1.

The rock cycle

The rock cycle is the process by which rocks of one kind change into rocks of another kind. There are
three main kinds of rocks: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Each of these rocks can
change into the other kinds by physical processes: cooling, melting, heat, weathering/erosion, compacting
(squeezing tightly together), cementing, and pressure.

When heated deep underground, rocks become magma (liquid rock). Above ground, it is called lava.
Sediment, the particles from rock erosion and weathering, is the basis for sedimentary rock of the future.

Igneous rock is hardened magma, which can happen above or below ground. It can melt into magma,
erode into sediment, or be pressed tightly together to become metamorphic.

Metamorphic rock is igneous or sedimentary rock that has been heated and squeezed. It can erode into
sediment or melt into magma. It is formed under extreme pressure and temperature deep inside mountain
chains.
Sedimentary rock is compacted sediment which can come from any of the other rocks, plus remains of
living things. It can erode back into sediment, or be pressurized into metamorphic rock.

These processes can occur in different orders, and the cycle goes on forever. Earth has several processes
for changing rocks. Wind and water can create sediment from rocks, and movement of one tectonic plate
against another creates enormous heat and pressure which affects rocks greatly. Subduction converts all kinds
into magma, which eventually rejoins the cycle as igneous rock.
Processes involved in the rock cycle:

Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of
temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material.
There are three types of weathering, physical, chemical and biological.

Erosion and Transport

Erosion is the process by which soil and rock particles are worn away and moved elsewhere by gravity, or by a
moving transport agent – wind, water or ice.

Transport refers to the processes by which the sediment is moved along – for example, pebbles rolled along a
river-bed or sea shore, sand grains whipped up by the wind, salts carried in solution.

Deposition of Sediment
Deposition is the laying down of sediment carried by wind, water, or ice. Sediment can be transported as
pebbles, sand & mud, or as salts dissolved in water. Salts may later be deposited by organic activity (e.g. as sea-
shells) or by evaporation

Compaction
Compaction happens when sediments are deeply buried, placing them under pressure because of the weight of
overlying layers. This squashes the grains together more tightly.

Cementation
Cementation is where new minerals stick the grains together – just as cement (from a bag) binds sand grains in a
bricklayer’s mortar. If you look carefully at the microscope photo, you can see mineral crystals that have grown
around the sediment grains and bonded them together.

Deformation of Rocks
Rocks become deformed when the Earth’s crust is compressed or stretched. The forces needed to do this act
over millions of years – deformation is a very slow process!
Compression
Compression (squashing) occurs as tectonic plates are pushed together and the crust becomes shorter and
thicker, building mountain ranges like the Alps or Himalayas. The rocks are folded and metamorphosed at
depth. They may be faulted nearer the surface.
Tension
Tension (stretching) occurs as tectonic plates are pulled apart and the crust becomes thinner. Rocks near to the
surface become faulted, sometimes producing rift valleys, such as the East African Rift.
Metamorphism
Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture (distinct arrangement of minerals) in pre-existing
rocks (protoliths), without the protolith melting into liquid magma (a solid-state change)
2. Identification of Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are rocks that have formed due to the cooling followed by solidification of molten matter.
Molten matter or rocks that have come up from Earth’s interior mostly from upper mantle in form of magma.
Magma after reaching the Earth’s surface solidifies after it comes in contact with atmosphere and water. Magma
after coming to the surface is termed as lava. It cools down and become solid by forming crystals.
The molten magma from the Earth’s upper mantle solidifies after it comes in contact with air and water
and slowly crystallizes. The igneous rock which forms beneath Earth surface after the magma cooling is
classified as intrusive rock. The lava which cools on top of Earth surface is classified as extrusive rock.
The igneous forms of rocks are identified by their texture, colour, density and the mineral composition.
The texture basically depends upon the size, shape and the manner in which the crystals are arranged in the
rock. The texture of igneous rock depends upon the time period it takes to cool down and solidify.
The rock forms that cools down slowly usually forms very large crystals. The igneous rocks are usually
formed when the intrusive igneous form that slowly cools deep inside the Earth’s crust. The best example would
be granite stone which is nothing but intrusive igneous rock which forms due to slow cooling of magma beneath
Earth crust. The crystals that form within granite could be observed clearly in the rock form.
The rocks that cools down quickly usually does not have any crystals at all and even though there are
crystals present would be of very small size. Basalt rock is one such rock form which cools down quickly and
has small size crystals present.
Some of the extrusive rock forms that are formed beneath ocean cools very rapidly and develop a glassy
texture all across. Obsidian is a volcanic glass that is formed when lava cools down rapidly. Yet another type of
extrusive rocks which cools down so rapidly that gas molecules are trapped within and provides a porous
texture to the rock form. These are essentially called as vesicular rock forms. The best example for such rock
forms are pumice stone which has finely grained texture and resembles a sponge.

Characteristics
1) The igneous form of rocks does not
have any fossil deposit and even if there
are chances of fossil deep inside the crust,
by the time it erupts out of Earth its
completely destroyed due to sheer heat
these rocks produce.
2) Most of the igneous forms have one or
two mineral deposit in them.
3) These are either glassy or coarse in
appearance.
4) Usually do not react with acids.
5) The mineral deposits are in patches and
of different size.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from
deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding.
Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary
rock
Four basic processes are involved in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rock: weathering (erosion)caused
mainly by friction of waves, transportation where the sediment is carried along by a current, deposition and
compaction where the sediment is squashed together to form a rock of this kind.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden pressure as particles of sediment are deposited out of air, ice, or
water flows carrying the particles in suspension.
As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (or 'lithostatic') pressure squeezes the sediment into layered
solids in a process known as lithification ('rock formation') and the original connate fluids are expelled.

The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, including
cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive
of surface weathering.
Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, and shale. These rocks often start as sediments
carried in rivers and deposited in lakes and oceans. When buried, the sediments lose water and become
cemented to form rock. Tuffaceous sandstones contain volcanic ash.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by
weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried
deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks may have
particles ranging in size from microscopic clay to huge boulders. Their names are based on their clast or grain
size. The smallest grains are called clay, then silt, then sand. Grains larger than 2 millimeters are called pebbles.
Shale is a rock made mostly of clay, siltstone is made up of silt-sized grains, sandstone is made of sand-sized
clasts, and conglomerate is made of pebbles surrounded by a matrix of sand or mud.

Biologic sedimentary rocks form when large numbers of living things die. Chert is an example for this type of
rock, and this is one of the ways limestone can form.
Metamorphic rocks
A metamorphic rock changes whenever it is exposed to a physical condition which wears it down gradually.
These changes occur when these rocks are exposed to an environment which is newer to the one these are
originally from.

Metamorphic rocks form when rocks changes over a period of time due to lot of physical factors like heat,
pressure and chemical activity. The minerals and rest of rock features go through a lot of changes when these
rocks undergo changes due to heat, pressure and the chemical reaction.
Metamorphism or metamorphic rocks processes and mineral transformations in rocks happen at a very high
temperature and pressure which are fundamentally combined with the chemical reactions. The most dramatic
form of changes that occur from sedimentary form of rocks into metamorphic rocks is by addition of heat
during the formation of mountain by huge volume of magma in the crust.

Foliated Metamorphic rocks are more common and could be the product of regional metamorphism and is one
of the more important characteristics of dynamic thermal metamorphism where all the stress directed tend to
develop various types of planar elements.

Schistosity develops in intense metamorphic rock form where the mica and chlorite minerals grow into visible
crystals and develop the foliation. In origin, these minerals grow in a metamorphic zone where it attains a fine-
grained texture and grow foliation cleavage known as slaty cleavage. Gneissic foliation due to high grade
metamorphosis which develops altering layers of light and dark minerals that get re arranged.

Non-foliated homogeneous rocks are of 2 types which are basically thermal metamorphic rocks while the
second type develops only if the newly deformed metamorphic minerals are qui dimensional with no basic
orientation. Example: limestone, sandstone and dunite.

Metamorphic Rock characteristics

1) A few characteristics of metamorphic rock are as
follows: the Cataclastic metamorphism occurs only
along the tectonic plate faults where the rocks brush
against each other. This is the only type of
metamorphism which results in the grain size
reduction.
2) The transformations of metamorphic rocks are
classified as one which is low grade and could form
non-foliated rocks.

3) The rock circulation results in huge number of

mineral water chemical reactions which results in
all kinds of precious stones and metals.
3. Characteristics of tunneling on different rock forms:

Tunnels are underground passages or routes (or passages through hills or mountains) used for different
purposes. They are made by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills or mountains.

The operations and the constructions are carried out underground without disturbing the ground surface. This
operation is called as the tunneling

Tunnels Effects of Tunneling on The Ground

The tunneling process deteriorates the physical conditions of the ground. This happens because due to heavy
and repeated blasting excavation, the rocks get shattered to great extent and develop numerous cracks and
fractures. This reduces the cohesiveness and compactness of rocks. In other words, rocks become loose and
more fractured and porous. This naturally adversely affects the competence of the rocks concerned.
Geological Considerations for successful Tunneling
the safety success and economy of tunneling depend on the various geological conditions prevailing at the site.
As usual, the important geological factors which interfere with this civil engineering project (i.e. tunneling) are
also lithological, structural and ground water conditions.
Importance of Rock Types
Since tunnels through underground rock masses, obviously the nature of rock types which are encountered
along the tunnel alignment is very important for the safety and stability of the tunnel. • In brief, the competent
rocks (i.e. those which are strong, hard and massive) will lead to safe but slow tunneling and incompetent rocks
(which are loose or soft or fractured), through amenable for easy tunneling, will be unstable and hence require
lining. Of Course, if tunnel extends for considerably long distances, the kind or rocks en route may vary from
place to place, i.e. Competent at some places and incompetent at some other places.

Suitability of Igneous Rocks at the Tunnel Site

Massive igneous rocks, I.e. the plutonic and hypabyssal varieties, are very competent but difficult to work. They
do not need any lining or any special maintenance. This is so because they are very strong, tough, hard, rigid,
durable, impervious and tunneling, do not succumb to collapse, floor bumps, side bulges or to any other
deformation.
The volcanic rocks, too in spite of their vesicular or amygdaloidal character are competent and suitable for
tunneling. Further, by virtue of frequently present vesicular or amygdaloidal structure, they are more easily
workable than intrusive rocks.

Sedimentary Rocks at the tunnel Site

• In general, sedimentary rocks are less competent than igneous rocks. Among the different sedimentary rocks.
• Thick bedded, well-cemented and siliceous or ferruginous sandstones are more competent and better suited for
tunneling. They will be strong, easily workable and, moreover, do not require any lining. Thus, they possess all
the desirable qualities for tunneling, provided they are not affected adversely by any geological structures and
ground water conditions.
• Shales, by virtue of their inherent weakness and lamination, may get badly shattered during blasting. But
being soft, they can be easily excavated and hence tunneling progresses faster through shale formations. Proper
lining is necessary for tunnels built in Shales.
• Among limestones, dolomitic limestone is harder and more durable. They are better than other varieties. On
the other hand, calcareous limestones or porous limestones are naturally weaker and softer.
• In a majority of the cases, sedimentary rocks. Being relatively softer, facilitate fast progress of work, but by
virtue of their weakness requires suitable lining.
Metamorphic Rocks at the Tunnel Site

Among different metamorphic rocks, gneisses are nearly similar to granites in terms of their competence,
durability and workability. Hence, they are capable of withstanding the tunneling process without requiring any
lining. The gneissose structure may be advantageous in the excavation process. Schists, phyllites, etc., which
are highly foliated and generally soft, are easily workable but necessarily require good lining.
Quartzite are very hard and hence very difficult to work they are more brittle too. They are competent and need
no lining.