AE Clase3 Biodiversity Biogeography

6/09/2018
Integrative ecology of the

central Andes
Karin Bartl, Ph.D.

Semestre 2018-2
Basic concepts Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes
Ecosystems
A community of living organisms (plants, animals and

microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving
components of their environment (things like air, water
and mineral soil), interacting as a system.
The biotic and abiotic components are linked
together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Examples
www.abcnet.au
7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.
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Food chain
Quarternary
consumers
Terciary
consumers
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
Primary
producers
Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are the benefits people

obtain from ecosystems.
(Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)
Provisioning services
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
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Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes
What is Biodiversity?
'Biodiversity' can be used as a synonym for living

nature, with an emphasis on its complexity, at genetic,
species and ecosystem levels.
 Genetic Diversity
 Species Diversity
 Ecosystem Diversity
(UNEP, 2013)
Measuring Biodiversity
There are many measures of biodiversity, 2 common

but simple ones:
1) Species richness (the number of species in a given
area) represents a single but important metric.
2) Relative abundance
Relative species abundance refers to how common or
rare a species is relative to other species in a given
location or community
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Which of these
communities has a
higher diversity?
Relative abundance
Both communities have

4 speies -> Same
species richness.
Which of these
communities has a
higher diversity?
A community with a
homogenous abundance of
all species is more diverse
than a community with few
abundant species.
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Recent and current trends in biodiversity

Living Planet Index
http://www.livingplanetindex.org
/projects?main_page_project=Ab
outTheIndex&home_flag=1
Drivers of biodiversity loss

 Land use change
 Climate change
 Invasive species
 Overexploitation
 Pollution
 These result from demographic, economic, sociopolitical,
cultural, technological, and other indirect drivers.
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 For terrestrial ecosystems, the most important direct driver

of change in the past 50 years has been land use change.
 For marine ecosystems, the most important direct driver of
change in the past 50 years, has been overfishing.
 For freshwater ecosystems, depending on the region, the
most important direct drivers of change in the past 50 years
include physical changes, modification of water regimes,
invasive species, and pollution.
Drivers of biodiversity loss – Land Use Change

 More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after
1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850.
 The biomes with the highest rates of conversion in the last
half of the 20th century were temperate, tropical, and
flooded grasslands and tropical dry forests.
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Drivers of biodiversity loss - Fragmentation
 Apparently stable areas of habitat may suffer from

fragmentation, with significant impacts on their biodiversity .
 Small fragments of habitat can only support small
populations, which tend to be more vulnerable to extinction.
 Small fragments are therefore unfavorable for those species
that require interior habitat, and they may lead to the
extinction of those species.
 Species that are specialized to particular habitats and those
whose dispersal abilities are weak suffer from fragmentation
more than generalist species with good dispersal ability.

Estimates of Forest Fragmentation due to Anthropogenic Causes
(World Resources Institute, 2005)

Black zones are non-forested areas in the neighborhood.
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Drivers of biodiversity loss – Climate change

 Climate change in the past century has already had a
measurable impact on biodiversity.
 Impacts include changes in species distributions, population
sizes, the timing of reproduction or migration events, and an
increase in the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks.
 Many coral reefs have undergone major bleaching episodes
when local sea surface temperatures have increased during
one month by 0.5–1°C.
 By the end of the century, climate change and its impacts
may be the dominant direct driver of biodiversity loss.
Drivers of biodiversity loss – Climate change

Why is species migration a problem?
Climate change is projected to cause species to migrate to
higher latitudes (ie towards the poles) and to higher altitudes. In
high-altitude habitats where species are already at the extreme
of their range, local or global extinction becomes more likely as
there are no suitable habitats to which they can migrate.
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Drivers of biodiversity loss – Others

 Invasive alien species are a major cause of extinction,
especially on islands and in freshwater habitats.
 Overexploitation is a threat especially to marine fish and
invertebrates, trees, and animals hunted for meat (wild
meat).
 Nutrient loading is one of the most important drivers of
ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal
ecosystems.

Main direct drivers
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Why is biodiversity loss a concern?

 Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem services and
hence for human well-being.
 Biodiversity loss contributes to worsening health,
higher food insecurity, increasing vulnerability,
lower material wealth, ...

Health:
 An important component of health is a balanced diet. Some
indigenous and traditional communities currently consume
200 or more species. Wild sources of food remain particularly
important for the poor and landless to provide a balanced
diet.
 Greater wildlife diversity may decrease the spread of many
wildlife pathogens to humans. The spread of Lyme disease,
seems to be decreased by the maintenance of the biotic
integrity of natural ecosystems.
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Food security:
 Biological diversity is used by many rural communities
directly as an insurance and coping mechanism to increase
flexibility and reduce risk.
 Wild relatives of domestic crops provide genetic variability that can
be crucial for overcoming outbreaks of pests and pathogens and new
environmental stresses.
 For example, interweaving multiple varieties of rice in the same
paddy has been shown to increase productivity by lowering the loss
from pests and pathogens.
Example: Oca
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nymxJpfyjZ4
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Vulnerability:
 Natural disasters: Mangrove forests and coral reefs—a rich
source of biodiversity—are excellent natural buffers against
floods and storms.
 Diversity of species, food, and landscapes serve as “savings
banks” that rural communities use to cope with change and
ensure sustainable livelihoods.
Resistance and
Resiliance
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Resiliance
 Capacity of an ecosystem to respond and adapt to a
perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and
recovering quickly.
 Resilience measures how quickly a system recovers from
disturbance and returns to a steady state.
 Human activities can adversely affect ecosystem resilience
of ecosystems.
Griffiths & Philippot , 2013; https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-

6976.2012.00343.x
Resistance
 Property of communities or populations to remain
"essentially unchanged" when subject to disturbance. The
inverse of resistance is sensitivity.
 The ability of an ecosystem to maintain characteristic
processes despite various stressors or disturbances.
 Resistance is one of the major aspects of ecological stability.
Griffiths & Philippot , 2013; https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-

6976.2012.00343.x
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Examples
Forest fire in the taiga:

The taiga has low resistance to fire: it burns easily. But
the original system is soon restored after the fire. It
recovers, it has high resilience.
Examples
Tropical rain forest and fire.
Rain forest does not burn easily, because it doesn't dry

out as the taiga does in summer. It is therefore
resistant to fire.
Once burned, it shows low
resilience, particularly on slopes,
where nutrient leaching is much
faster than on level ground. Low
resilience means that the original
system may never recover.
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Biogeography
Description of the Central Andes
- Mountain region.
- Highly diverse area (species
and ecosystem diversity).
- Situated in the tropics.
- High endemism.
- Comprises various climate
zones.
- ………..
High diversity of species,

ecosystems, landscapes …..
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Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distributions of

organisms in space and time.
It can be studied with a focus on ecological factors

that shape the distribution of organisms, or with a
focus on the historical factors that have shaped the
current distributions.
What is Biogeography?
 Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
 Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881)
 Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893)
 Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)
 Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913)
 other biologists and explorers
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 Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
 Laid the foundation for the field of

biogeography.
 Focus on the interrelation of all physical

sciences—such as biology, meteorology
and geology—that determined where
specific plants grew.
 Extensive travels in Latin America.
Some achievements:
• Delineation of "isothermal lines“.
• Studying the distribution of organic life as affected by varying
physical conditions: geography of plants.
• Discovery of the decrease in intensity of Earth's magnetic
field from the poles to the equator.
• Study of the volcanoes of America. He showed that their
distribution corresponded with vast subterranean fissures.
• Description of the cold, low-salinity ocean current that flows
north along the west coast of South America which is one of
the major upwelling systems of the world.
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Some achievements:
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Isothermal chart of the world by W. Ch. Woodbridge, based on Humboldt's work.
 Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)
 Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913)

Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the
Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago.
Wallace and Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for

the theory of evolution.
Key findings: Sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace

Line, and the sharp difference that existed between North and
South America prior to their relatively recent faunal interchange.
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The Geographical Distribution of Animals (S718: 1876), by Alfred Russel Wallace
Humboldt, Wallace and other early biogeographers recognized

certain types of distributions of organisms:
 Some species are restricted to a certain region and are referred

to as endemic species (opposite: cosmopolitan species).
 Clearly related species (or even the same species) are found in
two or more regions which are seperated: Disjunct distributions.
 Alfred Russell Wallace noticed that different regions of the world

had similar patterns of endemic species and he drew up six
biogeographic realms.
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The Geographical Distribution of Animals (S718: 1876), by Alfred Russel Wallace
Presentation
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Introduction to the course Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes
Academic schedule
Week Day Central topic Academic assignments Lect.
1 24.8. Basic concepts KB
2 31.8. Biodiversity Classroom activity KB
3 7.9. Biogeography Group presentation 1 KB
4 14.9. Human/applied ecology Group presentation 2 FD
5 21.9. Earth and climate Group presentation 3 FD
6 28.9. Desert, lomas Group presentation 4, Field trip: 30.9. KB
7 5.10. No class!!
8 12.10. Forest, ocean, wetlands Group presentation 5, Classroom activity KB
9 19.10. Midterm exam
10 26.10. Highlands KB
11 2.11. LULCC, Agriculture Reading control KB
12 9.11. Agriculture, Forestry Group presentation 6 KB
13 16.11. Urbanization, Mining Group presentation 7 KB
14 23.11. Global change Group presentation 8, Classroom activity FD
15 30.11. Water resources FD
16-17 Final exam
BBC©http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8634874.stm
Field trip
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Field Trip
Date: Sunday, september 30
Time: 7:30 am at PUCP (at gate 5 “Los Rosales”)
We will be back at PUCP in the afternoon, around 7:00pm.
From all students who do not have an accident insurance from PUCP, we
need a copy of your insurance card. Please send us the copy within the
next days via email to kbartl@pucp.pe or fdrenkhan@pucp.pe.
Field Trip Presentations

We need: 3 working groups of 3 students, 2 groups of 4 students.
Presentation topics:
1) GENERAL SETTING OF THE LOMAS
Climate, evolution, (latitudinal) distribution, past/future, etc.
2) LIFE FORMS
Flora, altitudinal distribution, diversity, adaptation, abiotic factors, etc.
3) ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND THREATS
Special focus: water supply, threats, etc.
4) ENSO IMPACTS
Role of El Niño / La Niña, past/future, etc.
5) WATER SUPPLY AT THE DRY PERUVIAN COAST
Water supply analysis (example Lima), future challenges, nexus with lomas and
other coastal ecosystems
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 Each group should give a presentation at the field trip about the topic
chosen.
 Duration: 15 minutes + 10 minutes for questions and discussion.
 Be prepared for questions.
 Bring a short hand-out for all participants (20 copies).
 Prepare visual aids such as a poster, maps, pictures etc. in order to

support your presentation.
 Each group member should present a part of the presentation.
Campus virtual:
 Articles for the field trip presentations. Use these articles as a

information source but do also your own literature search for
additional information sources.
 In the same folder you can also find a field trip guide with some basic
information about the area we are going to visit.
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Historical
biogeography
Historical factors shaping biodiversity
Historical biogeography is called paleobiogeography and studies

the past distributions of species.
It often includes paleogeographic processes- most notably plate

tectonics.
It looks at the evolutionary history of species in order to

determine why a certain species may have developed in a
particular area.
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How does a species

develop?
Evolution is the change in the
characteristics of a species
over several generations and
relies on the process of
natural selection. Individuals
that possess particular
characteristics survive or
reproduce at a higher rate
than other individuals because
of these characteristcs.
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations

evolve to become distinct species.
Geographical Biological
isolation isolation
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http://
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/biology/g
enetics_adaptation/natural_selection/revision/2
7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D. /
What are the origins of biological diversity and the

causes of present-day species distribution in South
America?
Changes in geography and climate were responsible for

the development of dispersal barriers and dispersal
routes.
Principal dispersal barriers and dispersal routes in South America?
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The Andes:
From a biogeographic viewpoint,

the Andean mountain ranges may
either serve as pathways for, or as barriers to, species migration.
Two questions:
Which paleogeographic and/or

climatic processes were responsible
for diversification in the Central
Andes?
When did diversification happen?
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Tracing the impact of the Andean uplift on

Neotropical plant evolution
Alexandre Antonelli, Johan A. A. Nylander, Claes Persson, and Isabel Sanmartín
PNAS 106: 9749–9754, 2009.
Impact of the uplift of the tropical Andes in the Neogene (23 –

2.6 million years ago):
 Changed the course of the Amazon system from flowing
northwestwards to the modern eastbound system.
 Affected the climate of the region by forming the only barrier
to atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Played a major role in the evolution of the Neotropical flora.

Objetive of the study: Reconstruction of the
evolutionary history of tribes Cinchoneae and Isertieae,
part of the Neotropical Rubiaceae (coffee family).
Cinchoneae: Tribe of flowering plants with ± 125

species. From Central to southern tropical America.
Isertieae: Tribe of flowering plants with ± 16

species. Found in tropical America.
Both are important ecological components of a

wide array of habitats.
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Biogeography of the Central Andes
Three mayor events determining species

distribution in the distant past:
1. Late Eocene (32-23 Ma): Marine incursions such as the

Western Andean Portal (WAP). Isolation of Amazonian and
North Andean lineages.
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Three mayor happening determining species

2. Middle Miocene (23 -16 Ma): The gradual uplift of the

Eastern Cordillera creates a huge watershed, and closes the
WAP. The Pebas System delimited the Amazon basin into
northern and southern parts, promoting the evolution of
new lineages
Three mayor happening determining species

Middle Miocene (16-7 Ma): The Pebas System drained and

the formation of the Amazon River initiated.
3. Pliocene-Present: The Amazon River became established

and the strip of land of Panama emerged, which facilitated
land dispersal.
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Two questions:
Which paleogeographic and/or

climatic processes were responsible
for diversification in the Central
Andes?
When did diversification happen?
Neotropical biodiversity: timing and potential drivers

Valentí Rull
Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 2011, 26(10):508-13.
Objective of the study: Discuss the timing of, and potential

driving factors associated with, diversification using recent
evidence from molecular phylogenetics.
Phylogenetics: Study of evolutionary relationships among groups

of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which are discovered
through DNA sequencing.
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Neogene and Pleistocene:
(Neogene)Pliocene
–Pleistocene
boundary at 2.6
Ma

Neogene and Pleistocene:
(Neogene)Pliocene–Pleistocene
boundary at 2.6 Ma
International Commission on Stratigraphy

http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
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Neotropical diversification drivers:
Two principal hypothesis
1. Neogene diversification: Geographical isolation due to

dispersal barriers in the Neogene.
2. Refuge hypothesis: Isolation due to climate changes in the
Quaternary.

1. Neogene diversification
Key Neogene Events:

 The Andean uplift.
 Marine incursions into the Amazon basin.
 Closure of the Panama Isthmus.
According to some defenders of this view, the Quaternary was a time

of distribution shifts, and probably of increased extinction, and can no
longer be considered a time for diversification in the region.
Isolation due to geographic barriers.
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2. Refuge hypothesis
Ancestral taxa were isolated into forest refuges during certain glacial
periods, and this isolation provided them with the opportunity to
speciate.
At present, for many scientists this hypothesis is considered valid

mostly for the temperate zones but not for the Neotropics.
Isolation due to climate changes in quaternary.
Proposed distribution of refugia
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Molecular phylogenetic
evidence:
Most genera (78.1%) started to
diversify in the Neogene and most
(73.3%) ended their diversification
during in the Quaternary.
The number of groups whose origin is
exclusively Neogene (24.8%) or
exclusively Quaternary (19.0%) is
similar.
Conclusions:
 The origin of extant neotropical biodiversity cannot
be attributed to the action of one or few events
during key time intervals.
 Rather, it is the result of complex ecological and
evolutionary trends initiated by Neogene tectonic
events and maintained by the action of Pleistocene
climatic changes.
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Ecological
biogeography
Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distributions of

organisms in space and time.
It can be studied with a focus on ecological factors

that shape the distribution of organisms, or with a
focus on the historical factors that have shaped the
current distributions.
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Ecological biogeography
Ecological biogeography looks at the current factors

responsible for the distribution of plants and animals. The
most common fields of research within ecological
biogeography are:
 Climatic variability: variation between daily and annual

temperatures.
 Habitat heterogenity: leads to the presence of more
biodiversity.
 Primary productivity: Rate at which plants produce organic
compounds in an ecosystem.
Life-zone model of Leslie Holdridge (1947, 1979).

Based on the correspondence of natural vegetal formations to
3 variables:
 the mean annual biotemperature (heat and humidity).
 the mean annual precipitation (in mm).
 the annual evapotranspiration ratio (given by dividing the
annual precipitation by the mean evapotranspiration
potential).
Further indicators incorporated into the system are:

 humidity provinces
 latitudinal regions
 altitudinal belts
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¿What are the main factors

defining species distribution in
the Andes?
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Patterns of local (plant) species

richness can be described along
three important geographical and
ecological gradients:
 Latitude.
 Elevation.
 Amount and seasonality of
precipitation.
Others: Such as energy availability or

soil fertility but data are very sparse
for the tropical Andes.
Latitude
Latitude itself is not an ecological factor directly affecting plant

diversity. Rather, numerous ecological factors that vary with
latitude may be responsible for creating latitudinal diversity
patterns.
Increase in species richness that occurs from the poles to the
tropics (latitudinal diversity gradient, LDG).
 Available energy
 Climate
 Historical/Evolutionary processes
 ……. Obligatory reading 1: Species
diversity varies with latitude.
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Latitude
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de
Elevation
Elevation does not directly influence distribution patterns of species

but factors that are either directly related to elevation (air pressure,
temperature …) or that have a more complex relationship with
elevation (available surface area, precipitation …).
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Elevation
Amount and seasonality of precipitation
The availability of water, either through rain or fog, directly

affects plant growth and community composition.
The tropical Andean region includes practically the entire range

of humidity conditions.
 Atacama desert (practically rain-

free for over 10 million years)
 Perhumid Chocó region in Colombia,

one of the world’s wettest areas with up
to 15 m mean annual precipitation.
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Despite the wide range of discussion about the

processes that determine richness patterns, the most
promising approaches are certainly held by
 evolution/history at the regional scale and
 climate/productivity at the local scale.
44

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6/09/2018

Integrative ecology of the

Karin Bartl, Ph.D.

Basic concepts Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

A community of living organisms (plants, animals and

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Basic concepts Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Basic concepts Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Ecosystem services are the benefits people

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

'Biodiversity' can be used as a synonym for living

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

There are many measures of biodiversity, 2 common

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Both communities have

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Recent and current trends in biodiversity

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss

 For terrestrial ecosystems, the most important direct driver

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss – Land Use Change

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss - Fragmentation

 Apparently stable areas of habitat may suffer from

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss - Fragmentation

(World Resources Institute, 2005)

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss - Fragmentation

(World Resources Institute, 2005)

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss - Fragmentation

(World Resources Institute, 2005)

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss – Climate change

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss – Climate change

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss – Others

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes

Drivers of biodiversity loss

7/9/2018 Karin Bartl Ph.D.

Integrative Ecology of the Central Andes