Communication Systems

Notes Part II

1
Amplitude Modulated
Communications

2
 Reverse process of AM modulation
 Converts a received AM modulated wave back
to the original information signal
 Receiver must be capable of receiving,
amplifying, and demodulating an AM wave
 Simple radio receiver block diagram
 Simplified block diagram of an AM receiver
 Selectivity
 Sensitivity
 The extend to which a receiver is capable of
differentiating b/w the desired signal and
other unwanted signals and noises
 Over selectivity
◦ BW too narrow: lack of fidelity/reliability
 Under selectivity
◦ BW too wide: increased noise
 TRF receivers suffers selectivity problem
 Ability to drive the output transducer to an
acceptable level
 Minimum input RF signal to a receiver
required to produce a specified audio signal
at output (mV to nV)
◦ Determined by its gain and noise characteristic
 Nonlinear device used as a
detector
 Ideal curve
◦ linear on each side of
operating point
◦ does not introduce any
harmonics
 Diode (Envelop) Detector
 Can handle LF to low-VHF
bands
 Useful for microwave
operation up to 40 GHz
 Handle hi power signal
 Distortion levels are acceptable. (decrease as
amplitude increases)
 Highly efficient. (up to 90%)
 Develop readily usable dc voltage for AGC
circuit
 Power is absorbed from the tuned circuit by
the diode circuit reducing Q and selectivity of
the tuned input circuit
 No amplification occurs in the circuit
 Diode detector component
considerations
 Selection of time constant is
crucial
 Dashed lines indicate
average voltage during pulse
 Square pulse modulation
 For applications demanding greater
performance.
 Advantages
◦ Low distortion << 1%
◦ Ability to follow fast-modulation waveform
(ex. Pulse Modulation or hi-fidelity appl.)
◦ Provides gain instead of attenuation
 Also called Product or heterodyne detectors
◦ Uses oscillation, mixer, and LPF stage to obtain
intelligence from AM signal
 Synchronous AM detection
 Linear gain, 1-dB compression point, and third-order intercept
distortion for a typical amplifier
 (T = 17°C)
 Non-coherent tuned radio frequency receiver block diagram
 AM Super-Heterodyne
 RF-to-IF conversion
 Super-heterodyne receiver block diagram
 Mixer is a nonlinear device that mix the AM signal with a sine wave to generate a new
set of sum and difference frequencies
 Since, IF < RF  helps attain voltage gain. Detector detects Intelligence
 AGC: a dc level proportional to the received signal’s strength extracted from detector is
fed back. It allows constant rec. output
 Frequency conversion process. Mixer output will also produce
harmonics of the listed components and a dc. Mixer maintains same
amplitude proportions existed w/AM input
 Frequency conversion. Reducing L or C in Local Oscillator will
increase tuned freq.
 Figure for Example 5-3
 Receiver tracking: (a) pre-selector and local oscillator schematic; (b)
tracking curve
 Electronic tuning
 Tracking error for Example 5-4: (a) tracking curve; (b) bandpass
characteristics
 Image frequency
 Illustration of Image frequency: undesired input frequency in a
super-heterodyne receiver that produces the same IM frequency as
the desired input signal
 Image frequency not a problem (for low freq.). Double Conversion
super-heterodyne receiver design (Ch 7) that has two separate
mixer, local oscillators and intermediate frequencies to avoid image
frequency problems.
 Frequency conversion for Example 5-5
 Image-frequency rejection
 Frequency spectrum for Example 5-6
 RF amplifier configurations:
(a) bipolar transistor RF
amplifier; (b) DEMOS-FET RF
amplifier; (c) cascoded RF
amplifier
 (a) self-excited mixer
 (b) separately excited
mixer
 (c) diode mixer
 (d) balanced diode mixer
 (a) schematic diagram
 (b) response curve
 (c) effects of coupling
 (d) tuned primary-untuned secondary
 (a) schematic diagram
 (b) response curve
 (a) single-tuned stage
 (b) two cascaded stages
 (c) three cascaded stages
 (a) schematic diagram
 (b) AM input waveform
 (c) diode current waveform
 (d) output voltage waveform
 (a) input waveform
 (b) output waveform
 (a) input envelope
 (b) rectifier distortion
 (c) diagonal clipping
 AM receiver with simple AGC
 Simple AGC circuit
 (a) response characteristics
 (b) IF gain-versus-RF input signal level
 Forward AGC
 Squelch circuit
 LM1820 linear integrated-circuit AM radio system
Single Side Band Communications
in AM

50
 Sideband power depends on the modulation
signal voltage level, unlike carrier power
 Side frequencies depend on the modulating
signal frequencies, unlike carrier frequency
 For an AM carrier all of the modulating
information in the sidebands and none in the
carrier
 For 100% modulation (m=1) one-third of the
total power transmitted is in the side bands
 2/3 rd power wasted for carrier during AM
 AM transmitters are rated in carrier power
output
◦ If carrier power = 4 W, each side band is 1W, total
transmitted power w/100% modulation is 6W
 SSB transmission saves energy during
transmission
 Suppress/eliminate high energy RF carrier
 Eliminate one of the sidebands
 SSB systems are used mostly in voice
communication
 Power distribution
◦ Peak Envelop Power (PEP)
 Types of Sideband Transmission
 Peak Envelop Power (PEP)
◦ Method used to rate the output power of an SSB
transmitter
◦ PEP = ((.7 * Vp(max))^2)/R
 SSB develops Pavg of 1/4 - 1/3 of its PEP
rating (for voice transmission)
 Conventional AM
versus Single
Sideband
 Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)
 Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)
 Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
 Independent Sideband (ISB)
 Vestigial Sideband Full Carrier (VSB)
 SSBFC
◦ Only one sideband transmitted
◦ One sideband completely eliminated
◦ Popular w/amateur radio operators
 Single-banded systems: (a)
conventional DSBFC AM; (b) full-
carrier single sideband; (c)
suppressed-carrier single
sideband; (d) reduced-carrier
single sideband; (e) independent
sideband; (f) vestigial sideband
 SSBSC
◦ Eliminate one sideband and suppress the carrier
(pilot carrier) at a desired level and can be used as a
reference at the receiver. Maintains fidelity and
minimizes carrier interference
◦ Adv: Max transmitted signal range w/min power and
elimination of carrier interference
 Comparison of three common
AM transmission systems: (a)
modulating signal; (b) DSBFC
wave; (c) DSBSC wave; (d) SSBSC
wave
 ISB
◦ Also called Twin-sideband suppressed carrier
◦ Each sideband contains different intelligence
◦ Used in military communication
 VSB
◦ Vestige (trace) of unwanted sideband and carrier are
included w/one full sideband (ch 17)
◦ Used for TV video transmission
 SSBRC
◦ One sideband is totally removed and the carrier
voltage is reduced to 10% of its unmodulated
amplitude
◦ Consequently 96% of the total power transmitted is in
the unsuppressed sideband
 SSBRC
◦ One sideband is totally removed and the carrier
voltage is reduced to 10% of its unmodulated
amplitude
◦ Consequently 96% of the total power transmitted is in
the unsuppressed sideband
 ACSSB (Amplitude-compandored SSB)
◦ Similar to SSBSC  includes pilot carrier
◦ Amplitude of the speech signal is compressed at the
transmitter and expanded at the receiver
◦ Provides better noise performance
◦ A variable gain circuit at the transmitter increases its
gain for low-level signals
◦ Receiver reverses the process to restore the original
signal using a complimentary circuit
 Occupies less then half the freq. BW of
conventional AM and DSB
◦ Allows more signals to be transmitted
◦ Reduced noise
 Same intelligence transmitted w/reduced
power
◦ Require smaller/lighter transmitter
 No Selective fading
◦ Two sidebands are not received at diff. phase
◦ Upper SB could hit ionosphere and refracted back at
diff. phase
 Ionosphere: earth's atmosphere that is ionized by solar
radiation.
 Harder to recover the information
◦ Carrier must be reinserted at same freq. and phase
◦ A pilot carrier or low level carrier signal is
transmitted along the SSB signal
◦ Pilot carrier is amplified at the receiver and
reinserted so the original signal can be recovered
 More complex transmitter and receiver
 Generates DSBSC signal
 Carrier sine wave forward (on) and reverse
(off) biases the diodes
 Ac > 6*Ai to ensure the carrier controls the
diodes
 V1 (carrier sig) is ‘+’  Diodes off
 V1 is ‘-’  Diodes on
 When V2 (Ai) is ‘0’, output is ‘0’ (no carrier) 
carrier suppressed
 Generates DSBSC
 Spectrum analyzer with two side frequencies
and no carrier
 Balanced bridge modulator: (a) schematic diagram; (b) diodes
biased off; (c) diodes biased on; (d) output waveform
  Balanced ring modulator

Jeffrey S. Beasley and Gary M. Miller Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Modern Electronic Communication, 8e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
 Sideband Suppression
 SSB Transmitter Block Diagram
 The sum and difference frequency appears at the output of the balanced modulator.
Upper side band is passed through the filter. The filtered signal is mixed again with new
conversion freq. to adjust to desired transmitter freq. What should be the filter Q for the
linear power amp?
 AM, DSB, and SSB waves from sinusoidal modulating signals
 Mixer used as SSB demodulator (similar to AM receiver)
 fLO desired fc (AFC VFO or BFO )
  SSB Receiver Block Diagram

Jeffrey S. Beasley and Gary M. Miller Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Modern Electronic Communication, 8e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
 Carrier suppression as seen on a spectrum analyzer
Frequency Modulated
Communications

81
 Baseband
◦ Original electrical information transmitted directly
over the communication channel
 Broadband
◦ Process of using a baseband signal to modulate a
carrier to be more compatible with communications
medium
 Amplitude Modulation
 Angle Modulation
◦ Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Instantaneous frequency of a carrier is caused to vary
by an amount proportional to the modulating
(baseband) signal amplitude
◦ Phase Modulation (PM)
 Phase angle of a carrier is caused to depart from its
reference value by an amount proportional to the
modulating (baseband) signal amplitude. Used to help
generate FM
 Also called Indirect FM
 Center frequency
◦ Carrier frequency is at the center freq. when
modulating signal amplitude is zero
 Frequency deviation
◦ The maximum carrier frequency change above or
below the center frequency
◦  = (f2 – f1)/2
 FM Modulation index (mf) is a measure of
carrier phase deviation
◦ mf =  / fm
 where, fm is the modulating freq.
◦ Changes in modulating amplitude or frequency can
alter mf
 Time Domain
◦ Voltage as a function of time
◦ Oscilloscope
 Frequency Domain
◦ Voltage level as a function of frequency
◦ Spectrum Analyzer
◦ Easier to determine side bands
 FM representation: Instantaneous
voltage e = A sin(wct + mf sin wit),
A is the peak value of original
carrier wave. A single mod. Freq.
can generate a number of side
frequencies  number depends on
the mf . FM deviation is not
sensitive to mod. freq.
 Frequency spectrum for FM (constant
modulating frequency, variable deviation)
 Deviation effects on FM/PM by intelligence parameters: (a)
intelligence amplitude; (b) intelligence frequency
 Theoretically, FM produces infinite number
of side frequencies, causing a infinite BW
 Carson’s Rule provides a quick way to
approximate the BW of a FM carrier
 It only recognizes most significant side
frequencies with amplitudes > 2% of
unmodulated carrier amplitude
 BW depends on mf and fm
◦ BW = 2(fm + )
◦ Where, fm is the maximum modulating freq.
 Frequency spectrum for FM (constant modulating frequency, variable
deviation)
 For more accurate BW of FM carrier, the
Bessel table must be used
 It lists relative amplitude of carrier and each
pair of side frequencies as a percentage of
the unmodulated carrier for each mf
 Side freq. pairs and BW increases as mf
increases.
 Unmodulated amplitude of carrier is 1
 Unmodulated relative amplitude of carrier is 1
 Symbol J0 represents the carrier
 J1 first pair of side freq., J2 the 2nd pair …..
 Side freq. amplitude < 1% of unmodulated
carrier amplitude, are not listed
 Values are negative if frequencies are shifted
1800
 BW= 2 fmN
◦ Where each side freq. are separated by fm
◦ There are N side freq. on each side of the carrier
 Narrowband FM (NBFM)
◦ Signal that has only one pair of significant side freq.
◦ Occupies similar spectrum as AM
◦ Largest NBFM has mf = .25
◦ BW = 2 fm
 Wideband FM has mf > .25
 A Square wave is consist of sine waves of
multiple frequencies
◦ With fundamental sine freq and its harmonics
◦ Highest fm should be used to determine mf and the
BW
◦ A video signal BW > audio BW
 Overmodulation
◦ Can cause interference with other signals
 FM%mod = ( / m) x 100%
◦ Where m is maximum allowable carrier freq.
deviation which depends on particular application
◦ m is determined by maximum allowable carrier
signal BW
 If FM%mod < 100%  FM transmitter will stay
within its assigned BW
 Capacitor microphone FM generator
 Unlike AM, total power in FM carrier is equal
to the power of unmodulated carrier
◦ Power is redistributed b/w carrier and side freq.
◦ In essence side freq. steal power from carrier
◦ Carrier amplitude decreases as the number of side
freq. goes up (Bessel table)
◦ Therefore, sum of side freq. and carrier amplitude
remain constant
 Increased noise immunity
◦ FM does not change amplitude of the carrier
 Less sensitive to noise
 Improved fidelity
◦ Introduces less distortion than AM
 More efficiency
◦ Linear amplifier not necessary due to constant
amplitude of FM signals
 More bandwidth
◦ FM only used at the higher frequencies of the
spectrum, where there is more room
 Require more complex circuits in transmitter
and receiver
 FM & AM noise comparison