Polygraphy Notes

COMPILED NOTES IN POLYGRAPHY
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION
Polygraph is an instrument or device capable of recording changes in blood pressure,

pulse, respiration and skin resistance in the physiological phenomena that may be used as
bases for the application of a reliable technique of diagnosing truth of deception. It was
derived from the two Greek words poly which means “many or having several” and graph
which means “writings.” Hence, literally, polygraph means many writings. Polygraphy
(sometimes called scientific truth verification) refers to the scientific method of detecting
deception with the use of the polygraph. It is administered by a trained polygraphist, lie
detector specialist (LDS), forensic psychophysiologist (FP) or polygraph examiner (PE)
by asking questions to the subject relevant to the case under investigation. The polygraph
is commonly called as lie detector; polygraph machine, deceptograph and truth
verifier.
A. THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH
For as long as there are liars and deceitful persons, people will constantly find ways
to detect lies and discover the truth. Various methods have been developed using science
and technology to determine if people are telling the truth. Such fields include physiology,
psychology, psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, physics, engineering, electronics, and
computer science. Although scientifically based, most of these methods are not yet fully
recognized by the courts as legal means of proving the truth. In fact, most information
developed using scientific lie detection methods are not admissible evidences in court
despite their expediency in criminal investigation.
Why do people seek truth?

1. In decision making process, success primarily depends on true information
(simply known as the truth). Decision makers must posses the ability to evaluate
the veracity of information that they are using in their decision.
2. The knowledge of truth is the fundamental requirement in administering justice.
3. In crime detection, the task of determining the truth initially lies on the hands of
field investigators.
Sometime in 1893, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian magistrate (judge) regarded as the
earliest advocate of criminal investigation as a science, published his book entitled Criminal
Investigation. In his book, Gross defined search for truth as “the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations.” (Weston and Wells, 1990)
In his earlier book System der Kriminalistiks, Gross emphasized that a large part of
the criminalist’s work involves battle against lies. The criminalist has to discover the truth
and must fight the opposite , which is lies and deceit. The criminalist encounters the
opposite at every step of his investigation (Trovillo, 1939)
B. METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Searching the truth and detecting lies has been a constant effort way back before the
first scientific instrument for lie detection was invented. In attempting to discover lies and
deceit, primitive people developed methods that are founded with magic and mysticism.
Since early people believed that their gods send them messages through fire and water,
they used these things as means to know the truth. This procedure is commonly called as
TRIAL BY ORDEAL. In some situations, faith in mysticism surprisingly let innocent people
go unharmed while guilty ones die or get seriously injured during their ordeal. (Trovillo,
1939).
Some primitive lie detection methods were customs based on physiological principles.
Oriental people, for example, determine who are saying the truth and who are saying lies by
requiring suspected offenders to chew dry rice. While this was a simple task for innocent
suspects, those who were lying had difficulty in chewing. This practice cling into the belief
that fear inhibit the digestive process, including salivation. Thus, deceptive suspects have
difficulty in chewing rice and spitting out crushed wet rice because of fear. Fear that their
lies will be discovered prevents the production of their saliva. (Trovillo, 1939).
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There are various methods of detecting lies and deceits. Lie detection methods
available today maybe grouped in four ways (Llamas Jr., 2002). It includes the following:
1. Cross-checking the information with: testimonies; physical evidence; or any other

existing information.
2. Psychological method – evaluation of the emotional, behavioral and cognitive
reactions of a person.
3. Interrogation and testing the credibility of a suspect’s statements using the
polygraph machine.
Dr. Pedro Solis (1993), in his book Legal Medicine provided a more elaborated
classification of lie detection methods available today.
1. Methods involving the use of scientific devices that record psychophysiological response:
a. Word Association Technique (WAT)
b. Psychological Stress Evaluation
c. Polygraph Method (or Polygraphy)
2. Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the inhibitor”

a. Administration of “truth serum”
b. Narcoanalysis or Narcosynthesis
c. Intoxication with alcohol
3. Hypnosis
4. Scientific Observation
5. Scientific Interrogation
However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception not

mentioned by Solis to include the following:
1. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
2. Brain Scanning
3. Iris Analysis
As scientific lie detection methods are usually applied to resolve legal matters, the
field of lie detection is now included a one area of forensic science. Forensic lie detection is
better known in the academe as FORENSIC PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY. The most popular field
of forensic psychophysiology is the polygraph method. According to Dr. William J. Yankee
from the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) in the United States, polygraph
examination is one of the most complex psychophysiological examinations ever developed.
(Matte 1996)
In advance countries, the following are preferred descriptions of lie detection through
polygraph examination.
1. Psychophysiological veracity examination (PVE)
2. Psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD)
3. Psychophysiological credibility assessment (PCA)
LESSON 2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIO-SPHYMOGRAPH
1. Cesare Lombroso (1895) an Italian criminologist who used the

“hydrosphymograph” in the experiment he had conducted on actual criminal
suspects whose truthfulness or deception he sought to determine on the basis on
the presence or absence of blood pressure-pulse changes when the suspects were
questioned about the offense under investigation. This instrument however, is
generally intended for medical purposes not in the process of detecting lies or
deception or the truthfulness of the subject person. But later he was accorded the
distinction of being the first person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of
detecting lies.
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2. Angelo Mosso (1895) an Italian Physiologist who was influenced by Lombroso,

pursued his studies of emotion and fear and its influence on the heart and
respiration with an instrument for measuring blood pressure and pulse change
called “plethysmograph’ invented by Francis Franke, which reveals periodic
undulations in blood pressure caused by respiration cycle.
3. William Moulton Marston (1915) an American Scientist who used an ordinary

“Sphygmomanometer” by means of which he obtained periodic, discontinuous
blood pressure reading during the course of a test. He also recorded the respiration
and noted the time the subjects’ verbal responses. He also experimented with the
galvanometer to record skin resistance changes and gripping devices to record
tension. He uses the word association test. He is considered the father of modern
polygraphy.
4. John A. Larson (1921) an American Psychologist who constructed an instrument

capable on continuously recording all the three phenomena – blood pressure, pulse
and respiration – during the entire period of the test. The instrument designed by
Larson not only have recording pen for cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and
galvanograph but also it has the muscular movement pen for arms and thighs.
5. Leonarde A. Keeler (1926) is an American Psychologist who constructed a more

satisfactory instrument than the one used by Larson. Later on, Keeler made
additional changes in the instrument, and at the time of his death in 1949 the
“Keeler Polygraph” included, in addition to units for recordings blood pressure-
pulse and respiration changes, a galvanometer for recording what is known as the
Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) or electrodermal responses. He also introduced the card
test and the peak of tension test.
B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH
1. Vittorio Benussi (1914) is an Italian Psychologist who published an account of his

research on respiration changes as symptoms of deception. In test cases, he
measured recorded respiratory tracings and found that if the length on inspiration
were divided by the length of expiration the ratio was greater before telling the
truth than afterwards and greater after lying than before lying. In summary, he
detected deception with a pneumograph that graphically measures the inhalation
and exhalation. He also demonstrated the changes in respiration-expiation ratio
during deception.
2. Harold E. Burtt (1918) improvised and conformingly utilized the techniques of

Benussi. Accordingly, he considered this method ( the measuring of the recorded
respiratory tracing) to be loss diagnostic value than blood pressure techniques. He
then determines that respiratory changes were indications of deception. He found
out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in determining
deception than in changes in respiration.
C. DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANOGRAPH
1. Luigi Galvani (1791) is an Italian physiologist who was accorded the distinction for
developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which records
electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current ever recorded.
2. Sticker (1879) is responsible in discovering the amazing possibility of

Electrodermal response in discovering emotions. He claimed that a person has no
control as to their response. He is the inventor of the first lie detector using
Electrodermal responses.
3. S. Veraguth (1907) is the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic skin reflex.”
He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat glands.
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D. DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
1. Leonarde A. Keeler (1942) developed the “relevant-irrelevant tests.” The theory

of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and innocent shows no
reactions.
2. John E. Reid (1945) an American Lawyer/Polygraphist who developed the

“reviewed control question” consisting of a known lie incorporated into relevant-
irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the innocent subject, to identify
the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor and to improve contract
between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered the “guilt complex test”
administered to the overly responsive subject.
3. Cleve Backster (1960) conceived the psychological sit theory that forms the basis
of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant monitoring of the
subject’s reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue. This is known as the
Backster Zone Comparison Test.
E. EARLY PUBLICATIONS ON POLYGRAPH AND POLYGRAPHY
1. Daniel Defoe (1730) wrote an essay in 1730 suggesting that taking the pulse is
practical and more humane method of identifying a liar rather than subjecting the
subject to various mechanical attachments.
2. Max Wertheimer (1904) published a paper with Julius Klein entitled

Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik with subtitle “Ideas about experimental
methods for the purpose of revealing the involvement of a person in a criminal act.
3. Gesta Romanorum (1906) published his book in 1906 which stated that during
the Middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking her pulse.
4. James Mackenzie (1906) a famous heart specialist who said polygraph exists as
early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception. He first described the
instrument in an article entitled “The Ink Polygraph” which appeared in the British
Medical Journal in 1908.
5. Vittorio Benussi (1913) presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian
Society for Psychology in Rome on the subject of his experiments regarding
respiratory symptoms of lying.
6. Richard O. Archer (1953) is the first polygraphist to record simultaneously on

regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the first on
to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
7. Richard I. Golden (1969) presented a paper during the Annual Seminar of

American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using
existing control question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time will
lie, for the purpose or requiring additional psycho-physiological data from the
examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same
question.
8. Fred E. Inbau (1942). Wrote a book Lie Detection and Criminal Interrogation in
1942 that explained the peak of tension test in describing the methodology for the
administration of a guilty knowledge test when the subject has not been informed of
the essential details of the case such as the object stolen, the amount of money
missing, or the implement used in the commission of the crime.
F. OTHER PIONEERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY
1. Anton Mesmer (1778) is the first one to introduce hypnotism as a method of

detecting deception.
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2. Francis Galton (1879) developed the much acclaimed psychological test known as
the Word Association Test (WAT) whereby the patient is presented with group of
words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient to utter his first thought
generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav Jung later developed the work and
experiment of Galton.
3. Wilhelm Wundt (1879). He founded the first physiological laboratory in Leipig,

Germany in 1879 that immediately attracted students all over the world
4. Fere (1888) is a French Scientist who discovered the electro-cement response in

1888 that causes the increase in the action of the heart and vital energy with
human emotions. He asserted that human body has the ability to generate or store,
discharge high voltage of static electricity.
5. Charles E. Cady (19th Century) recommended the use of chloroform to solve

Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters. Based from his
3-year experience as army surgeon, he had observed rebel officers divulge important
information while they were partly under the influence of choloform.
6. Arthur McDonald (1908) is the acquaintance of Cesare Lombroso who appeared

before the US congressional hearing in 1908 proposing the creation of a federal
laboratory to study criminals and suggested the use of an apparatus containing all
of the elements of a modern polygraph.
7. Hugo Munterberg (1908). A German-Ameican psychologist and philosopher who

introduced the forensic application of WAT in lie detection in US and further
suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording physiological changes.
8. Otto Lowenstein (1920) is a German psychiatrist who introduced an apparatus

that has two pneumographs, which could record simultaneously the movement of
each foot, each hand, and the head in all the three dimension: this instrument is
huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in working order, but it was considered
as true polygraph.
9. C.W. Darrow (1930). He devised a research on photo polygraph, (However, it did

not last long) which records several responses simultaneously to include the
following:
a. Electrodermal response (skin)
b. Blood Pressure
c. Heart beat rate
d. Time between verbal stimuli and verbal response
e. Signal marks
f. Involuntary tremors of one hand
g. Breathing amplitude and frequency
h. Voluntary movement of the hand
10. Akamatsu, Uchida & Togawa (1933) are Japanese psychologists who suggested
the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for the detection of deception because the
conductance level was found to decrease during emotional changes.
11. Christian Ruckmick (1936) repudiated the term psychogalvanic skin reflex
(GSR) because such reaction is not a reflex accordingly. He explained that the
psychological nature of the so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not completely
understood, thus he proposed the term electrodermal response.
12. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns (1951). They are Lie Detector Specialists from
Michigan City in USA sometime in 1951. They invented an Electronic
Psychometer using electrodermal responses as bases for lie detection. They are the
ones who have proven that results of lie detection test is 95% accurate but with 5%
margin of error.
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13. Allen Bell (1972) is an American inventor who developed a device called
Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight trembling in
the voice, which may be interpreted to determine if person is telling the truth.
14. Alexander R. Luria (20th Century) is a Russian psychologist who modified the
WAT that was introduced by Francis Galton so that it is suitable in the Russian
setting.
15. Galilei Galileo devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium,” an instrument used to

measure heartbeat frequency of the subject under lie detection test.
16. D’ Arsonval is a French Scientist who declared that electricity is generated by the
body. He named it as External Friction. He asserted that sweat glands which the
body at times store the electricity and other times, discharge them.
17. Walter G. Summers. He developed the pathometer which measured apparent

change in skin resistance to electricity. He also used control questions which he
called as emotional standards, carefully selected from the subject’s life in an
attempt to evoke “intense psychogalvanic reactions” to surprise, anger, shame, or
anxiety…” such as “ Are you living with your wife?” or “Were you ever arrested?”
18. E.P. Coffey. He is an FBI special agent who observed and conducted cases with
Keeler and reported on the test methods used to solve a number of cases some of
which involves banks. He was also regarded as the first FBI polygraphist and
probably the first examiner in the US Federal Government. He established the first
Federal polygraph research program.
The first FBI use of polygraph in espionage was in 1938. Leon Turrou, an FBI agent
was fired by FBI director Edgar Hoover for spoiling the case and letting too many
German agents escape. Turrou subsequently wrote a book entitled Nazi Spies in
America in which Hoover was never mentioned.
19. Thomas Hayes Jaycox. Conducted a “name test” which he described as a group
of names of men who might have committed the crime to a suspect who gave little
or no apparent response except to one name at which his blood pressure and
respiration become abnormal.
20. Clarence D. Lee. He designed in 1938 the Berkeley Psychograph consisting of a

chart drive or recording unit, a cardiograph or respiration unit, a cardiograph or
pulse blood pressure unit and a stimulus signal unit
21. Ronald E. Decker. He is the head of the Army Polygraph School (APS) who
introduced the modification of the Reid Polygraph Technique and called the General
Question Test (MGQT).
22. Paul K. Minor. The Chief Polygraph Examiner of the FBI who modified in 1980 the
R-1 technique to include control questions of measured relevance to the target issue
but not designed to cause an arousal; this latest modification of the R-1 technique
is known as the Modified Relevant Irrelevant (MRI) Technique.
23. James Allan Matte. He developed the Polygraph Quadri-Zone Comparison

Technique (renamed in January 1995 as Quadri-Track Zone Comparison
Technique (QTZCT).
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LESSON 3
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Ordeal is a term of various meanings closely related to the medieval Latin “dei
indicum” meaning “miraculous decisions” for ancient cases were decided through several
tests usually on physical strength. Ancient method of trial in which the accused is exposed
to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if innocent.
2. Red Hot Iron Ordeal. This is the ordeal that is practiced in the hill tribe of Rajmal in
North Bengal. The accused places his tongue to a hot iron nine times (9) unless burned
sooner. Sometimes the accused also is made to carry the metal in his hands. If burned,
the accused is put to death.
3. Ordeal by Balance. This is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India. This ordeal is
makes use of a scale of balance wherein he accused and accuser shall be placed in both
ends of the balance (seesaw like). The person to be adjudged lighter than the other shall
be acquitted. On the other hand, the person to be adjudged guilty is the one heavier.
4. Ordeal by Boiling Water. This ordeal is used to point the thief in modern Africa. The
subjects plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step to the other
side of the fire. All are told to undergo the tests without murmuring. The one by the time
has lost some or showed blisters would prove that he or she is the thief.
5. Ordeal by Rice Chewing. The ordeal is used to determine who is telling the truth or
lying. This is practiced in India. It is formed with the kind of rice called “Sathee”,
prepared with various incantations. The person on trial eats, with his face to the east
and then spits upon a peaceful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swells or if he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.
6. Ordeal of the Red Water. This ordeal is used in Eastern Africa. The accused shall be
required to fast for twelve hours. He shall e required to swallow small amount of cooked
rice and be given emetic red water extracted from the Sassy Tree bark. If the accused
emits or cough out the rice, he is adjudged guilty of the charge, otherwise the accused is
innocent.
7. Trial by Combat. This ordeal orders a fight between the accuser and the accused.
Whoever lost the fight will be adjudged guilty. The one who wins the fight at the same
time wins the case.
8. Ordeal by Drinking Decoction. The ordeal that requires the accused to be given a
decoction to drink by a priest. If the accused was harmless after drinking the decoction,
then he is innocent but if he dies, he is guilty. This ordeal was practiced in:
a. Nigeria
b. Brahamic India
c. India
9. Ordeal by Eating Corsnead. This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.
The accused is given uncooked dry rice to swallow and afterwhich spit out the same. If
the accused spits out the rice to be still dry, he is considered innocent.
10. Ordeal by the Eucharist. This ordeal is reserved for the clergy and administered with
pomp and ceremony in the European Countries. The accused will be given any liquid
food that may cause death to any person. If the accused is innocent, Angel Gabriel will
descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the food given to him.
11. Ordeal of the Bier. This ordeal is applied to a mystery death of a person. The corpse
will be brought on a bier of boughs after which the natives will ask the corpse he/she
has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the bier is supposed to know more
and if the sorcerer who killed him is present, the corpse will touch him/her. This is
practiced in countries of the continent of Australia and Europe.
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12. Ordeal by Heat and Fire. In this ordeal, the accused is compelled to walk in bare foot
through the fire, if he remains unhurt then he is innocent. This ordeal was practiced in:
a. East Germany
b. Early Scandinavian Countries
c. Early England
13. Ordeal by Boiling Oil or Water. The accused is forced to dip his hand into the boiling
water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If the accused picked up the stone placed in
the boiling oil/water unhurt, the accused is innocent, otherwise he is guilty. This is
practiced in Asian Countries.
14. Ordeal by Using Red Hot Needle. This is the ordeal used to determine if the accused
or any person is telling a lie or not. A red hot needle shall be drawn through the lips of
the accused. The accused will not be hurt, or the accused’s lips will not be burned if he
is innocent. If the accused suffered blisters and burns, he is construed to be guilty of the
offense charged. This is practiced in Wanaka, East Africa.
15. Ordeal of the Tiger. This is the ordeal that makes use of a tiger to be set loose
towards the accused and the accuser placed together. The one that spares or untouched
by the tiger is considered innocent. If both were spared, further elimination will follow.
This ordeal is practiced in Siam.
16. Ordeal by Combat. This is the ordeal that was vividly dramatized in the movie entitled
“Ivanhoe” that was based from the novel of the same title that became the only legal
ordeal that was practiced in England during the reign of Henry III. The accuser and
accused shall convene a duel or fight where the winner shall be adjudged as innocent,
the looser to be guilty of the charge. Those persons not proficient in weapons and those
who could not afford to do so could hire champions in the field to do the fighting for
them.
17. Ordeal of the Cross. The ordeal that lets the accuser and accused to stand with arms
crossed on their breasts infront of atleast 3 designated adjudicator. The one who
endures the longer is deemed to have told the truth. This is practiced in European
Countries.
18. Ordeal by Waxen Shirt. The accused is dressed with cloth covered with wax and
required to walk in barefoot over burning coals. If unhurt through the fire and the wax
did not elt, the accuse is innocent, otherwise guilty.
19. Ordeal of the Donkey’s Tail. As a psychological theory, a donkey is placed in a room
alone and it will be observed. If the donkey cried or made noise inside the room, a
judgment of guilt in the commission of crimes is presumed.
SELECTED COUNTRIES THAT PRACTICES ORDEALS
A. BURMA OR MYANMAR. The most common ordeal that was practiced in this country is
the ordeal by candle lighting. The accuser and accused are given each identical candle
to be lighted at the same time. The person that holds the candle that burned first ahead
is guilty or a liar. The candle that burned the longest determined which told the truth.
B. BORNEO. This is the ordeal that utilizes two shell fishes to represent the accuser and
accused. The two shell fishes shall be put in a plate and an irritating fluid was then be
poured onto them. The shellfish that represents the litigant that moves first shall be
adjudged to be innocent or the winner.
C. GREECE. The ordeal by the use of axe is used to determine the guiltiest person. A
suspended axe shall be spanned at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe
stopped, whoever was in line with the blade is the one to be most guilty among the
suspects as pointed out by the divine providence.
D. NIGERIA. The common ordeal used in Nigeria is with the use of a cock’s feather. The
priest utilizes a cock’s feather and pierces into the tongue of the accused. If the feather
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passed through the tongue easily, the accused is deemed innocent. The other ordeal is
with the use of a corrosive fluid. It will be poured into the eyes of the accused. If the
accused was unharmed then he is innocent, if suffered bruises/blisters and injuries, the
accused shall be deemed guilty.
E. EUROPE AND EARLY USA (17TH CENTURY). Ordeal by water is the common ordeal
used in these continents. This ordeal is used on those accused of witchcraft. The
accused is bound on his hands and feet and put into the body of water. If the body of
the accused sank, he is guilty to be punished to death by burning. If he is half-drawn or
remains on the surface of the water, the accused is innocent.
F. MADAGASCAR. Legal authorities practiced trial by Ordeal. The supposed criminal is

made to drink a poisonous fruit juice called “tangena,” a small dose can be fatal. By
managing the size of the dose, those who administer it can decide result.
However, in some books authored by well known writers and academicians, The
Hereditary Sieve Method was mentioned by Sir Hans Gross his famous book in
Criminal Investigation in which beans are to be thrown into a sieve (bigao in vernacular)
as the name of each suspect is called. If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of
the name is innocent. If the bean remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.
The Ayur-Veda is a Hindu book of health and sciences that is believed to be the
earliest reference of the ordeals or methods of detecting deception as adopted by several
countries in the world specially Europe. It is also believed to be the basis in the creation
of a polygraph machine.
LESSON 4
THE FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES
1. Theory and concept
The polygraph technique uses the principle that the bodily functions of a person are
influenced by his mental state. He physiological changes accompanying deception are
capable of being recorded, measured and interpreted with reasonable certainty.
Telling a lie is usually an emotional experienced. A conscious act of lying causes

conflict in the mind of he examinee, which produces an emotion of fear of anxiety,
manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and perspiration. The
physiologic fluctuation that come with the emotion are in nature automatic, self-regulating
and beyond conscious control because they affect the functioning of the internal structures
that prepare the body for emergency. They are mobilized for survival value.
2. Physiological Effector Mechanism/automatic Nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is the main effector mechanism which the polygraph
are concerned. The autonomic nervous system is the one responsible for regulating
mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation of the blood, body temperature, levels of
potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the chemical substances that maintain the
activity of all cell membranes are finely adjusted. This is found at the center of the brain
and its central control is in the hypothalamus – a group of nerve cells of the brain that
control the entire endocrine-hormonal system. All of our involuntary reflexes- those that we
cannot control consciously such as our heart beat, pulse rate, increase and decrease in
blood pressure and the expansion and constriction of arteries are governed by the
autonomic nervous system. When one of our senses detects a threat to our well-being, it
sends a signal to the autonomic nervous system, which activates its sympathetic division
regardless whether the threat is physical or psychological.
In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which receives the
threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist. The stimulus is transmitted from
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the ears via sensory neurons into the brain where the hypothalamus analyzes, evaluates
and resolves that particular question. It makes a decision for the subjects as to whether it
is threatening or not threatening situation. If affirmative, the hypothalamus immediately
activates the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system. When the
sympathetic system is activated, it immediately prepares the body for fight or flight by the
situation by causing the adrenal glands to secrete hormones known as epinephrine and
norpinephrine, so that the blood will be distributed to those areas of the body where it is
most needed to meet the emergency, such as the brain and the larger muscle group. The
chemical norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the body to constrict,
thereby preventing blood from entering those areas where it is not immediately needed.
Other obvious effect took place when the sympathetic system is activated, the hearts pump
blood harder and faster, increasing blood pressure, pulse rate, and strength, thus
furnishing more oxygenated blood to those areas of the body where it is vitally needed to
meet the emergency, such as the brain when increased mental activity is demanded. The
second division of the autonomic nervous system is the parasympathetic nervous system. It
is functionally antagonistic to the sympathetic nervous system. Its role is to maintain he
homeostasis of the body necessary for normal functioning. Therefore, it follows that
whenever the sympathetic activates, the parasympathetic follows to re-establish the
chemical balance of the body.
3. Tripod Foundation of Polygraph Technique
a. Mechanical Leg Basis Premise

The Polygraph machine is mechanically capable of making a graphic records
containing reliable information regarding physiological changes.
b. Physiological Leg Basis Premise

Among the physiological changes that may be recorded and identified are those
that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous system
component and from which stimulation of those specific nervous system component can
be reliably diagnosed.
c. Psychological Leg Basis Premise

Under this polygraph leg premise, the specific nervous system component whose
stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary mental and
emotional processes of he individual who is consciously attempting concealment of
deception specially if that individual has something at stake and the prevailing
circumstances lead to him to believe that exposure to detection is quite possible
although undesirable.
4. Purpose of Polygraph Technique
Polygraph examination is generally used as an investigative aid/technical aid in the

investigative process. It is used to:
a. Verify the statement of the victim/complainant.

b. Established the credibility of the witnesses.
c. Evaluates the truthfulness of the suspects.
5. Accuracy of Polygraph Results
The accuracy of the polygraph results ranges from 85% to 100% depending upon the
factors that affect it.
6. Factors that Affect the Accuracy of the Polygraph Results

a. The instrument.
b. The condition of the subject.
c. The condition of the examination room.
d. The qualification and skills of the examiner.
7. Objectives of Polygraph Examination
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The ultimate objective of Polygraph Examination is to obtain the Subject’s

“ADMISSION or CONFESSION” of the offense committed.
LESSON 5
THE INSTRUMENT
The instrument used in Polygraph Examination is often called as “Polygraph or

Polygraph Machine, Lie Detector, or Deceptograph” as earlier mentioned in the past
chapters. Polygraph is defined as an instrument or device capable of producing recordings
of physiological phenomena that may be used as the basis for the application of a reliable
technique for diagnosing truth or deception. The machine itself does not detect lies or
deception, it only records the physiological phenomena/changes that occur when the
subjects tells a lie or deception. It is the Examiner who detects deception through the use of
a lie detector or polygraph.
The machine/instrument has four (4) major parts or components, these are;
1. Pneumograph – this occupy the two top/upper pens of the instrument which records
the thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration. This is accomplished
through the use of a pneumograph consisting of two hollow corrugated tubes about
seven inches in length, each attached to a unit by a rubber hose no longer than six feet
and no larger than one quarter inch in diameter. This breathing pneumo unit is a low
pressure unit. The inhalation/exhalation of the subject causes the tubes to expand and
contract, thereby reflecting the change through bellows to the pen into the chart.
2. Galvanograph – this is the longest and the third pen of the instrument. The electrodes
are attached to the index finger and the ring finger of the left hand, or to the palmar and
dorsal surfaces of the left hand. The electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the
GSR or electrodermal responses, are fastened to the hand or fingers by means of the
passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical current through the hand or fingers
bearing the attached electrodes, a galvanometer unit provides recording of the variation
in the flow of the electrical current.
3. Cardiosphymograph – this is the fourth and the bottom pen of the instrument. This
cardio unit is a mechanically operated unit. It is a high pressure system. This system
records changes in mean blood pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat by means of a
medical blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is wrapped around the
upper arm, in a manner that places the bladder against the brachial artery. The bladder
is connected to the rubber hose, past a pressure indicating gauge to a very sensitive
bellows and its connected lever system that powers the pen. The polygraphist inflates
the bladder with a hand pump to a constant air pressure that will provide tracing
amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch with a dicrotic notch situated about the middle of the
diastolic limb of the tracing.
4. Kymograph – this is the chart recording unit of the instrument. It has a synchronized
motor that drives the chart at the rate of six inches per minute and its speed constant is
vital because the vertical lines, which are spaced either at one-half or one inch interval,
represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart. This provides the polygraphist with
a means of determining pulse rate and question spacing.
OTHER PARTS OF THE PLOYGRAPH
1. Pen lifter – it raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.
2. Program pacer – a programmable cueing device for question and answer spacing.
3. Paper tear bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts.
4. Foam Pen Hold-Down – keeps pens in place when instrument is being transported.
5. Attaché compartment – storage for all forms and supplies. Slightly smaller in
Executive Ultra Scribe.
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6. Accessory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture – slightly smaller in

Executive Ultra Scribe.
7. Subject Connections – stylish grouping provides neat, professional appearance.

Facilitates set-up and storage.
8. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of mechanical Pneumo Channel.
9. Galvanic Skin Response Module – recording part of GSR channel.
10. Multi-function Module – selectable recording module that can be used as:
a. Electronic pneumo channel
b. Electronic cardio channel
c. Cardio activity monitor
d. Cardio tech or other accessories.
11. Mechanical cardio module – recording part of mechanical cardio module.
12. Paper storage compartment – holds two spare rolls of chart paper or other supplies.
13. AC power receptacle – power cords connects here; international standard design for
easy cord replacement.
14. Power switch and circuit breaker – applies power to instrument. Built-in resettable
circuit breaker protects instruments and eliminates need for fuses. To reset simply press
OFF and then ON again.
15. Chart drive roller lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper change and chart removal.
16. Power analyzer – automatically indicates whether wall outlet is properly wired and
grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.
17. Stimulus marker – marks significant events on the chart.
18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.
19. Pneumo 1 – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph. Not connected
in instrument with only one Pneumo Channel.
20. Pneumo 2 – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal) pneumograph.
21. Cuff – pneumatic connection for Cardio Channel subject cuff tubing.
22. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand pump used to inflate subject cuff.
23. Mechanical cardio switch – disengages Mechanical cardio Module from pneumatic
system for low pressure Electronic Operation.
ATTACHMENT OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
A polygraph is in fact several instruments combined to simultaneously record

changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance. The electrical
conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured through the increasing sweat gland
activity that reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical current.
The pneumograph tube is fastened around the subject’s torso and belly. The blood
pressure cuff is placed on the right arm in such a way that the rubber bladder part should
be located over the brachial artery. The electrodes or Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) is
attached on the palm or index finger and ring finger of the left hand of the subject. Position
the subject in a manner that he looks straight ahead with the instrument and the examiner
to the right side or rear somewhat ahead of the kymograph or chart drive so that the
polygraph tracings will not distract him.
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LESSON 6
THE EXAMINER
Who are Polygraph Examiners?
Today, some polygraph examiners refers to be called Forensic Psychophysiologist

(FP) because only FP and the subject (examinee) are present in the examination room, his
or her behavior greatly influences the results of the PVE. Although, polygraph examiners
are referred to as polygraphists and lie detector specialists. The FP has several tasks in
performing PVE:
1. Collecting facts of the case

2. Formulating questions
3. Setting up the interrogation room and the polygraph
4. Profiling and preparing the subject being tested
5. Asking questions
6. Chart marking
7. Chart probing
8. Chart interpretation
There are many schools around USA that have been set up to train people to conduct
polygraph examinations. One of these schools is the Axciton International Academy, which
was started by Clarence D. Lee. The school is accredited by APA and certified by the
American Association of Police Polygraphists (AAPP).
Following the completion of these requirements, the student becomes a polygraphist

and may obtain a license in his or her state requires one. There is no standardized test that
all polygraph examiners must pass in order to practice.
Basic to all that has been said with regards to the utilization and accuracy of the
polygraph technique is the matter of the examiner qualifications and skills.
An examiner must be an intelligent person, with reasonably good educational

background – preferably college degree. He should have an intense interest in the work
itself, a good practical understanding of human nature, and suitable personality traits
which may be evident from his otherwise general ability to “get along” with people and to be
well liked by his friends and associates. No amount of training or experienced will overcome
the lack of these necessary qualifications.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXAMINER/INTERROGATOR
1. Patience- there are times or instances that’s subject could be questioned for one day
or more. Never interrogate a subject when you are in a hurry. Never race against time.
2. The interrogator must be master psychologist. He must be good reader of acts of

men.
3. The interrogator must be friendly and avoid arrogance. Try to feel the subject that you
are superior to him. You should be friendly to gain confidence.
4. Never bluff. Never deceive the subject. Never promise the subject anything that you
can never fulfill. Be sincere to the subject.
5. He must be able to talk on all subjects under the sun, this is important in order to
make the subject talk more of the case.
6. The examiner must be courteous and gentle at all times. This is important to gain the
respect of the subject.
7. He must be resourceful.
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8. He must be firm. Must not be swayed by emotions of the subject. He must not cry
when the subjects starts to cry or laugh.
9. Dress formally when interrogating a subject. Never interrogate a subject in a police

uniform.
10. Use clean and understandable language.
THE POLYGRAPH EXAMINER SHOULD KNOW THE FOLLOWING:
1. A complete physical description of the subject to determine the technique to be used

(as for example the subject is deaf or blind).
2. The complete history of the subject.
3. Experience, training, and educational attainment of the subject (to make the subject
talk to himself).
4. A brief synopsis of the case (fact of he case so the examiner can formulate the
questioners).
5. Reason why the subject is to be interrogated.
Attitude and Conduct of an Investigation of a suspect or witness, the interrogator

must observe the following:
1. The interrogator should avoid creating an impression that he is an investigator seeking

a confession or conviction. It is better for him to appear in the role of one who is merely
seeking the truth.
2. Such realistic words or expressions as “kill” “steal”, “confess” your crime, etc.
3. The interrogator should sit fairly close to the subject and between the two; there would
not be a table to other pieces furniture.
4. The interrogator should avoid facing about the room. To give undirected attention to
the person being interrogated, make it as such that will be more difficult for him to
evade detection of deception or conceals his guilt.
5. The interrogator should avoid or at least minimize smoking and should also refrain
from fumbling with a pencil pen or other room accessories for all this tend to create an
impression of lack of interest or confidence.
6. The interrogator should adopt his language to that used and understood by the subject
himself. I dealing with an uneducated and ignorant, the interrogator should use simple
words and sentences.
7. Since the interrogator should always occupy a fearless position with regards to his
subject and to the condition and circumstances attending the interview, the subject
should not be handcuff or shackled during his presence in the interrogation. The
interrogator should face the subject as “man” and as man prisoner.
Is the result of PVE admissible as court evidence?
In most cases, polygraph evidence is used during pre-trial investigation and

preparations rather than during the actual trial.
In the OJ Simpson civil trial, the result of a polygraph were admitted into evidence.
This established a precedent across US allowing polygraph examinations in civil trials such
as divorce cases.
In the Philippine Setting, PVE using the polygraph is not fully developed. The
following are the reasons why at this stage results of PVE are not admissible as evidence in
the Philippine trial courts:
a. Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are not standardized

b. PVE using the polygraph is not standardized.
c. No standard instrumentation.
WHO USES POLYGRAPH MACHINES?

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1. In US, polygraph services are often used in government agencies such as:
a. National Security Agency
b. Intelligence Agencies (CIA, etc.)
c. State Law Enforcement Agency
d. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies (FBI)
e. Local Law Enforcement Agencies (Police and Sheriff Department)
2. In the legal community, polygraph services are used by the:

a. US Attorney Offices
b. District Attorney Offices
c. Public Defense Offices
d. Parole and Probation Department
e. Private Prosecutors
3. Polygraph services can also be used in the private sector such as the:
a. Companies and Corporations within the bounds of the law (EPPA of 1988)
b. Marital and family counselors to alleviate fears and prove innocence of spouse
and family members
c. Private citizens on matters not involving the legal or criminal justice.
LESSON 7
THE SUBJECT
KINDS OF PEOPLE TO BE INTERROGATED
A. Suspect - Offenders of society who are presumed to have committed the crime.
B. Complainants - Are those persons who are offended by the suspects.
C. Witnesses - A person who knows something about the crime.
TYPES OF SUBJECT FOR LIE DETECTION OR INTERROGATION IN CRIMINAL CASES:
I. SUBJECT WHOSE GUILT IS DEFINITE OR REASONABLE
A. Emotional Offenders
1. Person who commit crimes in the heat of passion, anger or revenge [homicide
injuries, etc.]
2. Persons whose offenses are accidental in nature like hit and run motorist. Emotional
offenders have a feeling of remorse, mental anguish as a result of his act. HE is
bothered by his conscience and has difficulty of resting or sleeping.
Techniques for this kind of Subject
a. Display an air of confidence on the subjects guilt

b. Pint out the circumstantial evidence indicative of guilt
c. Call attention to the subjects psychological and physiological symptoms of guilt.
d. Sympathize with the subject by telling him that anyone else under similar conditions
or circumstances have committed similar offense.
e. Reduce a subject feeling by minimizing the moral seriousness of the offense.
f. Sympathize with the subject by condemning his victim or his accomplice, or anyone
else whom some degree of responsibility might conceivably be placed for the
commission of the crime in question.
g. Express friendship in arguing with the subject to tell the truth by:
1. Extend external sympathy by such friendly gestures as a pat on the shoulder

or knee, or by a grip of the hand
2. Tell the subject to tell the truth for the sake of his own conscience; or moral
well-being, as well as because it is the only decent and honorable thing to do.
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3. Urge the subject to tell the truth for the sake of his own conscience; or moral
well-being, as for the sake of everybody concerned, and also because it is the
only decent and honorable thing to do.
4. Let the subject talk of his misfortune and troubles in general, listen and
console as a very mush interested and understanding friend.
h. Indicate to the subject, as a reason for telling the truth the possibility of exaggeration
on the part of his accuser.
I. Seek a general admission of guilt. First ask the subject a question as to some detail
pertaining to the offense.
B. Non-Emotional Offenders
These are persons who commit crimes for financial gain, theft, robbery, killing for
money, or more, particular persons who are repeaters. These offenders have no moral guilt
not troubled by conscience. They do not wake up at night. His only concern is that will he
be going to be caught.
Techniques for non-emotional offenders:
a. Point out the fertility of resistance

b. Appeal to the subject’s prude by well-selected flattery, or by a challenge to his honor.
c. Point out the subject the grave consequence and fertility of a continuation of his
offensive behavior.
d. When unsuccessful in obtaining a confession regarding the offense in question seek
[for use a wedge-to crowd or compress]
e. When co-offenders are being interrogated and the previously described techniques
have been found to be ineffective “Play one against the other” [point out that among
one of them has already admitted his guilt and implicit him in the offense]
II. SUSPECT WHOSE GUILT IS DOUBTFUL OR UNCERTAIN
Techniques in interrogating this kind of offenders
1. Create a situation [fishing technique question]

2. Detect the clues of deception
3. Try to determine what crimes these subject/person has committed.
4. Never agree or condemn the subject
5. Create in the subject at belief relationship.
6. Understand the subject’s point of view.
7. Confidence and belief relationship should come before empathy.
8. Have interest in personal problem of the subject.
9. Establish relationship. Never be little the subject.
10. There should be no criticism [never condemn the person or anybody else]
11. Feedback is intended to keep the subject talking.
12. Never criticize the subject.
Types or kinds of subject for polygraph test
1. Subject whose guilt is definite or reasonably certain.
a. Emotional Offender.
1. Person who commit crimes I the beat of passion.
2. Person whose offense is of accidental in nature.
b. Non-emotional Offender
1. Person who commit crimes for financial gain.
2. Subject whose guilt is doubtful or uncertain.
The (3) General Types of Subjects.

1. Victim or complainant
2. Witness
3. Suspect
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NOTE: All Subjects must be in good physical and mental condition before he/she
may be submitted for polygraph Examination. The following may not be submitted for
Polygraph Test:
1. Person who has extreme nervousness.

2. Person who has physiological abnormalities such as high blood
pressure/hypertension, heart disease, respiratory disorder, toothaches, severe
headaches and practically any painful ailments.
3. Person with mental abnormality.
4. Unresponsive persons, such as person who suffer mental fatique or under the
influenced of drugs or alcohol.
KINDS OF SUBJECT IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
B. AS TO AGE
7-12 Years Old: Fantastic Stage of Subject
13-19 Years Old: Fantastic and Reality Stage of Subject

o Association to gang/groups
o Age of imitation and idolatry
o Most juvenile delinquents are at this stage
o Ego is developed
20-25 years old: Ego of the Subject Begins to Lessen

o They realize that they are not that important persons
o They begin to be adults
o They become responsible
o At this stage girls start to marry
o They begin to be sociable
26-60 Years Old: They Can be the Best Witnesses

o He begin to realize his place in the society
o Materialistic
o They are already matured
o Temper begins to lessen
61 Years Old to Death

o Begin to act like children
o Memories are like children
o Senses are already defective
o They are not quite good witnesses
o They need respect from others
o They are irritable and sensitive
o Become more religious
o Preparation to death
o Beginning to tell experiences of the pass
TYPES OF LIAR
A. PANIC LIAR. Is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession for he
believes that confession will just make the matter worst. The person is afraid of
embarrassment to love ones and it is serious blow to his/her ego..
B. OCCUPATIONAL LIAR. Is someone who has lied for spare years. He is the kind of
person which is called a practical liar and lies when it has higher “pay off” than
telling the truth.
C. TOURNAMENT LIAR. This is the type of liar where the person lies because it is the
only weapon remaining to defend his side. This person realizes that he or she will
probably be convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing his
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confessions. He wants that people will believe that the law punishes an innocent
person.
D. PSYCHOPATHIC LIAR. The type of liar that is considered the most difficult one for
the person has no conscience and shows no regret for dishonest and no
manifestation of guilt.
E. ETHOLOGICAL LIAR. Is one who was taught not to be a squealer. This kind of liar is
usually coming from the underworld gang in order for the member not to reveal any
secret of their organization.
F. PATHOLOGICAL LIAR. Refers to a person who cannot really distinguish right from
wrong. Sometimes, other professional authors of book refers to an insane person or
to a person whose mind is sick.
G. BLACK LIAR. Is a person who always pretends. It also refers to those persons who
keep on adding remarks to themselves.
KINDS OF LIE
1. BENIGN OR WHITE LIE. The kind of lie that is used to maintain the harmony of
friendship, relationship in the home and or office.
2. RED LIE. The kind of lie of a person that has something to do with communist
propaganda that is against the government of the country.
3. MALICIOUS LIE. The kind of lie that has the purpose of misleading the justice in
favor of himself or towards other persons. It is sometimes called chronic lie for it is
done occasionally accompanied by plots and plans.
OTHER TYPES OF LIE INCLUDES:

1. Direct Denial
2. Lie of Omission
3. Lie of fabrication
4. Lie of Minimization
5. Lie of Exaggeration
SOME OF THE PHYSICAL SIGNS OF LYING ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Blushing (to blush to become red, as in the cheeks, from shame or confusion)
2. Twitching of the lips (short, sudden quick short spasmodic contraction of the fibers
or muscles
3. Squinting of the eyes (looking obliquely)
4. Failure to look the inquirer “straight to the eye”
5. A peculiar monotone of the voice
6. A forced laugh
7. A counter inquiry saying “who me”?
8. Unnecessary request for repetition of question
9. Movement of the hands and feel exhibiting a state of uneasiness.
a. Flight from interrogation room
b. Fear of detection
10. Increased activity of the Adam’s apple and many reactions of similar nature.
11. Unusual perspiration /Excessive sweating
12. Dryness of the mouth
13. Rapid breathing
14. Unusual blood pressure
15. Fidgeting (restless motion) of the hands.
16. Stammering
17. Swearing before God that he did not commit a crime
18. Subjects refuses to answer questions
19. Subject is absent- minded
20. Pointing his guilt to somebody else.
21. Subject reference marks (i.e. “I’m honorable person how could I do that)
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22. Subject often ask permission by gong to a certain place like a comfort room. Etc.
23. Subject: reuses to answer the questions directly by offering alibis (i.e “Wait a
minute why do you have to ask that question?” “How I answer that I was in Cavite at
the time?”)
24. Not that I remember (question) expression.
25. Spotless past record religious man.
The reason why some people are better liar than the other is that others are not very
much disturbed over the telling of the lie. They are better and able to control their
emotional disturbances produced by lying and thus avoid display of the outward
indications exhibited by persons less fortified with these essential of successful lying.
THE EXAMINATION ROOM
The Polygraph Test must be conducted in a quiet, private semi-sound-proof room.

Extraneous noises, such as the ringing of the telephone or the conversation of persons
outside the examination room, or the presence of investigators or other spectators in the
room itself, would induce disturbances and distractions that in turn would distort the
various physiological recording and seriously interfere with a satisfactory polygraph
diagnosis. It should be very conservative as to painted wall and furniture. It should contain
no ornaments, pictures, or other objects which would in any way distract the attention of
the person being examined. It should be properly ventilated with an even comfortable
temperature. There should have an observation room adjoining with the examination room
equipped with one-way.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXAMINATION ROOM
1. It must be semi-sound proof room.

2. Free from extraneous noises.
3. No other spectators allowed in the room.
4. No conversation of persons outside the examination room.
5. No ringing of telephones, pagers or cellular phones.
6. The arresting officer should be kept out.
7. It should contain no ornaments, picture or other objects.
8. The subject should not face a glass window or another room during the test because of
the possible destruction, which may affect test responses.
9. The lightning fixture of the room should be arranging in such a way to provide good
but not excessive glaring illumination.
10. Should be adequately ventilated, with an even and comfortable temperature.
11. There should be an observation room or a one way mirror or the arrangement should
be similar to a psychology laboratory. It should be concealed with an equipped
microphone, camera, video cameras, so that outside the observation room can hear a
well as see what occurs on the examination room.
LESSON 8
TEST PROCEDURE IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
When a mentally normal person tells a lie, physiological changes occur within
his/her body that could be recorded by polygraph machine and evaluated by a polygraph
examiner.
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION?
The nervous control of the human body includes the Central Nervous System (CNS)-
(the brain and the spinal cord) and the automatic or regulating nervous system that has
two complimentary branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system
acting opposite to each other. When a person is under the influence of physical exertion or
emotional stimuli such as anger, excitement, fear, telling lie, etc. stimuli, the sympathetic
will prevail and override the parasympathetic, therefore, there will be changes in the heart
rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory tracing, psychogalvanic reflexes, time of
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response to question, voice tracing, etc. The parasympathetic nervous system works to
bring back things to normal when the conditions of stress have been removed. It is the
prevailing branch when the situation is normal and the subject is calm, contented and
relaxed. When the subject is asked a series of questions, the recording of the several
psycho-physiological reaction and the scientific interpretations are the bases of the tests by
the polygraph examiner.
PURPOSES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
The main purpose of the examination is to determine the truth or deception based on
the presence of emotional disturbances of the subject a appearing on the recorded
physiological responses to question relative to the case under investigation.
USES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
1. It serves as investigative aid for the investigators to:

a. confirm the statements of victims
b. ascertain the credibility of witnesses
c. asses the truthfulness of suspects.
2. It speeds up the process of investigation
3. It eliminates innocent subjects
OBJECTIVES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
1. Determine if the subject is telling the truth by verifying statements and/or comparing
conflicting statements.
2. Acquire additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense.
3. Locate fruits or tools of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify the other persons involved.
5. Gain valuable information from unwilling subject.
The reliability of polygraph examination depends on the examiner, but the employment of
the polygraph has its limitations to include:
1. It is an invaluable aid but not a substitute for investigation

2. It does not determine facts; it records responses from the subject knows to be true
3. It is not a lie detector; it is scientific diagnostic instrument
4. It is as accurate as the examiner is competent
5. The test should not be administered until enough facts of the case have been
established to permit an examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable question.
6. A test should not be administered without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or written in any report that a person is guilty
because he refuses to take the test.
8. The test should not be administered until the accusation has been explained to the
subject.
9. No attempt to use the polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.
10. Examination should not be conducted to unfit subjects.
LIMITATIONS OF THE SUBJECT TO UNDERGO POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
1. The subject must have a good night sleep atleast five (5) hours prior to the test.
2. The subject must refrain from smoking for atleast two (2) hours prior to the test.
3. The subject should not undergo prolonged interrogation prior to the test.
4. The subject must not have been subjected to physical abuse or body contact.
5. The subject must refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages or any drugs 12 hours before
the test.
6. The subject must not be suffering from any temporary illnesses like headache,
toothache, menstruation (female), colds, etc.
7. The subject should be physically fed.
8. The subject should not be engaged in sexual activities few hours before the test.
Undergoing a lie detector test can be an intimidating experience that can challenge
the nerves of even the most enduring person. You are sitting there with wires and tubes
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attached to and wrapped aound your body. Even if you have nothing to hide, you could be
afraid that the metal box instrument sitting next to you will say otherwise. Polygraph
examination is long process that can be divided into several phases.
HOW DOES THE PROCESS WORKS?
1. The examiner receives and reviews the facts of the case.

2. The examiner explains the test process to the subject and reviews the facts of the case
during pre-test interview.
3. The examiner designs the specific questions and read each question to the subject to
make sure each one is easily understood.
4. The polygraph instrument is attached on the subject’s body and he is given an
additional instruction.
5. The questions are read to the subject several times while the polygraph sensors are
attached on the subject’s body.
6. After charts (polygram) have been run, the examiner analyses the charts and develops a
numerical score for the test. This score results in a conclusion of truthful, deceptive or
inconclusive.
7. The examiner will transmit the test result to the client verbally and a written report
maybe requested.
NOTE: Polygraph examination is conducted in a private room with no other person

permitted in the examination room during the test except if an interpreter is needed.
PHASE I. INITIAL INTERVIEW WITH THE INVESTIGATOR HANDLING THE CASE
It is essential to the examiner to obtain accurate information concerning all the

available facts and circumstances that form the basis for the suspicion or accusation
directed against the person to be examined in order to conduct a satisfactory polygraph
examination. If the victim or other witnesses to an occurrence are available, they should be
interviewed. Whenever several investigator have been working on the case, they should be
interviewed, otherwise the examiner may obtain only garbled version of the facts of the
case.
For better polygraph examination purposes than more verbal description or even
photographs, a crime scene sketch prepared by the investigator is preferred. Unless the
examiner is fully informed about the case, he will not be in the position to conduct a
sufficient pre-test interview with the subject. It is during this phase that the relevant,
irrelevant, control and sometimes, guilt complex questions are formulated. It is also helpful
to the examiner to know as much about the subject and his background as is available.
Such information facilitates the pre-test interview as well as post test interrogation of a
lying subject.
THIS PHASE INCLUDES:
1. Acquiring and evaluating the facts.

2. Determining the areas the subject needs to be asked.
3. The investigator must furnish the examiner the following:
a. Sworn statement of the suspect, witness and victim/ complainant.
b. Incident or spot report.
c. Background investigation (BI) of suspects, witnesses, and victims/ complainants.
d. Rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other facts such as:
 specific article and exact amount of money stolen
 peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set.
 The exact time of the commission of the offense
 Known facts about the suspect’s action or movement.
 Facts indicating any connection between the suspects, victims and witnesses.
 Exact type of weapon, tool or firearm used
 Result of the laboratory test
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 Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the victim, suspects and the
investigator of the case.
PHASE II. PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
The examiner pre-test interview with the subject prior to the test is considered
essential both for the purpose of conditioning the subject for the examination and also to
provoke and observe indications of guilt of innocence. The examiner should not hold back
any information from the subject about the instrument its attachment or recording. This
will serve to increase a lying subject concerned over possible detection.
The examiner should be friendly to the subject but reserve during the pre-test
interview. No accusatory approach is made in this phase. The subject himself is usually the
best source of information about his behavior.
The primary purpose of the pre-test interview is to prepare or condition the subject
for the test. This phase includes:
1. The appraisal of the subject’s constitutional rights

2. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by signing statement of consent.
3. The taking of personal data of the subject.
4. Determine his suitability as the subject
5. Clinical observation of the subject.
6. Evaluating the psychological evaluation of the subject.
7. Informing the subject of his involvement of the case investigated.
The type of test that the examiner will conduct is based on the pre-test interview. It
also serves to condition the subject physiologically for the test upon meeting the subject for
the first time. The polygraph examiner identifies himself and shakes hands with the
subject. He then guides the subject to sit on the chair. The examiner will also pulls out a
chair and set himself infront of the subject. The examiner then informs the subject of his
constitutional rights and proceed to secure the subject’s consent to undergo polygraph
examination. Should the subject given his consent, he is told to sign a “statement of
consent” in duplicate, then the examiner will ask the subject whether he was already
examined by other polygraph examiner for the same case or other separate case.
If the answer of the subject is positive, the examiner will about inquire details of the
test as to where it was conducted, who conducted the test, the examiner will also ask
whether or not the subject was informed of the result of the past test that was conducted if
any. (As a matter of professional ethics, a polygraph examiner should not continue the test
if the subject was previously examined by any polygraphist for the same case, except, for a
worthy cause or reason). After this, the examiner will then obtain information regarding the
subject’s biodata for file or reference.
Any person who shall be subjected to undergo polygraph examination should be

informed of the following rights:
1. To be examined by a qualified examiner.

2. To be determined if fit for the examination
3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test.
4. To have an explanation of the lie detector machine and what it does.
5. To give consent to the subject about the test.
6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning.
7. Not to be exposed to oral criticism or abuse.
8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental, psychological abuse, and
9. To refuse to submit to the lie detector test.
PHASE III. THE ACTUAL TEST: THE CONDUCT OF INSTRUMENTATION
After the pre-test interview, the examiner will proceed to place the attachment of
polygraph components on the subject. In practice, the first to be attached is the
pneumograph, followed by the cardiosphymograph and the galvanograph. Review all the
questions being prepared with the subject before the actual examination is conducted. The
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examiner should discourage any lengthy comments or statement by the subject respecting
the matter of incident under investigation or his disclaimer of responsibility for it.
Test instruction is given to the subject. Any movement of the body will have an
effect on the results of the chart paper. The answer of the subject is limited to YES or NO in
order to avoid distortion of tracing on the chart.
PHASE IV. POST TEST INTERVIEW/ INTERROGATION
This phase includes all consideration that bears on the examination just after the
instrument are turned off. If there are significant fluctuations that show up on the
polygraph test result that may signal the subject has been deceptive, especially if the
person displayed similar responses to the question that was repeatedly asked, the examiner
will then proceed to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain
confession or admission. However, if the chart of the polygraph indicates that the subject is
innocent, the examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks him/her for the
cooperation shown.
Whether you pass or fail a polygraph examination, it will often have very little legal
importance. Often, defense lawyers boast that their client has passed a polygraph. Of
course, you will rarely hear of a defendant taking a polygraph if he/she failed it. In the next
lessons, you will learn on the legalities of polygraph examination and its acceptability as
court evidence.
Can a person be compelled to undergo lie detector test?
In as much as the test requires the subject to answer the question either by YES or
NO, it infers the use of intelligence and attention or other mental faculties which is self-
incriminatory. Therefore, you cannot compel a person to be subjected to the test.
Is there a best time of the day to conduct a polygraph examination?
Yes. Since it is important that the person tested be capable of the maximum
reactions (for scoring purposes), that person should be well rested prior to the examination.
In other words, testing conducted in the morning will be more productive than those
examinations conducted in the later in the day and in the evening, these significantly
increases the risk of an inconclusive result. The person also should not be tested right after
the argument, interrogation or one day or work if possible.
Can a person below 18 years of age qualified to be a subject for polygraph

examination?
Yes, but the examiner must have first the consent of the parents or any guardian of
the person below 18. However, most examiners will not test anyone who is less than 12
years of age, except for extraordinary circumstances.
Can medication affect the result of the examination?
Yes, any drug or medication that suppresses normal activity of the CNS will reduce
the strength of reactions found on the polygraph charts, resulting in a higher likelihood of
inconclusive result. Examples of drugs are sedatives, anti-anxiety meds, blood pressure
stabilizer, etc. The medication will not change the outcome of the examination but it serves
to reduce the chances of resolving the problem.
Can a pregnant person be tested?
Yes, a pregnant person can become a subject of polygraph examination. If the fetus
is making excessive movements inside the womb or causing pain to the mother during the
test, the test should be stopped or should not begin.
Most examiners will not test pregnant woman under any circumstances but others
conduct examination to pregnant woman after the first trimester. Some examiners will only
test if there is a note from the woman’s physician that there are no complications from the
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pregnancy and the stress of taking a polygraph test would not have an impact on the health
of the mother of the fetus.
LESSON 9
TEST QUESTIONS: TYPES AND PURPOSES
Types of Test Questions
1. Irrelevant Questions – These are questions formulated from information that do not
relate to the matter under investigation and deals with a known fact about which the
subject cannot lie.
Purpose: To establish and re-establish the subject’s normal tracing plus response
capability (excitement level) with verbal stimuli.
2. Relevant Questions – are questions formulated from the information pertaining to the
subject of the examination and pointed at determining the subject’s knowledge of
complicity in, or truthfulness or deception regarding the issue in question.
Purpose: To produce a change from the subject’s norm tracing plus excitement level plus
stimulus.
To detect deception as a result of physiological changes in subject’s norm
To resolve objectivity of the polygraph examination via chat probe and further testing on
potential reaction that result.
Classes:
a. Strong or primary relevant – having an intense and specific relationship to the
offense or problem being considered.
b. Secondary or weak relevant – deals with secondary elements of

the crime and probe mostly on guilty knowledge and partial involvement.
Types:
a. Sacrifice or DYAT – designed to uncover the subject’s attitude, cooperation
towards the test. DYAT – Do you intend to answer the question truthfully?
b. Knowledge or DYK – designed to probe whether the subject’s possess information

regarding the identity of the offender, the location of the evidence or other
necessary elements of the case facts, DYK – Do You Know?
c. Evidence Connecting questions – are questions about some specific piece of

evidence found at the scene of the crime, to focus the subject’s attention on the
probability of incriminating proof that would establish his guilt.
d. LTQ Questions – are questions used for protection against loss of psychological
control as approaching the end of the question series.
LTQ – Lied to any Questions.
3. Control Questions – are questions regarding a wrongdoing, unrelated but is of similar

and less serious nature to the investigation, and to which the subject will lie or if he
does not really lie he will think about it at the time it is asked or be unsure of the
complete truthfulness of his answer.
Purpose: To produce greater stress than offense (relevant) questions in the subject’s
responding truthfully to queries about the offense.
To evoke less stress than the offense (relevant) questions in deceitful subjects.
4. Guilt Complex Questions – are questions about the fictitious crime which is almost
similar in nature and equal in weight to the offense under investigation.
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Purpose: To determine if the subject is a guilt complex reactor with an abnormal mental
association.
To ascertain if the subject is giving reflected reactions due to knowledge of a complicity

in crime with similar situation.
To determine if there is deception in answering the relevant questions pertaining to the

offense under investigation.
5. Symptomatic Questions – are questions that relates about the subject trust in the
examiner regarding confinement to the original issue under investigation.
Purpose: To ascertain presence of subject’s hidden fears or apprehension unrelated to

the issue.
6. SKY Questions - S = Suspect ex. Do you suspect anyone in particular who committed
the offense? K = Know or Knowledge and Y = You.
Pupose: To confirm specific response from previous charts taken.

To detect indirect/direct involvement or guilty knowledge.
A. THREE (3) PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
1. Pre-Test – is the preparatory stage for polygraph examination. These include all
consideration bearing on polygraph examination up to the time of actual activation of
the examination. (Pre-Interview, Data Collection, Introduction of the Instruments,
Explanation of the Waiver and etc.)
2. Test Execution (Questioning Phase) – the actual questioning to the subject in

polygraph examination from the time the instrumental attachment are placed on the
subject until the time instrument is deactivated.
3. Post –Test – the consideration that bear polygraph examination from the time the
instrument is deactivated following final polygraph examination until the diagnostic
opinion is reported and the case is concluded
B. TEST PROCEDURE (ACTUAL)
1. Preliminaries – the mere observation made by the examiner to the subject upon
his/her arrival until the subjects is brought to the examination room.
2. Pre-Test or Interview – an initial interview made upon the subject before the actual
test or polygraph examination is made.
3. Test/Question Preparation – question formulation
4. Attachment – the placement of the instrumental attachment upon the body of the
subject for polygraph test.
5. Review of the test question upon the subject.
6. Actual or activation of the instrument, actual questioning and deactivation of the
instrument.
7. Diagnosis, reading and chart evaluation and interpretation.
8. Post- Interview.
9. Release of the subject.
NOTE: a polygraph tracing can be dissected into four (4) classifications or segment.
a. Average Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows no physiological

evidence in the emotional level within the stress area on the polygraph chart –
polygrams. (no value)
b. Reaction Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows physiological

evidence that the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system has
become more active indicating a psychological change from the subject’s average
emotional level. (with Value)
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c. Relief Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows physiological

evidence that the parasympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system has
become active, following the stress area on the polygraph char, indicating a
psychological return to the subject’s exhibited average emotional level. (With Value)
d. Distortion tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that departs from the
average emotional level but lacks physiological evidence of either sympathetic or
parasympathetic activation within the stress area on the polygraph chart, indicating
a lack in psychological origin. (Conditional)
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED:
1. They should be as much as possible answerable by mere “yes” or “no”.

2. The question should be clearly understood.
3. The question may either be shown before the subject.
4. The question must have only single unambiguous meaning.
5. Lengthily question should be avoided.
6. Avoid legal terminology such as rape, murder, embezzlement, because they are
sufficiency precise in meaning.
7. It should cover factual information; they should no9t be based on opinion.
8. It must not be in a form of accusation.
9. Question must be clear and phrase in language that the subject can easily
understand.
10. They must not contain interference in one’s relation or practical belief.
LESSON 10
TEST TECHNIQUES WITH SOME SAMPLES
OF SET OF QUESTIONS
TEST I. THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT) is the test about the case under
investigation. These are sequence of relevant, irrelevant and control questions asked in a
designed order. The questions are arranged in order to contrast the subject’s responses
between relevant questions and control questions. The answer to the questions is restricted
to yes or no only.
Given below is a sample of GQT. The subject Jerry was suspected to have stolen the
P50, 000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz in the office of the latter. The investigators then
of the case have requested polygraph examination of said suspect. Applying the several
techniques are shown in the preceding pages.
Q# TYPE QUESTION
1Q IQ Is your first name Jerry?
2Q IQ Do you know that today is Thursday?
3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table
drawer of Juan Dela Cruz?
4Q IQ Are you married?
5Q SRQ Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50,
000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz?
6Q IQ Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen
anything?
7Q SRQ Do you know how to read?
8Q CQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela
Cruz yours?
9Q KQ Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of
Juan Dela Cruz?
10Q SCQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current
employment?
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TEST II. CARD OR NUMBER TEST (STIMULATION OR VERIFICATION TEST)
Upon finishing the first test, here is another part of the test; the examiner will show
to the subject seven (7) variously numbered cards, face down. The cards are set in such a
way the examiner will right away know which card which has been chosen by the subject.
The numbers 7, 11, and 13 should not be used because other subjects are too
superstitious and numbers 6 and 9 should not be included to avoid confusion on the part
of the subject. The cards with numbers 15, 8, 5, 3, 4, 14, and 12 are used.
The subject is given an instruction to get a card, look at it and memorize the number
of the card that was chosen and return it without showing or telling the number to the
examiner. After the selection is finished, the examiner shuffles the cards and will instruct
the subject to answer NO to each question regarding the cards, even if the number of the
card he has chosen is asked by the examiner. In short one of the subject’s answers to the
questions is a LIE.
The verification test is intended to assure the innocent examinee of the accurateness
of the test and of the test and of the competency of the polygraphist. It further serves to
arouse the guilty examinee.
TEST III. SPOT RESPONDER TEST
This test contains questions previously asked in the General Question test (GQT).
With the same number of the same question on the earlier test, the sequence is shown in
the table below.
Q# TYPE QUESTION
3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006, did you open the table
6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen
anything?
7Q IQ Do you know how to read?
8Q ECQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela
Cruz yours?
9Q KQ Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of
Dela Cruz?
employment?
TEST IV. MIXED QUESTION TEST
This test is the same with test III but questions of GQT is again mixed and the
sentences of the questions are as follows:
Q# TYPE QUESTION
9Q KQ Do you know who stole the cash money of Juan Dela
Cruz?
6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 20 have you stolen anything?
3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table
employment?
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6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 20 have you ever stolen

anything?
8Q ECQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of
Juan Dela Cruz yours?
10Q CQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current
employment?
TEST V. SILENT AMSWER TEST (SAT)
In this test, the subject is instructed by the examiner to avoid from giving any verbal
answer to the questions asked towards him entire the test. The subject must also be
instructed to pay attention to each question and answer the question only to himself,
silently. In short, the subject should “sub-vocalize” his/her answers.
Two important points was found to be essential in order to achieve the utmost
benefits from the test: First, the subject should understand clearly that in this kind of test
(SAT) the subject will be asked of the same questions just like on his previous tests and is
exactly in the order they were asked before. Secondly, it is significant for the subject to
understand that though he is not to answer all test questions silently in his mind with
truthful answers only.
PURPOSE OF EACH TEST
TEST I The two irrelevant questions are designed to condition the subject to have
standard tracing and establish truth-telling pattern for the primary part of the
record.
TEST II To check possible distortion when the selected number is asked.
TEST III To determine the responsiveness of the subject to critical questions and also
serves as a check on possibility of spot respond.
TEST V To serve as affirmative check
THE SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS
In order to have a better conclusion, supplementary tests may be conducted or

incorporated as part of the standard procedure as special test depending upon the result of
the standard test conducted.
1. YES TEST is conducted when there are distortions arose on the general question test
(GQT), card or third test, the yes test should be administered before the mixed
question test. The YES TEST is performed by giving instruction to the subject to
answer yes to all the questions to be asked including those questions that pertains to
the issue under investigation. The control question is removed as a preventive measure
for the subject to avoid from being concerned over the control questions and having a
temptation to distort the polygraph record.
2. GUILT COMPLEX TEST is conducted when the respond to the previous questions are
doubtful. This consist of a test concerning fabricated incident of a similar nature but
one which appears to be real is so far as the subject is concerned. The purpose of this
test is to compare the responses with those that emerge on the actual test record when
questions were asked about the issue under investigation.
3. PEAK OF TENSION TEST is applicable when the subject was not informed by the
investigator or any other person or the print media of all the vital facts of the offense in
question.
The investigator prepares seven (7) questions in which one of them has a
specific bearing on the case under investigation. The specific question must refer to
several facts of the event that the subject doesn’t know.
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Example: 1Q -Introductory phrase plus padding question – Do you know

whether the stolen watch of Jenny is a Citizen?
2Q - Padding – Is it a Seiko?
3Q - Padding – Is it a Rolex?
4Q - Padding – Is it a Guess?
5Q - Padding – Is it a Gucci?
6Q - Padding – Is it a Timex?
7Q - Padding – Is it a Bulova?
4. THE ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE (ZCT) is one of the techniques in polygraph

examination developed by Cleve Backster. It has sub-techniques to include the following:
1. Backster Tri-Zone Comparison Technique (BTZCT) is usually used for polygraph

interrogation regarding single issue; particularly used in criminal investigation.
2. Matte Quadri-Track Comparison Technique (MQZCT) was developed by Prof.

James Allan Matte in 1977 after 2 years of research and experimentation with
facetious (teasing) crime test used in conjunction with actual test in real life
circumstances; employed to deal with an innocent subject’ fear of error and the guilty
subject’s hope of error.
3. Bi-Spot Zone Comparison Technique (BZCT) was developed by the DoDPI also
known as BiZone Comparison Test.
4. Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT) was developed in 1987 by Nathan

J. Gordon, William W. Waid and Philip M. Cocheti; most significant deviation from
the original ZCT of Cleve Backster.
5. The Utah Zone Comparison Technique (UZCT) is the improved version of BZCT.
Some trditinal polygraph examiners still use and they ususlally administer it in this
manner:
a. Chart I: ZCT without SKY

b. Chart II: Card or Number Test (Stimulation Test)
c. Chart III: ZCT without SKY
d. Chart IV: ZCT without SKY
LESSON 11
CHART MARKING
Chart marking is the process of writing standard and customized signs on the
polygraph chart to denote the subject’s reactions and other circumstances that occur
during the actual polygraph test. Marking the paper chart while the polygraph pens are
writing on it will facilitate the evaluation and interpretation of the subject’s reactions.
Chart marking is a procedure that plays a vital role. Neglecting the appropriate chart
marking procedure for a couple of seconds may cause misinterpretations later on that
further result to tragic consequences. Simply failing to punctually write the stimulus marks
on the paper chart that will cause misinterpretation of the polygram.
Stimulus marks are short vertical lines (normally about 1/8 of an inch) placed below
the descending stroke of the cardio tracing denoting exactly the beginning and at the end of
the stimulus question.
Polygram refers to the compete record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and

galvanograph tracings from the moment the actual questioning of the subject starts until it
ends. It contains the tracings (norm and deviation from norm), stimulus marks and
symbols skillfully written by the polygraph examiner while asking questions to a subject.
It was Cleve Backster who developed and introduced uniform chart marking. In
1959, he completed a 4-page article entitle “Uniform Chart Marking” which was published
by CH Stoelting Company. Standardized chart markings used by the PE/FP in conducting a
29
polygraph examination enable the reconstruction of the test conditions for subsequent
independent review and analysis.
The following chart markings are uniformly used by FP during polygraph

examination:
SYMBO USE/ DESCRIPTION WHERE IT IS PLACED

L
X Beginning point of the test Below the c/tracing
XX Ending point of the test -do
I (Stimulus mark) beginning -do
and ending point of a
stimulus question
+ indicates YES or affirmative -do
answer of the subject
--- indicates NO or negative -do
answer of the subject
T-T Talking made by the subject -do
other than the normal “Yes or
No”
TI Talking instruction is given by -do
the PE
C Coughing made by the Below p/tracing where break
subject is present
M Movement of the subject limb Exactly above/ below break in
or body the tracing
MI Movement instruction given Below the c/tracing
by the PE
Increasing mechanical Adjacent to pattern where
adjustment adjustment is made
Decreasing mechanical -do
adjustment
CT Subject cleared his throat Usually placed below the
p/tracing
OSN Outside noise penetrated the Below g or p/tracing where
polygraph examination room deviation is present
S The subject made a sigh At the break point of
p/tracing
SN The subject sniffed Below the p/tracing where
sniff was noted
SZ The subject sneezed Below p/tracing at the point
where it happened
B The subject burped or Below the p/tracing where it
belched coccured
L The subject laughed Below break point of
p/tracing
Y The subject made a yawn Below pneumo tracing
VC Voice change while answering At the break point of the
question cardio tracing
IM The subject made an -do
involuntary movement
ARM Movement of arm due to Below the cardio tracing
extraneous factors usually
caused by BPC discomfort
BI The examiner gave a Below the cardio tracing
breathing instruction
R The subject requested for Below the cardio tracing
repetition of question
PJ Paper jam occurred during Below the cardio tracing
the test
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Other markings written on the paper chart which are necessary for identification and
filing purposes. Take note that after the actual test, the subject is required to put his
signature along the 3 (or 4) tracings on the Polygram for purposes of positive identification
(ID). Specifically, the markings are written above the pneumo tracing near the beginning of
the paper chart, are the following:
1. Subject’s name and position of rank

2. date and time of the actual test
3. Test / Chart number
4. Examiner’s name of initials
LESSON 12
LEGAL AND JUDICIAL VALUE OF
THE POLYGRAPH RESULTS
IN GENERAL
Although perfection in the test is not a pre-requisite to the admissibility of evidence

obtainable by the use of scientific instrument or techniques, the standard practice has been
to grant judicial recognition only after the proponents of the unprecedented evidence have
shown that the instrument of technique has a reasonable measure of precision in its
indications, and that it is an accepted one in particular profession or field of science to
which it belongs. A more modern view will accord judicial recognition upon the general
acceptance by specialist within a profession or field of science, even though the group as a
whole may be completely unfamiliar with the instrument or technique.
Irrespective of the guidelines of admissibility, the prevailing judicial attitude, as of

January 1977, was one of a general unwillingness on the part of the Appellate Courts to
approve the admissibility of Polygraph Test Result as trial court evidence. Exceptions
however, have been made by a number of State Appellate Courts whereby the test results
may be used pursuant to a pre-test agreement and stipulation between the opposing
parties. Moreover, One State Supreme Court has held the results to be admissible where
subject to certain condition, the defendant request a polygraph examination and agrees to
permit the results to be used even though they may be unfavorable to him; an another
Supreme Court has held that a defendant is entitled, as a matter of constitutional “Due
Process”, to have the test results admitted as evidence, provided proof is forthcoming as to
test reliability and the examiner competency.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)
In 1972, in the case of Reid vs. State, the Indiana Supreme Court sustained the
admissibility of Polygraph Test Results for the purpose of rebutting the defendant’s
testimony, but it did so upon the basis of a “waiver” concept, because the defendant’s
testimony had filed a pre-trial petition for an order permitting him to submit to a polygraph
examination. Judge Charles W. Jeiner of the District Court of Michigan admits or
sustained the admissibility of the Polygraph Results as evidence in the case on the “United
States vs. Ridling”. He also stated that in order that the Polygraph Results may be
admitted as an evidence, it must passed thereof the two essential requisites/grounds; a. if
a subject agrees to take a Polygraph Test after being aware of his privilege to refuse
(following the Miranda warnings, where required), he waives his privilege. B. There can be
no coercion at the time the Test is taken if it is to be a valid test.
In USA, they have specific laws that provide sanctions regarding the use of polygraph
method. The most significant law is the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) of
1988. This law prohibits most private employers from using polygraph testing to screen
applicants for employment. It does not however affect public employees such as police
agencies or other governmental institutions.
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Every court jurisdiction in USA must be checked to determine admissibility

standards of polygraph examination result. Some courts allow the introduction of
polygraph evidence while other courts have not. In most cases, polygraph evidence is used
during pre-trial investigation and preparations rather than during the actual trial.
In criminal cases, the history regarding the use of polygraph goes way back in 1932
during the investigation of the Lindbergh Kidnapping Case.
At the US Federal level, there have been specific legal cases that have shaped the
admissibility of results of polygraph examination. The results of these cases are mixed-
there have been some federal circuits that have admitted polygraph results, while others
have flatly denied them. Here are just a few of the legal cases that have shaped how
polygraphs are viewed by the US Courts:
1. Frye v. United States (1923)

2. United Sates v. Piccinona (1989)
3. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)
4. United States v. Scheffer (1998)
Few representative cases involving admissibility of polygraph examination result in

USA are listed below distributed in some states:
1. Arizona - State v. Mendez

2. California - People v. Espinoza
3. Delaware - Foraker v. State
4. Hawaii - State v. Okumura
5. Indiana - Sanchez v. State
6. Kansas - State v. Wakefield
7. North Carolina - State v. Fleming
8. Ohio - State v. Hesson
9. Texas - Perkins v. State
10. Federal Courts:- US v Pasado
- US v. Thomas
- US v. Piccinonna
- US v. Galbreth
PHILIPPINES
In the Philippines, no law has been enacted yet to officially permit or limit the use of
polygraph machines. Nor is there any proposed bill regarding polygraph examination that is
already filed at the congress, Hopefully, a law similar to EPPA of 1988 of USA will proposed
here in our country for the future.
In the Philippines, in People of the Philippines Vs. Amado Daniel alias “Amado
Ato” accused-appellant (86 SCRA 511-541), the Supreme Court quoted that; “The efficacy of
the Polygraph depends upon the time, place and the circumstances when taken and the
nature of the Subject”.
Other criminal cases in the Philippines that involve the use of polygraph
examination results are the following:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Amado Daniel alias Amado Ato (Supreme Court
Reports Annotated (SCRA). Vol 86, pp. 511-541. (Rape)
2. People of the Philippines vs. Danilo J. Bajas (Criminal Case No. 92-7817 at the
RTC of Makati Branch 146 MM). (Illegal Possession of Firearm).
3. Judith Asilo vs. Melanio M. Sporas; Virginia L. Sporas and Elena Falzon.
(Criminal Case No. 94-6985 at the RTC of Makati Branch 146 MM) (Estafa)
Civil cases involving results of polygraph examination are included in the following
civil cases:
32
1. Crisencia Isaguirre vs. Elvira Isaguirre, et. al. (Civil case No. 58092 filed in the
RTC of Pasig Branch 162 MM)
2. Jesusa Reyes and Conrado B. Reyes vs. Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI).
(Criminal case No. 91-3453 in the RTC of Pasig Branch 142 MM)
As of this time, results of polygraph examination are not admissible in the Philippine
Courts. There are three (3) basic arguments/ reasons why at this stage result of polygraph
examination is not yet admissible as evidence:
1. Polygraph examination is not yet standardized as to the qualifications of the

polygraph examiner.
2. Polygraph examination is not yet standardized as to testing procedure.
3. Polygraph is not yet standardized as to instrumentation.
Asides from this case, there are several cases I our country both civil and criminal
cases where the results of the Polygraph Test were taken into accounts or considerations.
The Basic law that provides legal sanctions covering criminal confessin is found in
the 1987 Constitutional provision was further emphasized in other subsequent sections.
RA No. 7438, otherwise known as the law that defines the rights of the accuse under
custodial investigation must have to be observed during criminal interrogation as part f the
Miranda Doctrine/Warning.
REFERENCES
Dalilis, H.T., Pagnas, D.P. & Curugan, M.B., (2003) Handbook on Polygraphy: The Basics.
Baguio City: J.C. Palabay Enterprises, Inc.
King-eo, Chester (2006). Introduction to Specific Lie Detection. Unpublished notes from the
University of the Cordilleras: Baguio City
Tradio, C.M. (1997) A Compendium on Criminalistics. Manila: Central Law Bookstore Co.,
Inc.
Curugan, Rosemarie, et al., (2002). Handout on Polygraphy. Unpublished notes of

University of Baguio: Baguio City.
Solis, Pedro P., (1987) Legal Medicine. Quezon City:Garcia Publishing Corporation
Mitchell, M.P., (2002). Notes on Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of PLT College:
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.
Valdez, Gaudencio., (1998) Notes in Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of University of

Baguio, Baguio City.
Llamas (2002) How to catch a Liar. Manila. Rex Books Store
Trovillo (1939) The Truth Verifier. Quezon City: ABC Publishing Company.
http:www.pinn.net/-sunshine/main html
http://www.truthverifier.com.html
http://wwwpolytest.org/polyfaq.htm
http://www.polygraphplace.com/docs/information.shtml?results
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation
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COMPILED NOTES IN POLYGRAPHY

Polygraph is an instrument or device capable of recording changes in blood pressure,

A. THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH

Why do people seek truth?

B. METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Cross-checking the information with: testimonies; physical evidence; or any other

2. Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the inhibitor”

However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception not

1. Cesare Lombroso (1895) an Italian criminologist who used the

2. Angelo Mosso (1895) an Italian Physiologist who was influenced by Lombroso,

3. William Moulton Marston (1915) an American Scientist who used an ordinary

4. John A. Larson (1921) an American Psychologist who constructed an instrument

5. Leonarde A. Keeler (1926) is an American Psychologist who constructed a more

B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH

1. Vittorio Benussi (1914) is an Italian Psychologist who published an account of his

2. Harold E. Burtt (1918) improvised and conformingly utilized the techniques of

2. Sticker (1879) is responsible in discovering the amazing possibility of

D. DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE

1. Leonarde A. Keeler (1942) developed the “relevant-irrelevant tests.” The theory

2. John E. Reid (1945) an American Lawyer/Polygraphist who developed the

E. EARLY PUBLICATIONS ON POLYGRAPH AND POLYGRAPHY

2. Max Wertheimer (1904) published a paper with Julius Klein entitled

6. Richard O. Archer (1953) is the first polygraphist to record simultaneously on

7. Richard I. Golden (1969) presented a paper during the Annual Seminar of

F. OTHER PIONEERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY

1. Anton Mesmer (1778) is the first one to introduce hypnotism as a method of

3. Wilhelm Wundt (1879). He founded the first physiological laboratory in Leipig,

4. Fere (1888) is a French Scientist who discovered the electro-cement response in

5. Charles E. Cady (19th Century) recommended the use of chloroform to solve

6. Arthur McDonald (1908) is the acquaintance of Cesare Lombroso who appeared

7. Hugo Munterberg (1908). A German-Ameican psychologist and philosopher who

8. Otto Lowenstein (1920) is a German psychiatrist who introduced an apparatus

9. C.W. Darrow (1930). He devised a research on photo polygraph, (However, it did

15. Galilei Galileo devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium,” an instrument used to

17. Walter G. Summers. He developed the pathometer which measured apparent

20. Clarence D. Lee. He designed in 1938 the Berkeley Psychograph consisting of a

23. James Allan Matte. He developed the Polygraph Quadri-Zone Comparison

SELECTED COUNTRIES THAT PRACTICES ORDEALS

F. MADAGASCAR. Legal authorities practiced trial by Ordeal. The supposed criminal is

1. Theory and concept

Telling a lie is usually an emotional experienced. A conscious act of lying causes

2. Physiological Effector Mechanism/automatic Nervous system

3. Tripod Foundation of Polygraph Technique

a. Mechanical Leg Basis Premise

b. Physiological Leg Basis Premise

c. Psychological Leg Basis Premise

4. Purpose of Polygraph Technique

Polygraph examination is generally used as an investigative aid/technical aid in the

a. Verify the statement of the victim/complainant.

5. Accuracy of Polygraph Results

6. Factors that Affect the Accuracy of the Polygraph Results

7. Objectives of Polygraph Examination

The ultimate objective of Polygraph Examination is to obtain the Subject’s

The instrument used in Polygraph Examination is often called as “Polygraph or

OTHER PARTS OF THE PLOYGRAPH

1. Pen lifter – it raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.

6. Accessory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture – slightly smaller in

7. Subject Connections – stylish grouping provides neat, professional appearance.

8. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of mechanical Pneumo Channel.

9. Galvanic Skin Response Module – recording part of GSR channel.

11. Mechanical cardio module – recording part of mechanical cardio module.

17. Stimulus marker – marks significant events on the chart.

18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.