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TABLE 1. Example 1, gas outlet pressure (red for software input, orange for program output)
Data Formulas Results
Set pressure, pset kPag 6,800 6,800
Constant superimp, psc kPag 0 0
Atmospheric pressure, pat kPa abs 101.325 101325
Overpressure, ovp 0.1 0.1
Relieving temperature, T1_ K = 50 + 273.15 323.15
Molecular weight, M kg/kmol 16.04 16.04
Gas universal constant, R_ J/kmol K 8,314.4 8,314.4
Rated capacity, w kg/sec 52 52
ID outlet m = (6.625 – 2 × 0.109) × 0.0254 0.1627378
Outlet area, A3_ m2 = PI() × ID^2/4 0.0208001641626271
Total bp allowable (conv. PRV) kPag = ovp × pset + psc 680
Ideal gas
k 1.31 1.31
p3_ (for sonic flow) Pa abs = w/A3_ × (2 × R_ × T1_/k/(k + 1)/M)^0.5 831,812.220347591
kPag =p3_/1000 – pat 730.487220347591 Conventional rejected
p3st (for sonic flow) kPa abs =p3_ × ((k + 1)/2)^(k/(k – 1))/1000 1,529.27169068645
Real gas
p1 gage kPag = pset × (1 + ovp) 7,480
p1 absolute kPa abs = pset × (1 + ovp) + pat 7,581.325 Property package input
T1 °C = T1_ – 273.15 50 Lee-Kesler-Plocker
Molar enthalpy, H kJ/kmol –75,002.9395121254 –75,002.9395121254 Property package output
First trial Second trial
Molar enthalpy kJ/kmol =H –75,002.9395121254 –75002.9395121254
p3st kPa abs 1,461.5 1,500 1461.5
T3stC °C 28.2570557837489 28.4135124798397 28.2570557837489
M_ kg/kmol 16.0429000854492 16.0429000854492 16.0429000854492
Z3st 0.976650291744841 0.976089191120009 0.976650291744841
Density d3st kg/m3 9.57993283075327 9.83284301506127 9.57993283075327
Molar entropy S3st kJ/kmol K 199.58264281267 199.371560889931 199.58264281267
Molar entropy kJ/kmol K = S3st 199.371560889931 199.58264281267
p3st – 10 kPa abs = p3st – 10 1490 1,451.5
Density d3st_ kg/m3 9.5296882611872 9.78260309745198 9.5296882611872
n = d3st/p3st × 10/(d3st – d3st_) 1.30478491777929 1.30459140902479
T3st K = 273.15 + T3stC 301.56351247984 301.407055783749
p3__ (for sonic flow) Pa abs = w/A3_ × (2 × Z3st × R_ × T3st/n/ 796296.999639104 796,411.678077829
(n + 1)/M_)^0.5
kPag = p3__/1000 – pat 694.971999639104 695.086678077829
p3st kPa abs = p3__ × ((n + 1)/2)^(n/(n – 1))/1000 1461.45875368071 1,461.57573421946
Conventional rejected
TABLE 2. Example 2, gas force (red for software input, orange for program output)
Data Formulas Results
Set pressure, pset kPag 6,800 6,800
Constant superimp, psc kPag 100 100
Variable superimp, psv kPag 0 0
Atmospheric pressure, pat kPa abs 101.325 101.325
Overpressure, ovp 0.1 0.1
Relieving temperature, T1_ K = 50 + 273.15 323.15
k 1.31 1.31
Molecular weight, M kg/kmol 16.04 16.04
Gas universal constant, R J/kmol K 8,314.4 8314.4
Rated disch. coeff., KDR 0.864 0.864
Orifice actual area, Aact m2 0.00462 0.00462
ID outlet m = (6.625 – 2 × 0.109) × 0.0254 0.1627378
Outlet area, A3 m2 = PI() × ID^2/4 0.0208001641626271
PRV type (C, B or P) C C
Maximum initial flowrate
Max pop pressure PRV = C kPag = pset + MAX(0.03 × (pset – psc),15) + psv 7,001
Max pop pressure PRV = B or P kPag = pset + MAX(0.03 × pset,15) 7,004
Popmax Pa abs = (IF(PRV = "C",popC,popBP) + pat) × 1000 7,102,325
Initial compressibilty factor, Z1_ 0.922382705860801 0.922382705860801
Initial backpressure Pa abs = (psc + psv + pat) × 1,000 201,325
Backpressure ratio, rB = ibp/popmax 0.0283463513708539
Critical ratio, rC_ = (2/(k + 1))^(k/(k – 1)) 0.543927037565322
Subcritical Kbsc = rB^(1/k) × (((k + 1)/2)^((k + 1)/(k – 1)) × 2/ 0.216030984293433
(k – 1) × (1 – rB^((k – 1)/k)))^0.5
Backpressure factor, Kb = IF(rB< = rC_,1,Kbsc) 1
C_ = (k/R_ × (2/(k + 1))^((k + 1)/(k – 1)))^0.5 0.00733756278021416
wmax kg/sec = Kb × C_ × MIN(1.1/0.9 × KDR,1) × Aact × 55.8520185115318
popmax × (M/Z1_/T1_)^0.5
Ideal gas
p3_ (for sonic flow) Pa abs = wmax/A3_ × (2 × R_ × T1_/k/(k + 1)/M)^0.5 893,430.606326385
p3g (for sonic flow) kPag = p3_/1000 – pat 792.105606326385
Counter force, cF N = 1000 × (psc + psv + pat) × A3_ 4,187.5930500409
F sonic N = wmax × (2 × (k + 1) × R_ × T1_/k/M)^0.5 – cF 38,740.299525614
F subsonic N = k × cF/(k – 1) × ((1 + 2 × (k – 1) × R_ × T1_ × 51,074.2394355506
wmax^2/k/M/cF^2)^0.5 – 1)
Force, F_ N = IF(p3g < psc + psv,Fsub,Fson) 38,740.299525614
Outlet velocity m/sec = IF(F_= Fson,(2 × k × R_ × T1_/(k + 435.873043534214
1)/M)^0.5,Fsub/wmax)
p3st (for sonic flow) kPa abs = p3_ × ((k + 1)/2)^(k/(k – 1))/1,000 1,642.5559764881
The same formulas apply to Point 4. The calculation should Eq. 23 is used for subsonic flow at the outlet flange:
be repeated only if the pipe diameter is expanded downstream p3 = pbp + pat (23)
of the PRV. In that case, flow might be sonic at Point 3 and sub-
sonic at Point 4. From Eq. 19, Eq. 24 calculates:
Formulas for an ideal gas. Eqs. 21 and 22 are used for ⎡kp A ⎤ ⎡ 2 ( k −1) R T1 w 2 ⎤
v3 = ⎢ 3 3 ⎥ ⎢ 1+ −1⎥ (24)
choked flow at the outlet flange, from Eqs. 11 and 14: ⎣ ( k −1) w ⎦ ⎢⎣ k M p32 A32 ⎥⎦
2 k R T1
v3 = (21) For a real gas, a first estimate of enthalpy at Point 3, is ob-
( k +1) M
tained from Eq. 1, using v3 from Eq. 21 and enthalpy at Point 1.
w 2 R T1 The property package provides density at Point 3, using p3 for
p3 = (22)
A3 k ( k +1) M the ideal gas and h3. From Eq. 13, a new estimate of the veloc-
TABLE 2. Example 2, gas force (red for software input, orange for program output) (cont.)
Data Formulas Results
Real gas
Max pop pressure kPa abs = popmax/1,000 7,102.325 Property package input
T1 °C = T1_–273.15 50 Lee-Kesler-Plocker
Molar enthalpy, H kJ/kmol –74,938.7111855898 –74,938.7111855898 Property package output
Sonic velocity First trial Second trial
Molar enthalpy kJ/kmol =H –74,938.7111855898 –74,938.7111855898
p3st kPa abs 1,574.7 1,650 1,574.7
T3stC °C 30.4219473189698 30.7224938983222 30.4219473189698
M_ kg/kmol 16.0429000854492 16.0429000854492 16.0429000854492
Z3st 0.975542132281251 0.974485487283266 0.975542132281251
Density d3st kg/m3 10.2599750222015 10.75160551981 10.2599750222015
Molar entropy, S kJ/kmol K 199.189528785028 198.810860137638 199.189528785028
ity results as a function of density, flowrate and area, providing imposed backpressure with zero flow. The resulting initial force
quick convergence for all variables at Point 3. in the direction opposite to flow is then calculated with Eq. 25:
F = w v3 + (p3 – psbp – pat ) A3 (25)
EXAMPLE 1
A conventional PRV set at 6,800 kPag must relieve 49 kg/sec For a real gas, replacing pressure and velocity for sonic dis-
of methane at 50°C (122°F) into a discharge header with total charge at the outlet flange uses Eq. 26:
backpressure estimated at 200 kPag. For 10% overpressure, the
( )
supplier has quoted orifice P as a 4-in. 600# inlet, a 6-in. 150# 2 n Z3sf R T3st ⎛ 1
outlet and an informed 52 kg/sec rated capacity. Total backpres- F =w 1 + ⎞ − psbp + pat A3 =
( n +1) M ⎝ n⎠
sure at the outlet flange should not exceed 680 kPag to comply (26)
with ASME/API recommendations. TABLE 1 provides 730 kPag 2 ( n +1) Z3st R T3st
using the ideal gas formula (conservative) and 695 kPag (4.8% w
nM
(
− psbp + pat A3 )
lower) using the procedure for real gases, so that a conventional
PRV should not be applied (to ensure against chattering). This For a real gas, replacing pressure and velocity for subsonic
case occurs frequently with orifice T, less frequently with P and discharge at the outlet flange uses Eq. 27:
rarely with L, Q and R (because of the area ratio between nozzle
and outlet flange and API 526 pressure limits).
F = w v3 = ⎢
(
⎡ n psbp + pat A3 ⎤
⎥
)
⎢ ( n −1) ⎥
Reaction forces. In FIG. 1, an envelope including the valve, ⎣ ⎦ (27)
the horizontal pipe and the first elbow allows the analysis of the ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 + 2 ( n −1) Z3st R T3st w −1⎥
2
horizontal reaction force of the fluid on the solid walls owing
⎢
( ⎥
)
2
to pressure, friction and momentum. When steady-state condi- n M psbp + pat A32
tions are established, these forces are balanced. For flexibility ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
analysis and support design, the initial unbalanced force that For an ideal gas, with sonic discharge at the outlet flange
is suddenly applied when the valve pops is required. The usual (Eq. 28):
simplifying assumption is to consider that, at the outlet flange,
2 ( k +1) R T1
the built-up backpressure and the momentum react on the valve
walls, while the horizontal pipe and elbow remain at the super-
F= w
kM
(
− psbp + pat A3 ) (28)
TABLE 3. Example 3, gas force (red for software input, orange for program output)
Data Formulas Results
Set pressure, pset kPag 517 517
Constant superimp, psc kPag 379 379
Variable superimp, psv kPag 40 40
Atmospheric pressure, pat kPa abs 101.325 101.325
Overpressure, ovp 0.1 0.1
Relieving temperature, T1_ K 348 348
k 1.1068 1.1068
Molecular weight, M kg/kmol 51.105 51.105
Gas universal constant, R J/kmol K 8,314.4 8,314.4
Rated disch. coeff., KDR 0.878 0.878
Orifice actual area, Aact m2 = 1.1/0.9 × 11.05 × 0.0254^2 0.00871324422222222
ID outlet m = (8.625 – 2 × 0.109) × 0.0254 0.2135378
Outlet area, A3 m2 = PI() × ID^2/4 0.0358128933533278
PRV type (C, B or P) C C
Maximum initial flowrate
Max pop pressure PRV = C kPag = pset + MAX(0.03 × (pset – psc),15) + psv 572
Max pop pressure PRV = B or P kPag = pset + MAX(0.03 × pset,15) 532.51
Popmax Pa abs = (IF(PRV = "C",popC,popBP) + pat) × 1000 673,325
Initial compressibilty factor, Z1_ 0.9023552248901 0.9023552248901
Initial backpressure, ibp Pa abs = (psc + psv + pat) × 1000 520,325
Backpressure ratio, rB = ibp/popmax 0.772769464968626
Critical ratio, rC_ = (2/(k + 1))^(k/(k – 1)) 0.583255445037076
Subcritical Kbsc = rB^(1/k) × (((k + 1)/2)^((k + 1)/(k – 1)) × 2/ 0.897640446831387
(k – 1) × (1-rB^((k – 1)/gtk)))^0.5
Back pressure factor, Kb = IF(rB< = rC_,1,Kbsc) 0.897640446831387
C_ = (k/R_ × (2/(k + 1))^((k + 1)/(k – 1)))^0.5 0.00690676336882351
wmax kg/sec = Kb × C_ × MIN(1.1/0.9 × KDR,1) × Aact × 14.673540755509
popmax × (M/Z1_/T1_)^0.5
Ideal gas
p3_ (for sonic flow) Pa abs = wmax/A3_ × (2 × R_ × T1_/k/(k + 90,289.5864311037
1)/M)^0.5
p3g (for sonic flow) kPag = p3_/1000 – pat –11.0354135688963
Counter force, cF N = 1000 × (psc + psv + pat) × A3_ 18.634.3437340703
F sonic N = wmax × (2 × (k + 1) × R_ × T1_/k/M)^0.5 –11,821.9399285041
– cF
F subsonic N = k × cF/(k–1) × ((1 + 2 × (k – 1) × R_ × T1_ × 653.083580713917
wmax^2/k/M/cF^2)^0.5 – 1)
Force, F_ N = IF(p3g < psc + psv,Fsub,Fson) 653.083580713917
Outlet velocity m/sec = IF(F_= Fson,(2 × k × R_ × T1_/ 44.5075658013028
(k + 1)/M)^0.5,Fsub/wmax)
p3st (for sonic flow) kPa abs =p3_ × ((k + 1)/2)^(k/(k – 1))/1,000 154.802817872303
For an ideal gas with subsonic discharge at the outlet flange valid both for atmospheric discharge and for the vertical pipe
(Eq. 29): connecting to another elbow or tee.
Note that API 520 Part 2 covers only the case of sonic flow at
F= ⎢
( )
⎡ k psbp + pat A3 ⎤ ⎡
⎥ ⎢ 1 + 2 ( k −1) R T1 w
2
−1
⎤
⎥
the outlet flange when discharging to the atmosphere (for outlet
sonic flow, zero superimposed backpressure gives the maximum
⎥ (29)
( k −1) ⎥⎢ ( )
2 2
⎢ k M p + p A initial force).
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ sbp at 3 ⎥⎦
Note also that for n = 1, starting from Eq. 3 new formulas
When the pressure wave reaches the first elbow, the vertical can easily be derived (pressure and density are related through a
downwards force can be estimated from the same formulas, re- logarithm), but a practical tip is to use the same formulas with n
placing the area if the pipe diameter is expanded. This tactic is = 1.00001 to avoid division by zero and obtain an accurate result.
TABLE 3. Example 3, gas force (red for software input, orange for program output) (cont.)
Data Formulas Results
Real gas
Max pop pressure kPa abs = popmax 673,325 Property package input
T1 °C = T1_ – 273.15 74.85 Lee-Kesler-Plocker
Molar enthalpy, H kJ/kmol –111,382.824428819 –111,382.824428819 Property package output
Subsonic velocity Second trial
Outlet velocity, v3_ m/sec 40.87 44 40.87
Molar enthalpy kJ/kmol = H – M × v3_^2/2000 –111,432.294068819 –111,425.506223506
p3_ kPa abs = psc + psv + pat 520.325 520.325
Density, d3_ kg/m3 10.0236362011761 10.0235826833183 10.0236362011761
Outlet velocity, v3__ m/sec = wmax/A3_/d3_ 40.8763901829124 40.8761719370789
Force (subsonic flow) N = wmax × v3__ 599.801377287055 599.798174847923
Peng3 provides a useful remark to reduce the maximum Kmax =1,1(KDR ÷ 0,9)=1,22 KDR or Kmax = 1
(33)
force estimated. The pop action is not instantaneous: the force (the lesser value)
increases linearly during a time, to, in the order of 0.01 sec
(check with the supplier). The wave travels at sonic velocity For balanced and pilot-operated valves, the maximum pres-
and requires a time, Δt, to cover the distance, L, to the next el- sure when the valve pops depends only on the set pressure tol-
bow. If the force at the origin has not reached its maximum, any erance per UG-126(d)—i.e., 3% or 15 kPa, whichever is greater
further increase is compensated by the increase at the elbow so (Eq. 34):
that the maximum force on the pipe segment is (Eq. 30): ppop = pset + MAX [0,03 pset ; 15,000] (34)
Δt L L For conventional PRVs, the tolerance applies to the spring
Fmax = F =F if Δt = < to (30)
to v st o vs differential, but opening may further be delayed because of vari-
able superimposed backpressure, so that the maximum pressure
This is valid for the pipe segment between the PRV and the when the valve pops is calculated by Eq. 35:
first elbow and for the subsequent pipe segments, if discharg- ppop = (pset – psc ) + MAX [0,03 (pset – psc ); 15,000]
ing to a header. (35)
+ psc + psv + pat
Which initial flowrate should be used to calculate the reac-
tion force? It is known that, initially, the rated capacity is usu- The maximum initial flowrate should then be obtained by
ally exceeded, but an agreed criterion is unavailable. Using applying API 520 formulas with Kmax Aact and ppop. If data from
ASME UG-131 to certify a specific design requires the man- the supplier are not yet available, use 1.22 Kd A. If the flow is
ufacturer to submit three devices to testing for each of three subcritical, the influence of the Kb factor from Figure 36 of API
different sizes.4 The coefficient of discharge KD for each test is 520 must also be included.
obtained using Eq. 31: The calculated value is greater than the process flowrate
Actual flow (the only possible exception could be for fire requirements), so
KD = (31) the pressure immediately starts decreasing after popping.
Theoretical flow Analyzing the derivative of the above formulas, maximum
All nine individual coefficients must fall within a range of force corresponds to minimum superimposed backpressure
± 5% of the average. The average coefficient of the nine tests (usually zero or close to zero), except for conventional PRVs
is then multiplied by 0.9 to obtain the rated coefficient of dis- with the spring compensated for constant superimposed back-
charge KDR (which shall not be greater than 0.878) for any PRV pressure—the force increases with the variable superimposed
of that design. A 10% safety margin below the average is, there- backpressure for subcritical flow at the orifice (see Example
fore, adopted. 3)—and also for critical flow at the orifice, if the ratio of ab-
The usual procedure is to find the required area by applying solute superimposed to pop pressure is above a limit that falls
API 520 with the recommended discharge coefficient for gases slightly below 0.5, depending on the specific data.
Kd = 0.975. From API 526,5 a standard orifice is selected with
an effective area, A, immediately greater than the required one. EXAMPLE 2
Each supplier will provide an actual orifice area (greater than For the same case of Example 1, if the constant superimposed
the effective area), such that (Eq. 32): backpressure is 100 kPag, then the spring force may be compen-
K DR Aact ≅ K d A sated and a conventional PRV applied. Find the maximum initial
(32) force if the supplier has informed KDR = 0.864 and Aact = 0.00462
If ASME requires a coefficient 10% below the average to m2. TABLE 2 shows critical flow and a force of 38,740 N. For the
estimate the relieving capacity, then to estimate the force, the real gas, the outlet stagnation pressure is obtained by rounding
maximum actual coefficient should be 10% above the average down the ideal value for the first trial and adopting the resulting
(but not greater than 1), as determined by Eq. 33: value for the second trial. The force is 4.6% lower: 36,948 N.
EXAMPLE 3
An operational upset requires relieving 24,270 kg/hr of a
50/50 (by mole) mixture of n-butane and propane at 348 K.
The set pressure is 517 kPag, the constant superimposed back-
pressure is 379 kPag and the overpressure is 10%. By applying
API 520 formulas (see 5.6.4.2.2), orifice Q is adopted. Estimate
the maximum initial reaction force if maximum variable super-
imposed backpressure is 40 kPa. Before receiving suppliers’ in-
formation, the discharge coefficient is adopted as 0.878 and the
effective area (11.05 in.2) is increased by 1.1/0.9. The maximum
estimated initial flowrate is 14.674 kg/sec, the ideal force is 653
N and the outlet velocity is 44.5 m/sec. For the real gas, adopting
the ideal rounded velocity for the first trial, 40.87 m/sec is cal-
culated for the second trial, giving a 7.7% lower force of 600 N.
NOMENCLATURE
A Area in m2
cp Specific heat at constant pressure in J/kg K
cv Specific heat at constant volume in J/kg K
F Reaction force in N
h Enthalpy in J/kg
We oil and gas. k
Kb
Ideal gas cp/cv
Backpressure coefficient
Kd Effective discharge coefficient
KD Individual test discharge coefficient
Boldrocchi is a worldwide engineering KDR Rated discharge coefficient
& manufacturing company with over a L Pipe length between outlet flange and next elbow
M Molecular weight in kg/kmol
century of experience and hundreds of oil Ma Mach number
& gas projects around the globe. n Coefficient of isentropic expansion
p Absolute pressure in Pa
pbp Total backpressure (gauge)
ppop Pop pressure (absolute)
psbp Superimposed backpressure (gauge): psbp = psc + psv
Fans, Blowers & Compressors
Complete nomenclature available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Heat Exchangers & Coolers
Noise Protection LITERATURE CITED
Heavy-Duty Process Dampers Complete literature cited available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.