Ozone Depletion

History
In 1969 Dutch chemist Paul Crutzen published a paper that described the
major nitrogen oxide catalytic cycle affecting ozone levels. Crutzen
demonstrated that nitrogen oxides can react with free oxygen atoms, thus
slowing the creation of ozone (O3), and can also decompose ozone into
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and oxygen gas (O2). Some scientists and
environmentalists in the 1970s used Crutzen’s research to assist their
argument against the creation of a fleet of American supersonic
transports (SSTs). They feared that the potential emission of nitrogen oxides
and water vapour from these aircraft would damage the ozone layer. (SSTs
were designed to fly at altitudes coincident with the ozone layer, some 15 to
35 km [9 to 22 miles] above Earth’s surface.) In reality, the American SST
program was canceled, and only a small number of French-
British Concordes and Soviet Tu-144s went into service, so that the effects of
SSTs on the ozone layer were found to be negligible for the number of aircraft
in operation.
In 1974, however, American chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood
Rowland of the University of California at Irvine recognized that human-
produced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—molecules containing
only carbon, fluorine, and chlorine atoms—could be a major source of chlorine
in the stratosphere. They also noted that chlorine could destroy extensive
amounts of ozone after it was liberated from CFCs by UV radiation. Free
chlorine atoms and chlorine-containing gases, such as chlorine monoxide
(ClO), could then break ozone molecules apart by stripping away one of the
three oxygen atoms. Later research revealed that bromine and certain
bromine-containing compounds, such as bromine monoxide (BrO), were even
more effective at destroying ozone than were chlorine and its reactive
compounds. Subsequent laboratory measurements, atmospheric
measurements, and atmospheric-modeling studies soon substantiated the
importance of their findings. Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland received the Nobel
Prize for Chemistry in 1995 for their efforts.
Human activities have had a significant effect on the global concentration and
distribution of stratospheric ozone since before the 1980s. In addition,
scientists have noted that large annual decreases in average ozone
concentrations began to occur by at least 1980. Measurements from satellites,
aircraft, ground-based sensors, and other instruments indicate that
total integrated column levels of ozone (that is, the number of ozone
molecules occurring per square metre in sampled columns of air) decreased
globally by roughly 5 percent between 1970 and the mid-1990s, with little
change afterward. The largest decreases in ozone took place in the high
latitudes (toward the poles), and the smallest decreases occurred in the lower
latitudes (the tropics). In addition, atmospheric measurements show that the
depletion of the ozone layer increased the amount of UV radiation reaching
Earth’s surface.
Ozone Destruction
NASA Earth Observatory (Illustration courtesy Barbara Summey, SSAI)
Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Our understanding of stratospheric ozone depletion has been obtained through a

combination of laboratory studies, computer models, and atmospheric observations.
The wide variety of chemical reactions that occur in the stratosphere have been
discovered and studied in laboratory studies. Chemical reactions between two gases
follow well-defined physical rules. Some of these reactions occur on the surfaces of
polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) formed in the winter stratosphere. Reactions have
been studied that involve many different molecules containing chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, and iodine and other atmospheric constituents such as carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen. These studies have shown that several reactions involving
chlorine and bromine directly or indirectly destroy ozone in the stratosphere.
Computer models have been used to examine the combined effect of the large group of
known reactions that occur in the stratosphere. These models simulate the stratosphere
by including representative chemical abundances, winds, air temperatures, and the
daily and seasonal changes in sunlight. These analyses show that under certain
conditions chlorine and bromine react in catalytic cycles in which one chlorine or
bromine atom destroys many thousands of ozone molecules. Models are also used to
simulate ozone amounts observed in previous years as a strong test of our
understanding of atmospheric processes and to evaluate the importance of new
reactions found in laboratory studies. The responses of ozone to possible future
changes in the abundances of trace gases, temperatures, and other atmospheric
parameters have been extensively explored with specialized computer models .
Atmospheric observations have shown what gases are present in different regions of
the stratosphere and how their abundances vary. Gas and particle abundances have
been monitored over time periods spanning a daily cycle to decades. Observations
show that halogen source gases and reactive halogen gases are present in the
stratosphere at the amounts required to cause observed ozone depletion. Ozone and
chlorine monoxide (ClO), for example, have been observed extensively with a variety of
instruments. ClO is a highly reactive gas that is involved in catalytic ozone destruction
cycles throughout the stratosphere . Instruments on the ground and on satellites,
balloons, and aircraft now routinely detect ozone and ClO remotely using optical and
microwave signals. High-altitude aircraft and balloon instruments are also used to detect
both gases locally in the stratosphere . The observations of ozone and reactive gases
made in past decades are used extensively in comparisons with computer models in
order to increase confidence in our understanding of stratospheric ozone depletion.
The stratospheric ozone layer shields life on Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet
radiation. Chemicals that destroy ozone are formed by industrial and natural processes.
With the exception of volcanic injection and aircraft exhaust, these chemicals are
carried up into the stratosphere by strong upward-moving air currents in the tropics.
Methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water are injected
into the stratosphere through towering tropical cumulus clouds. These compounds are
broken down by the ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Byproducts of the
breakdown of these chemicals form “radicals”—such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
chlorine monoxide (ClO)—that play an active role in ozone destruction. Aerosols and
clouds can accelerate ozone loss through reactions on cloud surfaces. Thus, volcanic
clouds and polar stratospheric clouds can indirectly contribute to ozone loss.
Stratospheric air temperatures in both polar regions reach minimum values in the lower
stratosphere in the winter season. Average minimum values over Antarctica are as low
as –90°C in July and August in a typical year. Over the Arctic, average minimum values
are near –80°C in January and February. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are formed
when winter minimum temperatures fall below the formation temperature (about –78°C).
This occurs on average for 1 to 2 months over the Arctic and 5 to 6 months over
Antarctica (see heavy red and blue lines). Reactions on PSCs cause the highly reactive
chlorine gas ClO to be formed, which increases the destruction of ozone. The range of
winter minimum temperatures found in the Arctic is much greater than in the Antarctic.
In some years, PSC formation temperatures are not reached in the Arctic, and
significant ozone depletion does not occur. In the Antarctic, PSCs are present for many
months, and severe ozone depletion now occurs in each winter season.
The animation illustrates how one chlorine atom in the stratosphere can destroy up to
100,000 ozone molecules.
Credit University Of Alaska
Ozone is destroyed by reactions with chlorine, bromine, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen
gases. Reactions with these gases typically occurs through catalytic processes. A
catalytic reaction cycle is a set of chemical reactions which result in the destruction of
many ozone molecules while the molecule that started the reaction is reformed to
continue the process. Because of catalytic reactions, an individual chlorine atom can on
average destroy nearly a thousand ozone molecules before it is converted into a form
harmless to ozone.
Environmental Protection Agency graphic
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC): a compound consisting of chlorine(CI), fluorine, and carbon
How ozone is destroyed by CFCs
When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl3) molecules in the upper
atmosphere, a carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The
chlorine atom then reacts with an ozone (O3) molecule breaking it apart and so
destroying the ozone. This forms an ordinary oxygen molecule(O2) and a chlorine
monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen** atom breaks up the chlorine monoxide.
The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying more ozone molecules. A single
CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.
* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms.

** UV radiation breaks oxygen molecules (O2) into single oxygen atoms.
Chemical equation
CFCl3 + UV Light ==> CFCl2 + Cl

Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
The free chlorine atom is then free to attack another ozone molecule
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
and again ...
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
and again... for thousands of times.
Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/Students_Teachers/ozanim/ozoanim.shtml
Ozone Depletion in the Antarctic Springtime
1) HCl + ClONO2 → HNO3 + Cl2
2) Cl2 + sunlight → Cl + Cl
3) 2Cl + O3 → 2ClO + 2O2
4) 2ClO + 2O → 2Cl + 2O2

______________________
NET = 203 to 302
credit:NOAA
Ozone Destruction Cycles
The destruction of ozone in Cycle 1 involves two separate chemical reactions. The net
or overall reaction is that of atomic oxygen with ozone, forming two oxygen molecules.
The cycle can be considered to begin with either ClO or Cl. When starting with ClO, the
first reaction is ClO with O to form Cl. Cl then reacts with (and thereby destroys) ozone
and reforms ClO. The cycle then begins again with another reaction of ClO with O.
Because Cl or ClO is reformed each time an ozone molecule is destroyed, chlorine is
considered a catalyst for ozone destruction. Atomic oxygen (O) is formed when
ultraviolet sunlight reacts with ozone and oxygen molecules. Cycle 1 is most important
in the stratosphere at tropical and middle latitudes, where ultraviolet sunlight is most
intense.
Significant destruction of ozone occurs in polar regions because ClO abundances reach
large values. In this case, the cycles initiated by the reaction of ClO with another ClO
(Cycle 2) or the reaction of ClO with BrO (Cycle 3) efficiently destroy ozone. The net
reaction in both cases is two ozone molecules forming three oxygen molecules. The
reaction of ClO with BrO has two pathways to form the Cl and Br product gases. Ozone
destruction Cycles 2 and 3 are catalytic, as illustrated for Cycle 1, because chlorine and
bromine gases react and are reformed in each cycle. Sunlight is required to complete
each cycle and to help form and maintain ClO abundances.
The very thing that makes Ozone good for filtering UV radiation makes it easily
destroyed: it is very unstable.
Antarctic Ozone Hole
As winter arrives, a vortex of winds develops around the pole and isolates the polar
stratosphere. When temperatures drop below -78°C (-109°F), thin clouds form of ice,
nitric acid, and sulphuric acid mixtures. Chemical reactions on the surfaces of ice
crystals in the clouds release active forms of CFCs. Ozone depletion begins, and the
ozone “hole” appears.
Natural events such as Volcanic Eruptions can strongly influence the amount of Ozone
in the atmosphere.
However, man-made chemicals such as CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons are now known to

have a very dramatic influence on Ozone levels too. CFCs a were once widely used in
aerosol propellants, refrigerants, foams, and industrial processes.
Emission, accumulation, and transport.
The process begins with the emission, at Earth’s surface, of source gases containing
the halogens chlorine and bromine . The halogen source gases, often referred to as
ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), include manufactured chemicals released to the
atmosphere in a variety of applications, such as refrigeration, air conditioning, and foam
blowing. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are an important example of chlorine-containing
gases. Emitted source gases accumulate in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) and
are transported to the stratosphere by natural air motions. The accumulation occurs
because most source gases are highly unreactive in the lower atmosphere. Small
amounts of these gases dissolve in ocean waters. The low reactivity of these
manufactured halogenated gases is one property that makes them well suited for
specialized applications such as refrigeration. Some halogen gases are emitted in
substantial quantities from natural sources . These emissions also accumulate in the
troposphere, are transported to the stratosphere, and participate in ozone destruction
reactions. These naturally emitted gases are part of the natural balance of ozone
production and destruction that predates the large release of manufactured halogenated
gases.
Conversion, reaction, and removal.
Halogen source gases do not react directly with ozone. Once in the stratosphere,
halogen source gases are chemically converted to reactive halogen gases by ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun . The rate of conversion is related to the atmospheric lifetime of a
gas ). Gases with longer lifetimes have slower conversion rates and survive longer in
the atmosphere after emission. Lifetimes of the principal ODSs vary from 1 to 100 years
. Emitted gas molecules with atmospheric lifetimes greater than a few years circulate
between the troposphere and stratosphere multiple times, on average, before
conversion occurs. The reactive gases formed from halogen source gases react
chemically to destroy ozone in the stratosphere . The average depletion of total ozone
attributed to reactive gases is smallest in the tropics and largest at high latitudes . In
polar regions, surface reactions that occur at low temperatures on polar stratospheric
clouds (PSCs) greatly increase the abundance of the most reactive chlorine gas,
chlorine monoxide (ClO) . This results in substantial ozone destruction in polar regions
in late winter and early spring . After a few years, air in the stratosphere returns to the
troposphere, bringing along reactive halogen gases. These gases are then removed
from the atmosphere by rain and other precipitation or deposited on Earth’s land or
ocean surfaces. This removal brings to an end the destruction of ozone by chlorine and
bromine atoms that were first released to the atmosphere as components of halogen
source gas molecules. Tropospheric conversion. Halogen source gases with short
lifetimes (less than 1 year) undergo significant chemical conversion in the troposphere,
producing reactive halogen gases and other compounds. Source gas molecules that are
not converted are transported to the stratosphere. Only small portions of reactive
halogen gases produced in the troposphere are transported to the stratosphere
because most are removed by precipitation. Important examples of halogen gases that
undergo some tropospheric removal are the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), methyl
bromide (CH3Br), and gases containing iodine .
Diagram showing the effect of polar stratospheric clouds on ozone loss. The upper
panel shows the situation when there are no polar stratospheric clouds. Ozone
depletion takes place only in the gas phase (homogeneous chemistry). The lower panel
shows the situation when there are polar stratospheric clouds present. The reservoir
gases hydrochloric acid and chlorine nitrate react with each other on the surface of the
PSC particles through a red-ox reaction and liberate elementary chlorine (Cl2 ).
Elementary chlorine is easily photolysed by sunlight and forms atomic chlorine, which
reacts fast with ozone to form chlorine monoxide (ClO, active chlorine) and oxygen (O2
). ClO dimerises and forms Cl2O2, which is easily photolysed, liberating atomic chlorine
again. Due to this catalytic cycle, one atom of Cl can destroy thousands of ozone
molecules before it is passivated through reaction with NO2, methane or other
substances. This explains why a few ppb of chlorine can destroy several ppm of ozone.
In addition, PSC particles can grow large enough to sediment, thereby removing HNO3
from the stratosphere. This means that there will be limited amounts of NO2 present to
quench the active chlorine, and the ozone depleting process can continue for several
weeks. The diagram has been made by Finn Bjørklid, Norwegian Institute for Air
Research (NILU).
Stratospheric ozone depletion milestones. This timeline highlights milestones related to
the history of ozone depletion. Events represent the occurrence of important scientific
findings, the completion of international scientific assessments, and highlights of the
Montreal Protocol. The graph shows the history and near future of annual total
emissions of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) combined with natural emissions of
halogen source gases. ODSs are halogen source gases controlled under the Montreal
Protocol. The emissions, when weighted by their potential to destroy ozone, peaked
near 1990 after several decades of steady increases (see Q19). Between 1990 and the
present, emissions have decreased substantially as a result of the Montreal Protocol
and its subsequent Amendments and Adjustments coming into force . The Protocol
began with the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985. The
provisions of the Protocol and its Amendments and Adjustments decisions have
depended on information embodied in international scientific assessments of ozone
depletion that have been produced periodically since 1989 under the auspices of UNEP
and WMO. Atmospheric observations of ozone, CFCs, and other ODSs have increased
substantially since the early 1970s. For example, the SAGE and TOMS satellite
instruments have provided essential global views of stratospheric ozone for several
decades. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 was awarded for research that identified
the threat to ozone posed by CFCs and that described key reactive processes in the
stratosphere. By 2008, stratospheric chlorine abundances in the stratosphere were 10%
lower than their peak values reached in the late 1990s and were continuing to decrease.
January 2010 marked the end of global production of CFCs and halons under the
Protocol. (A megatonne = 1 billion (109) kilograms.)
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
" Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has
been the Montreal Protocol. "-Kofi Annan, Former Secretary General of the
United Nations
In1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-

operation in research into the ozone layer and the effects of ozone depleting
chemicals (ODCs). 1985 also marked the first discovery of the Antarctic ozone
hole. On the basis of the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by 24
countries and by the European Economic Community in September 1987. The
Protocol called for the Parties to phase down the use of CFCs, halons and
other man-made ODCs.
After a series of rigorous meetings and negotiations, the Montreal Protocol on

Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was finally agreed upon on 16 september
1987 at the Headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization in Montreal.
The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds
that deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon
tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl
chloroform). Scientific theory and evidence suggest that, once emitted to the
atmosphere, these compounds could significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer
that shields the planet from damaging UV-B radiation.
Man-made chlorines, primarily chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs), contribute to the thinning
of the ozone layer and allow larger quantities of harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the
earth.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is one of the first
international environmental agreements that includes trade sanctions to achieve the
stated goals of a treaty. It also offers major incentives for non-signatory nations to sign
the agreement. The treaty negotiators justified the sanctions because depletion of the
ozone layer is an environmental problem most effectively addressed on the global level.
Furthermore, without the trade sanctions, there would be economic incentives for non-
signatories to increase production, damaging the competitiveness of the industries in
the signatory nations as well as decreasing the search for less damaging CFC
alternatives.
NASA/NOAA satellite data showing the rise in stratospheric chlorine and corresponding decline in ozone
layer thickness from 1979 to 1997. As stratospheric chlorine declined in response to enactment of the
Montreal Protocol, the first stage of ozone recovery began.
At meetings in London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and
Beijing (1999) amendments were adopted that were designed to speed up the phasing
out of ozone-depleting substances.
Montreal Protocol Full Text
Ratification of:
Vienna Montreal London Copenhagen Montreal Beijing
Convention Protocol Amendment Amendment Amendment Amendment
Total
191 191 185 176 152 124
number
of
countries
The table below shows the status of Ratification, Accession, or Approval of the
agreements on the protection of the stratospheric ozone layer as provided by the
Depositary, the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, New York
Summary of Montreal Protocol Control Measures

Ozone Depleting Substances Developed Countries Developing Countries
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2010
Halons Phased out end of 1993 Total phase out by 2010
Carbon tetrachloride Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2010
Methyl chloroform Phased out end of 1995 a Total phase out by 2015
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)Freeze from beginning of 1996 b
35% reduction by 2004
65% reduction by 2010 Freeze in 2016
90% reduction by 2015 at 2015 base level
Total phase out by 2020 c Total phase out by 2040
Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) Phased out end of 1995 Phased out end of 1995
Methyl bromide Freeze in 1995 at 1991 base leveld Freeze in 2002 at average
25% reduction by 1999 1995-1998 base level
50% reduction by 2001 20% reduction by 2005 e
70% reduction by 2000 Total phase out by 2015
Total phase out by 2005
a With the exception of a very small number of internationally agreed essential uses that are considered critical to human health and/or laboratory
and analytical procedures.
b Based on 1989 HCFC consumption with an extra allowance (ODP weighted) equal to 2.8% of 1989 CFC consumption.
c Up to 0.5% of base level consumption can be used until 2030 for servicing existing equipment.
d All reductions include an exemption for pre-shipment and quarantine uses.
e Review in 2003 to decide on interim further reductions beyond 2005.
http://www.unep.org/ozone/montreal.shtml
 The Montreal Protocol Who's Who

 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol

 16 September 2007-The twentieth anniversary of the Montreal Protocol Celebrating 20
Years of Progress
Arctic Ozone
Arctic Map from Worldatlas.com
An Arctic Ozone Hole, if similar in size to the Antarctic Ozone Hole, could expose over
700+ million people, wildlife and plants to dangerous UV ray levels. The likely hood of
this happening seems inevitable based on the deterioration of ozone layer caused by
the effects of global warming on the upper atmosphere.
Area that may be affected by formation of Arctic Ozone Hole
is the yellow area within the red circle
Area that may be affected by formation of Arctic Ozone Hole is above the redline
World Population Density Map
Area directly affected is above the red line on these maps

"The formation of an Ozone Hole occurring over the Arctic will likely happen within the
next 20 years"-
Jonathan Shanklin one of The BAS scientists who discovered the Antarctic ozone
hole-1999
Professor Jonathan Shanklin of The British Antarctic Study said the loss itself of ozone
and the greenhouse effect is causing the upper atmosphere to become colder, which is
a condition that facilitates ozone destruction. Professor Shanklin was speaking to Alex
Kirby of the BBC Radio Four's environment program Costing the Earth and reportedly
said the following -
Jonathan Shanklin of The BAS making ozone measurements
© British Antarctic Survey
"The atmosphere is changing, and one of the key changes is that the ozone layer is
getting colder. And when it gets colder, particularly during the winter, we can get clouds
actually forming in the ozone layer, and these clouds are the key factor.
Chemistry can take place on them that activates the chlorine and makes it very much
easier for it to destroy the ozone. It's getting colder because of the greenhouse gases
that are being liberated by all the emissions we have at the surface.
We think that within the next 20 years we are likely to see an ozone hole perhaps as big
as the present one over Antarctica but over the North Pole."
Joseph Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, are the BAS scientists who
discovered the Antarctic ozone hole.
Professor Shanklin also is the Director of the British Astronomical Association's Comet
Section and the President of the Cambridge Natural History Society
Arctic Ozone Hole in The Near Future?
May 25,2000-Upper atmospheric conditions in The Northern Hemisphere are becoming

similar to those of the Antarctic. The result of this could be the formation of an "Arctic
Ozone Hole" or "low ozone event". The alarming difference is that there are millions of
people that live in the area that will be exposed to this deadly radiation. These
conditions could expose large numbers of people and animals to more ultraviolet
radiation, which can cause skin cancer and disrupt reproduction of some animals and
destroy plant life.
December 2,1999
An Arctic " low ozone event" could easily be blown south by high-altitude winds, and
appear over populated areas of The United States, Canada, Europe and Asia. It could
trigger public alerts against going out in the sun without protective clothing across The
Northern Hemisphere. Experts predict that an estimated 10 % reduction in the ozone
layer will result in a 25 % increase in non-melanoma skin cancer rates for temperate
latitudes by the year 2050.
ARCTIC OZONE MAY NOT RECOVER AS EARLY AS PREDICTED

NASA Press Release 5/25/2000
The ozone layer that protects life on Earth may not be recovering from the damage it
has suffered over the Arctic region as quickly as scientists previously thought, according
to a paper published in the May 26 issue of the journal Science. Specifics of the
research also will be presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical
Union in Washington, DC, on May 31.
More polar stratospheric clouds than anticipated are forming high above the North
Pole, causing additional ozone loss in the sky over the Arctic, according to Dr. Azadeh
Tabazadeh, lead author of the paper and a scientist at NASA's Ames Research Center
in California's Silicon Valley. The stratosphere comprises Earth's atmosphere from
about 9 to 25 miles (about 15 to 40 kilometers) altitude and includes the ozone layer.
Arctic polar stratospheric clouds
"Polar stratospheric clouds provide a 'double-whammy' to stratospheric ozone. They
provide the surfaces which convert benign forms of chlorine into reactive, ozone-
destroying forms, and they remove nitrogen compounds that act to moderate the
destructive impact of chlorine," said Dr. Phil DeCola, Atmospheric Chemistry Program
Manager at NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
"The Arctic has become colder and more humid, conditions that promote formation of
more polar stratospheric clouds that take part in polar ozone destruction. The main
conclusion of our study is that if this trend continues, Arctic clouds will remain longer in
the
stratosphere in the future," Tabazadeh said.
"An ozone hole forms every spring over the Antarctic in the Southern Hemisphere
which is colder than the Arctic," said Tabazadeh. "The Arctic has been getting colder
and is becoming more like the Antarctic; this could lead to more dramatic ozone loss in
the future over the Northern Hemisphere, where many people live."
NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
Researchers used data from NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite to
analyze cloud data from both the north and south polar regions for the study. "What we
found from the satellite was that polar stratospheric clouds currently last twice as long in
the Antarctic as compared to the Arctic," Tabazadeh said. "However, our calculations
show that by 2010 the Arctic may become more 'Antarctic-like' if Arctic temperatures
drop further by about 5 to 7 degrees Fahrenheit (about 3 to 4 degrees Celsius)," she
said.
Environment Canada Nov 30 1999 ozone image
When Arctic polar stratospheric clouds last longer, they can precipitate, removing
nitrogen from the upper atmosphere, which increases the opportunity for
chlorine compounds to destroy ozone more efficiently. The polar stratospheric clouds
involved in the reactions contain nitric acid and water, according to researchers who
discovered these clouds in 1986.
"Data from the Microwave Limb Sounder on UARS have provided the first
opportunity to observe nitric acid throughout the Arctic and the Antarctic over a period of
many years," said Michelle Santee, a scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, CA, who is a co-author of the Science paper. "The continued presence of
nitric acid in the Arctic winter -- which is not the case in the Antarctic -- helps to
moderate ozone loss by reducing the amount of reactive chlorine, but this could change
in the future," she added.
More than a decade ago, scientists determined that human-made chlorine and
bromine compounds cause most ozone depletion. Manufacturers made the chlorine
compounds,chloroflourocarbons or "CFCs," for use as refrigerants, aerosol sprays,
solvents and foam-blowing agents. Fire fighters used bromine-containing halogens to
put out fires. Manufacture of CFCs ceased in 1996 in signatory countries under the
terms of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments.
The Montreal Protocol bans CFC emissions. As a result, the chlorine concentration
in the upper atmosphere is already starting to decline, according to
Tabazadeh. "Scientists used to believe that as chlorine levels decline in the upper
atmosphere, the ozone layer should slowly start to recover. However, greenhouse gas
emissions, which provide warming at the Earth's surface, lead to cooling in the upper
atmosphere. This cooling promotes formation of the kind of polar stratospheric clouds
that contribute to ozone loss," she added. "Several recent studies, including this one,
show that ozone recovery is more complex and will take longer than originally thought,"
she explained.
Arctic Ozone 2011

Recent observations from satellites and ground stations suggest that atmospheric
ozone levels for March 2011 in the Arctic were approaching the lowest levels in the
modern instrumental era. What those readings mean for the remainder of the year is
unclear. But what they mean for the long-term is that the recovery from human-induced
ozone depletion is an uneven climb.
These maps of ozone concentrations over the Arctic come from the Ozone Monitoring
Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Aura satellite. The left image shows January 1 to March
23, 2010, and the right shows the same dates in 2011. March 2010 had relatively high
ozone, while March 2011 has low levels.
 Polar ozone loss depends on temperature and inorganic halogen concentrations

in lower stratosphere
 Assessments in 1990s recognized that could have severe Arctic ozone depletion
in very cold Arctic winters
 Low temperatures into spring are key ingredient for large ozone loss
 Stratospheric minimum temperatures in 2010/2011 were unusually low/long
lasting
High levels of Activated Chlorine observed in Arctic in March 2011
As a result of the high Cl levels, there were large ozone losses

Credit:Professor Jonathan Pyle from University Cambridge
It was exceptionally cold in the ozone layer in the past month. During the first half of
March there were several days with record-low temperatures in the stratosphere at
altitudes of about 20 km, and the cold period continued for the entire month. This led to
sustained low ozone values over the polar region.
The area with low ozone over the North Pole was observed by several satellite sensors,
e.g. SCIAMACHY on the EnviSat satellite, and the Ozone Monitoring Instrument OMI on
EOS-Aura. This is demonstrated by the figure, which shows the monthly-mean ozone
amount for March 2011 compared to the months March in the period 1979-2010. The
situation this year resembles the years 1996, 1997 and 1990, where similar low ozone
levels over the North Pole were observed.
The continuing cold spell in the stratosphere, where the ozone layer is located, was
remarkable. In contrast, the previous years 2009 and 2010 showed an early so-called
stratospheric warming in January and mid-February. Temperatures in the stratosphere
in the first half of March this year were low enough for polar stratospheric clouds to
form. In these clouds chlorine compounds are formed from CFCs which break down
ozone over the North Pole when sunlight is present. In addition to the cold
temperatures, the transport of ozone-rich air from the tropics was reduced this year
because of the strong winds around the North Pole at 20km altitude.
The ozone layer over the North Pole nevertheless has a thickness of more than 250
Dobson units (a unit expressing the number of molecules ozone per square meter). This
is much more than what is observed for the ozone hole over the South Pole in
September-November. 250-300 DU is comparable to the thickness of the ozone layer in
the tropics. The relatively large ozone breakdown leads to reduced ozone levels over
the Northern Hemisphere this Spring because it will take some time before the lost
ozone has been replenished.
The figure above shows the March monthly-mean total ozone values for the period
1979-2011 as it is monitored by MACC partner KNMI. The period 1979-2008 is derived
from the multi-sensor reanalysis (MSR) of the ozone layer. The analysis for 2009-2011
is based on an assimilation of SCIAMACHY ozone columns.
Ozone Hole 2006 Largest on Record

Ozone Hole Area Minimum Ozone
(million km2) (DU)
Maximum Daily Minimum Daily
Year Date Value Date Value
2006 24 September 29.6 08 October 84
http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/stratosphere/sbuv2to/ozone_hole.sht
NASA and NOAA Announce Ozone Hole is a Double Record Breaker
10.19.06
NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

scientists report this year's ozone hole in the polar region of the Southern
Hemisphere has broken records for area and depth.
The ozone layer acts to protect life on Earth by blocking harmful ultraviolet
rays from the sun. The "ozone hole" is a severe depletion of the ozone layer
high above Antarctica. It is primarily caused by human-produced compounds
that release chlorine and bromine gases in the stratosphere.
Image right: From September 21-30, 2006

the average area of the ozone hole was the
largest ever observed, at 10.6 million square
miles. This image, from Sept. 24, the Antarctic
ozone hole was equal to the record single-day
largest area of 11.4 million square miles,
reached on Sept. 9, 2000. Satellite
instruments monitor the ozone layer, and we
use their data to create the images that depict
the amount of ozone. The blue and purple
colors are where there is the least ozone, and
the greens, yellows, and reds are where there
is more ozone. . Credit: NASA
"From September 21 to 30, the average area of the ozone hole was the
largest ever observed, at 10.6 million square miles," said Paul Newman,
atmospheric scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
If the stratospheric weather conditions had been normal, the ozone hole would
be expected to reach a size of about 8.9 to 9.3 million square miles, about the
surface area of North America.
The Ozone Monitoring Instrument on NASA's Aura satellite measures the total
amount of ozone from the ground to the upper atmosphere over the entire
Antarctic continent. This instrument observed a low value of 85 Dobson Units
(DU) on Oct. 8, in a region over the East Antarctic ice sheet. Dobson Units are
a measure of ozone amounts above a fixed point in the atmosphere. The
Ozone Monitoring Instrument was developed by the Netherlands' Agency for
Aerospace Programs, Delft, The Netherlands, and the Finnish Meteorological
Institute, Helsinki, Finland.
Scientists from NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo.,

use balloon-borne instruments to measure ozone directly over the South Pole.
By Oct. 9, the total column ozone had plunged to 93 DU from approximately
300 DU in mid-July. More importantly, nearly all of the ozone in the layer
between eight and 13 miles above the Earth's surface had been destroyed. In
this critical layer, the instrument measured a record low of only 1.2 DU.,
having rapidly plunged from an average non-hole reading of 125 DU in July
and August.
"These numbers mean the ozone is virtually gone in this layer of the
atmosphere," said David Hofmann, director of the Global Monitoring Division
at the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory. "The depleted layer has an
unusual vertical extent this year, so it appears that the 2006 ozone hole will go
down as a record-setter."
Observations by Aura's Microwave Limb Sounder show extremely high levels

of ozone destroying chlorine chemicals in the lower stratosphere
(approximately 12.4 miles high). These high chlorine values covered the entire
Antarctic region in mid to late September. The high chlorine levels were
accompanied by extremely low values of ozone.
Image left: The ozone hole of 2006 is the

most severe ozone hole (least amount of
ozone) observed to date. NASA's Aura
satellite observed a low value of 85 Dobson
Units (DU) on Oct. 8 in a region over the East
Antarctic ice sheet. Dobson Units are a
measure of ozone amounts above a fixed
point in the atmosphere. This severe ozone
hole resulted from the very high ozone
depleting substance levels and the record cold
conditions in the Antarctic
stratosphere. . Credit: NASA
The temperature of the Antarctic stratosphere causes the severity of the

ozone hole to vary from year to year. Colder than average temperatures result
in larger and deeper ozone holes, while warmer temperatures lead to smaller
ones. The NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
provided analyses of satellite and balloon stratospheric temperature
observations. The temperature readings from NOAA satellites and balloons
during late-September 2006 showed the lower stratosphere at the rim of
Antarctica was approximately nine degrees Fahrenheit colder than average,
increasing the size of this year's ozone hole by 1.2 to 1.5 million square miles.
The Antarctic stratosphere warms by the return of sunlight at the end of the
polar winter and by large-scale weather systems (planetary-scale waves) that
form in the troposphere and move upward into the stratosphere. During the
2006 Antarctic winter and spring, these planetary-scale wave systems were
relatively weak, causing the stratosphere to be colder than average.
As a result of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments, the concentrations

of ozone-depleting substances in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) peaked
around 1995 and are decreasing in both the troposphere and stratosphere. It
is estimated these gases reached peak levels in the Antarctica stratosphere in
2001. However, these ozone-depleting substances typically have very long
lifetimes in the atmosphere (more than 40 years).
As a result of this slow decline, the ozone hole is estimated to annually very
slowly decrease in area by about 0.1 to 0.2 percent for the next five to 10
years. This slow decrease is masked by large year-to-year variations caused
by Antarctic stratosphere weather fluctuations.
The recently completed 2006 World Meteorological Organization/United

Nations Environment Programme Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion
concluded the ozone hole recovery would be masked by annual variability for
the near future and the ozone hole would fully recover in approximately 2065.
"We now have the largest ozone hole on record for this time of year," said
Craig Long of NCEP. As the sun rises higher in the sky during October and
November, this unusually large and persistent area may allow much more
ultraviolet light than usual to reach Earth's surface in the southern latitudes.
Antarctic ozone hole is worst ever recorded, UN reports
3 October 2006 – This year’s hole in the Antarctic ozone layer is the worst on record,
not only matching that of the year 2000 in surface area but registering the largest
depletion ever measured of the naturally occurring gas that filters out cancer- and
cataract-causing ultraviolet (UV) rays, the United Nations meteorological agency
reported today.
“This year’s hole was caused by the continuing presence of peak levels of ozone
destroying substances in the atmosphere combined with a particularly cold stratospheric
winter,” the UN World Meteorological Organization (WMO) said of the phenomenon,
which appears annually at the start of the southern hemisphere spring.
Large holes over the Antarctic are expected to reoccur over the next two decades
before a clear decline in size and depth, and the Montreal Protocol and Vienna
Convention phasing out ozone-destroying chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons must
be adhered to with the utmost vigilance, WMO spokesman Mark Oliver told a news
briefing in Geneva.
The agency based its assessments on measurements taken by satellites of the United
States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European Space
Agency (ESA), validated by surface based observations of the WMO Global
Atmosphere Watch (GAW) ozone network.
NASA instruments showed that on 25 September the area of the hole reached 29.5
million square kilometres, compared to 29.4 million in September 2000. Each agency
uses different instruments, giving slightly different values, and according to ESA, the
hole reached 28 million square kilometres on 25 September, very close to its maximum
for 2000, which peaked at 28.4 million.
The ozone mass deficit in 2006 was measured at 39.8 megatonnes on 1 October,
higher than in 2000, which peaked at 39.6 megatonnes on 29 September. Mass deficit
is the amount of ozone missing from a vertical column of air compared to a baseline
measured many decades earlier before severe ozone depletion appeared.
Scientists have become increasingly aware of possible links between ozone depletion
and climate change. Increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases will
lead to a warmer climate at the Earth’s surface. At altitudes where the ozone layer is
found, the same increase is likely to lead to a cooling of the atmosphere, enhancing the
chemical reactions that destroy ozone.
At the same time, the amount of water vapour in the stratosphere has been increasing
at the rate of about 1 per cent per year. A wetter and colder stratosphere means more
polar stratospheric clouds, which is likely to lead to more severe ozone loss in both
polar regions.
21 December 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

across Antarctica dropped rapidly in September and were generally at their minimum in
early October. They have now risen above ozone hole limits, however a significant area
of the southern ocean south of Africa is still experiencing ozone levels substantially
below the normal, with a few areas approaching 40% depletion. Lowest levels are
currently near 240 DU over parts of the Southern Ocean. Temperatures in the ozone
layer are now near summer values, though values remain below the mean of the last
few decades. The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and reached nearly 28
million square kilometres in size at the equinox. The ozone hole was at record or near
record size from mid September until late November, when it began to decline rapidly.
Although not an absolute record in size it was a record for the amount of ozone
destroyed. When the ozone hole became more elliptical the edge of the ozone hole
made passes over the tip of South America and South Georgia and over the latter, uv
levels reached similar values to those seen at mid-day in the tropics.
06 December 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

early October. They have now risen above ozone hole limits at most locations, however
a large area is still experiencing ozone levels substantially below the normal, with a few
areas approaching 50% depletion. Lowest levels are currently near 200 DU over parts
of the Southern Ocean. The polar vortex is beginning to collapse rapidly. Temperatures
within it remain close to the minimum seen over the last few decades, but are rising.
The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and reached nearly 28 million square
kilometres in size at the equinox. The ozone hole was at record or near record size from
mid September until late November, when it began to decline rapidly and is now around
3 million square kilometres . Although not an absolute record in size it was a record for
the amount of ozone destroyed. When the ozone hole became more elliptical the edge
of the ozone hole made passes over the tip of South America and South Georgia and
over the latter, uv levels reached similar values to those seen at mid-day in the tropics.
23 November 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

across Antarctica dropped rapidly in September and were generally at their
minimum in early October; they are now slowly rising at most locations.
Lowest levels are currently near 200 DU over parts of Antarctica. The polar
vortex is shrinking, but remains significantly larger than average for this time
of year. Temperatures within it are generally below the normal for the time of
year, but are rising. The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and
reached nearly 28 million square kilometres in size at the equinox. The ozone
hole has been at record or near record size since mid September. Although
not an absolute record in size it was a record for the amount of ozone
destroyed. I t is now shrinking, although at around 13 million square
kilometres it is still a record size for mid November.
3 November 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

early October; they are now slowly rising at most locations. Lowest levels are currently
below 120 DU over parts of Antarctica. The polar vortex is shrinking, but remains
significantly larger than average for this time of year. Temperatures within it are
generally below the normal for the time of year, but are rising. The ozone hole grew
rapidly from mid August and reached nearly 28 million square kilometres in size at the
equinox. It was the largest on record for the week preceding the equinox, and although
not an absolute record in size it was a record for the amount of ozone destroyed. It is
now shrinking, although at around 15 million square kilometres it is near a record size
for early November. When the ozone hole becomes more elliptical the edge of the
ozone hole can makes passes over the tip of South America and South Georgia.
26 October 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

across Antarctica dropped rapidly in September and were at their minimum in early
October; they are now slowly rising at most locations. Lowest levels are currently below
120 DU over parts of Antarctica. The polar vortex is shrinking, but remains significantly
larger than average for this time of year. Temperatures within it are generally below the
normal for the time of year. The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and reached
nearly 28 million square kilometres in size at the equinox. It was the largest on record
for the week preceding the equinox, and although not an absolute record in size it was a
record for the amount of ozone destroyed. It is now shrinking, although at 19 million
square kilometres it is at a record size for late October. The ozone hole has become
much more elliptical at times and the edge of the ozone hole then makes passes over
the tip of South America and South Georgia.
20 October2006 NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

scientists report this year's ozone hole in the polar region of the Southern Hemisphere
has broken records for area and depth.
"From September 21 to 30, the average area of the ozone hole was the largest ever
observed, at 10.6 million square miles," said Paul Newman, atmospheric scientist at
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. If the stratospheric weather
conditions had been normal, the ozone hole would be expected to reach a size of about
8.9 to 9.3 million square miles, about the surface area of North America.
6 October2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels across

Antarctica dropped rapidly in September and are now near their minimum. Lowest
levels are currently near 100 DU over parts of Antarctica. The polar vortex is shrinking,
but remains significantly larger than average for this time of year. Temperatures within it
are generally below the normal for the time of year. The ozone hole grew rapidly from
mid August and reached nearly 28 million square kilometres in size at the equinox. It
was the largest on record for the week preceding the equinox, although not an absolute
record in size and it is now shrinking. The ozone hole has become much more elliptical
and the edge of the ozone hole is making passes over the tip of South America. The
next pass is expected from October 7 to 10. It also crosses South Georgia and here the
next pass is expected from October 9 to 12.
3 October2006 World Meteorological Organization This year’s hole in the Antarctic
ozone layer was the most serious on record exceeding that of 2000. Not only was it the
largest in surface area (matching 2000) but also suffered the most mass deficit,
meaning that there was less ozone over the Antarctic than ever previously measured.
Measurements were taken from instruments on both NASA and European Space
Agency (ESA) satellites. These are validated by surface based observations of the
WMO Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) ozone network. Each agency uses different
instruments hence the slightly different values.
NASA instruments showed that, on 25 September 2006, the area of the hole reached
29.6 million km2, compared to 29.4 million km2 reached in September 2000.
The ozone mass deficit in 2006 was measured at 39.8 megatonnes on 1 October,
higher than in 2000, which peaked at 39.6 megatonnes on 29 September. Mass deficit
is the amount of ozone missing from a vertical column of air compared to a baseline
measured many decades earlier before severe ozone depletion appeared. This year’s
hole was caused by the continuing presence of peak levels of ozone destroying
substances in the atmosphere combined with a particularly cold stratospheric winter.
2 October 2006 European Space Agency-Ozone measurements made by ESA’s
Envisat satellite have revealed the ozone loss of 40 million tonnes on 2 October 2006
has exceeded the record ozone loss of about 39 million tonnes for 2000.Full story click
here
The ozone loss at 12:00 GMT of each day from GOME (1996-2002) and
SCIAMACHY (2003-2006) Assimilated Ozone Fields. The ozone loss is the
amount of ozone in megaton necessary to fill the ozone hole to 220 Dobson
units (DU) over the whole area. DU stands for the total thickness of ozone in a
given vertical column if it were concentrated into a single slab at standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure – 400 DUs is equivalent to a thickness
of four millimetres, for example. Credits: KNMI/TEMIS
The size of the Antarctic ozone hole at 12:00 GMT of each day from GOME
(1996-2002) and SCIAMACHY (2003-2006) Assimilated Ozone Fields. The
size of the ozone hole is the area on the globe in million square km of ozone
column values below 220 Dobson units (DU). DU stands for the total
thickness of ozone in a given vertical column if it were concentrated into a
single slab at standard temperature and atmospheric pressure – 400 DUs is
equivalent to a thickness of four millimetres, for example. Credits:
KNMI/TEMIS
The depth of the Antarctic ozone hole at 12:00 GMT of each day from GOME
(1996-2002) and SCIAMACHY (2003-2006) Assimilated Ozone Fields. The
depth of the ozone hole is the lowest ozone column value in Dobson Units
(DU) for latitudes below 30° South. DU stands for the total thickness of ozone
in a given vertical column if it were concentrated into a single slab at standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure – 400 DUs is equivalent to a thickness
of four millimetres, for example. Credits: KNMI/TEMIS
Situation at 2006 September 29 British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Bulletin Ozone levels across Antarctica have dropped rapidly since mid September.
Lowest levels are approaching 100 DU in parts of Antarctica. The polar vortex is a little
larger than it was at this time last year, although it is beginning to shrink. Temperatures
within it are generally below the normal for the time of year. The ozone hole grew
rapidly from mid August and reached nearly 28 million square kilometres in size at the
equinox. It was the largest on record for the week preceding the equinox, although not
an absolute record in size. The ozone observing season at Vernadsky and Halley has
commenced and both stations are experiencing ozone hole levels. Rothera can make
observations throughout the year; here ozone values dropped rapidly in mid September
and a minimum of 105 DU was recorded. The edge of the ozone hole is expected to
swing over the tip of South America around October 4. A prediction made at the SCAR
conference in Hobart in July suggested that the 2006 ozone hole is likely to be one of
the larger and deeper ones (perhaps 28 million square kilometres), based on a
correlation with the 100 hPa temperature. [This prediction is clearly confirmed.] Adrian
Tuck predicts a significant spring warming before mid October. Note: The Antarctic
ozone hole is usually largest in early September and deepest in late September to early
October. September 16 is world ozone day. Prior to the formation of ozone holes,
Antarctic ozone values were normally at their lowest in the autumn (ie March).
Situation at 2006 September 22-WMO Bulletin-Since the last Bulletin (12 September)
vortex minimum temperatures at 50 hPa continue to remain around 181-182 K, which is
well below the frost point and colder than for any year in the 1979-2005 period for this
time of the year. The average temperature in the 60-90°S region has increased slightly,
from 193 K to 194 K, but is lower than any other year since 1979 for this time of the
year. The area where temperatures are low enough for existence of polar stratospheric
clouds of type I (NAT) at the 450 K isentropic level (~17 km or ~70 hPa), has continued
to decline from its peak (28.9 million km2) in late July to about 21 million km2 on 18
September. Since early July, the south polar vortex has been larger than the 1996-2005
average at the 450, 550 and 650 K isentropic levels. At 450 K, the vortex area has on
certain days been as large as the maximum for the 1986-2005 time period. Chlorine
activation reached its peak around 1 September and is now declining. There is still a
region inside the vortex where hydrochloric acid (HCl) is completely depleted, which is
an indication of complete activation. Ozonesonde observations show up to 90% ozone
loss in the 15-20 km altitude range by 20 September compared to early August. The
area where total ozone is less than 220 DU (also called the "ozone hole area") was
relatively small until around 20 August. Since then the ozone hole area has increased
more rapidly than the 1979-2005 average and is now close to 28 million km2, which is
more than the maximum reached in 2005 (26 million km2) and very close to the
maximum reached in 2003. It is still somewhat lower than the ozone hole area in 2000,
which peaked at 28.5 million km2 on 10 September. Measurements of total ozone at
individual stations and total ozone maps synthesised by the World Ozone and UV Data
Centre show that total ozone columns in August and the first half of September were
somewhat larger in 2006 as compared to the same time of the year in 2005. The last
few days, ozone columns at most stations have dropped rapidly and are now the same
as at the same time in 2005. Minimum total ozone columns from satellite observations
have dropped rapidly the last days and are now near and even below the values
observed in 2005. Predictions based on meteorological forecasts indicate that the
vortex will remain relatively concentric and unperturbed, and it is not likely that areas
outside Antarctica will be significantly affected by the ozone hole between now and 30
September. The intensity of ultraviolet radiation remains modest, with UV indices not
exceeding 3.1 in southern Chile and Antarctica. As ozone depletion continues and the
solar elevation increases, UV indices are expected to increase. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ozone partial pressure [mPa] Ozone soundings from the Argentinian GAW station
Belgrano (78°S, 35°W). One can see the progression of ozone depletion from 2 August
until 20 September. In the height region most affected by ozone destruction, the
depletion amounts to about 80%. The ozone hole is expected to deepen further over the
next couple of weeks. The soundings are carried out as a collaboration between
Argentinian researchers and scientists from the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Tecnica
Aeroespacial (INTA). Global Atmosphere Watch

Bulletin Ozone levels across Antarctica have dropped rapidly in the last week. Lowest
levels are now below 150 DU across a large part of Antarctica. The polar vortex is a
little larger than it was at this time last year. Temperatures within it are generally below
the normal for the time of year. The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and
reached some 26 million square kilometres in size in mid September, one of the largest
areas on record for this time in September.

Bulletin Ozone levels across the polar vortex are falling, with lowest levels in the edge
region, whilst the circumpolar high is building. The polar vortex is a little larger than it
was at this time last year. Temperatures within it are generally below the normal for the
time of year. The ozone hole grew rapidly from mid August and peaked at some 24
million square kilometres in size in early September, comparable to the hole in 2005.

Bulletin Ozone levels in the sunlit edge region of the polar vortex are falling and are
lowest here, whilst the circumpolar high is building. The polar vortex is a little larger than
it was at this time last year. Ozone levels in the centre of the vortex are not far from
normal as this area is still in darkness. The ozone hole has grown rapidly since mid
August and is now some 23 million square kilometres in size, comparable to the hole in
2005.
Situation at 2006 August 17 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone

levels in the sunlit edge region of the polar vortex are falling, whilst the circumpolar high
is building. The polar vortex is a little larger than it was at this time last year. The ozone
observing season at Vernadsky has commenced, whilst that at Halley commences in
late August. Rothera can make observations throughout the year; here ozone values
have dropped to ozone hole levels.
Situation at 2006 August 2 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone

levels in the sunlit edge region of the polar vortex are beginning to fall. The ozone
observing season at Vernadsky will soon commence, whilst that at Halley commences
in late August. Rothera can make observations throughout the year; here ozone values
are near ozone hole levels. Andrew Klekociuk of the Australian Antarctic Division
predicts that the 2006 ozone hole is likely to be one of the larger and deeper ones
(perhaps 28 million square kilometres), based on a correlation with the 100 hPa
temperature. Adrian Tuck predicts a significant spring warming before mid October.
Note: The Antarctic ozone hole is usually largest in early September and deepest in late
September to early October. September 16 is world ozone day. Prior to the formation of
ozone holes, Antarctic ozone values were normally at their lowest in the autumn (ie
March).
Situation at 2006 May 5British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Bulletin Generally Antarctic ozone levels are past their autumn minimum, but the
polar vortex is spinning up giving a range between 250 DU and 350 DU
The Ozone Hole 2018

d ozone values are slowly beginning to rise across the continent. Conditions have remained relatively s
The lowest ozone values, around 130 DU, are broadly over the Pole. Amounts are higher, over 400 D
nt, but range from around 130 DU to 350 DU, with the highest value along the coastal fringe south of Au
e to the observed values, whereas the Canadian analysis seems largely based on SMOBA data and is c
wly beginning the transition to spring. Temperatures in the ozone layer are generally rising but with the
are highest in a broad ring around 45°S and decline towards the pole, where they are coldest, and to th
are kilometres near the centre of the ozone layer, but is slowly beginning to shrink. The area with PSCs
ar. The lower stratosphere has become a little less stable as is usual as the vortex begins to break up.
mber.
its maximum area in late September at around 34 million square kilometres. It was a little larger than th
PSCs was larger than the decadal mean and close to the maximum of the last decade at around 27 millio
in the stratosphere this year. The ozone hole grew rapidly and by its maximum in late September was a
able conditions. The ozone hole shrank when it was unstable, but stopped shrinking with the return to s
came less stable the ozone hole became more elongated and South Georgia was at the edge of the ozo
https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
d ozone values are slowly beginning to rise across the continent. Conditions have remained stable thro
west ozone values, around 130 DU, are between the Antarctic Peninsula and the Pole. Amounts are hig
uch of the continent, but range from around 130 DU to 350 DU, with the highest value along the coasta
ecasts are close to the observed values, whereas the Canadian analysis seems largely based on SMOB
over the continent is slowly beginning the transition to spring. Temperatures in the ozone layer are gen
ver the continent. Temperatures are highest in a broad ring around 45°S and decline towards the pole,
at around 32 million square kilometres near the centre of the ozone layer, but is slowly beginning to shri
r the decade at this time of year. The lower stratosphere has returned to more stable conditions and the
fected by the ozone hole later in the first week of November.
able conditions. The ozone hole shrank when it was unstable, but stopped shrinking with the return to s
came less stable the ozone hole became more elongated and South Georgia was at the edge of the ozo
d ozone values are slowly beginning to rise across the continent. Conditions have remained stable in th
The lowest ozone values, below 120 DU, are near the Pole. Amounts are higher, over 400 DU in place
e from around 120 DU to 300 DU. There are marked differences between the various satellite ozone m
SMOBA data and is clearly at variance with ground based observations. The southern polar vortex is ju
enerally rising but with the temperature widely below -78°C Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) are exten
e coldest, and to the equator . They are generally a little below the normal within the polar vortex. The v
a with PSCs present has passed its largest and is beginning to shrink rapidly; it is now around 10 million
in temperature has stalled. The vortex remains roughly circular in shape, however South Georgia is lik
d ozone values are beginning to rise across the continent. The hole is currently close to average size fo
gher, over 400 DU in places over the southern ocean, particularly in the Pacific sector. Ozone values a
e various satellite ozone measurements and analyses. The KNMI analysis and TEMIS forecasts are clo
s. The southern polar vortex is just past its maximum size. The atmospheric circulation over the contin
Clouds (PSC) are extensive in the central part of the ozone layer over the continent. Temperatures are
in the polar vortex. The vortex area is a little larger than the decadal mean at around 33 million square
it is now around 12 million square kilometres, close to the average for the decade at this time of year. T
ape. South Georgia may be affected by the ozone hole from October 11 to 13.
20 million square kilometres.
https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
nue to drop across the continent. The hole is currently above average size for the decade at 23 million
cularly in the Pacific and Indian Ocean sectors. Ozone depletion is increasing, with values below the oz
es between the various satellite ozone measurements and analyses across the Southern Hemisphere.
arly at variance with ground based observations. The southern polar vortex is near its maximum size.
ature widely below -78°C Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) are extensive in the central part of the ozon
They are generally a little below the normal within the polar vortex. The vortex area is a little larger than
illion square kilometres, and has shrunk to around 19 million square kilometres, the largest for a decade
PSCs was larger than the decadal mean and close to the maximum of the last decade at around 27 milli
in the stratosphere this year. The ozone hole grew rapidly and by late September was above the avera
The Ozone Hole 2018
nue to drop across the continent. The hole is currently above average size for the decade at 23 million
uthern ocean, particularly in the Pacific sector. Ozone depletion is increasing, with values below the ozo
es between the various satellite ozone measurements and analyses across the Southern Hemisphere.
arly at variance with ground based observations. The southern polar vortex is near its maximum size.
e temperature widely below -78°C Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) are extensive in the central part of
uator . They are generally a little below the normal within the polar vortex. The vortex area is a little lar
around 27 million square kilometres, and has shrunk to around 18 million square kilometres, larger than
its maximum area in mid September at around 34 million square kilometres. It was a little larger than t
in the stratosphere this year. The ozone hole grew rapidly and by late September was above the avera
oming week.
ghest and lowest values measured since 1979. The red numbers are the maximum or minimum values. The stratospheric temp
re below which Type I (NAT) PSCs can form. https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
2018 ozone hole has formed. The hole is currently of average size for the decade at 20 million square
particularly south of Australia and New Zealand. Ozone depletion is increasing, with values widely belo
ous satellite ozone measurements and analyses across the Southern Hemisphere. The KNMI analysis
und based observations. The southern polar vortex is near its maximum size. The atmospheric circula
ds (PSC) are extensive in the central part of the ozone layer over the continent. Ozone values are cont
uator . They are generally a little below the normal within the polar vortex. The vortex area is a little lar
around 27 million square kilometres, and has shrunk to around 20 million square kilometres, close to th
its maximum area in mid September at around 34 million square kilometres. It was a little larger than t
in the stratosphere this year. The ozone hole grew rapidly and by mid September was of average size
week.
ghest and lowest values measured since 1979. The red numbers are the maximum or minimum values. The stratospheric temp
re below which Type I (NAT) PSCs can form. https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
2018 ozone hole has formed. The southern polar vortex is near its maximum size. The atmospheric cir
U, are near Halley. Amounts are higher, over 400 DU in places over the southern ocean, particularly so
90 DU to 270 DU. There are marked differences between the various satellite ozone measurements an
BA data and is clearly at variance with ground based observations. Temperatures in the ozone layer ar
ver the continent. Ozone values are continuing to drop over sunlit parts of the continent. Temperatures
al within the polar vortex. The vortex area is close to the decadal mean at around 32 million square kilom
million square kilometres, still a little larger than the decadal mean. In general the lower stratosphere is a
its maximum area in mid August at around 32 million square kilometres. It was a little larger than the d
pletion is expected to intensify over the coming week.
Antarctic Situation at 2018 August 24British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin
Antarctic ozone today: Ozone values are dropping across the continent. The southern polar
vortex continues to grow, but is nearing its maximum size. The atmospheric circulation is in winter
mode with generally lower ozone over the continent and higher ozone over the Southern
Ocean. The lowest values, just below 220 DU, are on the northern fringes of the continent, but
amounts are higher, near 450 DU in places, and building, over the southern ocean, particularly
south of Australia and India. Ozone depletion is increasing, with values at the ozone hole
threshold of 220 DU. Most short-term variation in ozone amount is due to dynamic
processes. Ozone values over the continent range from around 220 DU to 290 DU. There are
marked differences between the various satellite ozone measurements and analyses across the
Southern Hemisphere. Temperatures in the ozone layer are nearing their minimum and with the
temperature widely below -78°C Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) have formed in the central part
of the ozone layer over the continent. Ozone values are dropping over sunlit parts of the
continent, but have not quite reached ozone hole levels on a continuous basis. Temperatures are
highest in a broad ring around 45°S and decline towards the pole, where they are coldest, and to
the equator . They are generally a little below the normal within the polar vortex. The vortex is
growing in area, and is a little larger in size than the decadal mean at around 32 million square
kilometres near the centre of the ozone layer. The area with PSCs present is near its largest and
is larger than the decadal mean and close to the maximum for the decade at around 27 million
square kilometres. In general the lower stratosphere is a little above average stability for the time
of year and hence the vortex is roughly circular in shape.
The 2018 ozone hole: The polar vortex is nearing its maximum area. It is a little larger than the
decadal mean in size, and generally of average stability. The area with potential PSCs is larger
than the decadal mean and close to the maximum of the last decade. Ozone values are dropping
over sunlit parts of the continent, and are near ozone hole levels. Ozone depletion is expected to
intensify over the coming week.
Provisional indications suggest that ozone hole levels were reached in the Arctic on 2018
February 3. The region affected was between Svalbard and Scandinavia. Very low ozone
occurred over the west coast of Canada on February 12, 13, 16 and 17 in an event that was
probably dynamically forced, although PSCs were seen. A spring warming has occurred and all
parts of the Arctic ozone layer are now above the PSC formation threshold.
Ozone depletion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded over the South Pole in September 2006
Layers of the atmosphere (not to scale). The Earth's ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere
from approximately 20 to 30 km (12 to 19 mi).
External audio
“Whatever Happened to the Ozone
Hole?”, Distillations Podcast Episode 230,
April 17, 2018, Science History Institute
Ozone depletion describes two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four
percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime
decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.[1] The latter phenomenon is referred to as
the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these
stratospheric events.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially
manufactured halocarbonrefrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing
agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by the winds after being emitted from the
surface.[2] Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the
breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).[3] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as
emissions of halocarbons increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other
negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from
passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn and cataracts, which
were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals.
These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs,
halons and other ozone-depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s.
Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980
levels by around 2075.[4] The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental
agreement to date.
Contents
 1Ozone cycle overview

 2Observations on ozone layer depletion
o 2.1Chemicals in the atmosphere
 2.1.1CFCs and related compounds in the atmosphere
o 2.2Computer modeling
 3Ozone hole and its causes
o 3.1Interest in ozone layer depletion
 4Consequences of ozone layer depletion
o 4.1Increased UV
o 4.2Biological effects
 4.2.1Basal and squamous cell carcinomas
 4.2.2Malignant melanoma
 4.2.3Cortical cataracts
 4.2.4Increased tropospheric ozone
 4.2.5Increased production of vitamin D
 4.2.6Effects on animals
 4.2.7Effects on crops
 5Public policy
o 5.1ODS requirements in the marine industry
 6Prospects of ozone depletion
 7Research history
o 7.1Rowland–Molina hypothesis
o 7.2Antarctic ozone hole
o 7.3Arctic ozone hole
o 7.4Tibet ozone hole
o 7.5Potential depletion by storm clouds
 8Ozone depletion and global warming
 9Misconceptions
o 9.1CFC weight
o 9.2Percentage of man-made chlorine
o 9.3First observation
o 9.4Location of hole
 10World Ozone Day
 11See also
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links
Ozone cycle overview[edit]

Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone-oxygen cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic
oxygen), oxygen gas (O
2 or diatomic oxygen), and ozone gas (O
3 or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after
intaking ultraviolet photons. This converts a single O

2 into two atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate O
2 molecules to create two O
3 molecules. These ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, following which ozone splits into a
molecule of O
2 and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a
continuing process that terminates when an oxygen atom recombines with an ozone molecule to make two O
2 molecules.
O+O
3 → 2 O
2
The total amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between photochemical production
and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are the hydroxyl
radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and bromine radical (Br·). The dot is a notation
to indicate that each species has an unpaired electron and is thus extremely reactive. All of these have both
natural and man-made sources; at the present time, most of the OH· and NO· in the stratosphere is naturally
occurring, but human activity has drastically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are
found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the stratosphere
without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br
atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl
3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl· + ·CFCl
2
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a
catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest
example of such a cycle,[5] a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O
3), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O
2). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules
of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

 Cl· + O
3 → ClO + O
2
A chlorine atom removes an oxygen atom from an ozone molecule to make a ClO molecule
 ClO + O
3 → Cl· + 2 O
2
This ClO can also remove an oxygen atom from another ozone molecule; the chlorine is free to repeat
this two-step cycle
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by
the effects of null cycles. More complicated mechanisms have also been discovered that lead to ozone
destruction in the lower stratosphere.
The ozone cycle
Global monthly average total ozone amount
Lowest value of ozone measured by TOMS each year in the ozone hole
A single chlorine atom would continuously destroy ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale
for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by
forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO
2). Bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone on a per atom basis, but there is much less
bromine in the atmosphere at present. Both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone
depletion. Laboratory studies have also shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic
cycles. However, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF in the
Earth's stratosphere, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that
they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.
A single chlorine atom is able to react with an average of 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from
the catalytic cycle. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere yearly by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) demonstrates the danger of CFCs and
HCFCs to the environment.[6][7]
Observations on ozone layer depletion[edit]

The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth's
surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as "DU". The most prominent decrease in
ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early
summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total
Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).[8]
Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over
Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are continuing. Antarctic total column ozone in September
and October have continued to be 40–50 percent lower than pre-ozone-hole values since the 1990s.[1] A gradual
trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.[9] In 2017, NASA announced that the ozone hole was the weakest
since 1988 because of warm stratospheric conditions. It is expected to recover around 2070.[10]
The amount lost is more variable year-to-year in the Arctic than in the Antarctic. The greatest Arctic declines
are in the winter and spring, reaching up to 30 percent when the stratosphere is coldest.
Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone
depletion.[11] PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why
ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and
predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to
many scientists.[citation needed]
It is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion in middle latitudes rather than holes. Total column ozone
declined below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for mid-latitudes. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then
increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the
amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere's mid-latitudes, total ozone
remained constant over that time period. There are no significant trends in the tropics, largely because halogen-
containing compounds have not had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical
latitudes.[1][12]
Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone-depleting effects, as
observed with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in the Philippines.[13]
Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric
temperatures.[14][15] The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone,
hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases
in greenhouse gases such as CO
2 and CFCs themselves; however, the ozone-induced cooling appears to be dominant.
[16]
Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult, but the precision of models' predictions of observed values and the
agreement among different modeling techniques have increased steadily.[1] The World Meteorological
Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project—Report No. 44 comes out strongly in favor of
the Montreal Protocol, but notes that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the 1994–1997
period.[17]
Chemicals in the atmosphere[edit]
CFCs and related compounds in the atmosphere[edit]
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible
for man-made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the
stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).[18]
CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1930s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling
units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic
equipment. They also occur as by-products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have
ever been identified for these compounds—their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human
manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone-depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are
dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can
break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the
longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule
takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it
can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that
time.[19][verification needed]
1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane, also known as CFC-113a, is one of four man-made chemicals newly
discovered in the atmosphere by a team at the University of East Anglia. CFC-113a is the only
known CFC whose abundance in the atmosphere is still growing. Its source remains a mystery, but illegal
manufacturing is suspected by some. CFC-113a seems to have been accumulating unabated since 1960.
Between 2010 and 2012, emissions of the gas jumped by 45 percent.[20][21]
Computer modeling[edit]
Scientists have attributed ozone depletion to the increase of man-made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds
from CFCs by combining observational data with computer models. These complex chemistry transport
models (e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS—Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) work by combining
measurements of chemicals and meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants. They identify key
chemical reactions and transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.
Ozone hole and its causes[edit]
Ozone hole in North America during 1984 (abnormally warm reducing ozone depletion) and 1997 (abnormally cold
resulting in increased seasonal depletion). Source: NASA[22]
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped
to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from
September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an
atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed
during the Antarctic spring.[23]
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases
(primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing
chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take
place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).[24]
These polar stratospheric clouds form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of
three months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature
and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or below −80 °C. These low temperatures
form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds—nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water-
ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice (nacerous) clouds—provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose
products will, in the spring lead to ozone destruction.[25]
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key observation is that,
ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in "reservoir" compounds, primarily chlorine nitrate
(ClONO
2) as well as stable end products such as HCl. The formation of end products essentially remove Cl from the
ozone depletion process. The former sequester Cl, which can be later made available via absorption of light at
shorter wavelengths than 400 nm.[26] During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface
of the polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir" compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl
and ClO). The process by which the clouds remove NO
2from the stratosphere by converting it to nitric acid in the PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation
is called denitrification. This prevents newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO
2.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during
spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive
chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical
reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole
mechanism. Further warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December.
As warm, ozone and NO
2-rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process shuts
down, and the ozone hole closes.[27]

Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion
through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.[28]
Interest in ozone layer depletion[edit]
Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The
limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming[29] or the perception of global
warming as a subset of the "ozone hole".[30] In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC
depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated.[31] They became active much later,
e.g. in Greenpeace's support for a CFC-free fridge produced by the former East German company VEB dkk
Scharfenstein.[31][32]
The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact" in the scientific sense.
The "ozone hole" is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield". The ozone does not disappear
through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning" of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with
non-scientists and their concerns.[33] The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk[34] as lay
people feared severe personal consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of
plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. Not only on the policy level, ozone regulation compared to
climate change fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays
before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public
action.[33] The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole" was widely reported in the press.
The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement
error.[35] Scientific consensus was established after regulation.[31]
While the Antarctic ozone hole has a relatively small effect on global ozone, the hole has generated a great
deal of public interest because:
 Many have worried that ozone holes might start appearing over other areas of the globe, though to date
the only other large-scale depletion is a smaller ozone "dimple" observed during the Arctic spring around
the North Pole. Ozone at middle latitudes has declined, but by a much smaller extent (a decrease of
about 4–5 percent).
 If stratospheric conditions become more severe (cooler temperatures, more clouds, more active
chlorine), global ozone may decrease at a greater pace. Standard global warmingtheory predicts that the
stratosphere will cool.[36]
 When the Antarctic ozone hole breaks up each year, the ozone-depleted air drifts out into nearby
regions. Decreases in the ozone level of up to 10 percent have been reported in New Zealand in the
month following the breakup of the Antarctic ozone hole,[37] with ultraviolet-B radiation intensities
increasing by more than 15 percent since the 1970s.[38][39]
Consequences of ozone layer depletion[edit]

Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB
levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for
the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well-tied to CFCs and to increases in
surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin
cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some
forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for
lifestyle changes over time.
Increased UV[edit]
Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB
radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with
the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of
UVB reach the Earth’s surface.[1][40]UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone
depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.[41]
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION. The study used ground
instruments in Ecuador and the last 28 years' data from 12 satellites of several countries, and found that the UV
radiation reaching equatorial latitudes was far greater than expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24
in Quito; the WHO considers 11 as an extreme index and a great risk to health. The report concluded that
depleted ozone levels around the mid-latitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these
areas.[42] Later, the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the
same findings as the Ecuadorian study.
Biological effects[edit]
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on
human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above,
no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the
ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the
ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New
Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in
surface UV could be significant.[43]
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive (including production
of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV
leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.
Basal and squamous cell carcinomas[edit]
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly
linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood—
absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in
transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the
treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining
epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in
long-term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.[44]
Malignant melanoma[edit]
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal
in about 15–20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet
exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this
uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed
that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men
and 16 percent for women.[45] A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56
percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven
years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.[46]
Cortical cataracts[edit]
Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using
crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular
exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual
ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity.[47] In this highly exposed group of
predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to
date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional
cataracts by 2050.[48]
Increased tropospheric ozone[edit]
Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is generally recognized to be
a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are particularly high for young
children, the elderly, and those with asthma or other respiratory difficulties. At this time, ozone at ground level
is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.[49]
Increased production of vitamin D[edit]
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in
those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows that many humans have
less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population, the lowest quarter of vitamin D
(<17.8 ng/ml) were found using information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be
associated with an increase in all-cause mortality in the general population.[50] While blood level of vitamin D
in excess of 100 ng/ml appear to raise blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality,
the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing vitamin D in excess of the body's
requirements.[51]
Effects on animals[edit]
A November 2010 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the coast of
California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to
blame".[52] The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over 150 whales in the Gulf of California and
found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn",
having cells that form when the DNA is damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a
result of ozone depletion are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer
rates have been on the increase in recent decades."[53]
Effects on crops[edit]
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species
of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen.
Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase.[54] "Despite mechanisms to
reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased
levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation."[55]
Public policy[edit]
NASA projections of stratospheric ozone concentrations if chlorofluorocarbons had not been banned
The full extent of the damage that CFCs have caused to the ozone layer is not known and will not be known
for decades; however, marked decreases in column ozone have already been observed. The Montreal and
Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established or important
uncertainties in the science field were being resolved.[31] The ozone case was understood comparably well by
lay persons as e.g. Ozone shield or ozone hole were useful "easy-to-understand bridging
metaphors".[33] Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays, resulting in a 50 percent sales loss
even before legislation was enforced.[33]
After a 1976 report by the United States National Academy of Sciences concluded that credible scientific
evidence supported the ozone depletion hypothesis[56] a few countries, including the United States, Canada,
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, moved to eliminate the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans.[57] At the time this
was widely regarded as a first step towards a more comprehensive regulation policy, but progress in this
direction slowed in subsequent years, due to a combination of political factors (continued resistance from the
halocarbon industry and a general change in attitude towards environmental regulation during the first two
years of the Reagan administration) and scientific developments (subsequent National Academy assessments
that indicated that the first estimates of the magnitude of ozone depletion had been overly large). A critical
DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon was set to expire in 1979. The United States banned the use of CFCs in
aerosol cans in 1978.[57] The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays, and in the
U.S., CFCs continued to be used as refrigerants and for cleaning circuit boards. Worldwide CFC production
fell sharply after the U.S. aerosol ban, but by 1986 had returned nearly to its 1976 level.[57] In
1993, DuPont Canada closed its CFC facility.[58]
The U.S. government's attitude began to change again in 1983, when William Ruckelshaus replaced Anne M.
Burford as Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Under Ruckelshaus and his
successor, Lee Thomas, the EPA pushed for an international approach to halocarbon regulations. In 1985
twenty nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention for the Protection
of the Ozone Layer, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-
depleting substances. That same year, the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole was announced, causing a
revival in public attention to the issue. In 1987, representatives from 43 nations signed the Montreal Protocol.
Meanwhile, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a protocol to limit CFC
production. However, this shift was uneven with DuPont acting more quickly than its European counterparts.
DuPont may have feared court action related to increased skin cancer, especially as the EPA had published a
study in 1986 claiming that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in
the U.S. in the next 88 years.[59] The EU shifted its position as well after Germany gave up its defence of the
CFC industry and started supporting moves towards regulation. Government and industry in France and the
UK tried to defend their CFC producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed.[60]
At Montreal, the participants agreed to freeze production of CFCs at 1986 levels and to reduce production by
50 percent by 1999.[57] After a series of scientific expeditions to the Antarctic produced convincing evidence
that the ozone hole was indeed caused by chlorine and bromine from manmade organohalogens, the Montreal
Protocol was strengthened at a 1990 meeting in London. The participants agreed to phase out CFCs and halons
entirely (aside from a very small amount marked for certain "essential" uses, such as asthma inhalers) by 2000
in non-Article 5 countries and by 2010 in Article 5 (less developed) signatories.[61] At a 1992 meeting in
Copenhagen, the phase-out date was moved up to 1996.[61] At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a
fumigant used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances. For all
substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for less developed ('Article 5(1)')
countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported by transfers of expertise, technology, and money
from non-Article 5(1) Parties to the Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be
applied for under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl bromide and
under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide.[62][63]
Civil society including especially NGOs, played critical roles at all stages of policy development leading up to
the Vienna Conference, the Montreal Protocol, and in assessing compliance afterwards.[64][65][66][67] The major
companies claimed that no alternatives to HFC existed.[68] An ozone-safe hydrocarbon refrigerant was
developed at a Hamburg technological institute in Germany, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-
governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace. Greenpeace was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze," and
left the patent as open source.[69][70] The NGO then worked successfully first with a small and struggling
company to market an appliance beginning in Europe, then Asia and later Latin America, receiving a 1997
UNEP award.[71][72] By 1995, Germany had already made CFC refrigerators illegal.[72] Since 2004, corporations
like Coca-Cola, Carlsberg, and IKEA have been forming a coalition to promote the ozone-safe Greenfreeze
units. Production spread to companies like Electrolux, Bosch, and LG, with sales reaching some 300 million
refrigerators by 2008.[71][73] In Latin America, a domestic Argentinian company began Greenfreeze production
in 2003, while the giant Bosch in Brazil began a year later.[74][75] By 2013 it was being used by some 700
million refrigerators, making up about 40 percent of the market.[68] In the U.S., however, change has been much
slower. To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were
being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone
depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC-
134a (R-134a), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC-12 (R-12) in automobile air conditioners.
In laboratory analytics (a former "essential" use) the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various
other solvents.[76] Chemical companies like Du Pont, whose representatives even disparaged Greenfreeze as
"that German technology," maneuvered the EPA to block the technology in the U.S. until 2011.[77][78][79][80] Ben
& Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric, spurred by Greenpeace, had expressed formal interest in 2008
which figured in the EPA's final approval.[71][81]
More recently, policy experts have advocated for efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection
efforts.[82][83] Many ODS are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative
forcing than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. Thus policies protecting the ozone layer have had
benefits in mitigating climate change. In fact, the reduction of the radiative forcing due to ODS probably
masked the true level of climate change effects of other GHGs, and was responsible for the "slow down" of
global warming from the mid-90s.[84] Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of
environmental improvements in the other.
ODS requirements in the marine industry[edit]
The IMO has amended MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 regarding ozone depleting substances. As from
July 1, 2010, all vessels where MARPOL Annex VI is applicable should have a list of equipment using ozone
depleting substances. The list should include name of ODS, type and location of equipment, quantity in kg and
date. All changes since that date should be recorded in an ODS Record book on board recording all intended or
unintended releases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, new ODS supply or landing to shore facilities should be
recorded as well.
Prospects of ozone depletion[edit]
Ozone levels stabilized in the 1990s following the Montreal Protocol, and have started to recover. They are projected to
reach pre-1980 levels before 2075.[4]
Ozone-depleting gas trends
Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs,
atmospheric concentrations of the most-significant compounds have been declining. These substances are
being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine
(EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone-depleting
chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine-containing chemicals. The data suggest
that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (CH
3Br). The phase-out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (N
[1]
2O), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone-depleting
substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.[85]

A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone
has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in
polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due
to declining ozone-depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal
Protocol.[86]
The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere
over Antarctica will increase by 5–10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060–2075. This
is 10–25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric
concentrations of ozone-depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing
countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the
stratosphere due to changing wind patterns.[87] A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.[9]
Research history[edit]
See also: Ozone–oxygen cycle
The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's
stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen
(O
2) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone.
Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules,
i.e. O + O
3 → 2O
2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular
hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount
of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the
natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it
currently is.
In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N
2O), a stable, long-lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth's surface could affect the amount of nitric
oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere,
where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an
increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in
the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the
following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic
passenger aircraft, which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However,
more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, found that the drop in ozone would be from 1–2 percent if a fleet of 500
supersonic passenger aircraft were operated.[88]This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for
advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.[89]
Rowland–Molina hypothesis[edit]
In 1974 Frank Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry Professor at the University of California at Irvine, and his
postdoctoral associate Mario J. Molina suggested that long-lived organic halogen compounds, such as CFCs,
might behave in a similar fashion as Crutzen had proposed for nitrous oxide. James Lovelock had recently
discovered, during a cruise in the South Atlantic in 1971, that almost all of the CFC compounds manufactured
since their invention in 1930 were still present in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland concluded that, like N
2O, the CFCs would reach the stratosphere where they would be dissociated by UV light, releasing chlorine
atoms. A year earlier, Richard Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone at the University of Michigan had shown that Cl is
even more efficient than NO at catalyzing the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached
by Michael McElroy and Steven Wofsy at Harvard University. Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs
were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorine—instead, they had been investigating the possible
effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are very much smaller.
The Rowland–Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon
industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science
fiction tale … a load of rubbish … utter nonsense".[90] Robert Abplanalp, the President of Precision Valve
Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC
Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements.[91] Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic
assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct
observation in the stratosphere. The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the
chlorine reservoir species (HCl and ClONO
2) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of
stratospheric chlorine, and that nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even
more convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine monoxide (ClO)
in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone—its observation thus demonstrated that
Cl radicals not only were present in the stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone.
McElroy and Wofsy extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even
more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the brominated organic
compounds known as halons, widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric
bromine. In 1976 the United States National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone
depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. In response the United States, Canada
and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. Early estimates were that, if CFC
production continued at 1977 levels, the total atmospheric ozone would after a century or so reach a steady
state, 15 to 18 percent below normal levels. By 1984, when better evidence on the speed of critical reactions
was available, this estimate was changed to 5 to 9 percent steady-state depletion.[92]
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on
stratospheric ozone.
Antarctic ozone hole[edit]
The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole" by British Antarctic
Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985[93]) came as a
shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had
anticipated.[35] Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were
becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality
control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole
was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion
in in situobservations.[60] When the software was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as
1976.[94]
Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused
a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-
destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low
temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud
provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds,
which can deplete ozone easily.
Moreover, the polar vortex formed over Antarctica is very tight and the reaction occurring on the surface of the
cloud crystals is far different from when it occurs in atmosphere. These conditions have led to ozone hole
formation in Antarctica. This hypothesis was decisively confirmed, first by laboratory measurements and
subsequently by direct measurements, from the ground and from high-altitude airplanes, of very high
concentrations of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the Antarctic stratosphere.[95]
Alternative hypotheses, which had attributed the ozone hole to variations in solar UV radiation or to changes in
atmospheric circulation patterns, were also tested and shown to be untenable.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground-based Dobson
spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all
latitudes outside of the tropics.[12] These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence,
the major halocarbon-producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related
compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.
Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme, under the auspices of the World Meteorological
Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion,
based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and
the smallest it had been for about a decade.[96] The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and
ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer
outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this
century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later."[97] In
2012, NOAA and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second
smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its
maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres."[98] A gradual trend
toward "healing" was reported in 2016.[9]
The hole in the Earth's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern
Hemisphere all the way to the equator.[99] The ozone hole has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to
the tropics and increased rainfall at low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.
Arctic ozone hole[edit]
On March 3, 2005, the journal Nature[100] published an article linking 2004's unusually large Arctic ozone hole
to solar wind activity.
On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the ozone present over the
Arctic having been destroyed.[101][102][103] The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic
stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a
relationship that is still under investigation.[102] By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest compared
to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would become an ozone hole.[104]This would
require that the quantities of ozone to fall below 200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central
Siberia.[104] It is predicted that the thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on
March 30–31.[104]
On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature, which said that between December 2010 and
March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the surface
was destroyed.[105] The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to
the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter.[105] According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient
loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole."[105] The study analyzed data from
the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the larger-than-normal ozone loss was due to an
unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more
ozone-destroying chlorine compounds to be created.[106] According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study,
cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid
March 2011—much later than usual—with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the
Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near-zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters".[106]
Tibet ozone hole[edit]
As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5
million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet.[107] Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared
over mountainous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and the Hindu Kush, along with an unprecedented hole
over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.[108]
Potential depletion by storm clouds[edit]
Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over Antarctica occurs over
summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be destroying ozone there as well.[109][110]
Ozone depletion and global warming[edit]

Main article: Ozone depletion and global warming
Among others, Robert Watson had a role in the science assessment and in the regulation efforts of ozone
depletion and global warming.[31] Prior to the 1980s, the EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British
government had dissenting scientific reports and Watson played a role in the process of unified assessments.
Based on the experience with the ozone case, the IPCC started to work on a unified reporting and science
assessment[31] to reach a consensus to provide the IPCC Summary for Policymakers.
There are various areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming science:
Radiative forcing from various greenhouse gases and other sources
 The same CO
2 radiative forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the stratosphere.
[111] This cooling, in
turn, is expected to produce a relative increase in ozone (O

3) depletion in polar area and the frequency of ozone holes.
[112]
 Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system. There are two
opposing effects: Reduced ozone causes the stratosphere to absorb less solar radiation, thus cooling the
stratosphere while warming the troposphere; the resulting colder stratosphere emits less long-wave
radiation downward, thus cooling the troposphere. Overall, the cooling dominates; the IPCC concludes
"observed stratospheric O
3 losses over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the surface-troposphere
system"[14] of about −0.15 ± 0.10 watts per square meter (W/m2).[86]

 One of the strongest predictions of the greenhouse effect is that the stratosphere will cool.[111] Although
this cooling has been observed, it is not trivial to separate the effects of changes in the concentration of
greenhouse gases and ozone depletion since both will lead to cooling. However, this can be done by
numerical stratospheric modeling. Results from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory show that above 20 km (12 mi), the greenhouse
gases dominate the cooling.[113]
 As noted under 'Public Policy', ozone depleting chemicals are also often greenhouse gases. The increases
in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m2 of radiative forcing, corresponding
to about 14 percent of the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed
greenhouse gases.[86]
 The long term modeling of the process, its measurement, study, design of theories and testing take
decades to document, gain wide acceptance, and ultimately become the dominant paradigm. Several
theories about the destruction of ozone were hypothesized in the 1980s, published in the late 1990s,
and are currently being investigated. Dr Drew Schindell, and Dr Paul Newman, NASA Goddard, proposed
a theory in the late 1990s, using computational modeling methods to model ozone destruction, that
accounted for 78 percent of the ozone destroyed. Further refinement of that model accounted for 89
percent of the ozone destroyed, but pushed back the estimated recovery of the ozone hole from 75
years to 150 years. (An important part of that model is the lack of stratospheric flight due to depletion of
fossil fuels.)
Misconceptions[edit]
CFC weight[edit]
Since CFC molecules are heavier than air (nitrogen or oxygen), it is commonly believed that the CFC
molecules cannot reach the stratosphere in significant amount.[114] However, atmospheric gases are not sorted
by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases in the atmosphere. Lighter CFCs are evenly distributed
throughout the turbosphere and reach the upper atmosphere,[115] although some of the heavier CFCs are not
evenly distributed.[116]
Percentage of man-made chlorine[edit]
Sources of stratospheric chlorine
Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to
five times larger than man-made ones." While strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it
is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed
by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long-lived, allowing them to
reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from CFCs and
related haloalkanes than there is in HCl from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are
dominant.[117] Only methyl chloride, which is one of these halocarbons, has a mainly natural source,[118] and it is
responsible for about 20 percent of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80 percent comes from
manmade sources.
Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers[119] have shown that the
contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs. A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble
halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major
contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.[119]
Nevertheless, a 2015 study[120] showed that the role of Mount Erebus volcano in the Antarctic ozone depletion
was probably underestimated. Based on the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data over the last 35 years and by using
the NOAA HYSPLIT trajectory model, researchers showed that Erebus volcano gas emissions
(including hydrogen chloride (HCl)) can reach the Antarctic stratosphere via high-latitude cyclones and then
the polar vortex. Depending on Erebus volcano activity, the additional annual HCl mass entering the
stratosphere from Erebus varies from 1.0 to 14.3 kt.
First observation[edit]
G.M.B. Dobson mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first
measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic
levels of ~450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson
describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the
150–100 DU range.[121]
The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was primarily a matter of timing: during
the Arctic spring ozone levels rose smoothly, peaking in April, whereas in the Antarctic they stayed
approximately constant during early spring, rising abruptly in November when the polar vortex broke down.
The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying constant, early
springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter values, by as much as 50 percent, and
normal values are not reached again until December.[122]
Location of hole[edit]
Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed
globally in the troposphere and stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is
not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric
clouds.[123] In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above other parts of the
earth.[124][better source needed]
World Ozone Day[edit]

In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September 16 as the International Day for
the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, or "World Ozone Day", to commemorate the signing of the Montreal
Protocol on that date in 1987.[125]
See also[edit]
 Global warming portal
 Environment portal
 Ecology portal
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
 Andersen, S. O. and K. M. Sarma. (2002). Protecting the Ozone Layer: The United Nations History,
Earthscan Press. London.
 Benedick, Richard Elliot; World Wildlife Fund (U.S.); Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. Georgetown
University. (1998). Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (2nd ed.). Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-65003-9. Retrieved May 28, 2016. (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief
U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Montreal Protocol.)
 Chasek, Pamela S., David L. Downie, and Janet Welsh Brown (2013). Global Environmental Politics, 6th
Edition, Boulder: Westview Press.
 Gareau, Brian (2013). From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Environmental Protection in
the Montreal Protocol. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17526-4. Archived from the original on
2013-03-30.
 Grundmann, Reiner (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone. Psychology
Press. ISBN 978-0-415-22423-9. Retrieved May 28, 2016.
 Parson, Edward (2004). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
External links[edit]
 Ozone layer at Curlie
 NOAA/ESRL Ozone Depletion
 NOAA Ozone Depleting Gas Index
 The Ozone Hole
 MACC stratospheric ozone service delivers maps, datasets and validation reports about the past and
current state of the ozone layer.
 Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies
show
Human impact on the environment
show
Global warming and climate change
show
Pollution
show
Natural resources
show
Global catastrophic risks
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Causes of Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of
stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause
temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such
as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.
It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of
compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of ozone
depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone
hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.
Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other
chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the
atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability, CFCs are
instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down
by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively
involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone are
replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
ClO + O  Cl + O2
Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to 100,000
times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also destroy
stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds
are known as industrial halocarbons.
Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international
agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so
long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century.
Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in
the atmosphere.
Ozone layer depletion is one of the most serious problems faced by our planet earth. It
is also one of the prime reasons which are leading to global warming. Ozone is a
colourless gas which is found in the stratosphere of our upper atmosphere. The layer of
ozone gas is what which protects us from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun.
The ozone layer absorbs these harmful radiations and thus prevents these rays from
entering the earth’s atmosphere. Ultraviolet radiations are high energy electromagnetic
waves emitted by the sun which if enters the earth’s atmosphere can lead to various
environmental issues including global warming, and also a number of health related
issues for all living organisms. Thanks to the ozone layer which protects us from these
harmful rays.
From the 1970s the depletion of the ozone layer started to capture the attention of the
scientists, environmentalists, and the world community at large. There had been a lot of
research on this topic over these years to find out all the possible causes that lead to
this problem and the effects of ozone depletion. There has been also a lot of research to
find out possible solutions to this problem. Let us see some of the important causes and
effects of ozone layer depletion
Causes of ozone layer depletion
The main things that lead to destruction of the ozone gas in the ozone layer. Low
temperatures, increase in the level of chlorine and bromine gases in the upper
stratosphere are some of the reasons that leads to ozone layer depletion. But the one
and the most important reason for ozone layer depletion is the production and emission
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This is what which leads to almost 80 percent of the
total ozone layer depletion.
There are many other substances that lead to ozone layer depletion such as hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such
substances are found in vehicular emissions, by-products of industrial processes,
aerosols and refrigerants. All these ozone depleting substances remain stable in the
lower atmospheric region, but as they reach the stratosphere, they get exposed to the
ultra violet rays. This leads to their breakdown and releasing of free chlorine atoms
which reacts with the ozone gas, thus leading to the depletion of the ozone layer.
Effects of ozone layer depletion
Let us see a few possible effects of the ozone layer depletion on the earth’s
environment and also on the plants and animals. The depletion of ozone layer allows
entering of UV rays from sun into the earth’s atmosphere which is associated with a
number of health related and environmental issues. Let us see its major impacts on
human beings
Skin Cancer: exposure to UV rays from sun can lead to increased risk for developing of
several types of skin cancers. Malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell
carcinoma are the most common cancers caused by exposure to UV rays.
Eye Damage: UV rays are harmful for our eyes too. Direct exposure to UV rays can
lead to Cataract problems, and also Photokeratitis or snow blindness.
Damage to Immune system: our immune system is also highly vulnerable to UV rays.
Increased exposure to UV rays can lead to weakening of the response of immune
system and even impairment of the immune system in extreme cases.
Aging of skin: exposure to UV rays can lead to acceleration of the aging process of your
skin. This will result in you looking older than what you actually are. It can also lead to
photo allergy that result in outbreak of rashes in fair skinned people
In humans, exposure to UV rays can also lead to difficulty in breathing, chest pain, and
throat irritation and can even lead to hampering of lung function.
UV rays affect other life forms too. It adversely affects the different species of
amphibians and is one of the prime reasons for the declining numbers of the amphibian
species. It affects them in every stage of their life cycle; from hampering the growth and
development in the larvae stage, deformities and decreases immunities in some species
and to even retinal damage and blindness in some species.
UV rays also have adverse effect on the marine ecosystem. It adversely affects the
planktons which plays a vital role in the food chain and oceanic carbon cycle. Affecting
phytoplankton will in turn affect the whole ocean ecosystem.
UV rays will also affect the plants. UV radiations can alter the time of flowering in some
plant species. It can also directly affect the plant growth by altering the physiological
and developmental processes of the plants.
Effect of ozone depletion on environment
Ozone layer depletion leads to decrease in ozone in the stratosphere and increase in
ozone present in the lower atmosphere. Presence of ozone in the lower atmosphere is
considered as a pollutant and a greenhouse gas. Ozone in the lower atmosphere
contributes to global warming and climate change. The depletion of ozone layer has
trickle down effects in the form of global warming, which in turn leads to melting of polar
ice, which will lead to rising sea levels and climatic changes around the world.
Ways to bring down ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion is not something that affects any specific country or region. The
whole world is vulnerable to its after effects. That makes it important for each and every
one of us to take actions to reduce ozone layer depletion. International agreements
such as Montreal protocol in 1987 have helped in reducing and controlling industrial
emission of Chlofluorocarbons. More and more of such international agreements
between countries is necessary to bring down ozone layer depletion. At individual level
each and everyone also can contribute towards reducing ozone layer depletion. Buying
and using recycled products, saving of energy, using of public transport can do a lot in
combating ozone layer depletion. The most important thing that we can do is spreading
awareness. Our individual efforts will go a long way in saving the earth’s blanket and
keep our planet earth liveable for us and our future generations.
Description
The ozone layer is what saves the Earth and the living organisms from the harmful
radiations of the sun. It is necessary to understand its importance and work to control
the depletion of this layer.
Measurements show that the decline in chlorine, resulting from an international ban on chlorine-
containing manmade chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), has resulted in about 20 percent
less ozone depletion during the Antarctic winter than there was in 2005 — the first year that
measurements of chlorine and ozone during the Antarctic winter were made by NASA’s Aura
satellite.
“We see very clearly that chlorine from CFCs is going down in the ozone hole, and that less ozone
depletion is occurring because of it,” said lead author Susan Strahan, an atmospheric scientist from
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
CFCs are long-lived chemical compounds that eventually rise into the stratosphere, where they are
broken apart by the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlorine atoms that go on to destroy ozone
molecules. Stratospheric ozone protects life on the planet by absorbing potentially harmful ultraviolet
radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts, suppress immune systems and damage plant
life.
Two years after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985, nations of the world signed the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which regulated ozone-depleting
compounds. Later amendments to the Montreal Protocol completely phased out production of CFCs.
Past studies have used statistical analyses of changes in the ozone hole’s size to argue that ozone
depletion is decreasing. This study is the first to use measurements of the chemical composition
inside the ozone hole to confirm that not only is ozone depletion decreasing, but that the decrease is
caused by the decline in CFCs.
The study was published Jan. 4 in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
The Antarctic ozone hole forms during September in the Southern Hemisphere’s winter as the
returning sun’s rays catalyze ozone destruction cycles involving chlorine and bromine that come
primarily from CFCs. To determine how ozone and other chemicals have changed year to year,
scientists used data from the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) aboard the Aura satellite, which has
been making measurements continuously around the globe since mid-2004. While many satellite
instruments require sunlight to measure atmospheric trace gases, MLS measures microwave
emissions and, as a result, can measure trace gases over Antarctica during the key time of year: the
dark southern winter, when the stratospheric weather is quiet and temperatures are low and stable.
The change in ozone levels above Antarctica from the beginning to the end of southern winter
— early July to mid-September — was computed daily from MLS measurements every year from
2005 to 2016. “During this period, Antarctic temperatures are always very low, so the rate of ozone
destruction depends mostly on how much chlorine there is,” Strahan said. “This is when we want to
measure ozone loss.”
They found that ozone loss is decreasing, but they needed to know whether a decrease in CFCs
was responsible. When ozone destruction is ongoing, chlorine is found in many molecular forms,
most of which are not measured. But after chlorine has destroyed nearly all the available ozone, it
reacts instead with methane to form hydrochloric acid, a gas measured by MLS. “By around mid-
October, all the chlorine compounds are conveniently converted into one gas, so by measuring
hydrochloric acid we have a good measurement of the total chlorine,” Strahan said.
Nitrous oxide is a long-lived gas that behaves just like CFCs in much of the stratosphere. The CFCs
are declining at the surface but nitrous oxide is not. If CFCs in the stratosphere are decreasing, then
over time, less chlorine should be measured for a given value of nitrous oxide. By comparing MLS
measurements of hydrochloric acid and nitrous oxide each year, they determined that the total
chlorine levels were declining on average by about 0.8 percent annually.
Measurements show that the decline in chlorine, resulting from an international ban on chlorine-
containing manmade chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), has resulted in about 20 percent
less ozone depletion during the Antarctic winter than there was in 2005 — the first year that
measurements of chlorine and ozone during the Antarctic winter were made by NASA’s Aura
satellite.
“We see very clearly that chlorine from CFCs is going down in the ozone hole, and that less ozone
depletion is occurring because of it,” said lead author Susan Strahan, an atmospheric scientist from
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
CFCs are long-lived chemical compounds that eventually rise into the stratosphere, where they are
broken apart by the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlorine atoms that go on to destroy ozone
molecules. Stratospheric ozone protects life on the planet by absorbing potentially harmful ultraviolet
radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts, suppress immune systems and damage plant
life.
Two years after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985, nations of the world signed the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which regulated ozone-depleting
compounds. Later amendments to the Montreal Protocol completely phased out production of CFCs.
Past studies have used statistical analyses of changes in the ozone hole’s size to argue that ozone
depletion is decreasing. This study is the first to use measurements of the chemical composition
inside the ozone hole to confirm that not only is ozone depletion decreasing, but that the decrease is
caused by the decline in CFCs.
The study was published Jan. 4 in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
The Antarctic ozone hole forms during September in the Southern Hemisphere’s winter as the
returning sun’s rays catalyze ozone destruction cycles involving chlorine and bromine that come
primarily from CFCs. To determine how ozone and other chemicals have changed year to year,
scientists used data from the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) aboard the Aura satellite, which has
been making measurements continuously around the globe since mid-2004. While many satellite
instruments require sunlight to measure atmospheric trace gases, MLS measures microwave
emissions and, as a result, can measure trace gases over Antarctica during the key time of year: the
dark southern winter, when the stratospheric weather is quiet and temperatures are low and stable.
The change in ozone levels above Antarctica from the beginning to the end of southern winter
— early July to mid-September — was computed daily from MLS measurements every year from
2005 to 2016. “During this period, Antarctic temperatures are always very low, so the rate of ozone
destruction depends mostly on how much chlorine there is,” Strahan said. “This is when we want to
measure ozone loss.”
They found that ozone loss is decreasing, but they needed to know whether a decrease in CFCs
was responsible. When ozone destruction is ongoing, chlorine is found in many molecular forms,
most of which are not measured. But after chlorine has destroyed nearly all the available ozone, it
reacts instead with methane to form hydrochloric acid, a gas measured by MLS. “By around mid-
October, all the chlorine compounds are conveniently converted into one gas, so by measuring
hydrochloric acid we have a good measurement of the total chlorine,” Strahan said.
Nitrous oxide is a long-lived gas that behaves just like CFCs in much of the stratosphere. The CFCs
are declining at the surface but nitrous oxide is not. If CFCs in the stratosphere are decreasing, then
over time, less chlorine should be measured for a given value of nitrous oxide. By comparing MLS
measurements of hydrochloric acid and nitrous oxide each year, they determined that the total
chlorine levels were declining on average by about 0.8 percent annually.
What is Ozone Layer?

To understand ozone layer, it would be helpful to know the different layers of the
atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is composed of many layers, each playing a
significant role. The first layer stretching approximately 10 kilometers upwards from the
earth’s surface is known as the troposphere. A lot of human activities such as gas
balloons, mountain climbing, and small aircraft flights take place within this region.
The stratosphere is the next layer above the troposphere stretching approximately 15 to
60 kilometers. The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-
30 kilometers above the surface of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3
to 5 mm, but it pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography.
Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contain ozone which is a naturally
occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a
gaseous layer in the Earth’s upper atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of
stratosphere containing relatively higher concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere.
The Ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of the earth.
The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while
the average concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million. The
thickness of the ozone layer differs as per season and geography. The highest
concentrations of ozone occur at altitudes from 26 to 28 km (16 to 17 miles) in the tropics
and from 12 to 20 km (7 to 12 miles) towards the poles.
The ozone layer forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth, that has large
amount of ozone in it. The ozone layer protects life on earth from strong ultraviolet
radiation that comes from the sun. Ultraviolet rays are harmful rays that can drive up the
risk of deadly disorders like skin cancer, cataracts and damage the immune system.
Ultraviolet rays are also capable of destroying single cell organism, terrestrial plant life,
and aquatic ecosystems.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and
Henri Buisson. The ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the
harmful ultraviolet radiations that sun emit and which can produce long term devastating
effects on humans beings as well as plants and animals.
Composition of the Ozone Layer

It comes as a surprise that the same UV rays form the bulk of ozone layer. Ozone is an
extraordinary kind of oxygen composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the normal 2
oxygen atoms. Ozone layer normally develops when a few kinds of electrical discharge
or radiation splits the 2 atoms in an oxygen(O2) molecule, which then independently
reunite with other types of molecules to form ozone. The ozone layer has been shielding
life on planet earth for billions of years, but it’s now being worn out by human activities.
People began to value the importance of the ozone layer when scientists released a
research finding suggesting that certain human-made chemicals known as
chlorofluorocarbons managed to reach the stratosphere and depleted the ozone via a
profound series of chemical reactions. The results of this research study prompted the
signing of a global treaty known as the Montreal Protocol in 1973. This treaty helped in
the reduction of the production of these harmful human-made chemicals.
These targeted efforts have seen the ozone layer recovering over the past years. The
thickness of the ozone layer varies immensely on any day and location. Due to relentless
vertical atmospheric air circulation in both the stratosphere and troposphere, the amount
of ozone layer shielding humans from strong UV rays can be lesser or greater. In
addition, those residing in higher elevations are at risk of UV radiation than those at
lower elevations.
The Stratospheric ozone plays a big role in protecting humans from the harshness of the
sun. However, there is also a kind of ozone developed just above the ground as a result of
sun rays coming into contact with pollution in the atmosphere, which is hazardous to
human health. In some individuals, it can lead to complications in breathing and often
takes place during summer when pollution is rampant in cities where the air is static.
Why Ozone Layer is Necessary?

An essential property of ozone molecule is its ability to block solar radiations of
wavelengths less than 290 nanometers from reaching Earth’s surface. In this process, it
also absorbs ultraviolet radiations that are dangerous for most living beings. UV radiation
could injure or kill life on Earth. Though the absorption of UV radiations warms the
stratosphere but it is important for life to flourish on planet Earth. Research scientists
have anticipated disruption of susceptible terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems due to
depletion of ozone layer.
Ultraviolet radiation could destroy the organic matter. Plants and plankton cannot thrive,
both acts as food for land and sea animals, respectively. For humans, excessive exposure
to ultraviolet radiation leads to higher risks of cancer (especially skin cancer) and
cataracts. It is calculated that every 1 percent decrease in ozone layer results in a 2-5
percent increase in the occurrence of skin cancer. Other ill-effects of the reduction of
protective ozone layer include – increase in the incidence of cataracts, sunburns and
suppression of the immune system.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Credible scientific studies have substantiated that the cause of ozone layer depletion is
human activity, specifically, human-made chemicals that contain chlorine or bromine.
These chemicals are widely known as ODS, an acronym for Ozone-Depleting
Substances. The scientists have observed reduction in stratospheric ozone since early
1970’s. It is found to be more prominent in Polar Regions.
Ozone-Depleting Substances have been proven to be eco-friendly, very stable and non-
toxic in the atmosphere below. This is why they have gained popularity over the years.
However, their stability comes at a price; they are able to float and remain static high up
in the stratosphere. When up there, ODS are comfortably broken down by the strong UV
light and the resultant chemical is chlorine and bromine. Chlorine and bromine are known
to deplete the ozone layer at supersonic speeds. They do this by simply stripping off an
atom from the ozone molecule. One chlorine molecule has the capability to break down
thousands of ozone molecules.
Ozone-depleting substances have stayed and will continue to stay in the atmosphere for
many years. This, essentially, implies that a lot of the ozone-depleting substances human
have allowed to go into the atmosphere for the previous 90 years are still on their journey
to the atmosphere, which is why they will contribute to ozone depletion.
The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon

tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons,
sometimes known as brominated fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone
depletion. However, their application is greatly restricted since they are utilized in
specific fire extinguishers. The downside to halons is they are so potent that they are able
to deplete the ozone layer 10 times more than ozone-depleting substances.
Scientists in this age are working around the clock to develop Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) to take the place of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) for use in vehicle air conditioning. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are powerful
greenhouse gases, but they are not able to deplete ozone. Chlorofluorocarbons, on the
other hand, significantly contribute to climate change, which means Hydrofluorocarbons
continue to be the better alternative until safer alternatives are available.
There are two regions in which the ozone layer has depleted.
 In the mid-latitude, for example, over Australia, ozone layer is thinned. This
has led to an increase in the UV radiation reaching the earth. It is estimated that
about 5-9% thickness of the ozone layer has decreased, increasing the risk of
humans to over-exposure to UV radiation owing to outdoor lifestyle.
 In atmospheric regions over Antarctica, ozone layer is significantly thinned,

especially in spring season. This has led to the formation of what is called
‘ozone hole’. Ozone holes refer to the regions of severely reduced ozone layers.
Usually ozone holes form over the Poles during the onset of spring seasons.
One of the largest such hole appears annually over Antarctica between
September and November.
Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found to be affected
by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But this has
been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are
also thought to be only temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic
eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed
towards ozone depletion.
Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: The main cause for the depletion of
ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made
compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons,
CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons), hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have
direct impact on the depletion of the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed
back in the form of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long
time. With so much stability, they are transported into the stratosphere. The emission of
ODS account for roughly 90% of total depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere. These
gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations from
the sun break them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl bromide
and halons).
The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with ozone molecule and destroy their
molecular structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more
than 1, 00,000 molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more
destructive than chlorine molecules.
Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
It’s billed as the most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance because it attributes
to more than 80% of overall ozone depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home
appliances like freezers, refrigerators and air conditioners in both buildings and cars that
were manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is usually contained in dry cleaning
agents, hospital sterilants, and industrial solvents. The substance is also utilized in foam
products like mattresses and cushions and home insulation.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place of Chlorofluorocarbons. They

are not as harmful as CFCs to ozone layer.
Halons
It’s especially used in selected fire extinguishers in scenarios where the equipment or
material could be devastated by water or extinguisher chemicals.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.
Methyl Chloroform
Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor degreasing, chemical

processing, adhesives and some aerosols.
Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion

1. Damage to human health
If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to strong UV light.
Overexposure to strong UV light causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of
immune system and quick aging.
2. Devastation to environment
Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure may well lead to
minimal growth, photosynthesis and flowering. Some of the crop species vulnerable to
UV light include barley, wheat, corn, oats, rice, broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower just to
name a few. Forests equally bear the brunt of ozone depletion.
3. Threat to marine life
Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly impacted by exposure to strong

ultraviolet rays. In the aquatic food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons
decrease in number due to ozone layer destruction, the marine food chain would be
disrupted in many ways. Also, overexposure of sun rays could reduce the fortunes of
fishers. On top of that, certain species of marine life have been greatly affected by
overexposure to ultraviolet radiation at their early stage.
4. Effect on animals
In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation could also lead to skin and eye
cancer.
5. Impacts certain materials
Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively degraded by too much
ultraviolet radiation
Solutions to Ozone Depletion

1. Desist from using pesticides
Pesticides are great chemicals to rid your farm of pests and weeds, but they contribute
enormously to ozone layer depletion. The surefire solution to get rid of pests and weeds is
to apply natural methods. Just weed your farm manually and use alternative eco-
friendly chemicals to alleviate pests.
2. Discourage driving of private vehicles

The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to limit the number of vehicles on
the road. These vehicles emit a lot of greenhouse gases that eventually form smog, a
catalyst in the depletion of ozone layer.
3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products
Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh chemicals that find way to the
atmosphere, eventually contributing to degradation of the ozone layer. Use natural
and environmentally friendly cleaning products to arrest this situation.
4. Prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide
The Montreal Protocol formed in 1989 helped a lot in the limitation of

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, the protocol never covered nitrous oxide, which
is a known harmful chemical that can destroy the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use
today. Governments must take action now and outlaw nitrous oxide use to reduce the rate
of ozone depletion.
(1) What is meant by "ozone hole"?

Since about 1975, scientists have detected a severe drop in ozone concentration in the layer over the Antarctica
each spring. The situation then reached an alarming scale in 1987 when an international expedition found that
half of the Antarctica's ozone have disappeared over a region twice the size of the United States, creating an
enormous "hole" in the ozone layer. Concentrations of ozone fell by as much as 50% of the norm at altitude of
18 km. At mid-latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, up to 3% decrease in ozone concentration was also
observed.
(Severe Drop in Ozone Concentration)
Acknowledgement:
Permission to use the image of "ozone hole" from the Ozone Processing Team, Goddard Space
Flight Centre, NASA, and the ozone depleting illustration schematic from the Centre for
Atmospheric Science, Chemistry Dept., University of Cambridge ("Ozone Hole Tour" website
address,http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/) is gratefully acknowledged.
(2) Why it concerns you?

The ozone molecules form a protective layer which extends from about 16 km to 50 km up above the earth at
low latitudes, and from about 8 km to 50 km at high latitudes. The ozone molecules absorb the sun's ultra violet
radiation (UV) which will be harmful to us if it reaches the earth surface. With more UV radiation reaching the
earth surface due to ozone depletion, human health and the environment will be adversely affected. The most
significant effects will be the increased incidence of skin cancer, eye cataracts, damage to the human immune
system and to the ecology of the earth.
(3) What causes this phenomenon?

Scientists have reached consensus that ozone depletion in the stratosphere is caused by ozone depleting
chemicals. These chemicals contain chlorine or bromine atom with inherent chemical stability and have long
lifetime in the atmosphere, in the range of 40 to 150 years. These chemicals and other trace gases drift up into
the stratosphere and become involved in chlorine-releasing reactions. The chlorine atoms then react with the
ozone molecules in the presence of sunlight and destroy the ozone molecules. Just one chlorofluorocarbon
molecule can destroy tens of thousands of ozone molecules.
These ozone-depleting chemicals are extensively used man-made chemicals including the followings: -
 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs);
 halons;
 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform);
 carbon tetrachloride;
 methyl bromide;
 hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs);
 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs); and
 bromochloromethane (BCM).
Ozone depleting substances destroy the ozone molecules and allow more UV radiation reaching
the earth
(4) What are these ozone depleting substances (ODS)

used for?
The following are the common usage of CFCs and HCFCs :
 CFC-11, CFC-12 and HCFC-22 are used as refrigerant in domestic air-conditioners and refrigerators as well
as retail store refrigeration systems, chillers and air-conditioners.
 CFC-11 and CFC-12 are used as propellants for aerosol sprays such as hair mousses and household cleaning
products.
 CFC-11 and CFC-12 are also used as blowing agents in the manufacture of foams for home furnishing,
insulation and packaging. Some plastics may be shaped using CFCs, e.g. egg cartons, cups and cartons used
in fast food operations. Rigid or semi-rigid foams are also used as thermal or sound insulation in refrigeration
equipment, buildings and automobiles.
 CFC-113 is a solvent for cleaning electronic circuit boards and computer components.
Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents. Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF) is commonly used in portable
fire extinguishers. Bromotrifluoromethane (BTM) is used in fixed fire-fighting installations. 1,1,1-trichloroethane
is commonly used as a:
 solvent for cleaning electronic circuit boards and metal work such as watches and clockworks.
 thinner such as that for correction fluid.
 cleaning agent in the textile industry (dry cleaning).
Carbon tetrachloride is used as a cleaning agent in textile and electronics industries.
(5) Can we get rid of the ODS?

There has been considerable progress in finding non-ozone-depleting substitutes for ODS in the last few years.
Substitutes for air-conditioning and refrigeration applications are now available, such as that HCFC-22 can be
replaced by HFC-410A, CFC-12 can be replaced by HFC-134a. There are also emerging markets for "drop-in"
replacement for HCFCs and halons.
Alternative products or processes can be used in some cases including the following:
 alternative insulating materials;

 substitute food containers such as hydrocarbon blown polystyrene, plastic film wrap and bags;
 alternative packaging materials such as plastic film bubble wraps; and
 air-conditioning and refrigeration plants operating on non-HCFC refrigerants.
HCFCs solvents can be substituted in some applications. For instance, petroleum solvents can be selected as a
replacement for CFC-113 or 1,1,1-trichloroethane in cleaning applications. Aqueous cleaning, or even no-clean
technology, are also alternative processes that can be used by the electronics industry.
Many household and personal aerosol products, e.g. paint sprays and insecticides, now use hydrocarbons (e.g.
propane and butane) as propellants instead of HCFCs or CFCs.
(6) What are the international efforts in saving the ozone

layer?
In September 1987, an international treaty aimed at saving the Earth's ozone layer, known as the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, was signed in Montreal, Canada. The Protocol requires
the phasing out of the ODS in accordance with agreed schedules. Following lists the ODS phasing out schedules
applicable to Hong Kong:
Halons Import for local consumption banned by 1.1.1994

CFCs
Carbon Tetrachloride
Import for local consumption banned by 1.1.1996
1,1,1-
Trichloroethane
HBFCs
Import restricted to local quarantine and pre-shipment
Methyl Bromide
applications only by 1.1.1995
Freeze consumption at base level starting 1.1.1996
35% reduction of import for local consumption by 1.1.2004

HCFCs
100% reduction of import for local consumption by
1.1.2020[1]
[1] May allow 0.5% for servicing in the period 2020-2030.

Such need will be reviewed by the Meeting of Parties to
Montreal Protocol in 2015
BCM Import for local consumption banned by 1.10.2009
(7)How does Hong Kong control the ODS?

To fulfil Hong Kong Special Administrative Region's international obligations under the 1985 Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer, the Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance (CAP. 403)was enacted in July 1989 to provide a statutory
framework for the control of ozone depleting substances. The chemicals under control are referred to as
"scheduled substances" in the Ordinance (Please see Session 12 - Schedule). The Ordinance prohibits the
manufacturing of such substances and imposes controls on the import and export of these substances through
registration and licensing provisions. The following is a summary of the related control:
Measures Commencement
Date
Control of import and export of scheduled substances 1.7.1989
Banning of import for local consumption of halons 1.1.1994
Licensing of import of methyl bromide strictly for local 1.1.1995
quarantine and pre-shipment applications
Banning of import for local consumption of CFCs, 1,1,1- 1.1.1996
trichloroethane,carbon tetrachloride and HBFCs
Licensing of import of HCFCs for local consumption 1.1.1996
Banning of import for local consumption of BCM 1.10.2009
Under the registration and licensing system, persons who wish to import or export any of the ODS must:
 first register with the Trade and Industry Department,

 apply for a licence from the Trade and Industry Department on each occasion, and/or
 possess the quota to import the HCFC for local consumption .
In 1993, two pieces of legislation were introduced under the Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance:
 The Ozone Layer Protection (Products Containing Scheduled Substances) (Import Banning) Regulation
 The Ozone Layer Protection (Controlled Refrigerants) Regulation
Copies of the Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance and subsidiary regulations are on sale at the Government
Publications Centre. Also, they can be browsed from the web site of Bilingual Laws Information System
at http://www.elegislation.gov.hk.
(8) What is the Ozone Layer Protection (Products

Containing Scheduled Substances) (Import
Banning)(Amendment) Regulation about?
This Regulation prohibits the import of controlled products containing HCFCs, CFCs and halons, etc.:
 an air-conditioner or heat pump designed to cool the driver's or passengers' compartment of a motor vehicle
(whether or not installed in the motor vehicle);
 refrigeration equipment or air-conditioning or heat pump equipment (whether for domestic or commercial use);
 an aerosol product including those containing a pharmaceutical product or medicine as defined in section 2 of
the Pharmacy and Poisons Ordinance (Cap. 138) ;;
 insulation panel, insulation board or insulation pipe cover;
 a pre-polymer;
 portable fire extinguishers containing CFCs, halons, HCFCs or BCM.
(9) What is the Ozone Layer Protection (Controlled

Refrigerants) Regulation about?
This Regulation prohibits any intended release of controlled refrigerants from motor vehicle air-conditioners or
refrigeration equipment containing more than 50 kg of refrigerant charge into the atmosphere, and to conserve
the controlled refrigerants through the use of approved recycling and recovery equipment.
For enforcement and monitoring purposes, owners or operators of industrial/commercial refrigeration systems,
as well as proprietors of garages, shall be required to keep records on relevant repair services and the amount
of CFC-based refrigerants consumed. Proprietors of vehicle scrap-yards shall also be required to keep records
on the number of motor vehicle air conditioners decommissioned as well as the amount of CFC-based
refrigerants recovered from the decommissioned air conditioners.
(10) How can I help to protect the ozone layer?

While the vast majority of ODS usage is either industrial or commercial, individuals can help in the following ways:
 Buy air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment that do not use HCFCs as refrigerant.
 Buy aerosol products that do not use HCFCs or CFCs as propellants.
 Conduct regular inspection and maintenance of air-conditioning and refrigeration appliances to prevent and
minimize refrigerant leakage.
 For existing air-conditioning and refrigeration appliances that operate on HCFCs or CFCs, the refrigerant
should be recovered or recycled whenever an overhaul of equipment is to be carried out. Replacing or
retrofitting such equipment to operate on non-HCFCs refrigerant should also be considered.
 When motor vehicle air-conditioners need servicing, make sure that the refrigerants are properly recovered and
recycled instead of being vented to the atmosphere.

Ozone Depletion

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Ozone Depletion

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History

NASA Earth Observatory (Illustration courtesy Barbara Summey, SSAI)

Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Our understanding of stratospheric ozone depletion has been obtained through a

* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms.

CFCl3 + UV Light ==> CFCl2 + Cl

and again ...

Ozone Depletion in the Antarctic Springtime

1) HCl + ClONO2 → HNO3 + Cl2

3) 2Cl + O3 → 2ClO + 2O2

4) 2ClO + 2O → 2Cl + 2O2

NET = 203 to 302

However, man-made chemicals such as CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons are now known to

Conversion, reaction, and removal.

In1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-

After a series of rigorous meetings and negotiations, the Montreal Protocol on

Summary of Montreal Protocol Control Measures

 The Montreal Protocol Who's Who

Arctic Map from Worldatlas.com

is the yellow area within the red circle

Area directly affected is above the red line on these maps

Jonathan Shanklin of The BAS making ozone measurements

© British Antarctic Survey

Arctic Ozone Hole in The Near Future?

May 25,2000-Upper atmospheric conditions in The Northern Hemisphere are becoming

ARCTIC OZONE MAY NOT RECOVER AS EARLY AS PREDICTED

Arctic Ozone 2011

 Polar ozone loss depends on temperature and inorganic halogen concentrations

High levels of Activated Chlorine observed in Arctic in March 2011

As a result of the high Cl levels, there were large ozone losses

Ozone Hole 2006 Largest on Record

Year Date Value Date Value

2006 24 September 29.6 08 October 84

NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Image right: From September 21-30, 2006

Scientists from NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo.,

Observations by Aura's Microwave Limb Sounder show extremely high levels

Image left: The ozone hole of 2006 is the

The temperature of the Antarctic stratosphere causes the severity of the

As a result of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments, the concentrations

The recently completed 2006 World Meteorological Organization/United

Antarctic ozone hole is worst ever recorded, UN reports

21 December 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

06 December 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

23 November 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

3 November 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

26 October 2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels

20 October2006 NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

6 October2006 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone levels across

Situation at 2006 September 29 British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Situation at 2006 September 16 British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Situation at 2006 September 14 British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Situation at 2006 September 1 British Antarctic Survey Ozone

Situation at 2006 August 17 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone

Situation at 2006 August 2 British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin Ozone

Situation at 2006 May 5British Antarctic Survey Ozone

The Ozone Hole 2018

Antarctic Situation at 2018 August 24British Antarctic Survey Ozone Bulletin

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“Whatever Happened to the Ozone

Hole?”, Distillations Podcast Episode 230,

April 17, 2018, Science History Institute

 1Ozone cycle overview