REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

K. T. Showkath Hussiain “An analytical study of the socio-familial status of

low achievers among the secondary school students of Kerala state” Thesis.
Department of Education, University of Calicut, 2002
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

U Socio-familial Status and School

-
Achievement A Theoretical
Overview
Socio-economic Status, Social
Status
B3 Studies Related to Socio-familial
Status and Achievement
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related literature is an important aspect of the

planning of the study and the time spent in such a survey is very

helpful for the study. It promises a greater understanding of the

problem and ensures the avoidance of unnecessary duplication.

The present study is an attempt to find out the relationship

between achievement and socio-familial factors of secondary school

students of Kerala state.

The reviewed literature has been classified and presented in this

chapter under the following heads,

A. Socio-Familial Status and School Achievement : A theoretical

overview.

B. Socio-familial status and achievement - Related studies.

Some selected studies reveals that socio-familial status influence

academic achievement of the children. The variation may be due to

several factors: home environment, cultural background, socio-

economic status of the parents, educational level of the parents,

occupational level of the parents and home learning facilities may

influence the study habits of the children. Different families have

different attitude towards education. This may affect the achievement

of the children. Family is the prime socialisxing agency for the child.

The basic needs may be given from the family itself. So the individual

child wants to get proper encouragement from the family for his

education development.

SOCIO-FAMILIAL STATUS AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT

The concept of social class itself highly complex and its use raises

a number of issues of considerable theoretical and practical importance

which will need to be considered at later stage. In the mean time it is

useful to begin by looking at those studies which have examined

particular indices of social class or socio-economic status and their

relationship to various measures of school achievement, and there the

obvious starting point is occupational status. Although the occupation

as an indicator of social class has been rightly criticised, it can be

defended on the grounds of its convenience. Since it is information

which is relatively simple to collect and to code. At the same time and

in spite of notable exceptions, it is closely linked to income on the one

hand and to social status, or prestige, on the other, so that it is seems to

summarise these two major aspects of socio-economic status more than

any other single measure. More over the different life chances and life

experiences typical of certain occupational grouping may well

predispose them towards a different view of the world and of their

place in it (McKinely, 1964).

Although the occupation of father is more usual measure of the

family status, mothers occupation before marriage has also been

included in a few studies and there is some evidence that it operates an

independent variable particularly in influencing working class success.

For example Flond, Husley and Martrin study found that those mothers

whose occupation before marriage was superior to that of their

husbands were more likely than other mothers to have children who

were successful in the 11+. The social origin of the parents themselves

has also attracted some attention and again there is some evidence that

the children of those working class parents who have been downwardly

mobile are more likely to be high achievers than other working class

children.

Another cognate area which has been very extensively researched

and amply documented is the relationship between measured ability

and family size. The large family is to some extent, part of the 'culture

of poverty' and there is relationship between the size of the family and

socio-economic status. On the other hand the effect of family size on

intelligence appears to operate all socio-economic levels even if not the

same extent in the middle class (Douglas, 1964). Nevertheless, the

process by which family size influences ability is still largely

unexplored, although both the material consequences for housing

standards and the amount and kind of parent/child interaction are

promising areas of study.

Like occupation of parental education is a convenient index of

socio-economic status and is sometimes used in combination with in

aim and occupation for this purpose. Its relationship to school

achievement is to well documented to need reviewing here. As with the

other indices discussed so far however there is still a need to spell out

the processes by which the educational background of parent influence

the school progress of the child. Clearly, a direct link is feasible

between the intellectual level of the parents and the 'educability' fo the

home which can express it self in such practical ways as helping with

home work, as well as in shared hobbies of an intellectual kind. The

indirect effects of educational background are also likely to be

pervasive since the level of education can manifest itself through not

the whole style or way of life.

Family is an important educational institution. In the present

study socio-familial status is treated as major variable. The variables

include cultural level of family (2) family acceptance of education (3)

learning facilities at home (4) cultural level of family neighbourhood.

The score on socio-familial status are the sum of the above components.

Anastasi (1956) has concluded that there is a negative relationship

between family size and school achievement. A small family is a

planned family and there will be chances for achievement in a small

family.

Socio Economic Status

Socio-economic status denotes a person's status or position on

within the society (or any social group) by social class or wealth or

income.

The term socio-economic status refers that the social class in

which an individual is a member. It is grouping of people into different

classes on the basis of occupation. Traditionally, society was divided

into upper, middle and working classes according to socio-economic

grouping.

Socio economic background includes all aspects of income

profession, culture, religious beliefs, family relations and standard of

living. An individual has more salary than others and leading a high

profession like engineer, doctor or judge have a high status. Parents of

high socio-economic group have limited number of children and they

could easily utilise the resources for better purposes and it may help for

useful planning in the family. But when members in a family is large

there will be problem of shortage of food substances, lack of

educational opportunities and children were emotionally unsafe about

their future. There is indiscipline in their home and that is why their

attitude is rebellious. They don't have opportunities to self expression.

They tell lies, steel, play truant and indulge in delinquent activities.

In Hickersons view children of low socio-economic group have

no much expectations from their parents for their success so they have

to search some labour to improve their condition. Some times the

children of low castes have to face some discrimination. This may be

from school itself or from society.

But all these does not mean that socio-economically backward

children cannot progress. There are many examples of individuals who

achieved heights with their hardwork and motivation, even though

they belong to poor families. The famous personalities like Abraham

Lincoln. Edison and La1 Bahadurshastri were examples for them.

Social Status

This is the position occupied by a person family or kinship group

in a social system relative to others. This determines rights, duties and

other behaviours, including the nature and extend of the relationship

with person of other status.

 Social status has a hierarchical distribution in which a few

persons occupy the highest positions. The simplest theoretical model of

the status system would be a distribution in which portion was

determined completely by the professional abilities relative to the

demand for abilities in the society. The institution of private property

inheritance differential taxation and social services all modify the form

of the distribution of statuses.

The child is placed is society by its family and kinship group.

They determine its education its initial endorsement of wealth and the

esteem of the family in which it was born in transmitted to the child.

This may include elements of class, caste or estate. From this position

the child may lose, maintain or improve his status by his achievements

in competition with others.

Social status is determined by education, income, possession and

the social valuation of occupation and of other activities in society. All

modern societies have a number of honours system which introduce the

element of social worth in a system which is primarily based on active

high status by some persons who concentrate their resources upon the

purchase of certain visible items of the style of life of a higher groups

these are popularly called status symbols.

B. Socio-Familial Status and Achievement Related Studies

Rosalind and Milton (1971) conducted a study on thirty-three low

achieving regular class (RC) and 46 educable mentally retarded special

class (SC) adolescents from a white, low-income, urban district were

administered the learning potential procedure and were interviewed to

determine the differences in their familial relationship. The learning

procedure involved three administrations of 16 test and five coaching

designs prior to coaching and 1 month following coaching. Ss were

considered gainers whose pre to posttest four designs score change was

more than nongainers (whose pre-to posttest score change was less thar~

four designs), and h g h scorers (who solved a difficult block problem in

upper level of test riuring pretest). Results indicated that SC Ss tended

to report syei~dingtree time with families rather than friends, that both

groups reported being given responsible roles at home, and that R C Ss

tended to report more responsibility in the home. Also findings showed

that nongainers reported themselves most alienated from their parents,

desired increased physical contacts, and did not desire verbal

interactions; that high scorers and gainers to a lesser degree reported

spending frec time outside the family though they had good relations

with their families, that high scorers reported having good relation with

their fathers; and that gainers reported good relations with their
mothers and desired better relations with their fathers. The data

provicled furthcr support for the finding that the more able SC students

by the learning potential assessment probably severely educationallv

retarded; also, data showed that nongainers evidenced the alienation

and immaturity in family relations ascribed to the mentally retarded.

Gordon t7t u!. (1968) in their study, "Educational Achievement

and Aspirations of Mexican-American Youth in a bfetropolitan

Context" Mexican American educational aspirations and achievements

were studied to determine why they tended to be considerably lower

than those of Anglos and also to account for the sources of variation

within each group, thus attempting to explain the particular

contribution of school contexts of varying socioeconomic level and

ethnic composition. A survey was taken of 6th, 9th, and 12th grade

pupils in the predominantly Mexican American areas of the Los

Angeles School District to determine educational patterns and to verify

findings. Cumulative school records and questionnaires administered

by the staff supplied the data. Academic ability differences between the

2 ethnic groups as measured by achievement tests were found to be the

direct result of the teaching provided by the school. Further results

indicated the followil~gsources of influence on pupil performance: (1)

family educational level was the most important for both groups, with
family economic level contributing less; (2) pupil attitudes and values

were important for both groups at all grade levels; (3) social context of

the school contributed substantially to the perfornlance of Mexican

Americans at the elementary and junior high levels and minimally at

the senior high level; and (4) English usage made a positive

ciintributioi~for Mexican American pupils at all grade levels. (CM)

Annegret c t d. (1975) conducted a study on "Early childhood

5ucialisation and social class environment". This report of family social

class influences on children's characteristics is based on data from a

longitudinal study of more than 1,000 children, black and white, of

various social backgrounds. The sample was originally selected for

another study (the St. Louis Baby Study) giving only secondary

consideration to social factors. It includes a large number of lower-class

black families and is not considered to be representative of the general

American urban population. Data were collected from the mother, as

general family informant and personal respondent, and from the child.

Data on child and family cover the period from birth through the first

year of school. Child characteristics include physical characteristics,

scores on developmental measures, and scores on the Peabody Picture

Vocabulary Test. Family factors include: family income, parental

authority and role, number of siblings and size of household, paternal

 stability, maternal employment and age, parental education, and

housing. Changes in maternal attitudes are also examined. The report

differentiates between social class (its primary concern) and social

<-

status, attempting to keep parental occupational level, education and

source of income conceptually distinct. The bulk of the volume consists

of charts, tables and other background materials. Appendices include

materials from an earlier report dealing with social class configurations

of early childhood socialization.

E d ~ ~ a r(1976)
d discussed the influence of home and school

environments on learning in children. Studies are cited which support

the hypothesis that the home environment is the major predictor of

school achievement. These studies deal with "status" variables such as

father's occupation and education, mother's education, and social and

economic status of ihe fntnily. "Status" variables are contrasted with

"proccss" variables, which indicate what parents do to encourage or

support (directly or indirectly) the educational achievements and

related attitudes of their children. Process variables in both home and

school are of interest because they provide clues to structuring optimal

learning environments. Research indicates a correlation between certain

(process variabiesj in the home e~~vironment

and school achievement.

These process variables can be seen as facets of three main conceptual

dimensions of the home environment: (1) the verbal dimension, (2)

nctivities congruent lzith the expectntions and demands of school, and

t hi
(. e)general c u l t u r a l level ot the home. Variables found in research to

be important to the school environment are teacher competence,

tlnssroom teaching procedures, a11d the ability to elicit student

motivation. I t is suggested that in addition to considering process

variables and what it is these process variables change, researchers

should also look nt the climnte surrounding parent-child and teacher-

student interactions.

-4 report (1977) on American families who have children under 13

years old focused on hobr parents are coping with the problems of

raising their children in a period of rapid social change. The exploratorv

phase of the study included focused group discussions with parents

from widely varying backgrounds, interviews conducted with

professionals, consultation with an advisory panel and a review of the

literature. A national probability sample of 1,230 households was

selected for the administration of questionnaires to parents and

children between 6 and 12 years old. Sex, age of respondent; income,

education, fnl?~ily s t n f u s and number of children were major

demographic variables. The document includes a discussion of families

in terms of traditional and less traditional families, transmission of

values, new concepts of parenting, and the children. Details from the

parent questionnaires includes sections on who the parents are,

economic outlook, yarenting, values, sex roles, problems, discipline and

rewards, parents' attitudes on important issues, and where parents seek

advice. Details on the responses to the children's questionnaire include

sections on children's views of their world, problems and concerns,

what children like about their parents, minority children, children in

une-parent households, the children of working mothers, children and

cconomic status and future dreams. (MS)

Ronaid's (1978) highlights of Report No. 3 (see UD 018 835) on

Compensatory Education (CE) are summarized in text and tables.

Kcsults reported include the following: (1)proportionallv, CE selection

is highest among the poor for both math and reading; (2) CE selection is

proportionnlly higher far low achievers; ( 3 ) the greatest number of

students selected for CE come from the low-income and low achiever

group; (4) teacher judgment plays a large role in selection; (5) a

significant relationship exists between students' economic status and

educational achievement; (6) students from impoverished homes attend

one week less school than other students; and (7) family economic

status is related to the number of hours spent in reading classes of

various sizes. In addition, effects of non-academic programs are

evaluated and the progress of the Sustaining Effects Study on CE is

outlined.

Susan and Marylin (1980) states that virtually no research

conducted on women and mathematics is longitudinal in scope,

generalizable in extent, and ethnic-race specific in nature. This

descriptive study begins to fill the gap by examining the effects of

background, school, and social-psychological factors on Hispanic,

black, and \ ~ h i t ewomen's mathematics attainments. Data for the study

are taken from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School

Class of 1972 (NLS) with follow-ups in 1973, 1974, and 1976. Results of

descriptive analyses show differences in factors affecting white and

racial minority women with respect to their decision to pursue

mathematics-related fields of study. The 10 sets of variables considered

included: (1) family background; (2) high school experience; (3) self-

concept; (4) significant others' perceived influence on college plans; (5)

expectations; (6) expected college majors; (7) college mathematics

experience; (8) sex-role orientation; (9) family status; and (10)

mathematics-related attainment.

Robert (1981) reviewed to identify findings indicating the effects

oi the one-parent family on the elementary school child's academic

; z c , + z ~ ; ~ L ' I and
I I ~ : zsocial
~ and emotional development. While findings are
contradictory in the area of acaderrlic achievement, it is concluded that

disruption in home life accompanying death, separation, or divorce is

probabiv severe enough to impair school performance to some degree

and to require educational intervention. Further research is

reconlmended to take into consideration the sex of the child, family

income, and educational opportunities, as ~h7ell as to compare

achievement recorcis before and after family status transition. The

literature review indicates that in the area of emotional development

~ o n t r o \ ~ c centers
r s ~ ~ on the degree to which divorce or the loss or

absence of a parent "damages" a child. It is suggested that the most

iittportar~tvariables in the child's emotional adjustment to his or her

new lifestyle are the nature and quality of the new family

arrangements, the extent and duration of changes imposeci, anci the

new psychological climate provided. The point is made that research on

the social reactions of children from single-parent homes reveals

differences between children from intact and single-parent families--

differences associated with adjustment to a new lifestyle. Again, more

research is recommended.

Duane and Arland (1984) compared the effects on high school

achievement of family socio-economic factors present during students

early childhood and during students late adolescence. Results point to

the potentially stronger role in cognitive development and school

learning of early socioeconomic factors, except in the case of family

size.

Stone (1984) conducted a study to explore the relationship

between participation in secondary marketing and distributive

education (MDE) and economic attainment after high school.

Specifically, the study sought to develop a model of economic

attainment, i.e., job status attainment, unemployment, and wages for

secondary MDE students. 'The study used the National Longitudinal

Study of the EIigh School Class of 1972 as the database. Two subsamples

were used: the first subsample w7asof 1,118 students identified as MDE

students; the second subsan~ylewas of 3,500 workers employed in

marketing-related occupations in 1979. Path analysis was used to

explore the association between secondary MDE and socio-economic

attainment. 'l'he results showed that both MDE participation and

cooperative education participation had - positive, significant

relationships with job status attainment in marketing. Also positively

affecting job status attainment in marketing was being male, obtaining

higher education, mother's educational level, higher grade point

average, and the size of the community where the respondent went to

high school. No effect M-as found for race. It was concluded that
participation in MDE and cooperative education enhanced the

attainment uf juh status in marketing. However, the model created in

the study showed that 86 percent of the explanation of the variance in

job status attainment in marketing came from factors outside the model.

Thus, h/lDE and cooperative education explain only a small part of this

complex process. (KC) investigated the mediating effects of social

I '
support on the aca~i,on:zci:zhievemen t of children in single parent families.

Parents an<? oldest school-age chilciren completed questionnaires on

de-mographic and support group information. Kesults indicated

adequate social support may mediate negative effects of single parent

,fun?ily s t u t ~ l son ucuden?ic crchieven.lt.nt. (PAS)

h:Iisra (1986) through his study on "correlation anlong lQ, Age

Academic achievement and parental income of High School Science

students" found that there is significant relation between Achievement

and parental income.

Rodha and Virginia (1986) This study tested the hypothesis that

there is nc. significant difference in reading achievement among

children in grades 2 through 5 related to family structure. Researchers

administered the Stanford Achievement Test to 119 students in an

Alabama city suburban school system. Of the sample, 69 children lived

in intact families and 50 lived in either single parent or "blended"

families. A blended family is defined as a child living with a stepfather

or stepmother. In addition to the test, pupils completed demographic

data sheet. Analysis upholds the hypothesis in grades 2 through -2;;

subjects in grade 5 who were in intact families, however, exhibited

higher scores in reading dchievement than did those from other family

types. These findings suggest that students in grade 5 may experience

preadoiescent changes that affect achievement. Furthermore, a

cumulative effect dmong poor readers could present itself by grade 5.

1)emograyhic data reveal more "latchkey" children from single parent

and blended families in upper grades than in lower grades. Results

indicate that teachers should not assume that students living in a family

situation other than an intact structure will exhibit a difference in

achievement scores. Two tables of data are appended. (CJH)

14Jaltonis (1986) study tested whether a significant difference

cxlsts bctwccn acadcmic pcrformancc scorcs of eighth gradc studcnts

from one-parent homes and those from two-parent homes in the areas

of reading, mathematics, science, social studies, and English. School

records pertaining to aca~icrnicadricvcmcrzf, and free-lunch applications

lvere used to collect data. Findings showed no sigificant difference in

the total sampling population when all subjects were compared.

Generallv, the number of parents in the home was found to be

statistically insignificant. Major significant differences found in the data

centerecl on the sex of the pdrent. Acnilelnic ach~evenrelrtwas found to be

significantly related to lather's presence in the home. In the cases of

math and science, sex of child was a determinant of aca~irmzc

nc hlr?lrn.rr-i7t . No significant relationship was found between ncndrn~ic

!zihit3-)t>r!~t.ritand f,zr!lify s t i l t ~ ~ in
s the total population, but slight

significant differences were found between groups. Findings suggest

that teachers should not expect students from one-parent homes to he

low achievers

Kapoor and Rita (1987) in their study found out that majority of

the high achievers belonged to higher socio-economic status group and

large number of low-achievers belonged to the lower socio-economic

status groups. The high achievers had better home, health, social and

school adjustment.

Nambiar (1988) found that there is significant difference in the

mean achievement scores of secondary school pupils belonging to

educationally forward and educaticmally backward areas of Kerala. He

conducted the study on 1200 standard IX students consisting of 600

educationally forward and 600 educationally backward area students

by administering Calicut University Achievement Test Scores Part 11.

 Seethamony (1988) observed familial and social factors associated

with under achievement in school subjects. It was found that the mean

scores of normal achievers were significantly greater than the mean

scores of under achievers with respect to the eleven familial and social

factors. There was significant difference between the two achievement

levels with regard to six of the familial and social variables the

difference being in favour of the normal achievers.

Ganguiy and Maiabika (1989) conducted a study on socio-

economic status and scholastic achievement and found that the mean

achievement of upper socio-economic students of urban area in three

groups of subjects differed significantly from those of lower groups. In

rural areas also the upper socio-economic status group differed

significantly in its achievement from the lower socio-economic status

group in all those group of subjects and all these were found to be

significant.

Kelu (1989) found that Parental education level, Parental

occupation level parental income, socio-economic status, family

acceptance of education, culture level of family and socio-familial status

are correlates of basic language skills.

Marlaine e t al. (1989) reports two studies analyzing the effects of

family background on students' achievement in Thailand and Malawi,

using measures of social class valid for developing countries. Found

that family background accounted for achievement in both countries,

suggesting that previous research may have underestimated these

influences

William and MTilson (1989) reviews that the school effects

literature is replete with discussions of whether any factors, beyond

socioeconomic status (SES), contribute to an explanation of student

achievement. Recent attention has focused on the role of the school

administrator. One argument is that a strong, controlling principal is a

key to improved student performance. Another argument is that,

through supportive efforts, administrators can facilitate teachers' work,

which in turn affects student achievement. This paper presents findings

of a study that examined two related issues--the administrative factors

that influence student achievement and the effect of family SES on the

working of those factors. Data were obtained from a survey of 175

elementary and 128 secondary southeastern Pennsylvania schools.

Findings indicate that, independent of SES, supportive administrative

behaviour was positively associated with achievement at both the

elementary and secondary levels. Tight administrative control over

teaching was negatively associated with achievement, but only at the

elementary level. In conclusion, school conditions do influence what

students learn. Three figures are included. Appendices contain two

statistical tables (Lhfll).

Lohani et a l . (1990) studies the link between selected family

demographic factors, Home environment and academic performance

and found out that positive relationship exist between variables such as

education of the mother and education of the father with academic

yerforn-rance.

Samal (1990) found that academic performance of high planners

were better than that of low planners. And there was no significant

difference bet\\-een boys and girls with regard to academic

achievement. The children from high social economic status had a

better planning ability than that of children from low socio-economic

status. Planning ability had no relationship with family size. This was

concludeci with the study of relationship between planning and

academic achievement of boys and girls: effect of home environment

variables.

Sood (1990) Carried out a study on -120 students of pre-

engineering classes from four colleges of Ambala. He examined their

academic achievement and found that socio-economic status had no

effect on achievement.

Ajeh's (1991) study of Home effect on achievment reported that

there exists a difference in the academic achievment of High and low

socio-economic status students, but there is no such difference between

higher nnd middle socio-economic students.

Fadari (1991) investigated into the causes for low-achievement in

government high schools in Chengalpettu Educational District, Tamil

Nndu. He found thnt the causes of poor achievement were identified as

low motivation policy of liberal promotion to the next higher class, poor

study habits. Lack of parental involvement in education and poor

teaching.

Gcrald (1991) in his study found that third-year students

(equivalent to U.S. 9th graders, ages 14-15) in six rural and urban

Japanese middle schools were given two questionnaires. Tnforn~ation

was gathered on family background, school life, educational

aspirations, sources of information about high school and high school

entered. The number of students who returned one or both of the

surveys was 1,175--a 98% response rate. Analysis of the data focused on

hypotheses derived from theories of gender and educational

stratification. Significant interaction wras found between students'

gender, parental educational levels, and students' aspirations and

attainments during the transition period from middle school to high

school. N o cvidence of tracking was discovered at the middle school

level nor u7as any association found between parental education and
early planning for high school entrance. Birth-order among males was

not significantly associn teci with rank of high schools attenclecl. A 23-

item bibliography is included.

lndra (1991) observed the relation of social class, religion, familv

size and birth order to academic achievement of high school students. It

was concluded that students belonging to different social class differed

in the their acadeitiic achievement. Hindu, Muslim and Christian

students differed in their academic achievement scores. Family size of

the student had its effect on the academic achievement.

Koteswara (1991) investigated on a comparative study of the

characteristics of high achievers and low achievers in reading of Class

V111 pupils with special reference to school and home factors. It was

found that urban students had a higher achievement in comprehension

- vocabulary and composite reading ability than the rural students.

Girls had higher achievement in comprehension than boys.

Sahay (1991) investigated familial correlates of academic

achievement in rural Hindu school students. It was found that the level

of education, sex and caste had no independent effect on the

development of the scholastic achievement. 'The level intelligence

remaining the same students with higher level of parental support

achieved more than the students with lower level of parental support.
 Aswathy Bina (1992) conducted a study of prolonged deprivation

self concept nncl scholnstic nchievement found that the stucfents coming

from low parental education non deprived and high intellectual ability

and high parental education non deprived and high intellectual group

were found having higher self concept showing the degree of

deprivation and intellectual ability as the inost influential factor. The

self ideal discrepancy was found to be in related to parental education

degree of deprivation and intellectual ability. The relation ship between

degree of deprivation and intellectual ability was found to be negative

but significant.

The study of Bbatnagar and Sharma (1992) indicated that children

whose parents attended school performed at a significantly higher level

than children \%-hoseparents do not attend school. That is parental

education is related to academic achievement of students.

Garg and Chaturvedi (1992) found that there exists a linear

relationship between IQ and academic performance which held good

both for rural and urban students. They also found that academic

performance is related to socio-economic status and also has linear

correspondence. This position also held good for both rural and urban

students. 'l'hey states that academic performance is related to socio-

economic status and also has a linear correspondence. This position also
held good for both rural and urban students. Rural students had a

higher mean I Q as compared to urban students. These were concludecl

when lie studied inteiiigence and socio-economic status as correlates of

academic performance.

Harikrishnan (1 992) conducted a study of academic ac hivemen t

of students of the higher secondary in relation to achievement

motivation and socio-economic status. It was found that girls obtained a

higher mean in achievement than boys. Socio economic status was

significantly related to academic achievement.

Philips and Lerac (1992) in their research findings showed that

substantial differences in achievement were related to parental

expectations, goals activities and school environment. Family members-

controlled activates were negatively related to achievement and gains.

Persidsky and James (1992) conducted a study on "Educational

perspectives for Elderly migrants: a case of soviet refugees. Reviews

patterns of migration among the elderly worldwide, highlighting the

immigration of elderly people form the Soviet Union to the United

States. Describes their social and economic status in the Soviet Union,

and their particular problems among soviet immigrants. Considers

ways in which appropriate education can resolve some problems.

Usha (1992) conducted a study of certain socio-familial correlates

of secondary school science achievement. It was found that the best

social correlates of achievement in physical science were identified as

(in the order of importance) in the level of father, educational level of

mother, occupational level of mother and educational level of father.

The best familial correlates of achievement in physical science were (in

order of importance) home learning facility, family acceptance of the

child, size of the family, parents sex bias in education, family

environment and order of birth.

Verma (1992) in his study on value orientation of socially

disadvantaged-adolescents found out that socially advantaged students

have significantly higher social and religious value in comparison to

socially disadvantaged students.

Honig and Lim (1993) reveals that nothing that play varies as a

function of culture, gender, setting and parent or teacher valuing, a

study examined the play of children in Singapore. Subjects were 56

middle-and working class preschoolers between the ages of 46 and 72

months who were videotaped at play in their homes and in the child

care centres that they attended and rated on the Parten/Piaget and

smilansky play scales. The children's mothers completed a 20-item

questionnaire on their attitude towards play and were assessed as to

socio-economic status by the Hollingshead 4-factor index. It was found

that parallel play and tunctional play occurred more at home, whereas
associative and cooperative play occurred more in the child care

centers. Girls plny scvres were higher than boys on the Smilnnsky but

not the JJarten/Piaget play scales. l'he lack of socio-economic status

differences and the relative mildness of sex differences reflects a strong

movement toward modernity in Singapore families. Examines a sample

of 710 subjects ages 14-19 to assess psychological health of united Arab

Emirates (UAE) families with adolescent members. Used the family

functioning questionnaire to assess adolescents' perception of family

life and climate. Males scored higher on emotional fulfilment. Family

functioning scores wer higher in upper social economic status (SES)

families than other SES levels. Discusses other findings .

Massey (1993) in his study on "Latincs, poverty and the

underclass: A new Agenda for research". The underclass model used to

describe the situation of inner-city Blacks cannot legitimately be

employed to understand the social and economic status of Hispanic

Americans. A comprehensive theory of Hispanic poverty must consider

diversity of Spanish-origin groups; race; residential segregation;

immigration; and role of the Spanish language. Contains 116 references.

According to Teresa and Ulric (1993), differential language

development and preparation for school among young children of

different racial and social groups has been asserted for decades. A
study focused on mother-child interaction in two common activities:

reading children's books and telling narratives about both shared and

unshared experiences. A socially dir\verse group of 46 mothers and

their 3-year-old children, half white, half African American, were

compared. Each racial group was evenly divided among children whose

mothers hnd no college, some college, and a bachelor's degree or more.

Income ranged from under $5,000 to $75,000 in both racial groups. No

children were in preschool or institutional day care, although more than

half in each group were in family day care while their mothers worked.

At home sessions consisted of four experimental activities: (1)mother

and child read "the ABC Exhibit"; (2) mother and child read "Mole and

IvIouse Clean House"; (3) mother asked child to tell experimenter about

something exciting or fun they had done lately; and (4) experimenter

made playdoh with the child (without mother) and mother then asked

child how they did it. All mothers, including African American working

class mothers. Used known-answer questioning and provided other

forms of "scaffolding to assist their children in telling and reading.

White mothers used more known-answer questions only in "the ABC

Exhibit"; in other tasks there were no differences of race or social

economic status. Six figures present the data.

Andews et al. (1994) conducted a study on "Explaining the

Relation between Academic Motivation and Substance Use: Effects of

Family Relationships and Self Esteem". The inverse relation between

academic motivation and substance use has been well established, but

the direction of the influence remains to be specified; two possible

influences are the mediating and moderating effects of family

relationships and self-esteem. In this study, investigators used General

Estimating Equation (GEE) models based on data from four annual

assessments of adolescents, 12 to 16 years of age. The adolescents'

mothers were included in the study. Families were recruited from

moderate-sized northwestern urban areas; 91.7 percent of the

participants were Caucasian. The results suggest that substance use

leads to a decrease in academic motivation one year later. However, the

data did not support a direct path of academic motivation to substance

use, as researchers found mediating effects for alcohol use and

moderating effects for cigarette and marijuana use for both males and

females. A somewhat surprising result was that for boys and older girls,

good family relationships increased the inverse effect of academic

motivation oil marijuana use. This may be due to the additional

pressures that parents from families with good relationships place on

their children for academic success. Eight tables present the statistical

summaries for this study. Contains 24 references. (RJM)

 Alwin and Arland (1994) compared the effects on high school

nchievement of fnmily socioeconomic factors present during stucients'

early childhood and during students' late adolescence. Results point to

the potentially stronger role in cognitive development and school

learning of early socioeconomic factors, except in the case of family

size.

Clark Sorensen (1994) in a study found that South Korean

students scored better than students from 18 other countries on math

and science achievement tests. In South Korea, economic social status

for oneself and one's family are directly related to educational level.

This, plus intense pressure form parents and authoritarian teachers,

motivates students to score well on competitive national exams for high

school and college admission.

Davis e t al. (1994) in their study on the effect of school context

structure and experiences on African, American male in middle and

high schools showed that there is necessarily to rethink about the

current secondary school disciplinary policies and extra help delivery,

for the improvement of black male.

Daniel and King (1995) in their on "Relationships among Various

Dimensions of Self-Esteem and Academic Achieuernent in Elementary

Students" conducted to determine the degree to which children's

perceived self-esteem is related to their overall academic achievenzent as

measured b y their performance on a standardized nclzievenze~zt test

battery. Specifically, the study sought to determine the dimensions of

perceived self-esteem that would be most clearly associated with higher

levels of student nchieven~e~zt.The Self-Esteem Index (SEI) was

administered to 208 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade regular and special

education students. Students' SE1 subscale scores (familial acceptance,

academic competence, peer popularity, and personal security) were

correlated with their national percentile scores on four subtests of the

Staniord Aclzzevenlerzt Test. The results confirmed the existence of a

positive relationship between self-esteem, as defined in the SEI, and

nctzrez~ezzrezzt.Characteristics associated with higher levels of academic

nchiez1t.ment were academic competence, familial acceptance, and

personal security. In contrast, peer popularity was not highly correlated

with academic achievement. Results suggest that schools should address

both self-esteem and academic achievenzent as integral parts of the

learning experience.

In a study conducted by Entwiste et al. (1995) found that tu70

parents in the home and family resources did not affect growth in

achievement during school sessions. Family resources did influence

achievement.
 Marjoribanks (1995) made a study on factors affecting learning

environment and school related outcomes of Australian adolescents

showed that students learning environment and school out comes were

related strongly.

Snipp (1995), conducted a study in American Indian studies,

reveals that it is divided about equally between historical research and

studies of contemporary American Indians, reflecting the strong

influence of history and anthropology in the field. American Indian

studies overlaps many disciplines. Characterized as an "area study," it

is unified by the single theme of its link to the culture and experiences

of ,4mericnn Indians as a people separate from the Euro-American

culture. Many studies focus on American Indian den~ography,

investigating the size, distribution and composition of the historical and

contemporary American Indian: populations. The literature on the

social and economic status of American lndians is relatively large, as is

the literature on political organizations and legal institutions among

historic and contemporary American Indian groups. The cultures of

American Indians are extremely diverse, and broad generalizations are

difficult to make. Many studies of spirituality and cultural survival can

be found in the literature. A crucial distinction between the literature of

the past and contemporary approaches is the modern assumption that

the American Indian peoples are dynamic and vital part of the

American ethnic spectrum, not a population doomed to extinction.

(contains 103 references)

Chen (1997), made a study on students peer-groups in high

school and revealed that their influence is both positive and negative.

Those students whose friends cared more about learning had better

educational outcomes.

Deslandes e t al. (1997), in a study about influence of parenting

style and parental involvement in schooling on academic achievment of

secondary level related that parental acceptance, affective support

supervising, and granting psychological autonomy- contribute to school

achievement.

Roberts (1997), describes the life of Mary Wollstonecraft, the

pioneer feminist, author, and educator in 18'h century England and how

the influence of rational education caused her to be an advocate of

women's education beyond social deportment- and menial activities.

Wollstonercraft believed that education should be built on

strengthening a women's intellectual faculties, particularly by

emphasizing the skills of logical reasoning and abstract thinking

through the mastery of such subjects as mathematics, science, history,

literarture, and language. 'The industrial revolution forced a

redefinition of women's social and economic status when many

abandoned their traditional child-rearing roles and joined the factory

labor force, at usually lower wages than men. The paper provides

numerous citations of Wollstonecraft's writing in which she challenges

the inherent inequality of the English educational and social system and

calls for change.

Sylvia Tauba (1997) in his study on "Unit partitioning as a

hrlechanism for constructing basic fraction knowledge: testing a

hypothesis examined the theory asserting that partitioning a unit is

basic in developing understanding of the different rational number

constructs. A fraction sequence was developed in which early

experiences with partitioning units were provided. An alternative

fraction sequence was designed to include initial activities with pattern

blocks in which fractional parts of a region are covered by blocks

instead of drawing lines or splitting sets. Both fraction sequences were

taught for 2 weeks in two fourth-grade classes of mostly language

ir~inoritpstudents from low social-economic status (SES) families. A

repeated-measures design was adopted using a 40-item instrument

assessing 8 different fraction topics. In addition, three students from

each class were individually interviewed. Analysis of covariance did

not indicate that the experimental fraction curriculum was superior

than the alternative one while results from the videotaped interviews

indicated that students' fraction knowledge was incomplete and

unstable during the 4-weeks period. The interviews revealed students'

strategies in dividing units and n using concrete materials which clearly

influenced their fraction ideas. It is concluded that the findings support

the theory which views partitioning a unit as critical in building

rational number concepts. Contains 17 references.

Taube (1997) conducted a study on "Unit portioning as a

mechanism for constructing Basic Fraction Knowledge: Testing a

Hypothesis. This study examined the theory asserting that partitioning

a unit is basic in developing understanding of the different rational

number constructs. A fraction sequence was developed in which early

experiences with partitioning units were provided. An alternative

fraction sequence was designed to include initial activities with pattern

blocks in which fractional parts of a region are covered by blocks

instead of drawing lines or splitting sets. Both fraction sequences were

taught for 2 weeks in two fourth-grade classes of mostly language

minority students from low social-economic status (SES) families. A

repeated-measures design was adopted using a 40-item instrument

assessing 8 different fraction topics. In addition, three students from

each class were individually interviewed. Analysis of covariance did

not indicate that the experimental fraction curriculum was superior

thnn the alternative one while results from the videotaped interviews

indicated that students' fraction knowledge was incomplete and

unstable during the 4-week period. The interviews revealed students'

strategies in dividing units and in using concrete materials which

clearlv influenced their traction ideas. It is concluded that the findings

support the theory which views partitioning a unit as critical in

building rational number concepts. Contains 17 references.

'ludge et al. (1997) This study used Vygotskian perspective to

compare child rearing values and beliefs of parents, especially in regard

to self-directed activities of children, in the united states, Russia, and

Estonia. Participating were 60 families, evenly divided by society and

social class (middle or working class), each with a child between 28 and

45 months old. Families were located in Greensboro, North Carolina;

Obninsk, Russia; and Tar tu, Estonia. Interview and questionnaire data

were collected from parents, and observationa1 data were obtained from

children observed in their everyday activities for 20 hours during 1

week, focusing on academic lessons, skill/nature lesson, play with

academic objects, and conversation with adults. Finings indicated that

middle-class parents rated self-direction higher, .and control and

discipline lower, than working-class parents, and were less likely to be

concerned with spoiling their children by giving attention than were

working class parents. There were no cultural differences in parent

values and beliefs. Children in Obnisk and Tartu were far more likely

than those from Greensbore to be involved in skill/nature lesson.

hdiddle-class children w7eremore likely than working-class counterparts

to be involved in academic or skill/nature lessons, except in Obnisk,

were there were no social class differences in academic lessons. Middle-

class children were more likely to initiate the activities of interest than

were their working-class counterparts.

Javier (1998) conducted a study in poor Puerto Rican households

in Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) that shows the complex relationships

between household members' survival strategies, residential mobility,

home-school connections, and students' learning. Results from five

families show that household stability is the strongest factor affecting

students' learning. (SLD)

Michael et al. (1998) in his study "Educational status of children

who are receiving services in an urban family reservation and

reunification setting" examined the educational performance of 56

children (ages 6-15) receiving services from an urban child care service

agency that emphasized family preservation and reunification.

Although the majority of participants were performing poorly in math,

reading and science, no relationships were found between school

performance and family status.

In a study ot McCoy e t al. (1999) on contextual effects on

educational accountability in Kentucky found that the school district,

educators should be held accountable regardless of the advantaged or

disadva~ltaged circumstances of their communities, socio-economic

factors associated W-ithgeographical location may strongly influences

the school system performance.

Ed Watch Online's (2001) report provides data on the academic

nchzez?en~enigap that separates low-income and minority students from

other students, examining horn7 well different groups of students

perform in Vermont and noting inequities in teacher quality, course

offerings, and funding. Included are tables and data that provide: a

frontier gap analysis (a comparison of Vermont to the leaders in

nclqievemrnt and gap closing); student profile (the demographic

distribution of youth in Vermont); state performance (academic

aclzieve~ne~zt
and educational attainment); opportunity (well prepared

teachers, challenging curricula, special student placements, effective

instruction, and annual per pupil investments); minority achiezlenzelzt

gains, state by state; and analysis of minority-white achievenzent gaps by

subject area and grade level. Student ~~dzievewzcnt

data are based on the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Because

Vermont clid not participate in any of the NAEP tests given in 1998, it is

impossible to provide a complete profile of student achi~uemerzt in

Vermont. According to 1996 data, Hispanic 8th graders in Vermont

score more than 2 years behind white 8th graders in science. Eighth

graders from low-income families in Vermont score about 1 year behind

non-poor 8th graders in the state in math and science.

According to Ed Watch Online's (2001) report titled "State

Summary of West Virginia provides data on the academic achiez7einent

gay that separates low-income and minority students from other

students, examining how well different groups of students perform in

West Virginia and noting inequities in teacher quality, course offerings,

and funding. Included are tables and data that provide: a frontier gap

analysis (a comparison of West Virginia to the leaders in achieven~ent

and gap closing); student profile (the demographic distribution of

youth in West Virginia); state performance (acahemic achievement and

educational attainment); opportunity (well prepared teachers,

challenging curricula, special student placements, effective instruction,

and annual per pupil investments); minority achieverrrent gains, state by

state; and analysis of minority-white aclziez7enze7zt gaps by subject area

and grade level. African American 8th graders in West Virginia score

nhout 2 yenrs behind ~vhite8th graders in the state in math and science,

and 1 year behind in reading. Hispanic 8th graders in West Virginia

score more than 2 years behind white 8th graders in the state in math,

science, and writing. 'The state's poor/non-poor achievement gay would

close for 8th graders in both math and science if poor students in West

Virginia scored as well as poor students in North Dakota.