DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A HIGH POWER ELECTRON GUN

by
GARY R. LEIKER, B.S. in Eng. Phy.
A THESIS

IN
PHYSICS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

^O Approved

Accepted

May, 1984
 7- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would l i k e to thank D r . M. K r i s t i a n s e n , D r . L. H a t f i e l d , and Dr.

H. Thomas for serving on my c o m m i t t e e . I would like to thank

D r . K. Schoenbach f o r his i n s t r u c t i v e comments on t h i s manuscript as

well as s u p e r v i s i o n d u r i n g t h e p r o j e c t . Also I am indebted t o Chuck

Harjes, Kim Z i n s m e y e r , and t h e o t h e r students and t e c h n i c i a n s who

worked on t h i s project.

n
 ABSTRACT

A high power electron gun capable of producing an e-beam over a

100 square centimeter area has been designed and tested. Grid control

of the e-beam provides 100 ns, 250 keV electron bursts through the foil

in 100 ns intervals. Results of voltage and current measurements of

the electron beam, as well as measurements of its spatial and temporal

uniformity, are presented.

m
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF TABLES ' vii

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. ELECTRON EMISSION FROM METALS 6

Richardson-Dushman Equation 7
Th-W Filaments 12
III. EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT 18

Electron Gun System 18

Vacuum System 29
Pulser System " 32
Cooling System 34
Grounding and Shielding System 39

IV. DIAGNOSTICS AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 42

Voltage Measurements 42
Current Measurements 45
E-Beam Uniformity and Time Dependence 51

V. SUMMARY 56

LIST OF REFERENCES 58

APPENDIX 60

IV
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Inductive Energy Storage System with E-Beam

Opening Switch 2

2. Effect of Gas Mixture on Current F a l l time 4

3. Emission Current Density from Various

Thermionic Emitters 11

4. A c t i v a t i o n Curves f o r Th-W Wire 14

5. Fraction of Surface Covered with Th(f)

vs. Time of Activation f o r Data Shown in F i g . 4 . . . . 16
6. Block Diagram of the E-Beam Controlled Opening

Switch System 19

7. Cross Section of E-Beam Triode 20

8. Electron Number Transmission Coefficient (T^ vs.

Incident Energy (EQ) f o r Various Foils 22
9. Energy Transmission Coefficient (Egv/Eo) vs. Incident
Energy (EQ) 23
10. Cross Section of the Thermionic Cathode 24

11. Calculated Electron Emission from Pure Tungsten and

Thoriated Tungsten 27

12. Test C i r c u i t f o r Emission Data Shown in F i g . 11 . . . . 28

13. Vacuum System 30

14. Pneumatic System 31

15. Schematic of FRP-250 Pulser 33

16. Gas System of FRP-250 Pulser 35

17. Spark Gap Pressure vs. Total Charging Voltage f o r FRP-250

Pulser in S e l f - F i r e Mode 36
18. Spark Gap Pressure vs. Total Charging Voltage for FRP-250
Pulser in Triggered Mode 37

19. Water Cooling System 38

20. Grounding and Shielding System 40

21. Voltage Probe 43

22. Voltage Probe Measurements 44

23. Schematic of Rogowski Coil 46

24. Reconstruction of Current Pulse 48

25. Rogowski-Coil Signal of E-Beam Current 49

26. Rogowski-Coil Signal of E-Beam with Pulsed Grid 50

27. Experimental Arrangement for Scintillator Tests . . . . 52

28. S c i n t i l l a t o r Fluorescence Due to E-Beam Excitation . . . 53

29. S c i n t i l l a t o r Pulse as Recorded by a PMT 55

30. Cross Section of Triode and Switch Chamber 57

31. Energy Level Diagram Showing Fluorescence Process . . . 61

32. Range of Electrons and Other Particles in NE-102A . . . 65

33. Response of NE-102A to Electrons and Other Particles . . 66

34. Emission Spectrum of NE-102A 67

VI
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Representative Values of Thermionic-Emission

Constants for Pure Metals 9

2. Scintillator Properties 64

VII
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Current interest in inductive energy storage systems has motivated

the design and t e s t i n g of high power opening switches. One such

approach is the electron-beam controlled opening switch 2,3 shown in

Fig. 1. A volumetric discharge is produced in the switch chamber by

electron-impact ionization of the high pressure gas (p ^ 1 atm) between

the electrodes. The low energy, secondary electrons produced by t h i s

ionization migrate to the positive electrode and constitute the primary

current ( I p > 1 0 x le-beam) i " ^^^ switch. When the e-beam is shut o f f ,

volume recombination and attachment processes in the gas cause the

resistance of the switch to increase by a factor of a 100 or more in

less than 100 ns. Opening of the switch is assured by designing the

discharge circuit such that the open circuit voltage across the switch

is less than the self breakdown voltage of the gas.

As shown i n F i g . 1 , the opening of the e-beam controlled switch,

S j , must be simultaneously accompanied by the closing of switch S2 in

order to transfer current to the load. With the current changing so

rapidly during switch opening ( d i / d t ~ 10^2 A / s ) , even a small

inductance in the load c i r c u i t can cause a huge d r i v i n g voltage to

develop across switch Si (L d i / d t e f f e c t ) . The success of switch Si

depends on i t s a b i l i t y to interrupt direct current against such a high

driving voltage and to do so repetitively (10-10,000 pps).

1
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 1 Inductive Energy Storage System with E-Beam Opening Switch

(a) Charging Cycle, (b) Discharge Cycle.
 The r e p - r a t e requirement of switch Si puts strong emphasis on

minimizing the voltage drop across the switch during the "on" phase.

Energy dissipated in the switch during operation heats the gas volume,

causing a lowering of i t s d i e l e c t r i c strength. This increases the

p r o b a b i l i t y of breakdown during the "off" phase. Gas mixtures with

high electron d r i f t velocities and high i o n i z a t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s have

served to diminish the problem of gas heating.^ Also, secondary

emission by ion bombardment of the cathode^ and i o n i z a t i o n of

metastable states in gases such as argon and methane^ have been studied

as a possible means of reducing the discharge voltage and subsequent

switch losses.

Other gas properties also play a major role during the opening of

the e-beam c o n t r o l l e d switch. By addition of small amounts of an

electron attaching gas to the switch chamber, opening times on the

order of a few hundred nanoseconds have been predicted.5 Shorter

current f a l l t i m e s (tp < 100 ns) have been demonstrated by Scherrer e t .

al^ with mixtures of 30-50% O2 in N2 and e-beam current densities

ranging from 17-34 A/cm2 ( F i g . 2 ) . Current f a l l t i m e s of less than

100 ns were also obtained for gas mixtures of over 60% O2 in Ar. Such

high concentrations of an attaching gas, however, increase switch

losses during the "on" phase of operation. Opening times for both the

O2-N2 and 02-Ar cases shown, in F i g . 2, are l i m i t e d by the e-beam

f a l l time of approximately 120 ns.

 1000 " ' ' I' " I — I I 1 M I I I 1 T TT 1 I M i >| ' M I M M 11 I 1 I I I 1 I M .

900 Je= 17-34 A/CM^AND 10-17 A/CM*

800

700

600
-I
+F
fns)
500

400

300

\ \ Jg= 10-17 A/CM

200
h.--;?,---.-.^..
0,.N,
100 -
— » _
"•• ••! . M . l i i i I It M I l i M I l i ! M I m I I m I l i i M I m i "
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% ATTACHING GAS

Fig. 2 Effect of Gas Mixture on Current Falltime (tp)

 Another switch parameter of interest is the switch current gain,

defined as the ratio of the discharge current to the e-beam c u r r e n t .

For a recombination dominated discharge the current gain is

proportional to v 1/Jb where Jb is the e-beam current density. Small

e-beam current densities y i e l d high current gains in the switch.

B l e t z i nger^-lO has measured current gains in methane as high as 3000

when J5 = 6 mA/cm^ but decreasing to 1000 for J5 = 1000 mA/cm^. Larger

e-beam currents are often used, however, to shorten the closing time of

the switch.

This thesis is concerned with the design and construction of a

high current (I ~ 100 A) electron source and the development of

diagnostic techniques to measure the total e-beam current and

uniformity. Chapter I I gives a review of thermionic emission processes

for Th-W filaments. Chapter I I I describes the experimental arrangement.

Chapter IV contains a brief description of the diagnostic methods used

in the experiment and the experimental results. Chapter V is the con-

clusion followed by an Appendix on s c i n t i l l a t o r s .

 CHAPTER I I

ELECTRON EMISSION FROM METALS

Electrons are emitted from metals through four fundamental

processes. In all of these processes, the electrons must obtain a suf-

ficient amount of k i n e t i c energy normal to the metal surface to

surmount the potential barrier of the metal. In thermionic emission

(Richardson-Dushman), the energy necessary for e l e c t r o n escape is

obtained by heating the metal to s u f f i c i e n t l y high temperatures

(T >^ 1500OK). The escape energy can also be obtained by bombarding

the surface of the metal with incident radiation (photoelectric

emission) or with incident ions and electrons (secondary emission).

The fourth method of electron emission from a metal (field emission)

involves lowering the potential barrier at the surface of the metal by

application of an intense electric f i e l d .

P h o t o e l e c t r i c emission produces, in general, only small current

densities. Conversely, secondary emission currents approaching 60 mA

per watt of incident primary-electron energy can be obtained, a value

which is comparable to some of the more efficient thermionic e m i t t e r s .

However, energy values of the secondary electrons, as they leave the

surface, are distributed over a wide range, depending on the t a r g e t

material and i t s surface condition. Both photoelectric and secondary

emission suffer from the necessity of providing an external photon or

particle source.
 F i e l d e m i s s i o n i s capable of d e l i v e r i n g e x t r e m e l y high current

densities (j ^lO^-lO^ A/cm^); however, the cathode tends t o be

s h o r t - l i v e d due t o the heat produced during operation. Also, exploding

whiskers at the s u r f a c e of f i e l d e m i t t e r s produce a plasma which

migrates to the anode and shorts the electron gun. Thermionic emission

using Th-W f i l a m e n t s was chosen as the e l e c t r o n source because the

current density ( j - 1 A/cm^) can be e a s i l y v a r i e d w i t h filament

temperature and because the pulse lengths are long enough t o c o n s i d e r

rep-rated operation by use of a control grid.

Richardson-Dushman Equation

The basic equation describing thermionic emission (derived i n many

t e x t s ) is the Richardson-Dushman equation which has the form

J = CT2 e -b/T (2-1)

where J i s the emission current density i n A/cm2. The constant C is

given by

C = 4TTmek^ A/cm2/OK2 (2-2)

h3

where

e is the electronic charge in Coulombs,

m is the mass of the electron in kilograms,

 8

k is Boltzmann's constant in Joules/^K,

h is Planck's constant in Joules-sec.

The constant b is given by

b = e <t> degrees Kelvin, (2-3)

k

where <^ is the work function in volts.

Numerically, C is found to be 120 A/cm2oK2 when appropriate values

are substituted into Eq. (2-2), However, Eq. (2-1) is not an exact

d e r i v a t i o n , but must be regarded as an empirical equation in which C

and b (both held constant) are determined experimentally to f i t the

data. Actual values of C and b for some pure metals are shownH in

Table 1. Discrepancies in values of C are due to assumptions made in

deriving Eq. (2-1) and to the f a c t that the work function (and

consequently b) is actually a function of temperature for some metals,

and not a constant as assumed in the empirical f i t .

The current density, J , is dominated by the exponential term in

Eq. (2-1). Metals with low work functions operated at high

temperatures would appear to give maximum current d e n s i t i e s . The

metals with the lowest values of b, however, outgas excessively even at

moderate temperatures and destroy the vacuum necessary f o r thermionic

emission. Tungsten, which has the lowest vapor pressure of any metal.
 TABLE 1
REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF THERMIONIC-EMISSION CONSTANTS
FOR PURE METALS.^1

J = CT2e-b/T

Metal C in b in o K
A/cm2/OK2

Calcium 60.2 26,000

Carbon 60.2 46,500

Cesium 16.2 21,000

Molybdenum 60.2 51,500

Nickel 26.8 32,100

Platinum 60.2 59,000

Tantalum 60.2 47,200

Thorium 60.2 38,900

Tungsten 60.2 52,400

 10

can be operated at high enough temperatures to give emission current

densities which exceed any of the other pure metals, in spite of its

large b value.

Composite materials tend to be the best thermionic e m i t t e r s .

F i g . 3 compares the emission current densities as a function of

temperature for oxide-coated cathodes, thoriated-tungsten (Th-W) f i l a -

ments, and f o r pure tungsten filaments. A typical oxide-coated

cathode consists of Ni as the base metal, coated with the oxides of Ba

and Sr, the emission from a mixture of the two oxides being greater

than from either alone. Although oxide-coated cathodes are efficient in

terms of emission current per input power, they are not used in high

power devices because of the low melting point of Ni (17 250K).

Oxide-coated cathodes are extremely susceptible to d e a c t i v a t i o n b y

p o s i t i v e - i o n bombardment and must be used at low plate voltages. The

tendency of these cathodes to evolve gas during operation makes i t d i f -

f i c u l t to maintain a high vacuum and therefore more positive ions are

present than in a tube with tungsten filaments. Also, the evaporation

of barium, which plates out on other electrodes in the system, leads to

problems with primary and secondary emission from these surfaces. For

these reasons Th-W filaments were used in the construction of the

electron gun.
 11

2.0

1.8

o
o
O
o
j
c» o m 1
1
o o
C » "ro
II ]1 f
q. If .o 1 s^
M
1
II .o ro" 1
^m, II
-Q *
o CVJ
o 1
o o o
d o z
UJ
II
o
1
1.2 O O tn 1
TUNGJ
ATED;
ATED;

STEN
rsi

E
r> r\ 1 .. LTJ

C> O 1 UI z
Ui /
IDE

< 1 h-
Z)
o
X //
0.8 § /
CI / ... Q ^ . ^1
X /
H /

0.6

0.4 —y.—

0.2

0.0
800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

TCK)

Fig. 3 Emission Current Density from Various Thermionic

Emitters. II
 12

Th-W Filaments

Thoriated-tungsten filaments (1-2% Th) have emissive properties

which exceed those of pure tungsten filaments under certain conditions.

Tungsten has a melting point of 3655 ^K and a work function of 4.52

volts. At a temperature of 2000 ^K a tungsten filament can be operated

for tens of thousands of hours without appreciable evaporation, but i t s

emission at t h i s temperature is only lO"^ A/cm^. Thorium has a low

work f u n c t i o n of 3.35 volts but i t melts at 2100 ^K. Thus either

metal, by i t s e l f , is not particularly suited as a thermionic emitter.

Th-W filaments, on the other hand, can be operated at 2000 °K, which is

near the melting point of pure thorium, and produce current densities

as high as 3.0 A/cm^, lOOO times that of pure tungsten at the same

temperature.
12
According to Langmuir, the increased emission is due to a layer

of thorium atoms adsorbed on the surface of the tungsten. That the

work function of Th-W filaments (2.63 volts) is lower than that of

either thorium or tungsten is attributed to the fact that the adsorbed

layer of thorium on the filament surface is electropositive with

respect to the tungsten. Consequently, it forms a dipole layer with

its positive side away from the tungsten, and thus lowers the potential

barrier at the surface.

To obtain the high emission current densities characteristic of

Th-W filaments, the filaments must first be activated; that is,

metallic thorium must be brought to the surface by diffusion from the

 13

i n t e r i o r . Most of the thorium in the filaments is in the form of Th02

(thoria) which dissociates apart only at high temperatures. For t h i s

reason, the filaments must be heated to approximately 2800 ^K for a

few minutes to reduce some of the Th02 to metallic thorium. However,

at 2800 OK thorium atoms evaporate from the surface at a faster rate

than they can d i f f u s e from the i n t e r i o r . The temperature of the

filaments must be lowered to a suitable activation temperature

(1800-2200 OK) where d i f f u s i o n occurs faster than evaporation, and a

surface layer of thorium is formed. At operating temperatures (T ~

1800 OK) diffusion approximately equals evaporation and the fraction of

the surface covered with thorium atoms remains nearly constant.

A c t i v a t i o n curves, such as those shown^^ in Fig. 4, are obtained

by f i r s t flashing the filament at high temperatures to remove any :

residual f i l m of metallic thorium on the surface and then rapidly

lowering the temperature of the filament to an activation temperature

(1845 OK and 1940 OK in F i g . 4 ) . Periodically, the electron emission

current (J in A/cm2, j^^ is the maximum current density obtained) is

measured at a t e s t i n g temperature (1549 OK^ in t h i s case) where

diffusion and evaporation are negligible. From the figure one can see

that the electron emission current rises to a maximum value (in less

time in the case of the hotter filament) and then f a l l s off to an

equilibrium value at later times. The equilibrium value for the run at

1845 OK is somewhat lower than for the 1940 OK run.

 14

-0.4
r V 0—0

-0.8

-1.2
0 RUNATI<3 4 0 ^
• RUNAT \i 345«'K
hi -1.6
ID

5 -2.0
/

9 -2.4
T 1

-2.8

7
-3.2
I
-3.6

-4.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
TIME OF ACTIVATION IN MINUTES

13
Fig. 4 A c t i v a t i o n Curves f o r Th-W Wire •
 15

F i g u r e 5 p l o t s ^ ^ f versus the time of a c t i v a t i o n f o r t h e two

temperatures i n F i g . 4 , where f = t / t ^ ; t^ being the time required f o r

l o g ( J / J m ) t o reach i t s maximum value. There is some evidence that the

maximum c u r r e n t d e n s i t y (J/Jm = 1) occurs when t h e thorium forms a

monolayer on t h e s u r f a c e of the tungsten.^^ Comparing Figs. 4 and 5

one can see t h a t the maximum current density f o r both temperature runs-

occurs when f is approximately u n i t y . Therefore, the quantity f can be

taken as a measure of the amount of thorium adsorbed on the t u n g s t e n

surface. Initially, f increases l i n e a r l y w i t h time but gradually

approaches an e q u i l i b r i u m value f o r l a t e r t i m e s . This equilibrium

value i s somewhat h i g h e r f o r t h e run at 1845 ox than f o r the run at

1940 OK. The f i n i t e value of f at t = 0 i s due to the f a c t that one

can never completely deactivate the filament by f l a s h i n g at high temp-

e r a t u r e s because the filament then has to cool through the a c t i v a t i o n

regime.

A q u a l i t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n of F i g s . 4 and 5 i s given by B r a t t a i n

and Becker13 as f o l l o w s :

"Thorium diffuses t o the surface at a rate

which is c o n s t a n t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r u n ;
t h i s r a t e depends on the a c t i v a t i o n
temperature and on the amount and
d i s t r i b u t i o n of thorium i n the tungsten.
At f i r s t , t h e r a t e of e v a p o r a t i o n of
thorium from the surface is n e g l i g i b l e , so
t h a t the amount of t h o r i u m accumulated
increases l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e . As the
surface concentration of thorium
increases, the rate of evaporation
increases r a p i d l y . When the e v a p o r a t i o n
becomes comparable w i t h the d i f f u s i o n
r a t e , the rate of accumulation of t h o r i u m
on the s u r f a c e i s no longer equal t o the
rate of d i f f u s i o n , but gets less and l e s s
u n t i l e q u i l i b r i u m i s reached between
 16

1.4
Equil.
^
Values
^
. - O - - - - ^ -
* - • * " "
1.2 • r^^"
Q-'t)
4
/
u •

/ ^»
1.0

A
0.8
f • RUN AT I940*»K
0 RLiN AT 18 45*K

0.6 /

/
0.4

0.2

0
TIME OF ACTIVATION IN MINUTES

13
Fig. 5 Fraction of Surface Covered with Th(f) vs. Time of Activation
f o r Data Shown in Fig. 4.
 17

evaporation and d i f f u s i o n . The rate of

evaporation increases more r a p i d l y with
temperature than the rate of d i f f u s i o n ,
and therefore as the activation
temperature increases, the e q u i l i b r i u m
value of f decreases".

The l i n e a r regime of F i g . 4 can be f i t t e d with an empirical

equation,13

log J = log Oyf + a(l-e-bt) (2-4)

where 0^ is the current from clean tungsten (A/cm^) and a and b are

constants to be determined by experiment. To explain the nonlinear

regimes of the log J versus t or f curves, Brattain and Becker maintain j

that the effectiveness of an individual electropositive atom in j

reducing the work function of the surface is not constant, but

decreases as f increases. This in turn means that the fraction of ad-

sorbed thorium which is ionized decreases with surface concentration.

This is similar to results obtained with cesium or barium adsorbed on

tungsten.1^
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT

The major components of the e-beam controlled opening switch

system are shown in Fig. 6. The main emphasis of this thesis is on the

e-beam and diagnostics portion of the diagram.

Electron Gun System

The mainstay of the entire system is the thermionic cathode shown

in Fig. 7. The cathode is housed in a Pyrex chamber under high vacuum
conditions (p 110"^ Torr) to prevent destruction of the Th-W filaments
by positive ion bombardment and oxidation. A Pyrex chamber was chosen
because it is an excellent vacuum material, has a high melting
temperature, and provides optical access to the e-beam gun. It was
necessary to see the electron gun in order to measure the filament
temperature using an optical pyrometer. It was found during operation
that tungsten from the filaments coated the inside of this Pyrex
chamber and, if not cleaned periodically with acetone, breakdown would
occur along the glass surface. Glow discharge cleaning of the cathode,
using low pressure argon gas, also succeeded in raising the breakdown
voltage.

The foil, shown in Fig. 7, acts as an interface between the vacuum

in the cathode region and the high pressure gas of the switch chamber
(not shown). The foil is clamped between two aluminum rings and rests

18
 19

TRIGGERING

TRIGGERING GRID
SYSTEM PULSER

I I
SWITCH
r
GRID
-"I
I r GAS
1
FRP-250
BIAS SYSTEM

i
PULSER
P.S.
I I
FILAMENT
e-BEAM
S I SWITCH
SWITCH
P.S.
I PULSER

ii i.
I
SPREADER I Z J
BIAS
P.S.
1
VACUUM COOLING
SCREEN
SYSTEM SYSTEM PROBES
ROOM

e-BEAM L
DIAGNOSTICS

Fig. 6. Block Diagram of the E-Beam Controlled Opening Switch

Sys tem.
 20

WIRE MESH
GRID GRID
J— FILAMENTS

HIBACH! STAINLESS
STRUCTURE STEEL

PYREX

-TO
FILAMENT •GRID • VACUUM
POWER VOLTAGE SYSTEM

F i g . 7. Cross Section of E-Beam Triode.

 21

on a stainless steel Hibachi structure for added support. A wire mesh

grid located under the Hibachi structure (and at the same potential as

the f o i l ) prevents the f o i l from being ruptured should a breakdown

occur. An 0 - r i n g in a groove in the lower aluminum support ring

provides a vacuum seal.

The f o i l used was 1 mil titanium because of its structural

strength and high melting temperature. For incident electrons of

250 keV ( E Q ) , 90% of the electrons pass through the f o i l (Fig. 8) and

e x i t with a mean energy (Egv) of ~ 200 keV (Fig 9)^5. Aluminum has

higher number and energy transmission c o e f f i c i e n t s (T|^ and Eav/Eo>

respectively) than titanium ( F i g s . 8 and 9 ) , but aluminum is more

l i k e l y to rupture at high pressures. The 1 mil titanium f o i l has been j

used up to pressures of 4 atm in the switch chamber. For higher pres-

sures (p ^10 atm) i t will be necessary to use thicker f o i l s . Number

and energy transmission coefficients f o r 2 mil aluminum and titanium

are also shown in Figs. 8 and 9.

A more d e t a i l e d view of the thermionic cathode is shown in

Fig. 10. Stainless steel was used in the construction of the main body

of the cathode due to i t s low vapor pressure even at temperatures

exceeding 500 OK in the chamber. The sensitivity of Th-W filaments to

ion bombardment and oxidation is well documented and j u s t i f i e s the use

of stainless steel.
 22

100 200 300 400

Eo (keV)

Fig. 8 Electron Number Transmission Coefficient (T.. vs

Incident Engergy (E^) for Various Foils.15 ^
 23

100-

^av(%)
80.
70 _ _

60 —
50 —
40
30"
20-
10-4- L

100 200 300 400

Eo(keV)

Fig. 9 Energy Transmission Coefficient (E/E) vs. Incident

Energy ( E Q ) . 1 5 av o
 24

-a
o

I—

+->
M-
O

+->
U

J/)
o
<_>

CD

O 5
O
O
 25

A DC power supply capable of 200 V, 200 A, was constructed to

supply heating current to the Th-W f i l a m e n t s . Power is introduced

through a Ceramaseal, vacuum feedthrough rated at 150 A (leftmost

feedthrough in Fig. 10). The filaments (15 mil Th-W) are mounted at

one end on stainless steel posts which have grooves milled on top to

keep the filaments separated. At the other end, the filaments are tied

to tungsten posts which hold the filaments taught by spring-action. The

electrical connection is made to the center post, providing two sets of

ten filaments each, operating in parallel. This method minimizes the

voltage necessary to heat the f i l a m e n t s , which in turn ensures that

electron trajectories from the gun will not be significantly altered by

the potential at the center post.

The center feedthrough in F i g . 10 is connected to a stainless

steel spreader plate which is biased to -1000 V. This negative

p o t e n t i a l , along with the positive accelerating voltage applied at the

f o i l , causes electrons emitted from the filaments to be repelled from

the cathode. The spreader plate also provides a shield for the more

sensitive parts of the cathode ( 0 - r i n g s , i n s u l a t o r s , e t c . ) from the

radiated heat of the filaments.

The t h i r d feedthrough provides power f o r the g r i d . The grid

structure provides control of the e-beam, similar to the action of the

grid in a conventional triode. The grid is pulsed on and off to obtain

repetitive pulses of electrons through the f o i l .

 26

A water-cooled aluminum heat sink was incorporated into the design

of the cathode to keep the 0-rings nearest to the filaments from

melting. Although having a lower melting point and vapor pressure than

stainless s t e e l , aluminum has a better thermal conductivity and thus

transports heat more rapidly. Water is piped in through vacuum t i g h t ,

silver solder j o i n t s . The insulators used on the cathode are slabs or

rods of boron n i t r i d e , chosen because of its low vapor pressure even at

high temperatures (10-6 jorr at 1800 OK).

In order to verify filament a c t i v a t i o n , the emission current at

low temperatures (T < 1800 OK) was measured, as shown in F i g . 11.

Theoretical values were calculated for 15 mil filaments assuming an

emitting length of 10 cm f o r each of the 20 filaments. The entire !

surface of the filament (top and bottom) was assumed to emit electrons.

From these values, and using the Richardson-Dushman formula (Eq. 2-1),

the solid line curves for Th-W and pure W were calculated. The lower

experimental points were obtained using the circuit shown in Fig. 12.

Data points were limited by the current capabilities of the power sup-

ply. The upper experimental point was taken during an actual pulse

f i r i n g of the e-beam gun. The measured values of the emission current

can be seen to follow the calculated values f o r activated Th-W

filaments. Unactivated Th-W filaments display emission characteristics

similar to pure tungsten.

 27

le(A)

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1600

T(K)

Fig. 11. Calculated Electron Emission from Pure Tungsten and

Thoriated Tungsten (dots: experimental results).
 28

10 M A

ir-
t- BEAM
? I CURRENT
METER
'I HVPS

Fig. 12 Test Circuit for Emission Data Shown in Fig. 11.

 29

Vacuum System

The primary components of the vacuum station are shown in F i g . 13.

The main chamber is a Pyrex glass tube, 30.5 cm i n diameter with 22.3

liters total volume. This chamber is pumped by an Edwards Diffstack

system which includes a 100/300 series (280 l i t e r s / s e c ) diffusion pump,

a m a n u a l l y - o p e r a t e d , backing/roughing valve, and a manually-operated,

b u t t e r f l y valve at the pump i n l e t . For safety reasons, the butterfly

valve has been r e f i t t e d w i t h an electro-pneumatic control system, as

shown in F i g . 14. I f power is lost to the s o l e n o i d ( S ) , the butterfly

valve on t h e top of the d i f f u s i o n pump is closed by the a i r cylinder

( A ) , thus i s o l a t i n g the main chamber. Simultaneously, the diffusion

pump heater is shut off through the opening of a relay.

Loss of power to the solenoid is caused by any one of four

automatic alarms: high c o o l i n g water temperature on the diffusion

pump, loss of cooling water, low a i r pressure in the building a i r - l i n e ,

or overpressure in the main chamber. The d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure switch

(DPS i n F i g . 14) shuts down the vacuum system i f the b u i l d i n g air

pressure drops below 40 psig (the minimum pressure necessary to close

the a i r c y l i n d e r ) . The a i r b o t t l e (B) provides a r e s e r v o i r to ensure

complete e x t e n s i o n of the a i r cylinder. The b u t t e r f l y valve is also

closed automatically when the e l e c t r o n gun i s f i r e d to prevent the

d i f f u s i o n pump from receiving an a i r blast should the f o i l rupture.

 30

THERMAL EXPANSION
VALVE

lATIC
CONTVIOL VALVe

lACKIWI
ROIMHIIIt MALVe

Fig. 13 Vacuum System.

 31

I BUILDING AIR
(50 psig)

CONTROL VALVE—
CLOSED WHEN ROD
FULLY EXTENDED
(N.a)
DPS

1-ixi— s (N.O.)

^^VENT

Fig. 14 Pneumatic System.

 32

A cold t r a p , using R-12 r e f r i g e r a n t ( f r e o n ) , was installed to

prevent oil vapor migration from the diffusion pump to the main chamber

(Fig. 13). The cold trap consists of a chevron-type optical b a f f l e ,

maintained at -20OC by means of an thermal expansion valve on the dis-

charge of the compressor. Santovac 5 was used as the d i f f u s i o n pump

f l u i d due to i t s lesser tendency to "creep" than most silicon o i l s . The

ultimate vacuum obtained by t h i s system was 5 x 10"7 Torr, limited

primarily by the outgassing of materials.

Pulser System

The accelerating voltage to drive the e-beam diode is provided by

a Physics International, FRP-250 pulser. This pulser is designed to

work into a 100 Q p a r a l l e l plate transmission line and is capable of

producing a 250 kV pulse with a risetime of < 10 ns (10-90%) and an

exponential decay of approximately 1 ys when working into a matched

load. At the 250 kV charging voltage, the output energy is

approximately 350 J .

The c i r c u i t diagram f o r the pulser is shown in F i g . 15. Each

capacitor bank consists of four each, 5 nF, c y l i n d r i c a l capacitors

connected in p a r a l l e l , or 20 nF for each bank. The RC charging time

for each bank is on the order of 0.06 sec. using the 3 M^ charging

r e s i s t o r s . Each bank is dc-charged from a Universal Voltronics power

supply with a charging voltage of + 125 kV (bottom bank) and -125 kV

(top bank), and a charging current of < 50 mA.

 33

OJ
00

UJ Q_
iPLir
PUT

O
ID
o C\J
to en H Q-
CVJ 1- 3
CO o

r n O
U

rtJ
E
QJ

LD

O)
 34

The pulser container is made of fiberglass and holds a slight

overpressure (1.0 psig) of a high breakdown strength gas (such as SF5)

when operating at high voltages. In the rear of the pulser is a t r i g -

gered, pressurized spark gap which connects the capacitor banks in

series. Figure 16 shows the gas system for the FRP-250 pulser and

F i g s . 17 and 18 show plots of the spark gap pressure vs. the total

charging voltage for the s e l f - f i r e and triggered modes of operation.

Cooling System

A closed loop, water cooling system was constructed to provide

cooling water for the diffusion pump and the aluminum heat sink in the

cathode. A block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 19. Water

from the reservoir is continuously pumped through an air-cooled

radiator, a particle f i l t e r , and a deionizing column. A thermostat

control senses the water temperature in the reservoir and turns the fan

on and off as needed. A flow switch is provided at the top of the

reservoir which shuts off the e-beam filaments and the d i f f u s i o n pump

in the event the water pumps become unprimed or a leak develops. The

use of deionized water and plastic tubing insures electrical isolation

of the cooling system from high voltages. The f i l t e r e d and deionized

water is also less corrosive on the copper tubing in the diffusion pump

and the short sections of copper tubing leading to the cathode.

 35

Vessel
Switch 0-100 n
psig gauge
Bleed
1 psig
Valves^ pop-off
^-50
3sig
regulator
100 psig
Vessel 0-10 pop-off
psig gauge
^Vessel Gas
Input

10-2
Ipsig
•regulator
Note: Do not exeed 1 psig in
vessel.
GAS SUPPLY
SF^ Regulator

Fig. 16 Gas System of FRP-250 Pulser.

 36

75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 250 265
TOTAL CHARGING VOLTAGE . kV

Fig. 17. Spark Gap Pressure vs. Total Charging Voltage for FRP-250
Pulser in Self-Fire Mode.
 37

75
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
70
65
60

55

50

Q. A5 "

^ 30h
UJ
cr
Q- 25 h
3 20

I 15
^ 10

0 -

30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 265

TOTAL CHARGING VOLTAGE . kV

Fig. 18. Spark Gap Pressure vs. Total Charging Voltage for
FRP-250 Pulser in Triggered Mode.
 38

DEIONIZING
COLUMN
DIFFUSON E-BEAM
PUMP CATHODE

FILTER

RADIATOR

1
PUMP

n RESERVOIR

® VALVES
COOUNG
THERMOSTAT
FAN

Fig. 19. Water Cooling System.

 39

Grounding and Shielding System

The grounding and shielding system for the experiment is shown in

Fig. 20. Thin aluminum sheets were placed under the FRP-250/switch

area and also under the operator area where the controls for the

filament power supply and pulser are located. These sheets serve as a

low impedance ground plane to protect operators and equipment in the

event of a major system f a u l t . All power supply and control cabinets

are connected to the ground planes at a single point using conductors

of minimum length and large surface areas. The two ground planes

(shown in dashed lines in F i g . 20) are connected to one another by a

conductor in the trench. A single point from the FRP-250/switch ground

plane is connected to the aluminum bus bar in the trench.

Power to a l l the sensitive equipment, including power supply

controls, the ion gauge controller, and diagnostics in the screen room,

is supplied through isolation transformers. As added protection f o r

the diagnostics in the screen room, EMI f i l t e r s were placed on the

power lines after the isolation transformers. These f i l t e r s pass 60 Hz

but attenuate higher frequencies. Power lines to the screen room are

also encased in conduit to shield against stray E and B f i e l d s .

The screen room is provided with a pneumatic operated disconnect

on the ground connection (isolation switch in F i g . 20). This

disconnect is triggered by a push button switch inside the screen room

once the door is closed. Noise problems on the ground l i n e were

eliminated by f l o a t i n g the screen room in t h i s manner. When the

 40

E
OJ
+->
CO
>^
en

•o

•r—

CD

•u
o

O
CVJ

a>
 41

screen room door opens, the disconnect closes automatically. During

actual f i r i n g of the e-beam the screen room is grounded through cables

to the voltage and current monitors.

 CHAPTER IV

DIAGNOSTICS AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Voltage Measurements

A two-stage r e s i s t i v e voltage divider^^ was designed to measure

the voltage pulse from the FRP-250. The probe, shown in F i g . 2 1 , is a

5 1/2 i n . diameter by 12 i n . long Plexiglass tube f i l l e d with a

s o l u t i o n of CUSO4. The electrode plates are made of Cu because of i t s

good c o n d u c t i v i t y and because i t does not d e t e r i o r a t e in the CUSO4

solution. For the i n i t i a l pulser t e s t s , a probe impedance of 100^ was

used since the voltage d i v i d e r also serves as a matched load for the

pulser. The attenuation ratio of the probe, for the lOOf^ impedance

case, is approximately 1500:1, as shown in Fig. 22a. The #1 electrode

is mounted on a teflon rod and provides the f i r s t 10:1 attenuation of

the i n i t i a l pulse. The pulse is f u r t h e r reduced in amplitude by a

stack of resistors mounted inside the hollowed-out center of the teflon

rod. This r e s i s t o r chain is terminated by a BNC connector and the

voltage pulse is recorded on a Tektronix 519 oscilloscope.

A typical voltage pulse from the FRP-250 is shown in Fig. 22b. The

risetime (10-90%) of the pulser is approximately 10 ns with a 1 ys

exponential decay. This picture was taken at a charging voltage of

- 2 0 0 kV.

42
 43

0) 3 o

CL o
0; a> CU
O E 5
Of
a. o ._ c c
o
-
CL o 5 Q: ^ Q. zr *•-
-^ CD CL 6 CD o .— o
" * - r M m - ^ L n v o c * ^f—o oL Lc r »—
>
.o
o

+->

CVJ

CT^
 44

90^
500X1

ion 3.3il son

CABLE

(a)

H200nsh-
(b)

Fig. 22 Voltage Probe Measurements (a) Circuit

Diagram of Voltage Probe, (b) Voltage
Trace of FRP-250 Pulser.
 45

Current Measurements

A Rogowski coil 17-20 v/as designed and built to measure the e-beam

current. A schematic of the coil is shown in Fig. 23. Physically, the

c o i l consists of 122 turns with C' (capacitance/unit length) equal to

1.3 pF/cm and L' (inductance/unit length) equal to 0.3 yH/cm. These

values were obtained using a Tektronix Type 130 L-C meter. From these

measured values the t o t a l impedance of the c o i l is ZQ = v L ' / C

~500 ^ . The s e n s i t i v i t y of the coil was measured to be 0.1 V/A.

Physical dimensions of the coil include: diameter - 11.5 cm,

circumference - 36 cm and cross-sectional area -2.25 cm2. The coil 15

wound on a Plexiglass core and is enclosed in an aluminum electrostatic

shield. A 1 cm s l i t is cut azimuthally around the inside circumference

of the shield to allow for magnetic f i e l d coupling.

Because the risetime of the current pulse is on the order of the

transit time of the signal induced in the c o i l windings (2r =

4 rTTV^'C ~ 50 ns), the operation of the Rogowski coil must be modeled

1 Q pi

as a transmission line."^ I f the output impedance is much less than

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance ( Z Q ) of the c o i l , the sensor integrates

the signal and provides a voltage trace proportional to the c u r r e n t .

Because of noise problems, RL was chosen equal to ZQ, thus matching the

system. The current pulse must, therefore, be reconstructed

numerically.
 45

ELECTROSTATIC TOROIDAL
SHIELD COIL

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELD
BROKEN AT POINT OF
CONNECTION

TERMINATING
IMPEDANCE

F i g . 23 Schematic of Rogowski C o i l .
 47

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e current pulse can be seen i n F i g . 24. The

top f i g u r e represents the input current I ( t ) . From c a l c u l a t i o n s due to

21

Krompholz,^"^ i t can be shown t h a t the signal current I s ( t ) i s the input

current minus the current at a time 2 T e a r l i e r (where 2 T i s the two-

way t r a n s i t t i m e of the c o i l , shown i n the middle f i g u r e ) . The bottom

f i g u r e shows t h a t the i n p u t c u r r e n t can be o b t a i n e d by adding t h e

current I ( t - 2 T ) to the signal current Is(t).

A reconstructed e-beam c u r r e n t pulse i s seen i n F i g . 25. The

e-beam c u r r e n t i s o b t a i n e d by s u b t r a c t i n g the displacement c u r r e n t ,

measured when the p u l s e r i s f i r e d w i t h no e-beam, from the c u r r e n t

measured with an e-beam. The e-beam c u r r e n t pulse is almost

rectangular, with an amplitude of approximately 60 ±_ lOA. The

accuracy of the e-beam current measurement can be improved by reducing

the magnitude of the displacement c u r r e n t . A new, lower inductance

voltage monitoring c i r c u i t has been designed to reduce the displacement

current c o n t r i b u t i o n .

The Rogowski c o i l signal shown i n F i g . 26 was obtained by applying

a negative square pulse to the g r i d of the t r i o d e . For the f i r s t 100

ns the g r i d is on and only displacement current is measured. The e-beam

current is then allowed t o flow f o r ~ 50 ns. Since t h i s time is equal

t o the two-way t r a n s i t time ( 2 T ) of the Rogowski c o i l , the opposing

"humps" of the signal appear together, with no delay between them (see

F i g . 24). The pattern i s repeated when the g r i d turns back on.

 48

INPUT I ( i )

OUTPUT SIGNAL

s(^)=I(^)-I(1:-2x)

•w -t
TRANSIT TIME 2x

INPUT
RECONSTRUCTION
7 ACCORDING TO
\ I("b)=S(-b)+I(t-2'er)

-t

Fig. 24. Reconstruction of Current Pulse.

 49

I I I !

/\ .1
nr,-''\
\ \ r^
/
^
"
.-,
/ / v./
'\
\
N
\
\
\
—^ \j I \r
^—^ \\jt
\V V
\
V /

1 1 1

Fig. 25. Rogowski Coil Signal of E-Beam Current, 20 ns/div. (top).

E-Beam Current (upper trace) Evaluated by Subtracting the
Rogowski Coil Signals of the Currents with an without
E-Beam (lower traces). Solid line: Current with heated
Cathode; Dashed line, Current with Cold Cathode.
 50

-HlOOns K
Fig. 26. Rogowski Coil Signal of E-Beam Current with
Pulsed Grid.
 51

E-Beam Uniformity and Time Dependence

An NE-102A s c i n t i l l a t o r (see Appendix) was used f o r two purposes

i n t h i s experiment: (1) t o check the spatial v a r i a t i o n of the e-beam

t h a t passed through the f o i l , and (2) to obtain information as to the

time dependence of the e-beam c u r r e n t . The e x p e r i m e n t a l arrangement

f o r t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s shown i n F i g . 27. The s c i n t i l l a t o r i s mounted

about 1 cm from the Ti f o i l and intercepts the e-beam. The r e s u l t i n g

f l u o r e s c e n c e i s captured on Polaroid 107 f i l m using a Tektronix C-5A

o s c i l l o s c o p e camera. The camera was mounted i n s i d e a small black

p l a s t i c dark room so t h a t t h e s h u t t e r could be l e f t open during the

e-beam shot. A small part of the l i g h t pulse i s d i v e r t e d through an

optical f i b e r to a p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r tube i n the screen room. The output

of the PMT is then displayed on a Tektronix 7834, storage oscilloscope.

A t y p i c a l p i c t u r e from the camera is shown i n F i g . 28. The e-beam

passing through t h e f o i l almost f i l l s the 10 x 10 cm window. The

horizontal dark l i n e s running through the photograph are regions where

no electrons penetrate the f o i l . These dark l i n e s are caused by t h e

s c a t t e r i n g of e l e c t r o n s due t o the Hibachi s t r u c t u r e which holds the

f o i l . The e-beam, although somewhat more intense near the center of the

p i c t u r e , i s otherwise uniform. Bowing of the filaments could account

f o r t h e h i g h e r energy e l e c t r o n s near the c e n t e r s i n c e the higher

resistance would cause the filaments to heat more i n t h i s region. This

bowing e f f e c t can be minimized by t i g h t e n i n g the springs which hold the

filaments i n pi ace.
 52

- C - 5 CAMERA
BLACK ' ^ OPTICAL LINK
PLASTIC FROM SCINTILLATOR
TO PMT IN SCREEN
ROOM
^ e-BEAM
FRP - 250 J>100il
PULSER

F i g . 27. Experimental Arrangement for S c i n t i l l a t o r Tests.

 53

Fig. 28. Scintillator Fluorescence Due to E-Beam Excitation.

 54

Figure 29 shows the time dependence of the light pulse from the

s c i n t i l l a t o r , as seen by a photomultiplier tube. The two pulses are

approximately 75 ns in width and separated by 120 ns. A grid pulser is

used to obtain the electron bursts. The PMT output is proportional to

the l i g h t output of the s c i n t i l l a t o r which, in turn, depends on the

energy and number of electrons striking the s c i n t i l l a t o r . The charging

voltage on the FRP-250 pulser was 170 kV, corresponding to electron

energies of -130 keV for the f i r s t pulse in the picture (the electrons
15

lose 25% of their energy passing through the f o i l ) . The reduction in

amplitude of the second pulse can be explained by a loss in the number

and average energy of the e l e c t r o n s . By the time the second pulse

arrives the accelerating voltage at the anode has decreased to ~ 150 kV

making the e l e c t r o n energies after passing through the f o i l ~ 100 keV.

Also, only 60% of the incident number of electrons w i l l pass through

foil for the 150 keV case as opposed to 70% f o r the 170 keV

electrons.
 55

Fig. 29. Scintillator Pulses as Recorded by a PMT.

 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY

A high c u r r e n t e l e c t r o n gun, u t i l i z i n g thermionic emission from

Th-W f i l a m e n t s , has been designed and tested. The electron gun acts as

a conventional t r i o d e with a negatively pulsed grid providing 100 ns

bursts of ~ 200 keV electrons through the f o i l . The t o t a l electron

current can be varied depending on the filament temperature.

The accelerating voltage of the electron beam was measured using a

two-stage (CuSO.) r e s i s t i v e voltage divider with a 1500:1 attenuation

ratio. The voltage pulse shows a risetime (10-90%) of ~ 10 ns and a

lys exponential decay, characteristic of the FRP-250 pulser. A Rogowski

coil was designed to measure the e-beam current. A r e c t a n g u l a r shaped,

e-beam c u r r e n t pulse (I^^^K ~ 60 A) was measured using t h i s coil.

peaK

Information about the temporal and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n of the e-beam

c u r r e n t was obtained by observing the fluorescence produced by electron

bombardment on a plastic s c i n t i l l a t o r (NE-102A). The e l e c t r o n beam i s

2
shown to be uniform over most of the 100 cm window area.
The electron gun is part of the e-beam c o n t r o l l e d opening switch

system shown in F i g . 30. This system w i l l be used to study e-beam sus-

t a i n e d , high pressure discharges in various gas mixtures.

56
 57

SWITCH PULSER
V 25 kV
VOLTAGE max
12.5 IcA
PROBE max
T 1 us

SWITCH
CHAMBER

TITANIUM
SWITCH FOIL
ELECTRODES H WINDOW

^fall= 2 us

CATHODE ASSEMBLY
ROGOWSKI COIL

E-BEAM CHAMBER
VOLTAGE PROBE

Fig. 30. Cross Section of Triode and Switch Chamber,

 LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Kristiansen, M., "Fundamentals of Inductive Energy Storage." ARO

Workshop on Repetitive Opening Switches, Tamarron, CO (1981).
Appendix A, pp. 313-321.

2. Hunter, R.O., "Electron Beam Controlled Switching." Proc. 1st

IEEE I n t . Pulsed Power Conf., Lubbock, TX (1976) I C 8 - 1 ; Also
see U.S. Patent 4,063,130.

3. Kovaltchuk, B.M. and Mesyats, G.A., "Current Breaker with Space

Discharge Controlled by Electron Beam." Proc. 1st IEEE I n t .
Pulsed Power Conf., Lubbock, TX (1976). IC7-1.

4. Hallada, Marc R. et. a l . , "Application of Electron-Beam Ionized

Discharges to Switches - - A Comparison of Experiment with
Theory." IEEE Trans. Plasma S c i . , PS-10. 218 (1982).

5. K l i n e , Laurence E . , "Performance Predictions for E-Beam

Controlled On/Off Switches." ARO Workshop on Repetitive Opening
Switches (M. Kristiansen and K. Schoenbach, editors), Tamarron,
CO (1981), pp. 121-127 (DTIC No. AD-A110770).

6. Scherrer, V.E. et. a l . , "The Control of Breakdown and Recovery in

Gases by Pulsed Electron Beams." Third International Symposium on
Gaseous Dielectrics, Knoxville, TN (1982) pp. 34-39.

7. Kline, Laurence E., "Performance Predictions f o r Electron-Beam

Controlled On/Off Switches." IEEE Trans. Plasma S c i . , PS-10, 218
(1982).

8. B l e t z i n g e r , P . , "I-V Characteristics of Externally Ionized

Plasmas." Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 26^, 718 (1981).

9. B l e t z i n g e r , P . , "Switching Experiments with a Small E-Beam." ARO

Workshop on Repetitive Opening Switches (M. Kristiansen and K.
Schoenbach, e d i t o r s ) , Tamarron, CO (1981), pp. 128-142 (DTIC No.
AD-A110770).

10. B l e t z i n g e r , P . , "Electron Beam Switching Experiments in the High

Current Gain Regime." Proc. 3rd IEEE I n t . Pulsed Power Conf.,
Albuquerque, NM (1981), pp. 81-84.

11. Gray. Truman S . , Applied Electronics. 2nd ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1954.

12. Langmuir,!., "The Electron Emission from Thoriated Tungsten

Filaments," Phys. Rev. _22, 357 (1923).

58
 59

13. B r a t t a i n , Walter H. and Becker, Joseph A . , "Thermionic and

Adsorption Characteristics of Thorium on Tungsten." Phys. Rev.
43. 428 (1933).

14. Becker, Joseph A . , "Thermionic and Adsorption Characteristics of

Caesium on Tungsten and Oxidized Tungsten." Phys. Rev. 28, 341
(1926). ~

15. S e l t z e r , S.M. and Berger, M . J . , "Transmission and Reflection of

Electrons by Foils." Nucl. Instr. and Meth., l ^ , 159 (1974).

16. Bishop, A.E. and Edmonds, G.D., "Electrolytic Resistors in Plasma

Physics Research." Plasma Physics (Journal of Nuclear Energy,
Part C), 7_, 423 (1965).

17. Anderson, J.M., "Wide Frequency Range Current Transformers." Rev.

Sci. I n s t r . , 42, 915 (1971).

18. Cooper, J . , "On the High-Frequency Response of a Rogowski Coil."

Plasma Physics, 5_, 285 (1963).

19. P e l l i n e n , D.G., e t . a l . , "Rogowski Coil f o r Measuring F a s t ,

High-Level Pulsed Currents." Rev. Sci. I n s t r . , 5J_, 1535 (1980).

20. McKnight, R.H. and Hebner, R.E., ed.. Measurement of Electrical

Quantities in Pulse Power Systems (NBS Special Publication 6 28,
June 1982), Session C- Current Measurements, pp. 175-193.

21. Hermann Krompholz, Texas Tech University, private communication

(1983).

22. Schram, E . , Organic S c i n t i l l a t i o n Detectors. New York: Elsevier

Publishing Co., 1963

23. B i r k s , J . B . , The Theory and Practice of Scintillation Counting.

New York: Pergamon Press, 1964.

24. F r i s c h , O.R., ed.. Progress in Nuclear Physics, vol. 5, New York:

Pergamon Press, 1956.

25. S c i n t i l l a t o r s for the Physical Sciences, EMI Gencom I n c . , 80

Express S t . , Plainview, N.Y. 11803.
 APPENDIX
SCINTILLATORS

Theory

Simply s t a t e d , a s c i n t i l l a t o r is any material which emits a

brief pulse of fluorescent light when i t interacts with a high-energy

p a r t i c l e or photon. Only a limited number of molecules show an a b i l i t y

to fluoresce; i t is an inherent molecular property and arises from the

electronic structure of these molecules. Scintillating materials can

be composed of either organic or inorganic substances and the

application often determines which is used. Inorganic scintillators

[Nal being the most common] are often used to detect high-energy

r a d i a t i o n (x-rays, Y -rays, etc.) because of their higher densities and

correspondingly greater stopping power. The disadvantage of inorganic

scintillators is that they must be used in the c r y s t a l l i n e state

whereas organic fluors can be crystalline, liquid, or, as in our case,

plastic. P l a s t i c organic f l u o r s are rugged, can be machined into

desired shapes, and are, in general, more versatile.

The mechanisms involved in the s c i n t i l l a t i o n process can be

described b r i e f l y . The energy of an incident p a r t i c l e is initially

consumed in ionization and excitation of the electrons in the s c i n t i l -

lating material. This excitation energy may be divided into three main

categories, namely, e l e c t r o n i c ( S ) , vibrational (V), and rotational (R)

(Fig. 31). De-excitation of the molecules occurs through the following

processes:
60
 61

•n
'Radiation less
Transition
(100-efficient)

1 '
S1 ^ ^ ^ ^ Internal
^ Conversion

i ^ FLUORESCENCE

Yz s \
Rn • ^ ^ Internal
• i .Degradation
•
n c /
^ /
r^
V
^1
1 \J
^ /
>
•

Fig. 3 1 . Energy Level Diagram Showing Fluorescence Process

 62

(1) internal degradation - vibrational energy is dissipated as

heat by collisions with surrounding molecules or lattice

vibrations,
(2) internal conversion - through coupling between electronic
and vibrational levels, electronic excitation energy may be
converted into vibrational energy and then dissipated as
heat,

(3) emission of 1ight - fluorescence caused by transitions

from the first excited state to the ground state of the
molecule.

Excitations to higher electronic states decay rapidly (t ~ 10" s) by

radiationless processes to the first electronic state and then
fluoresce. Only 10% or less of the entire excitation energy is given
off as visible light, meaning that most of the energy is dissipated as
heat through processes (1) and (2).

One important consequence of the strong coupling which occurs

between electron motion and atomic vibrations (internal conversion
being an example of the coupling) is the shift observed between the
absorption and emission spectra of scintillating substances. The
emitted quantum has a smaller energy than the absorbed one, meaning
there is a shift towards longer wavelengths. This phenomenon is
directly responsible for the high efficiency of most scintillators
since the emitted light is only partially reabsorbed by the
scintillator itself.
 63

Experiment

The s c i n t i l l a t o r used f o r e-beam detection in t h i s experiment was

NE-102A (obtained from LANL). NE-102A is a pi astic, s c i n t i l l ator whose

i m p o r t a n t physic p r o p e r t i e s are l i s t e d in Table 2 along with some of

25
the more common s c i n t i 11 a t a r s . Anthracene is an organic c r y s t a l

w i t h the h i g h e s t known l i g h t output and i s t h e r e f o r e used as the

standard (100%). Figures 32, 33, and 34 give other pertinent data 25

available on NE-102A. I t can be seen that p l a s t i c s c i n t i l l a t o r s have

some yery useful properties including \jery fast r i s e and decay times.

The NE-102A obtained from LANL had small scratches and patches of

haze on the surface and was badly crazed. (Crazing has the appearance

of thousands of t i n y scratches when viewed at an angle in light.

Actually, these are f r a c t u r e s under the surface.) Micro-Mesh

(obtained from Micro-Surface F i n i s h i n g , I n c . , W i l t o n , Iowa) e t c . , a

s e r i e s of g r a d e d , sandpaper-type a b r a s i v e s , was used to repair the

damage and r e s t o r e a p o l i s h to the s c i n t i l l a t o r . The p o l i s h was

necessary since l i g h t otherwise would be l o s t due to r e f l e c t i o n s at the

rough surface.
 TABLE 2
SCINTILLATOR PROPERTIES. 25

Light Pulse Decay Rise Wavelength

Output Width Time Time Max. Emission
Type (% Anth.) (FWHM ns) (ns) (ns) (nm)

NE-102A 65 2.7 2.4 0.9 423

NE-104 68 2.2 1.8 0.6 406

NE-104B 59 3.0 3.0 1.0 406

NE-110 60 4.2 3.2 1.0 434

NE-114 50 5.3 4.0 434

Pilot U 67 1.2 1.4 0.5 391

64
 65

100

0.001

ENERGY(MeV)

25
F i g . 32. Range of Electrons and Other P a r t i c l e s i n NE-102A.
 66

25
Fig. 33. Response of NE-102A to Electrons and Other Particles.
 67

100 1 /\^ 1 1 I -

8 0 -— —

(/)
6 0 -—
1
1

o
X \
\
\
\
40 - \
\
UJ

u 20 — / --

5
-I
UJ

1 1 1 1
400 420 440 460 480 500
WAVELENGTH nm

Fig. 34. Emission Spectrum of NE-102A.^^