Dynamics D-1

1. A massless and frictionless pulley is hung by its axle from a support. A string
is passed over it, and two different masses are hung from its ends. This
apparatus is called an “Atwood machine” and was commonly used in
nineteenth-century physics classes to measure the value of “g”. The masses
can be measured with good precision, and if they are nearly equal the
acceleration can be very small and therefore easy to measure.
a. If “M” represents the sum of the masses, and “R” represent the mass ratio,
then the smaller mass is RM and the greater mass is (______)M.
b. Use Newton’s second law to show how the tensions of the strings and
the accelerations of the masses can be calculated from R, M, and g.
c. How does the tension in the upper string (which supports the
pulley) compare with the combined weight of the blocks?
d. Sketch a rough graph showing how that tension depends on R.
Try not to contradict common sense.
e. When R = 0.5, T = _______. When R = 0 or ___, T must be ______.
f. Do both your sketched graph and your equations agree with those facts? ____

2. Here’s an irrelevant puzzle: Place a ruler on a level surface. Place a ball near the middle, in the
groove. Pulling the ruler slowly to the right causes the ball to roll to the ______ relative to the
ruler, or to the _____ relative to the lab. Which way will the ball roll after the ruler’s motion is
suddenly stopped? Explain your prediction before trying this experiment.

3. Bungee Jumping: A person is tied to a long elastic cord. The other end is tied to a high platform.
The person leaps off the platform and falls freely until the cord becomes taut. The stretching cord
gently stops the person. Let "L" represent the unstretched length of the long cord. Let "x"
represent the cord's amount of stretch. Let "v" represent the person's velocity, which changes as
time goes on. Let "m" represent the mass of the person, and let "g" represent the local
gravitational field strength.
a. For simplicity we can pretend that the elastic cord has no mass and that its elastic behavior is
described by Hooke's equation, using “K” as usual to represent the slope of the tension vs.
length graph. Write the familiar conservation law which relates "v" at any point in the stopping
process to the values of x, L, K, m, and g:
b. Sketch a graph of falling distance vs time. (The falling distance is L + x.)
Label the point at which the force exerted on the person by the cord is greatest.
The graph shows that the person's velocity at that point is ___.
c. Using 3a & 3b, write an equation relating the maximum x value to the given constants.
d. A heavy person may hit the ground before stopping. Let "H" represent the platform height:
In terms of H and L, the maximum amount of stretch allowed is: X = __
e. Using 3c & 3d, show how the maximum safe body weight can be calculated from K, L, and H.
 More About Bungee Jumping D-2
1. If the jumper has the wrong mass we can accommodate him or her by using a different amount of
cord. Let “P” represent the tension needed to double the length of an unstretched segment of
cord. (That force is a property of the cord, independent of the segment’s unstretched length.)
Starting with the definition of “spring constant”, show how K can be calculated from P and L:
K = ______.
2. Use equation 1 to eliminate "K" from equation 3c on page D-1. Then solve for the maximum
amount of stretch. Simplify the result so that “L” does not have to be written more than once. If
you find that there are two possible values which satisfy the equation then find a logical reason
for eliminating one of them and explain it clearly.
3. Use Hooke's equation with equations 1 and 2 above to create a formula for the maximum upward
force that will be exerted on the person by the cord in terms of mg, P, and L. How will that
maximum force be affected if we change the length of the cord, as suggested in #1?
4. Given values for the person's weight and the maximum force which the person can take without
injury or discomfort, we should be able select the right kind of cord for the job. In other words,
we should be able to calculate the right value "P" value for the cord. ("P" was defined in #1.)
a. Show how that special P value can be calculated from mg and the maximum allowable force.
b. What P value will guarantee that the maximum force will be no more than 5
times the weight of that person? Please show how your answer is obtained.
c. What simple test can you do with a short segment of the cord to find out if it really does have an
acceptable P value? Explain how you will be able to tell if its P value is appropriate without
jumping off the platform and without using a spring scale. Rulers are allowed.

5. It's most exciting if the jumper falls almost to the ground or water below the platform before
bobbing back up. To accomplish that, we must first choose the right kind of cord (as in #4) and
then choose the right length. Remember that "H" represents the platform height, "L" represents
the cord length, and "x" represents the amount of stretch:
a. Equation #__ above relates H, L, K, and mg: _____ = ______
b. Use #1 to eliminate "K" from that equation. _____ = ______
c. Use 4b to eliminate "P". _____ = ______
d. Use 5c to show how the length "L" can be chosen for the most exciting results. You may find
that the equation gives two answers to the question. One of them is definitely not the one we
are looking for. Explain why, and also explain how that solution could be useful in a different
version of the game.

6. Example: Before making a jump I hang on a short segment of bungee cord. My body weight
stretches it to 1.39 times its original length. The full length of the unstretched cord is 24 meters.
a. If Hooke’s equation describes the cord correctly, how far down will I go before the cord stops
me when I jump from the platform, and how much force will it exert on me at the lowest point?
b. How will those answers be changed for a person who is 1.40 times more massive?
 Bungee Contest D-3
Your team will be given a toy person, a platform, and a short segment of elastic cord. After making
appropriate static measurements, create an equation describing the elastic behavior of that cord.
Use your equation to choose a cord length so that your toy person will fall almost to the floor. No
practice jumps or second chances will be allowed. The team that comes closest without hitting the
floor will be the winner. You may find that Hooke's "equation" is not a good description of the
cord. You will have to find a way to deal with that problem. The suggestions below may help.
1. The tension of a segment of cord depends on its fractional change in length, or x/L, where “L”
represents the unstretched length of the cord and “x” represents its amount of stretch. Let “s”
represent the fractional change in length, so that s = x/L.
a. The rubber cord is subject to “fatigue”; stretching it to the same length more than once does not
always result in the same tension. Investigate and describe that aspect of the cord’s behavior.
For example, each team might choose a different “s” value and stretch a short segment by that
amount several times, recording the resulting tension each time. Does pre-stretching make the
cord’s behavior more consistent, or less? Explain your answers clearly, and save your data.
b. It is not useful to exchange T and x values with other teams because they probably won’t use
identical segments of cord and our final choice of cord length will depend on the toy person’s
weight. But the values of “T” and “s” should be shared, so that a graph of T vs s can be made.

2. The first part of the graph of tension vs “s” resembles a linear function minus a second-degree
term. Further stretching shows significant curvature in the other direction, suggesting a cubic
equation: T = As3 - Bs2 + Cs. The constants (A, B, and C) are properties of the type of cord, but
are independent of its length. An important part of your task is to find the values of those
constants. A graphing calculator can do that for you very effectively, but don’t forget their units.
b. Check your results by graphing the measured tension values vs those predicted by the equation.
c. See how much roundoff can be done without altering the results significantly.

3. The cord’s elastic potential energy is equivalent to the area under the graph of T vs x. To get it
we must integrate the tension formula with respect to “x”. The problem is that we have written
the T formula in terms of “s”, not “x”. We could replace the “s” with “x/L” and then proceed, but
it is simpler to replace the “dx” with some expression involving “ds”. Since s = x/L (by
definition) we know that x = Ls. Differentiating and multiplying by “ds”, we get dx = Lds.
Therefore, EPE = L∫Tds = L∫(As3 - Bs2 +Cs)ds

4. Using page M-11, complete that integration to get a simple polynomial formula for EPE in terms
of “s”. Then add a gravitational PE term, and explain your choice of zero point. Our goal is to
find a way to choose the right “L” value for a given object released from a given height, so that it
will be stopped by the elastic cord before hitting the floor.
PE = L∫(As3 - Bs2 +Cs)ds = ___________________
a. How is the object’s total energy at release related to its total energy at the stopping point? _____
b. How can that energy equation be used to find the “s” value (Smax) at the stopping point?

5. Explain how we know that H = L + Xmax, and Smax = Xmax ÷ L.

Then show how those facts can be used with 4b to obtain the proper L value.
 Molasses Problem (computer version) D-4
Imagine a gravity-free region filled with molasses or honey. When a small object moves through
it a drag force is exerted on the object by the fluid in the direction opposite to the object's velocity.
The strength of that force is proportional to the speed of the object relative to the fluid: F = -kV.
If no other forces act on it then the object will slow down. According to Newton's second law,
a = F/M = −kV/M
1. Now recall that acceleration is defined as the rate at which velocity changes: a = dV/dt.
Combining that fact with the equation above gives us the object's "equation of motion":
dV/dt = -( ___ )V.
2. Equation 1 tells us how to predict the object's acceleration at any
time if we are given its velocity, its mass, and the drag constant.
a. If you are also given a short time interval, (∆t) you can use that
same equation to predict the object's change in velocity: dV = ___________.
b. Since you have the original velocity and the change in velocity,
you can easily calculate the new velocity with the formula Vn = ____ + ____.
c. By cycling through those steps you can produce a data table for a speed-time graph.

3. If you use a spreadsheet or programmable calculator with reasonable input values (such as m = 10
kg, original velocity = 10 m/s, and k = 1 N*s/m) you find that the speed-time graph resembles an
__________ _________ curve (which is not surprising) with a half-life of roughly _____sec.
Please sketch it.

4. If you examine the data table, you find that the ratio of any new speed to the preceding
one is __________. (constant, variable) Thus the speeds form a ____________ic series.

5. To estimate the object's displacement at any time "Tn" you could add up the preceding
changes in displacement: Xn = Vo* ∆T + V1 * ∆T + V2 * ∆T + . . . + Vn * ∆T

6. Using "R" to represent the ratio mentioned in #4, simplify that series. (Express Xn in terms of
Vo, R, and ∆T only.) If you prefer, you may create a better formula by using average speeds for
each interval, but the result will not be much different.

7. We learned in the “bird and train” problem (on M-4) that the sum of this type of infinite series is
finite if R is between __ and __. We also discovered a formula for that sum. Use that formula to
simplify your result for n = ∞. (Figure out how far the ball will go if it coasts forever.)

8. If we used a different small time interval (∆T value) would we get a different answer for #7? In
other words, does the ball's final displacement depend on the size of the short time interval chosen
for the computer program? ___
a. If your answer is “yes”, then explain how the ball knows what ∆T value will be chosen.
b. If your answer is “no”, then the final displacement depends only on Vo, the “K” value of the
molasses, and the _____ of the ball. Write the formula predicting that final displacement value
and show clearly how you eliminate ∆T from that formula.
 Capstan Experiment D-5
A flanged cylinder (shaped like a spool) is connected to a motor or other source of power so that it
rotates about its axis at a steady rate. A rope (with one end tied to a heavy weight) is wrapped in two
loose turns around the rotating spool. The other end is held in a person’s hand. When the person
pulls gently on the rope it tightens around the spool, increasing the friction between the spool and
rope. With a small amount of pull the person can lift the heavy weight off the ground. (Of course it
is really the motor that does most of the work.) When the person stops pulling, the rope tension
decreases (so it squeezes the cylinder less tightly) and the rope begins to slip again. The heavy
object falls back down. By repeatedly pulling and releasing the rope the person can cause the heavy
object to fall repeatedly, like a hammer. Well drillers and pile-drivers have used this technique for
centuries. Similar mechanisms are often used on sailing ships to hoist anchors or to trim large sails.
The purpose of this investigation is to discover how the capstan’s behavior can be described
mathematically. Given the relevant information about the cylinder and the rope, and given the
weight of the object, we should be able to predict the critical amount of tension that must be supplied
by the user to prevent the object from falling. If we can predict that critical tension we shall have
achieved our goal.

1. Suppose the motor is shut off and the cylinder is not allowed to turn. If we hold the string and
move the hand slowly toward the cylinder then the object will descend slowly. How will the
string tension at the hand then compare with the critical one mentioned above?

2. Suppose we repeat experiment 1 with an object that is twice as heavy:

How will the new tension at the hand differ from the original one?

3. The string’s “contact angle” is a measure of the amount of string in contact with
the cylinder. For example, in the illustration at the right the contact angle is 90
degrees. Draw similar illustrations for contact angles of 45O, 180O, and 270O.

4. It seems that when a string or rope slides around a cylinder as in #1 the tensions at the two ends of
the string always differ because of friction. However, #2 suggests that those tensions always have
the same ______ even if we change the heavy weight, so long as the friction coefficient and the
contact angle are unchanged. (sum, difference, product, quotient)

5. Experiment: Find out how the quantity mentioned in the blank in #4 depends on the contact
angle. Collect data covering the widest possible range and make a graph. Remember to estimate
the uncertainties of your measurements and to explain those estimates.

6. Create an equation describing the graph. Then make a linear graph to verify your equation.

7. Use that linear graph to determine the value of an unknown constant

in your equation and explain the significance of that constant.
 Capstan Theory D-6
1. To understand the relation investigated on page D-5, think about a very short segment of the
curved string which is in contact with the cylinder. Let “ds” represent its length. Draw such a
segment, greatly enlarged. A slight curvature must be visible. From the two endpoints of that arc
draw straight lines to the center of the cylinder. Let “R” represent the lengths of those lines, and
let “dθ” represent the angle between them. Starting at the left end of the curved segment in your
diagram, draw an arrow to represent the tensile force exerted on the segment by the adjacent
segment on the left. Label that arrow “TL”. (That arrow must be _______ to the cylinder.)
a. The angle between the “TL” arrow and the corresponding “R” line must be ___degrees.
b. Draw a “TR” arrow at the other end of the segment to represent the tensile force exerted on the
segment by the one that is adjacent to it on the right.
c. Show (with a sketch) how you can add those two tensile forces by placing the arrows tail-to
head. What symbol defined above represents the angle between the arrows in that diagram? ___
2. If there were no friction force exerted on the segment by the cylinder
then the magnitudes of those two tensile forces would be _________.
a. In that case how would you calculate their sum, using T and dθ? _________
(Remember that the sine measure of dθ is equivalent to the radian measure of
dθ in the limit as dθ approaches 0, as you can verify easily with a calculator.)
b. What third force acts on the segment to cancel out that sum? Name the object which exerts that
force, describe its direction, and show how its magnitude can be calculated from T and dθ.
c. Draw that third force into the diagram that you made for #1, starting at the midpoint of the arc.
In friction problems we would call it a “_________” force because its direction is __________ to
the surface.
3. Now suppose the segment is sliding slowly to the left or right along the cylindrical surface, as it
did in our experiment. Draw and label an arrow near the segment to indicate the direction of that
velocity. The surface must then exert a friction force on the segment.
a. Its strength can be predicted by using the definition of “friction coefficient”: F = _____
b. The direction of that friction force must be _______ to the surface,
making it almost parallel or antiparallel to the arrow that you labeled “___”.
c. Since the segment has no tangential acceleration, the sum of the three tangential forces
must be ____. (Remember that we are discussing the limit as dθ approaches zero.)
d. Equation 3c tells us that the tensions at the two ends of the segment must have slightly different
magnitudes. Let “dT” represent that difference. Show how dT must depend on m, T, and dθ.
e. What units are most appropriate for the angle measurements? ____
4. Equation 3d is a “first-order differential equation” which relates the variables ___ and ____.
Its “solution” is an equation which explicitly describes the graph of ___ vs ___.
a. Find that solution. (Use separation of variables, as on page M-20.)
b. Show that the experimental results obtained on page D-5 do or do not
agree with your solution. Present your evidence in a convincing way.
c. Show how the linear graph in 4b can be used to determine the friction
coefficient and the uncertainty of that coefficient. Remember to calculate
the uncertainty of that result and to explain that calculation clearly.
 Colliding Steel Balls D-7
1. Think about an elastic collision between two steel balls:
a. How does the final momentum of the pair compare with the original momentum? ___
b. How does the final kinetic energy of the pair compare with the original KE? ____
2. The target ball is stationary before impact. The projectile ball moves toward the target with
velocity “Vo”. The mass of the projectile is "M". The target mass differs from the projectile mass
by a factor of “R”, so that the target mass is "RM". (“R” is a ratio.) Just after impact the
projectile ball has velocity “V1” and the target has velocity “V2”:
a. Show how V2 can be calculated from Vo and R if all three velocities are parallel.
b. Show how V1 can be calculated from Vo and R. Simplify if possible.
3. The kinetic energy transferred to the second ball is a certain fraction of the original KE.
a. Let “A” represent that fraction. Use 2a to show how that "energy transmission efficiency" can
be calculated from R. (Remember that the mass of the second ball is RM, not M.)
b. Let "B" represent the “energy retention efficiency”, i.e. the ratio of the energy remaining in the
first ball after impact to its original KE. Show how that ratio can be calculated from R.

4. Imagine a long series of steel balls suspended as in a “swinging wonder” toy. This set differs
from the toy in one important way: These balls do not have equal masses but instead have equal
mass ratios. The first ball has mass “M” and the last one has mass “ρM”. Let the ratio of any
two consecutive masses be “R”, as in #1. Let “N + 1” represent the number of balls in the set.
Show how R can be calculated from N and the mass ratio, ρ. Check carefully!
5. The first ball is given a velocity toward the remaining balls, which hang in a neat, straight row.
Show how the KE transmitted to the last ball can be calculated from N, A, and the original KE.

6. We want to find the limit of that “overall energy transmission efficiency” as N goes to infinity.
a. First, use 3a to eliminate “A” from equation 5.
That gives us the overall efficiency in terms of R. _____ = __________
b. Is the limit obvious in equation 6a? ___

7. Here’s a trick that may be helpful for #6: Notice that when N becomes great,
R grows closer and closer to ____. (Give the limiting numerical value of R.)
a. Therefore we should choose a letter such as “δ” to represent the difference
between R and its limiting value. Thus we shall replace R in 6a with ___ − ___.
b. For example, if R = 0.98, then each mass is __% less than the previous mass, so δ = ___.
c. The squared binomial in our revised version of eq. 6a then has a big term and a very small term.
After squaring it, you have a big term, a small term, and an insignificant term which can be
dropped. Then a miracle happens during routine simplification. Try it! Then make a
conclusion answering question 6. (Remember that “efficiency” is a dimensionless ratio.)
8. Suppose the first ball in the series is a 5-kg cannonball with a speed of 1 m/s, and the last one is a
30-gram ball bearing. How fast will the ball bearing go just after impact? Explain your answer
clearly enough so that even a physics teacher can understand it.
 The Conveyor Belt Problem and Other Amusements D-8
1. Sand is poured steadily onto a moving conveyor belt. The sand particles have NO forward
velocity before landing on the belt. Let "__" represent the rate at which it is poured, in kilograms
per sec. Let "v" represent the velocity of the belt, which is equal to the velocity of the sand riding
on the belt.
a. Using those symbols, create a formula for the rate at which the sand's horizontal momentum
increases, i.e. the rate at which the belt delivers forward momentum to the sand.

b. Use the same set of symbols to show how we can predict the forward force
which the belt must exert on the sand stream to maintain that constant speed.

c. How much work is done on the sand by that force as it

propels the stream of sand forward a distance of v * dt?

d. How much kinetic energy does the sand gain during that same time interval?

e. It seems that the work done by the engine propelling the belt is not equal to
the kinetic energy gained by the sand. What happens to the missing energy?

2. Two blocks are connected by a string. Their masses are “m” and “km”. The “km” block on the
right is pulled with a propelling force “F”, causing both blocks to accelerate. The surface which
they are sliding on is level, and the friction coefficient is “µ”.
a. How can the tension of the connecting string be predicted?

b. Explain the limitations of your solution.

3. A steady propelling force “F” is needed to keep a bicycle moving at a certain speed through still
air. Rolling friction can be ignored, but there is a significant drag force exerted by the air.
a. How does F depend on the speed of the cyclist relative to the air?
Hint 1: Drag force is proportional to air density.
Hint 2: Drag force is proportional to frontal area.
Hint 3: Drag force is proportional to speed with some exponent.
Hint 4: Units must balance in the drag force formula.

b. How much propelling force is needed to maintain the same speed relative to the ground in a
cross-wind? The velocity of the air relative to the ground is equal to the bike speed but
perpendicular to it. The bike is not blown off-course.

c. Suppose the speed of the crosswind changes:

How must the required propelling force depend on the crosswind speed?
 Two Questions About Planet X D-9
1. A car is driven along a large circular path on a smooth, level surface on Planet X. We find that
there is a maximum speed at which you can keep the car on the path. Attempting to exceed that
speed results in a skid. Suppose you apply the brakes firmly at the moment when such a skid
begins, and hold the pedal down until the car stops: How far do you skid?
Clues: The weight of the car is “W”. The radius of the circle is “R”. (R is much greater than the
length of the car.) The friction coefficient is “µ”. Please express your answer in terms of some or
all of those given quantities if possible. Explain your reasoning carefully. If further information
is needed, please explain why it is needed and show how you use it.
2. There is an elevator in a very tall building on the equator of Planet X. The shaft that it moves in
is perfectly vertical. There is a perfectly frictionless and level air-hockey table mounted in that
elevator. A puck is placed at the center of that table. We find that whenever the elevator is going
up, the puck accelerates eastward. It accelerates westward whenever the elevator is going down.
From those observations we conclude that the planet is rotating.
a. Let “m” represent the mass of the puck, let “R” represent the radius of the planet, and let “ω”
represent its rotational velocity, in radians per second. How can the puck’s initial angular
momentum about the planet’s axis be calculated? L = _____
b. Does any force act on it that could change its
angular momentum as the elevator goes up? ___
c. Show how 2a and 2b are used to calculate the puck’s new rotational
velocity after the elevator has gone up a distance “∆R”. ωn = _________
d. The puck’s change in angular velocity is easy to calculate by subtracting: ∆ ω = ωn - ω. After
using 2c, that expression can be simplified by the “common denominator” method. Then it can
be simplified more by using the fact that ∆R is much less than R. Please show those steps
clearly. ∆ω = _________
e. Let “∆Vx” represent the puck’s change in horizontal velocity on the table
top as the elevator goes up. How must that be related to R and ∆ ω? ∆Vx = _________
f. Use 2d to eliminate ∆ω from 2e: ∆Vx = _________

[
g. Divide both sides of equation 2f by ∆t, the time it takes for the elevator to go up: ax = _____
h. In the elevator’s frame of reference it seems that there is a mysterious force acting on the puck
to cause that horizontal acceleration. It’s called a “Coriolis force”. How can the strength of the
Coriolis force on the puck be calculated from its vertical velocity, its mass, and other constants?
Fc = ________
i. Which way is Planet X turning? -Which way must you look to see the sunrise?
Please explain your answer.
j. How fast must an elevator move in a building on the earth to obtain a 0.01-newton Coriolis
force on a 1.0-kilogram puck? Please explain your answer.

k. How does the Coriolis effect alter the path of a wind blowing northward from a mid-latitude in
the earth’s northern hemisphere?
 Dynamics Review Sheet D-10

1. Newton’s second law of motion: ____ = ______ (from first-year physics)

2. Hooke’s equation for the tension of a spring: ___ = ______ (from first-year physics)

3. Familiar energy equations: (from first-year physics)

a. Kinetic energy: KE = ______
b. Elastic potential energy: PE = ______
c. Gravitational potential energy in a uniform field: ∆PE = ___________

4. Energy conservation law: (from first-year physics)

5. Viscous drag force: F = ______ (D-4)

6. What did we discover about the speed-time graph of a coasting object subject to a viscous drag
force? (D-4)

7. How does a capstan’s tension ratio depend of the string’s contact angle? (D-5 & D-6)

8. What does the momentum conservation law say about collisions? (D-7)

9. What does the energy conservation law say about elastic collisions? (D-7)

10. How does the drag force on an object moving rapidly through air differ from the
viscous drag force exerted on an object moving slowly through a thick fluid? (D-8)

11. What did we discover about the Coriolis effect? (D-9)