is
equally important. The teachers’ comments of the difficulty of the task reinforce the
findings of almost every previous investigation into the importance of teacher knowl-
edge and skills: Every item is at least moderately important (Colwell, 1985). In spite
of the initial resistance to the rank-order method of collecting data, there is an under-
lying structure within and between participant responses that may shed light into the
ways in which band and orchestra teachers approach their time in the classroom. The
question remains if perceived importance as reflected in a survey of this type reflects
actual time and energy spent in the classroom by these same teachers. More research
into the relationship between the perceived importance of GPK items and the actions
of teachers is recommended.
The design of the study may have influenced the rankings of items. Each item was
presented to each participant in an identical order. During the data entry process, I
noticed that many respondents seemed to group their rankings by using consecutive
numbers for adjacent items. For instance, a participant may have ranked Items 3, 4,
and 5 as sixth, seventh, and eighth in importance. It is logical to assume that partici-
pants may have isolated their top and bottom items in the list and then quickly
grouped many of the remaining items. A replication of this study might randomize
the order of the questions or at least utilize several different versions of the same
survey with items presented in varying orders.
Another design flaw was the potential for ambiguity in the interpretation of each
ranked item. For example, one person might interpret transition smoothly from activ-
ity to activity as the time spent within each class lesson; others may have interpreted
this item to mean student movement between classes. More detailed instructions or
prompts may alleviate the ambiguity of these statements. A complete paragraph that
operationalizes each statement might help respondents approach the survey with a
uniform definition of the items to be ranked.
Further research into the differences outlined in this study is recommended. A
replication of this study with the modifications outlined above might reinforce or
refute the current findings. The differences between band and orchestra teachers’

Millican 77
rankings of priorities in the middle and high school years might be better investigated
by utilizing a qualitative approach. A qualitative study may provide a more uniform
operational definition of each of the items explored in this study and would certainly
allow the participants to more eloquently express how they choose to utilize the skills
of GPK in their classrooms.
The widespread agreement in the top GPK items among a wide variety of teachers
should help music teacher educators prioritize experiences and instruction in the
classroom and early field experience. More research is needed to help clarify some
of the possible interactions of these variables and to help flesh out the true nature of
teaching at various levels of different subjects in instrumental music education.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication
of this article.
Financial Disclosure/Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.
References
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supervisors, and teachers in evaluating music teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
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1
EFFICIENT Rehearsal Strategies: So Much to

Rehearse in So Little Time!
Dr. Robert Gillespie

The Ohio State University
The following are selected strategies for rehearsing strings in an orchestra. Consider
them when planning how best to rehearse music with your orchestra.
Guiding Principle: Orchestras perform only as well as they have rehearsed
General Guidelines
1. Rehearse as you would practice a solo on your principal instrument, e.g.,
isolating sections, brackets, starting with most difficult sections
2. Record rehearsal - audio, video, protects teacher's ears from accepting poor
student performance
3. Some instructions can be given while students are playing – saves time but
be careful of overuse
4. Have students memorize difficult passages
5. Modeling - teacher or student models passage on string instrument, sings
the passage, plays the passage on the piano, or plays the passage back to
the students inaccurately as they are playing
6. Determine best priority order for your rehearsal: notes, intonation, tone,
rhythm, style, expressiveness. Priorities change from first rehearsal to concert.
Sound Production
1. Analyze bow placement (before passage begins, during passage, and
at the end of the passage), clothespins: teach students to be able to play in all
parts of the bow and help them remember what part of the bow the passage
should be played
2. Analyze bow speed of students - prevents students from getting trapped in the
wrong part of the bow. Use “miles per hour” analogy to describe proper bow
speed
3. Listen to orchestra from behind or from the back of the auditorium
4. Move orchestra to stage edge to increase overall sound
5. Turn basses out to audience (almost parallel to stage edge) for best balance
6. Use faster bow speeds to create resonant, free string sound throughout.
Lower string instruments use slower bow speeds than upper strings
7. Alter bowings to fit group and for best sound
8. Lanes – divide space between bridge and fingerboard for the
best place for the desired sound
9. Place tape, sticker, or chalk on students’ bows to show them where in the
bow a passage should be played.
2
10.Basses should move bow slower and using real bass rosin, not violin rosin
11.Orchestra should be able to produce different tone colors by changing
relationships between bow speed, weight, and sounding (contact) point
12.To develop bow speed awareness and competency have students play one
long pitch and count 8 beats. Then, gradually change the speed of the bow
by increasing or decreasing the number of beats. The students should count
aloud and the tempo of the beats should remain the same
Technique
1. Break passage down to prerequisite technique - dissect & restack skills,
e.g. break down to open strings, vibrato motions, spiccato motions
2. Pizzicato difficult left hand passage
3. Practice spiccato passages on string for left hand security
4. Shifting - find intermediate (transport) note, practice shift to intermediate
note, practice plunking down note in higher position from intermediate note,
shift sounding intermediate note, then practice shift without sounding
intermediate note
5. Cello Extensions - between 1st and 2nd fingers. Can be referred to as “Second
finger extensions.” Practice sequence: Practice motion on right arm, pizzicato,
then arco, look behind the cellos to watch thumbs, practice “face extensions.”
Tempo
1. Variation - slow to fast to coordinate bowing and left hand technique
2. Rushing – Rehearsal strategies to prevent:
1. place false bow speed accents on principal beats
2. tap foot
3. move body to pulse with the stroke
4. use faster bows to slow down
5. follow teaching sequence-bow pizzicato passage legato, then staccato, then
pizzicato
6. have the outside stand player plays subdivisions while insider player
plays printed passage
7. play a metronome sounding the subdivisions as students play
8. do not conduct which helps students realize they are rushing and listen more
carefully
9. have part of the orchestra bow a pizzicato passage legato while the
rest pizzicato as printed
10.have one instrument section acts as metronome playing open strings
only on principal beats
11.use McAdam’s metronome or amplified metronome.
3
Rhythm
1. Teach, evaluate, and reinforce with pizzicato - reward by playing with the bow:
Use the following teaching sequence: pizzicato, bow without slurs, then as
printed
2. One section counts beats out loud while another pizzicatos its rhythm
3. Have one section bow its rhythmic passage while the rest of the
orchestra pizzicatos their parts. This is especially good for lining up parts.
4. Have students toe tap while playing to keep a steady beat
Pizzicato
1. Pizzicato over fingerboard
2. Pizzicato on side of finger
3. Move right hand farther down the fingerboard for lighter pizzicato
4. Instruct students to vibrate pizzicato to help prevent rushing pizzicato
5. Pizzicato instruct students to strum diagonally across the away from the bridge using
a flat pizz finger for more resonant
Dynamics
1. Softer- one student plays at soft dynamic, other students join but cannot
play any louder than first student
2. Softer – instruct students to use less bow or a slower bow
3. Louder – instruct students to use a heavy bow, faster bow, weighty bow
4. Deliberately allow students to play soft passage loudly for fun and then at
proper dynamic level
Balance
1. Only one student plays melody - other instrument sections must accompany
the solo student at the appropriate dynamic level
2. Be sure to teach students which musical line must be heard
3. General principles: inner parts need to play louder, lower strings need
to play louder, repeated notes are not as important, sustained notes are
not as important as moving notes, moving part is generally more important
Intonation
1. Sustain and tune problem pitches
2. Add one in-tune player at a time
3. Tune chord progressions, sustaining one chord tone at a time: root,
third, fifth
4. Tune between sections of the orchestra
5. Play problem intonation pitches very softly and tune
6. Sustain pitch on down beat of each measure or only on principal beats
7. Take out vibrato to tune pitches
8. Bow pizzicato pitches to hear and correct intonation problems
9. Have students demonstrate the finger pattern on each string in the key
of the piece being rehearsed
4
10.Rehearse problem passages slowly to give yourself and the students a

chance to hear and adjust pitches
11.Be careful to especially check the intonation of notes at the end of phrases
12.When tuning to double basses or cellos be sure players’ bows are moving
slowly to help focus the tuning pitch
13.Remember students always need a model pitch to tune to
14.Identify particularly problem pitches and periodically during rehearsal stop
and tune those pitches for repeated listening and pitch memorization
15.Realize that string students and orchestras can play in tune - do not
lower your intonation standard. Students will play in tune as they are
demanded.
Musicality
1. Phrasing - shape through bow speed, weight, lanes
2. Show through singing and modeling
3. Mark phrase shapes in music using curved, dotted lines
Fixing Your Orchestra: Getting Your Orchestra Ready
For ONLY Great Performances
Dr. Robert Gillespie
The Ohio State University
I. General Principles
A. Warm-ups are necessary!
B Help review technical skills
C. Help develop new technical skills
D. Help prepare for rehearsal of related music
E. Help focus attention of students
F. Best if warm-up involves a review of skills, refinement of previously’
learned skills, and/or introduction of new skills
G. Warm-up can be rote or by note or combination
H. Warm-up can be organized by overall skill development of students or
by technical skills needed to learn specific repertoire
I. Teacher must spend time planning the warm-up
J. Length of warm-up dependent upon length of rehearsal and timeline for concert
preparation, e.g. approximately one-third of class time as general guideline
K. Rehearsal sequence: warm-up to passage work to play through to concert
II. Warm-up Organized by Overall Sequential Skill Development of Students

A. Warm-up can involve teaching strategies for developing sequentially the
overall playing skills of string students throughout the curriculum:
BOWING SKILLS
1. bow hand shape
2. detache stroke
3. direction changes
4. string crossings
5. slurring
6. stopped strokes: staccato and Martele
7. spiccato
8. sautille
LEFT HAND SKILLS
1. body posture
2. instrument position
3. left hand shape
4. chromatic alterations: upper string finger patterns, cello extensions, bass shifting
5. shifting
6. vibrato
AURAL SKILLS
1. raise/lower a pitch by ear
2. match selected pitches by ear
3. march pitch patterns leading to scales by ear
4. match simple double stops by ear
5. play melodies by ear in multiple keys
6. develop ensemble triads
1
7. select triads by ear to accompany scales
8. select triads by ear to accompany melodies
9. develop improvisatory skills
• III. Printed Technical Development Materials –Music and Teacher Texts

Music
• All for Strings, Vol. 3, Kjos:
• Essential Technique for Strings and Advanced Technique
For Strings, Hal Leonard
• Essentials for Strings, Kjos
• The First Ten Minutes (Merle Isaac) Wynn
• High Tech for Strings, Carl Fisher
• Intermediate String Techniques (Forest Etling), Highland/Etling
• Muller Rusch String Method Vols. 3,4,5, Kjos
• A Rhythm A Week, Warner Bros
• Strictly Strings Vol. 3 and Strictly Strings Orchestra
Companion, Alfred Publications
• String and Full-Orchestra Warm-Ups, Hal Leonard
• Viva Vibrato!, Kjos
Texts
•Strategies for Teaching Strings: Building A Successful School Orchestra
Program (2004, 2008, 2012) by Don Hamann and Robert Gillespie, Oxford
University Press.
• The Art and Science of String Performance by Sam Applebaum, Alfred Pub.
• The Teaching of Action in String Playing, Paul Rolland, ASTA
• Playing the String Game: Strategies for Teaching Cello and Strings, Phyllis
Young, Amazon
•The String Play: The Drama of Playing and Teaching Strings, Phyllis Young,
Amazon
• ASTA String Curriculum: 2011 Edition
Media
•String Clinics to Go: The Art of Recruiting
•String Clinics to Go: Getting Started
•String Clinics to Go: Teaching Intermediate Strings
•www.Essentialelementsinteractive.com
III. Warm-up Organized by Technique Related to Specific Repertoire

A. Involves analyzing skills need to play specific repertoire and then
Selecting rote teaching strategies or printed technical materials designed to develop
those skills
B. Point out to students how the technical skills in the warm up relate specifically to
their repertoire
IV. Sample School Orchestra Performances with Related Warm-up and Rehearsal Plans

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Practice Makes Perfect? : Effective Practice Instruction in Large Ensembles

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58 Music Educators Journal December 2012

If students are more technically pro- FIGURE 5

60 Music Educators Journal December 2012

—Pierre Boulez, quoted in

—Heinrich Heine, retrieved from

62 Music Educators Journal December 2012

Examining Progress across Time with Practical Assessments in Ensemble Settings

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Ticheli—“Sanctuary” Excerpt, measures 51–57

Rehearsal (1/21) Rehearsal (2/25) Performance (3/18)

Nobly Nobly Nobly

Marcato Marcato Marcato

Mysterioso Mysterioso Mysterioso

Lontano Lontano Lontano

1 = numerous individual errors (uneven or incorrect notes)

2 = few individual errors (uneven or incorrect notes)

3 = clear with a steady beat by all players

Rehearsal (1/21) Rehearsal (2/25) Performance (3/18)

123 123 123

52 Music Educators Journal March 2012

Name ________________________________________________________________ Instrument ________________________________________________________________

Assessment Period Date Excerpt Performance Note Accuracy Rhythmic Musical

54 Music Educators Journal March 2012

Developing Listening Skills through Peer Interaction

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Name/ Listening Partner Comments You Made Comments Made to You

52 Music Educators Journal December 2011

54 Music Educators Journal December 2011

Don't Watch Me! : Avoiding Podium-Centered Rehearsals

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Don’t Watch Me!

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56 Music Educators Journal June 2010

Constructivist Practices to Increase Student Engagement in the Orchestra Classroom

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Name Instrument