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Module No. 5

Earth’s Water Budget and Hydrologic Cycle

The water budget or availability and distribution of water on Earth as well as the evolution
of water in various forms across time (temporal) and space (geographical) are discussed in this
module. This evolution is called hydrologic cycle sometimes referred to as water cycle. Water
can be found everywhere because of this cycle.

Water is essential to sustain all forms of life on Earth. Without it, the biosphere would not
be possible. Even with a very slight change in the chemical composition of the Earth’s
atmosphere has great impact on the availability and distribution of water on a global scale. If
only we allow natural atmospheric processes to occur undisturbed, then issues of water quantity
and quality do not pose any problem at all. But unfortunately this is not the case because of
pressures brought about by development, population, urbanization, industry, agriculture, and
other activities of man, which are inevitable and necessary for our survival. The most that we can
do is to preserve Mother Nature through sustainable utilization of water resources. Sustainability
implies proper use of water and application of good management practices.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Calculate a rough estimate of the Earth’s water budget in various forms and in different
locations;

b. Figure out why precipitation on Earth is 32.5 times more than the total capacity of the
atmosphere to hold water;

c. Define and contrast different technical terms;

d. Summarize the hydrologic cycle;

e. Explain the relationship of global warming and hydrologic cycle and their effects on the
Earth’s weather;

f. Enumerate and explain the factors that influence evaporation rate;

g. Explain the occurrence of different forms of precipitation;

h. Differentiate the different types of precipitation;

i. Synthesize the relationships of precipitation, infiltration and runoff in terms of their time of
occurrence;

j. Explain why the total amount of water supply on Earth remains constant over time;
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k. Explain why the distribution of water across geographic locations is erratic; and

l. Appreciate the role of the hydrologic cycle in converting saltwater into potable water for
human and animal consumption.
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I. Earth’s Water Budget

A. Occurrence of water

Planet Earth is endowed with abundant water. Inasmuch as water readily changes its
state under Earth’s condition, it exists everywhere in all of its three forms: solid, liquid, and gas or
vapor. Based on the estimates of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
there are about 1,383.613 x 1015 m3 of water on Earth, which are found in oceans, on land, and in
the atmosphere (2005). Their relative quantities are reflected in Figure 1.

Source: Clarke (1993)

Figure 1. Occurrence of water in oceans, land and atmosphere

Of the total 1,383.73 x 1015 m3 of water on Earth, 1,350 x 1015 m3 are found in oceans, 33.6
x1015 m3 are land-based (both surface and sub-surface), and 0.013 x 1015 m3 are in the
atmosphere. These amounts of water are permanently bound in said locations. The oceans
receive water both through precipitation (324 x 10 12 m3/year) and runoff (37 x 1012 m3/year) and
losses the same amount (361 x 1012 m3/year) through evaporation towards the atmosphere.

The atmosphere also receives water from land-based surfaces through

evapotranspiration (62 x 1012 m3/year) for a total of 423 x 1012 m3/year), which it eventually losses
the same amount through precipitation over oceans (324 x 10 12 m3/year) and land surfaces (99 x
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1012 m3/year). Of the 99 x 1012 m3/year received by land through precipitation, 62 x 10 12 m3/year
are lost through evapotranspiration and 37 x 1012 m3/year flow and seep towards the oceans as
runoff and as groundwater, respectively. The inflow and outflow of water just described is called
the Earth’s water budget.

Figure 1 also shows that annual precipitation on Earth is 32.5 times more than the total
capacity of the atmosphere to hold water. This indicates the rapid movement or recycling of
water that is occurring between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere. This phenomenon
converts seawater into freshwater through the evaporation process.

B. Distribution of Water

Shikdomanov estimated the relative distribution of the Earth’s water supply in various
forms and in different locations (Figure 2). While there are plenty of water available on Earth,
96.5 percent is locked in the oceans as saltwater and 1 percent is land-based saline water. Thus,
97.5 percent is not potable and drinkable by humans and animals. Only about 2.5 percent of
the Earth’s water budget is land-based water resources that we use in all our daily endeavors
(1993).

Of the 2.5 percent freshwater available, 68.6 percent is locked as glaciers and ice caps,
30.1 percent is groundwater and 1.3 percent is surface water. Again, of the 1.3 percent surface
water, 73.1 percent is in a form of ice and snow, 20.1 percent is found in lakes and 6.8 percent
comes as soil moisture (3.37%), biological water (0.22%) and atmospheric water (0.22%) as well
as found in swamps and marshes (2.53%) and rivers (0.46%).

Source: Shikdomanov (1993)

Figure 2. Distribution of Earth’s water of various forms and in different locations

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II. Hydrologic Cycle

The molecular arrangement of water (H2O) is very simple, two hydrogen atoms to each
oxygen atoms. Thus, water has many unique properties that allow it to be such a universal
material. One special characteristic of water is its ability to change state or phase very easily
under Earth conditions. It can be found readily on Earth in all of its three forms: solid, liquid, and
gas or vapor. Since water cannot escape the Earth’s atmosphere because of this unique
properties, Egger theorized that the water budget on Earth remains constant over time. The
water that existed millions of years ago is probably the same water that exist today (2003).

The hydrologic cycle takes place in the hydrosphere. This is the region containing all the
water in the atmosphere and on the surface of the Earth. The cycle is the movement of water
through this hydrosphere. It is the constant movement of water above, on, and below the
Earth’s surface that continuously replenish groundwater supplies.

As shown in Figure 3, there are several processes involved in the hydrologic cycle,
namely: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, and
runoff, which occur simultaneously in nature. While the hydrologic cycle can be studied by
starting at any of the processes like any other cycles, this author based on his experience find it
more convenient to start with evaporation followed by other processes as they evolve in the
cycle to emphasize how important the Sun is in the cycle. Without the Sun, there will be no water
cycle because the entire cycle is driven by the Sun's heat or energy.

Source: British Broadcasting Corporation Bitesize (2017)

Figure 3. Hydrologic cycle

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The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from bodies of water and
bare soil surfaces due to solar energy. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to
form clouds. Moisture in clouds is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as
precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur: some of
the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere, or the water may infiltrate in the soil
surface then percolate deeper to become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to
the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through plant
transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the Earth's surface is runoff which empties
into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where it is again evaporated
and the cycle begins anew (Bramer, Robinson & Hall, 1997).

Theoretically, with all other factors equal, as the global climate warms, evaporation
would increase proportionately and as a result, the hydrologic cycle in its most general sense is
bound to accelerate. Hence, there would be more intense and more frequent storms or rainfall
events because the atmosphere can hold only a very limited amount of water vapor (Ohmura &
Wild, n.d). This phenomenon seems what we are experiencing nowadays. Massive flooding in
low lying areas has become imminent and inevitable because of more frequent, high intensity
rainfalls.

A. Evaporation

Water in the liquid state is a compound, and the heat breaks up the bonds into water
molecules, which is gaseous in nature. Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is
changed from a liquid state to a gaseous state. Figure 4 shows that water on any surface,
especially bare soils, mud holes, ponds, streams, rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans, is warmed
primarily by solar energy until it reaches the point at which water turns into vapor, or gaseous
state (United States Geological Survey, 2016a).

Modified from United States Geological Survey (2016a)

Figure 4. Solar energy triggering evaporation from the Earth’s surface

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There are several factors influencing the rate of evaporation, such as:

1. Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high
concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate
more slowly.

2. Concentration of other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with other
substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.

3. Flow rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points above. If "fresh" air (i.e.,
air which is neither already saturated with the substance nor with other substances) is
moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the
air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of
the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing
the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer.

4. Pressure. Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the
molecules from launching themselves.

5. Temperature of the substance. The higher the temperature of the substance, the greater
the kinetic energy of the molecules at its surface and therefore the faster the rate of their
evaporation.

6. Surface area. A substance that has a larger surface area will evaporate faster, as there
are more surface molecules per unit of volume that are potentially able to escape
(Wikipedia, 2018).

7. Shape of open water surface. The nature of the evaporating surface affects evaporation
by modifying the wind pattern. Over a rough, irregular surface, friction reduces the wind
speed but tends to cause turbulence so that, with an induced vertical component of the
wind, evaporation is enhanced.

8. Depth of open water surface. This characteristic plays an important role in energy
storage. The essential difference between a shallow water surface and a deep-water
surface results from the sensitivity of the shallow surface to seasonal climatic variations. A
shallow water surface will follow closely meteorological variations, and the deep-water
surface with an important temperature delay will present a different answer to climatic
exchanges.

9. Water salinity. An increase of salinity concentration by one percent reduces the

evaporation by one percent by reducing water pressure. This decreased pressure is
directly proportional to the concentration of saline solution (Musy, 2001).

10. Composition of water. Evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity of water. Rate
of evaporation is always greater over fresh water than over salt water. Under similar
conditions, the ocean water evaporates about 5 per cent more slowly than the fresh
water (“PublishYourArticles.Net,” 2015).
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Winds transport the evaporated water around the globe, influencing the humidity of the
air throughout the world. Some of the Earth's water transport is visible as clouds which consist of
ice crystals and tiny water droplets. These clouds are formed through the process of
condensation.

B. Condensation

If a pot of water is boiled, the dry lid at the beginning will become wet and accumulates
water droplet. If the lid is lifted, water droplets will run down the lid and falls back into the pot.
That is simply what happens during condensation.

Cool temperatures are essential for condensation to happen, because as long as the
temperature in the atmosphere is high, it can hold water vapor and delay condensation.
Condensation is the process by which the physical state of water vapor changes into liquid
water. It is the opposite of evaporation. Figure 5 shows (from left to right) that as water vapor
evaporates into the atmosphere, they mix up with particulate matters in the atmosphere such as
dust, soot and salt. These tiny particles are called aerosols. As the surrounding temperatures fall,
the water vapor turns into very tiny particles of water and ice crystals. The water particles bump
into the aerosols and stick together. As more and more water particles and aerosols stick
together, clouds are formed. This process is known as coalescence.

Source: United States Geological Survey (2016a)

Figure 5. Stages of condensation process (from left to right)

The clouds floating overhead contain water vapor and cloud droplets, which are small
drops of condensed water. These droplets are too small to fall as precipitation, but they are
large enough to form visible clouds. Water is continually evaporating and condensing in the sky.
Most of the condensed water in clouds does not fall as precipitation because their fall speed is
not large enough to overcome updrafts which support the clouds. For precipitation to happen,
tiny water droplets must first grow in size as a result of additional condensation of water vapor
when the tiny particles collide. When enough collisions occur to produce bigger droplets with a
fall velocity that exceeds the force of gravity or the cloud updraft force, the droplets will fall out
of the cloud as precipitation (United States Geological Survey, 2016a).
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C. Precipitation

Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from
the atmosphere and reach the ground. This happens when the air becomes saturated with
water vapor, and can no longer hold all of it in vapor form. It is the primary mechanism for
transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth. Precipitation varies in form,
type, amount, and intensity by time of the year and geographic location.

The amount or depth of precipitation is measured using a rain gage. The total amount of
rain falling during a given period is called rainfall intensity. It is expressed as depth units per unit
time, usually in millimeter per hour (mm/hr).

Figure 6 shows different forms of precipitation as determined by the difference of

atmospheric temperatures between the clouds and the ground surface due to the presence of
warm air between them. When the temperatures at the cloud level and at the ground surface
are almost the same and at about freezing point, snow is the dominant form of precipitation. As
the temperature difference increases with the presence of more warm air between the clouds
and the ground surface, sleet, freezing rain, and rain are the dominant forms of precipitation.

Source: United States Geological Survey (2016a)

Figure 6. Form of precipitation as determined by air temperature difference

between the clouds and the ground surface
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There are three types of precipitation, namely convective, orographic and cyclonic
(United States Geological Survey, 2016b):

1. Convective precipitation

This type of precipitation results from the heating of the Earth's surface. The warm ground
heats the air over it (Figure 7). As the air warms, the air molecules begin to move further apart.
With increased distance between molecules, the molecules are less densely packed. Thus, the
air becomes lighter and rises rapidly into the atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools because as
altitude increases, the temperature decreases. Water vapor in the air condenses into clouds
and eventually fall as precipitation.

Convective precipitation is typically of short duration, relatively high intensity, and limited
areal extent. It falls over a certain area for a relatively short time because convective clouds
such as cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus have limited horizontal extent.

Source: United States Geological Survey (2016b)

Figure 7. Convective precipitation

2. Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation is similar to convective, except that the upward motion is

forced when a moving air mass encounters the rising slope of a topographic barrier such as a
mountain (Figure 8). As the air rises, it cools. Cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air.
As air cools, the water vapor in the air condenses and water droplets form. Cloud forms and
precipitation occurs on the windward side of the mountain. The air is now dry and rises over the
top of the mountain. As the air moves back down the mountain, it collects moisture from the
ground via evaporation. This side of the mountain is called the leeward side. It receives very little
precipitation.
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Source: United States Geological Survey (2016b)

Figure 8. Orographic precipitation

3. Cyclonic precipitation

A boarder region between two adjacent air masses having different characteristics such
as temperature and humidity is called a front. Cyclonic or frontal precipitation results when the
leading edge of a warm, moist air mass (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass (cold front)
as shown in Figure 9. The molecules in the cold air are denser or more tightly packed together,
and thus, the cold air is heavier than the warm air. The warmer air mass is forced up over the
cool air. As it rises, the warm air cools, the water vapor in the air condenses forming clouds and
leads to precipitation. Frontal precipitation typically falls out of nimbostratus clouds.

Source: United States Geological Survey (2016b)

Figure 9. Cyclonic precipitation

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When precipitation occurs, some of the rainwater are retained and stored on surface
depressions. The others evaporate back to the atmosphere, or flow overland as runoff, or
infiltrate into the soil as soil moisture, or percolate deeper into the aquifer as groundwater.

D. Infiltration and deep percolation

The entry of water by gravity into the soil within the root zone is referred to as infiltration;
while deep percolation is the movement of water downward beyond the root zone through the
soil profile towards the aquifer. As precipitation or irrigation water infiltrates into the subsurface
soil, it passes through the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone. Figure 10 shows that some
of the infiltrated water in the unsaturated zone percolate deeper, recharging aquifers (saturated
zone).

In the unsaturated zone, the voids – the spaces between grains of gravel, sand, silt, clay,
and cracks within rocks – contain both air and water. Although a lot of water can be present in
the unsaturated zone, this water cannot be pumped through wells because it is held too tightly
by capillary forces. The upper part of the unsaturated zone is the soil-water zone. It is crisscrossed
by roots, openings left by decayed roots, and animal and worm burrows, which allow the
precipitation to infiltrate into the soil zone. Water in the soil is used by plants, but it also can
evaporate directly to the atmosphere. Below the unsaturated zone is a saturated zone where
water completely fills the voids between rock and soil particles. This water can be used by plants
when pumped to the surface through wells (Dvorak, 2005).

Infiltration rate is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation.
It is measured in millimeter per hour (mm/hour), or inches per hour (in/hour). The maximum rate
of water that can enter into the soil in a given condition is the infiltration capacity.

Source: Dvorak (2005)

Figure 10. Unsaturated and saturated zones where infiltration

and deep percolation occur
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As aforementioned, when precipitation occurs, some of the rainwater are retained and
stored on surface depressions. The others evaporate back to the atmosphere, or flow overland
as runoff, or infiltrate into the soil as soil moisture, or percolate deeper into the aquifer as
groundwater. The soil moisture is eventually absorbed and transpired by plants.

E. Transpiration

Transpiration is a biological process wherein soil moisture absorbed by plants through

their roots is transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor via leaf openings
called stomata (Figure 11). As hot air passes over the surface of the leaves, the moisture absorbs
the heat and evaporates into the air. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of soil moisture
through the plant tissues mainly leaves.

Transpiration is one of two processes that return water from the Earth’s surface to the
atmosphere. The other process is evaporation from bare soil surface (see Figure 4). Their
combined effect is called evapotranspiration. Isotope measurements indicate that transpiration
is the larger component of evapotranspiration. You will learn more of evapotranspiration in a
succeeding module.

Water is necessary for plants but only a very small amount of water taken up by roots is
used for growth and metabolism. Most of the water absorbed are lost by transpiration and
guttation. Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, mostly located on the undersides
of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by guard cells that open and close the pore.
Transpiration occurs through the apertures of stomata, which also serve as venue and avenue
for the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration also cools
plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water
from roots to shoots.

Source: Brawner (2016)

Figure 11. Transpiration process

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A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not replaced from the soil.
When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor
occurs, and the stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration as well as of
photosynthesis. If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts
(Brawner, 2016).

Transpiration rates of plants can be measured by a number of techniques, which include

photometers, lysimeters, porometers, photosynthesis systems, and thermometric sap flow sensors.
Bowen reported that recent evidence from a global study of water using stable isotopes shows
that the transpired water is isotopically different from groundwater. This suggests that soil
moisture is not as well mixed as widely assumed (2015).

As earlier mentioned, aside from those portions of rainwater that are retained on surface
depressions, or evaporated back to the atmosphere, or infiltrated into the soil as moisture, or
percolated deeper as groundwater, some of the rainwater also flows overland as runoff.

F. Runoff

The relationship of rainfall, infiltration and runoff is depicted in Figure 12. At the beginning
of a rainfall event, most of rainwater infiltrates into the soil. The infiltration capacity of the soil
depends mainly on its texture and structure, as well as on the antecedent soil moisture content.
The initial infiltration (fo) of a dry soil is high but, as rainfall continues, it decreases until it reaches
the soil’s constant infiltration rate (fc). The portion of rainfall that appears on surface streams is
called runoff. It consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions in a stream channel.
The flow is made up of rain that falls directly on the stream, and surface runoff that flows over the
land surface and through open channels (Bramer, Robinson & Hall, 1997).

Source: Bramer, Robinson & Hall (1997)

Figure 12. Relationship of rainfall, infiltration and runoff

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The time scale of runoff occurrence in relation to rainfall and infiltration is shown in Figure
13. When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and stems of the
vegetation. As the rain continues, water reaching the ground surface infiltrates into the soil until it
reaches a stage where the intensity of rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. This
point is the intersection of the rainfall and infiltration curves in the figure (see dotted arrow).
Shortly thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other depressions are filled with water, after
which runoff is generated. Once runoff is generated, it continues even when the rainfall intensity
is less than the constant infiltration capacity of the soil (fc) and even when rainfall has already
stopped. Runoff stops only when all the rainwater have reached their lowest level.

Figure 13. Relative time scale of occurrence of rainfall, infiltration and runoff
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Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. Based on Figures 1 and 2, estimate of the Earth’s water budget in various forms and in
different locations. Fill out the table below. Show solutions. (10 pts)

Form and Location of Water Quantity (x 109 m3)

a. Ocean
b. Saline lakes
c. Saline groundwater
d. Freshwater
 Glaciers and ice caps
 Groundwater
 Surface water and other freshwater
o Ice and snow
o Lakes
o Atmospheric water
o Biological water
o Rivers
o Swamps and marshes
o Soil moisture

2. Show the solution why precipitation on Earth is 32.5 times more than the total capacity of the
atmosphere to hold water. (10 pts)
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3. Define and contrast the following: (10 pts)

a. Atmosphere –

Hydrosphere –

b. Evaporation –

Transpiration –

c. Condensation –

Precipitation –

d. Infiltration –

Percolation –

e. Runoff –

Seepage –
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f. Groundwater –

Surface water –

4. Synthesize the hydrologic cycle in not more than 150 words. (10 pts)

5. How does global warming affect the hydrologic cycle and weather? (10 pts)
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6. What are the factors that influence evaporation rate? Explain each factor briefly. (10 pts)
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7. What are the different forms of precipitation? Explain their occurrence with respect to the
temperature between the clouds and the ground surface. (10 pts)

8. Define and contrast the different types of precipitation. (5 pts)

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9. Synthesize the relationships of precipitation, infiltration and runoff in terms of their relative
time scale of occurrence. (10 pts)

10. Do you believe that the Earth’s total amount of water supply remains constant over time?
Yes or No. Justify your answer. (5 pts)
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11. Explain the occurrence of floods in some places on Earth while other places are
experiencing drought at the same time. (5 pts)

12. In what natural process and how can oceans provide us with potable drinking water? (5 pts)
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British Broadcasting Corporation Bitesize. (2017). The global hydrological cycle [Image].
Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/z29ccdm/revision

Bowen, G. (2015). Hydrology: The diversified economics of soil water. Nature. 525 (7567): 43–44.
DOI: 10.1038/525043a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26333464.

Bramer, D., Robinson, W. & Hall, S.E. (1997). Hydrologic cycle. University of Illinois. Retrieved from
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(gh)/wwhlpr/hyd.rxml

Brawner, M. (2016). What is transpiration? And why should we know about it? Retrieved from
http://www.harlequinsgardens.com/mikls-articles/what-is-transpiration-and-why-should-
we-know-about-it/

Brouwer, C., Goffeau, A. & Heibloem, M. (1985). Irrigation water management: Training Manual
No. 1 – Introduction to Irrigation. Provisional edition. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture
Organization.

Clarke, R. 1993. Water: The International Crisis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 193p.

Clipart Library. (n.d). Agricultural and biosystems engineering [Logo]. Retrieved from
http://clipa.cash/agricultural-biosystems-engineering-logo.html

Dvorak, B. (2005). Water cycle. Retrieved from mailto:bodvorak@plains.nodak.edu

Egger, A.E. (2003). The hydrologic cycle: Water's journey through time. In “VisionLearning.” Vol.
EAS-2(2). Retrieved from https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/The-
Hydrologic-Cycle/99

Leopold, L. & Langbein, W. (1960). Transpiration - The water cycle. U.S. Geological Survey
General Purpose Publication. Retrieved from
water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycletranspiration.html

Musy, A. (2001). Evaporation and transpiration. (Chap. 4 – e-drologie). Lausanne, Suisse: Ecole
Polytechnique Fédérale. Retrieved from
http://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_1a/chapt_4/main.htm

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2005). Hydrologic cycle. Retrieved from
http://www.noaa.gov

Ohmura and Wild. (n.d). Climate change: Is the hydrologic cycle accelerating? Science: 298
(5597): 1345.

PublishYourArticles.Net. (2015). What are the factors that affect the rate of evaporation?
Retrieved from http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/articles/what-are-the-
factors-that-affect-the-rate-of-evaporation/2959
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Purdue University. (2009). Evapotranspiration. Retrieved from

http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/groundwater/src.htm

Shikdomanov, I. (1993). World freshwater resources. In P.H. Gleick (ed.). Water in crisis: A guide to
the world’s freshwater resources.

University of Georgia. (2009). Hydrology. Retrieved from

www.hydrology.uga.edu/rasmussen/class/4500/ch1.pdf

United States Department of Agriculture – Soil Conservation Service. (1986). Technical Release
55 (TR-55): Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds. Retrieved from
http://www.info.usda.gov/CED/ftp/CED/tr55.pdf

United States Geological Survey. (2016a). Infiltration: The water cycle. Retrieved from
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleinfiltration.html

_____________________. (2016b). The water cycle: USGS water science school. Retrieved from
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleprecipitation.html

United States National Weather Service. (2005). Hydrologic cycle. Retrieved from
http://nws.noaa.gov

Wikipedia. (2009). Water cycle. Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_cycle#column-one

____________________. (2016a). Infiltration. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)

____________________. (2016b). Transpiration. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration

____________________. (2018). Evaporation. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation