How To Design A Driver Circuit For An Efficient Synchronous Rectifier

11/30/2018 How to design a driver circuit for an efficient synchronous rectifier
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Build Your Own Low-Cost Driver For A Synchronous Rectifier
Alan Adamsky | Jun 03, 2010
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https://www.electronicdesign.com/power/build-your-own-low-cost-driver-synchronous-rectifier 1/20
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Power supplies that use diodes to rectify an ac voltage to obtain a dc voltage must
deal with inherent inefficiencies. A standard diode or ultra-fast diode can have a 1-
V forward voltage or higher at rated current.
Schottky diodes were an improvement over the standard diode because their
forward voltage is lower. But Schottky diodes also start from a fixed forward
voltage. Higher efficiencies can be achieved by synchronously switching MOSFET
devices to emulate diodes, taking advantage of the FET’s low conduction losses.
Synchronous switching means getting a FET to turn on and off according to the
polarity of the ac waveform so it acts as a rectifier. Unlike the situation with the
diode, conduction losses depend upon on resistance (RDS(ON)) and current.
Choosing a FET with a low RDS(ON) reduces the forward voltage drop to a fraction
of what any diode can achieve. Hence, the synchronous rectifier will have a much
lower loss then a diode, helping improve the overall efficiency.
Having to synchronize the FETs complicates the circuit design. This complexity is a
better alternative to the added complexity caused by having to remove the heat
generated by a diode. With the ever-increasing efficiency requirements, there is no
other choice but to use synchronous rectification.
A number of available schemes can drive the FETs. Texas Instruments (TI) has a
few reference designs that use this one basic approach. These reference designs
also use variations on this basic approach. The drive circuitry presented here is
another variation on TI’s basic approach.
POWER-SUPPLY SPECS
The presented circuit was designed for an 18-W power supply. The outputs are ±15
V at 0.6 A with primary, secondary isolation. The input voltage is from 18 to 32 V.
The maximum duty cycle, which is 50%, occurs at 15 V. The required turns ratio is 1
to 2, primary to secondary.
This synchronous rectifier circuit uses a single-ended, forward converter topology.

It relies on the output voltage of the transformer to drive the FETs. When the
primary switch is on, this is not a problem. When the primary switch is off, the
transformer must take the entire off time to reset.
To achieve this, an active clamp was used. A TPS2490, with a built-in active clamp
function, was used on this design. How an active clamp works can be found in TI’s
literature or elsewhere on the Web.
BASICS
Figure 1 shows a synchronous rectifier circuit in its most basic form. It also shows
the intrinsic diodes. When the primary switch is on, Q2 is driven on. When the
primary switch is off, the reset voltage of the transformer drives Q1.
If the transformer reset time were shorter than the off time of the primary switch,
Q1 would lose drive and the intrinsic diode would have to carry the current. This
would defeat the purpose of using a synchronous rectifier, and it’s why the active
clamp is used.
For output voltages under 5 V, it may be possible to drive the FETs directly as
shown. Above a 5-V output, the peak voltage from the transformer can exceed the
maximum gate, source rating of the FETs at maximum input voltage. Therefore, a
means of controlling the gate drive voltage is necessary.
The basic concept behind the synchronous rectifier driver is shown in Figure 2. VIN
would be the voltage from the transformer’s output. D18 regulates the voltage. Q19
supplies the current boost to the FET’s gate.
DRIVE CIRCUIT TURN-ON
Figure 3 shows the complete circuit for the +15-V output. It doesn’t include added
components that aren’t related to the synchronous rectifier, such as snubbers. The
components within the dashed lines make up one rectifier. The description will
refer only to this rectifier, but the other rectifier operates the same. For simplicity,
all losses and forward diode drops will be ignored.
This rectifier is active when the primary switch is on. During this time, NODE_1’s
peak voltage range is 36 to 64 V (input voltage times turns ratio). D4 will regulate
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11/30/2018
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the voltage to the gate of Q6 minus the base-emitter voltage drop of Q5. Once Q6 is
on, only a static voltage must be maintained at Q6 gate to hold Q6 on. Therefore,
R2 can be a large value, keeping losses in R2 and D4 to a minimum.
Of course with a large R2, there isn’t enough current to drive Q5 when Q6 is
turning on. R1 and C2 provide the added current when the gate of Q6 needs the
drive current. To select values for R1 and C2, the amount of gate drive current must
be determined. The easiest way to determine drive current is to use Equation 1
where Q is the total gate charge, t is the turn-on time, and I is the necessary drive
current.
Q/t=I (1)
The specification for Q6 provides a total gate charge of 25 nC. For turn-on time, an
assumption of 25 ns was made. This provides a drive current of 1 A. Based on the
specification for Q5, a current gain of 50 was used. Therefore, Q5 base requires a
drive current of 20 mA.
Using the minimum voltage at NODE_1, R1 = (36 V – 12 V)/20 mA = 1.2k. I chose

to use a 1.0k resistor. C2 is chosen to allow a longer time constant then the
assumed turn-on time of 25 ns. The time constant of R1 and C2 is 1k × 220 pf =
220 ns.
Based on TI’s reference design, Q5 collector would be tied to NODE_1. (Q4

collector would be tied to NODE_2.) This means Q5 would have to drop the voltage
at NODE_1 to 12 V. Q6 requires 6- to 10-V gate voltage to turn fully on. Since the
output voltage is 15 V, Q5 collector was connected to the output. Q5 only has to
drop the 15 to 12 V versus dropping 32 to 64 V of NODE_1 to 12 V. The power loss
in Q5 is significantly lower when Q5 collector is connected to the output.
R5 was added to dampen any resonance that might be present in the Q6 gate
circuit, limit the drive current, and reduce dissipation in Q5 by dropping a few
extra volts. In theory, with a 12-V drive and only 1 A of drive necessary, a 12-Ω
resistor could be used. This assumes the 12-V drive is switched on in zero time. In
reality, there is a finite rise time.
So unless R5 is too large, there will never be 12 V across R5. Assuming R5 will only
have 6-V peak across it, R5 could be 6 Ω maximum. Also, 2 Ω was chosen because
it was low enough to allow enough drive current and some damping. And by
allowing more drive current than necessary, it reduces the possibility of problems
when powering the prototype for the first time.
DRIVE CIRCUIT TURN-OFF
When the primary switch turns off, the voltage across the transformer collapses
and the Q6 gate voltage is discharged through D2, turning Q6 off. Q5 also turns off
since its drive network is tied to NODE_1, the same as D2:
VIN × TON = VOFF × TOFF (2)
Equation 2 provides important information needed for the synchronous rectifier

circuit during transformer reset. VIN is the voltage across the primary when the
primary switch is on. TON is the on time of the switch. VOFF is the reset voltage
across the primary of the transformer. And, TOFF is the off time of the primary
switch.
When Q6 is off and Q3 is on, the transformer reset voltage must be determined. At
low input voltage, the duty cycle is 50%. As a result, the reset voltage, VOFF, is the
same as the input voltage, VIN.
At 32 VIN, the duty cycle is 15 VO/64 VPEAK, or about 23%. Plugging values into
Equation 2, (32 VIN) × (0.23) = (VOFF) × (1 – 0.23), provides a VOFF voltage of 9.6
V. At 15 VIN, the voltage would be 15 V. Multiplying by the turns ratio, the voltage
range at the output of the transformer is –19.2 to –30 V during the primary switch
off time.
The reset voltages are half what the forward drive voltages are, but the biasing
values were left the same. In choosing values for the forward drive, I chose to use a
low current gain value for the transistor. In reality it is much higher for the
conditions, so I left the values unchanged.
ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS
If the losses were included, the effect would be small. The most noticeable effect
would be an increase in the duty cycle to compensate for the voltage drops.
With Q4 and Q5 collector connected to the 15-V output, designers need to be aware
of two issues. During startup, until the output voltage is high enough, there is not
enough drive to turn on the FETs. During this time, the intrinsic diode will be the
rectifier. This is not a problem since startup will only be around 100 ms and there
is not much of a load.
The other issue is what happens during a partial overload. This design limits the
current through the primary switch. As the load increases, the peak current in the
primary switch and the transformer is limited, and the output voltage will start to
drop. At some point, the output voltage will be lower than what is necessary to
drive the FETs. The intrinsic diodes become the rectifiers, and they will overheat.
This power supply biases the control circuit off the transformer in a manner that
allows the bias voltage to track the output voltage. As the output voltage decreases,
so does the bias.
When the undervoltage lockout of the control IC is reached, the power supply shuts
down, protecting the power supply from this condition. The power supply would
try to restart but would shut down due to the overload. In this condition, the off
time is much longer than the run time, so the power supply will stay cool.
A SOT32 package was chosen for the npn transistors. SOT32 packages do not
dissipate power very well. They happen to work well in this design, but special
attention needs to be paid to their dissipation.
With schedule pressures, there is never time to improve a circuit if it performs well
during test. This circuit is no exception. As an example, an assumption was made
on the switching times, and the values chosen were based on that assumption.
Once a prototype is running, based on actual measurements, the chosen values can
be tuned to the circuit.
As another example, an assumption was made about how much voltage would be
generated by parasitic components. The transistor’s voltage rating was chosen to
ensure the parasitic induced voltages would not cause the transistor’s rating to be
exceeded. With a working prototype, these voltages could be checked, and lower-
voltage transistors could be chosen. This could save on cost and drive
requirements.
NEGATIVE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
The positive and negative synchronous rectifier circuit (Fig. 4) is the same except
in how the collector of the npn transistors are connected. The peak voltage at
NODE_3 will be from –32 to –64 V. To keep the voltage drop across Q9 to a
minimum, Q9 collector is connected to the –15-V output.
During transformer reset, NODE_3 will be held at ground when Q7 is on. D6

prevents a reverse voltage from being applied across Q9. For Q8, no other
connection could be made to improve its efficiency.
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Compact 5-V, 10-A Synchronous Buck Regulator Cuts Heat, EMI
This “Power by Linear” step-down dc-dc switcher IC can operate at 5 MHz

with high e ciency and excellent EMI performance.
Sam Davis | Nov 16, 2018
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The Power by Linear LTC3310S developed by Analog Devices is a synchronous

buck dc-dc converter capable of providing up to 10-A output from a 2.25- to 5.5-V
input (Fig. 1). Its fixed-frequency peak current-mode architecture is ideal for high
step-down ratio applications that demand fast transient response. It comes in a
thermally enhanced, 18-lead, 3- × 3- × 0.94-mm LQFN package, and its E- and I-
grades are specified from a –40 to 125°C operating junction temperature range.
1. This 1.2-V, 10-A step-down converter employs the LTC3310S.
The “S” in LTC3310S refers to the second generation Silent Switcher technology.
This technology enables fast switching edges for high efficiency at high switching
frequencies, while simultaneously achieving good EMI performance. Ceramic
capacitors on VIN keep all fast ac current loops small, also improving EMI
performance. This architecture employs integrated hot loop bypass capacitors to
deliver a highly efficient, small footprint solution at frequencies up to 5 MHz with
excellent EMI performance.
Multiphase operation allows for direct paralleling of multiple devices for higher
current loads. Figure 2 shows a two-phase configuration providing 3.3 V @ 20 A. A
four-phase configuration can handle a 40-A load.
READ MORE
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Why Special Care is Needed When Fuel-Gauging LiFeP04 Batteries
Accurate fuel-gauging is crucial for lithium-iron-phosphate batteries. This

article highlights an OCV algorithm leveraging coulomb counting that’s
e ective in achieving such a goal.
Georgy Zerkalov, Jason Wortham, Bakul Damle | Nov 15, 2018
      
Lithium-iron-phosphate (also known as lithium ferrous phosphate, LiFeP04, or

LFP) batteries are used in certain high C-rate applications. Given their
peculiarities, special care needs to be taken while fuel-gauging them. This article
covers why these battery types are ideal for certain applications, the special
considerations that should be taken into account while fuel-gauging these batteries,
and test results using a fuel-gauging algorithm configured for LFP batteries.
Growing Popularity of Lithium-Ion Battery Types
The share of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries used around the world keeps growing
every year. Known for their high energy densities, low rates of self-discharge, and
negligible memory effects, Li-ion batteries are used to provide electrical power in
various applications.
Numerous variations of Li-ion batteries are on the market, each with their unique
characteristics. Nonetheless, these batteries can be combined into groups based on
their chemistries. Each chemistry type has its own advantages and drawbacks, thus
allowing it to be used in specific applications. The main groups of Li-ion batteries
are outlined in the table.
A Closer Look at LFP Batteries
Advantages
Lithium iron phosphate is used in the cathode of LFP batteries, while carbon is
used in the anode. LFP batteries are thermally and chemically more stable than
batteries with other chemistries. They don’t combust even during fault conditions
such as overcharge or short-circuit, and aren’t prone to thermal runaway. The
batteries may also be used in a wide range of temperatures from −40 to 70°C.
At the same time, LFP batteries offer longer cycle life, from 1000 to 2000 cycles,
compared to LCO, LMO, NMC, and NCA cells. LFP cells may be exposed to high
voltage for a prolonged time with much lower stress than other chemistries. They
may be discharged up to a very high 25C-rate.
Drawbacks
LFP batteries have lower nominal voltages of 3.2 V, which means that the specific
energy is lower than in LCO, LMO, NMC, and NCA cells. The cells are also sensitive
to moisture and water. Direct contact with water leads to a loss of active lithium
from the olivine structure and, thus, reduces the material's energy
density. Therefore, only high-quality cells, manufactured under strict quality
control, can tolerate moderate external moisture conditions. Just like batteries with
other chemistries, LFP batteries tend to perform worse at colder temperatures.
Typical Applications
LFP batteries are used in a wide variety of applications. They include small electric
vehicles, electric green mowers, scissor lifts, garbage trucks, robotics, home energy
storage, hybrid generators, truck APU systems, weather-monitoring devices, ocean
buoys, oil and gas pipeline equipment, license-plate monitoring devices, depth
finders, paddle boards, and playground equipment.
Why is Fuel-Gauging LFP Batteries Difficult?
1. Shown are a typical discharge curve of an LFP battery (top) and hysteresis in
LFP cells along with an associated SOC error of 35% (bottom).
LFP batteries have very flat discharge curves and hysteresis, making it very hard to
fuel-gauge these cells. Figure 1 (top) shows a typical discharge curve of an LFP
battery. It can be seen that in some regions, voltage barely drops as the battery gets
discharged for an extensive amount of time. Figure 1 (bottom) shows the hysteresis
of LFP cells and state-of-charge (SOC) error associated with it. In contrast, Figure
2 shows a typical discharge curve of a lithium-nickel-cobalt aluminum-oxide
battery, where voltage drops significantly during discharge.
2. A typical discharge curve of a lithium-nickel-cobalt aluminum-oxide battery.
Some other battery chemistries behave similarly to iron phosphate cells, including
lithium cobalt phosphate (LiCoPO4), lithium iron sulphate fluoride (LiFeSO4F),
and lithium manganese phosphate (LiMnPO4).
and lithium manganese phosphate (LiMnPO4).
How to Accurately Fuel-Gauge LFP Batteries
There are techniques available to derive higher accuracy when fuel-gauging LFP
cells. Such cells have extremely flat voltage profiles, where just 1% of change of SOC
corresponds to only a few millivolts change on the open-circuit-voltage (OCV)
curve. Furthermore, iron-phosphate cells are known for their hysteresis in the OCV
curve. A OCV prediction algorithm (without requiring relaxed, full, or empty
conditions) combined with a coulomb counter had demonstrated greatly
diminished voltage sensitivities when compared with other coulomb-counter
methods.
Most alternative methods require observing the battery in the relaxed state and
performing corrections based on the measured voltage. In such methods, the
corrections are infrequent (a few times per day instead of many small corrections
per minute), and the impact of any error during the correction is significant. Any
error during the correction is normally frozen in and, therefore, persists until the
next correction. Because of this, the choice of algorithm and its use of voltage is
especially critical with LFP batteries. An optimal algorithm minimizes these errors
by always giving small weight to the voltage corrections; it’s much more resilient to
voltage measurement error.
Cell Under Test
We performed a test on an LFP cell using the OCV algorithm with coulomb
counting. The battery is ANR26650M1-B with a nominal capacity of 2500 mAh.
The chemistry is lithium iron phosphate. Well-tuned fuel gauges have
demonstrated the ability to provide excellent fuel-gauging accuracy. We chose a
pattern that pushes the fuel gauge to extremes, where the battery is continually
used without reaching full or empty for more than a week. Fuel-gauging such a
pattern is very challenging even for non-LFP cells. The curves in Figures 3, 4, and 5
below show better than 2% SOC error during the test pattern.
3. The test pattern shows battery voltage, current, temperature, and SOC error.
Except for the first cycle, the SOC error always stays under 2%.
4. Accurate fuel gauging is achieved during the complex case of continuous use
without reaching full or empty for more than a week. The error stays under 2%.
5. The SOC error stays under 2% even at −5°C.
Example ICs for LFP Battery Fuel-Gauging
In our test case, we used the MAX172xx fuel-gauge IC family. The OCV/SOC curve
of LFP is much flatter than conventional lithium-cobalt chemistries, which
produces a greater sensitivity to the algorithm's interpretation of cell voltage and
OCV.
For the fuel-gauge algorithm to achieve an accurate, full-capacity measurement

over time, the battery's full capacity needs to be calculated outside the keep-out
window, which has the flattest region and most hysteresis in the OCV/SOC curve.
To do this in the MAX172xx, full-capacity learning uses charge sessions and
discharge sessions accumulated only when relaxation occurs outside the keep-out
window (20% to 72%, for example), when enabled.
Figure 6 shows a OCV-SOC curve of a lithium-iron-phosphate cell as well as an

OCV keep-out region.
6. Illustration of SOC-OCV curve for an LFP cell; the OCV keep-out region isn’t
used to calculate full capacity to prevent incorrect learning.
To configure the MAX172xx for LFP support, do the following:
1 Send the battery to Maxim for characterization The characterization data

1. Send the battery to Maxim for characterization. The characterization data
should be translated by Maxim into a battery model.
2. Set enSC to 1 in the nNVCfg1 (1B9h) register to enable LFP mode and window
blocking.
3. Load the rest of the battery model (see User Guide
6260 MAX1720x/MAX1721x Software Implementation Guide for more details).
The MAX17055 and MAX1726x support LFP batteries with a special model
configuration. To deliver good SOC accuracy, it’s necessary to characterize and
model the specific LFP cells being used. These chips provide additional algorithm
support specifically for the challenges associated with LFP and other "flat" OCV
chemistries.
To configure the MAX1726x and MAX17055 for LFP support, do the following:
1. Send the battery to Maxim for characterization. The characterization data

should be translated by Maxim into a battery model.
2. Write 0x0060 to ModelCFG (DBh) register to enable LFP mode and window
blocking
3. Load the rest of the battery model (see User Guide 6365 MAX17055 Software
Implementation Guide and User Guide 6595 MAX1726x Software
Implementation Guide for more details)
Summary
LFP batteries are ideal for certain high C-rate applications, but special care must be
taken to achieve accurate fuel-gauging of these battery types. In this article, we
discussed a test case using an OCV fuel-gauging algorithm that utilizes coulomb
counting. This type of algorithm overcomes some of the accuracy challenges that
other fuel-gauging methods encounter with LFP batteries.
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11/30/2018 How to design a driver circuit for an efficient synchronous rectifier

TECHNOLOGIES > POWER

Build Your Own Low-Cost Driver For A Synchronous Rectifier

Alan Adamsky | Jun 03, 2010

This synchronous rectifier circuit uses a single-ended, forward converter topology.

DRIVE CIRCUIT TURN-ON

Using the minimum voltage at NODE_1, R1 = (36 V – 12 V)/20 mA = 1.2k. I chose

Based on TI’s reference design, Q5 collector would be tied to NODE_1. (Q4

DRIVE CIRCUIT TURN-OFF

VIN × TON = VOFF × TOFF (2)

Equation 2 provides important information needed for the synchronous rectifier

same as the input voltage, VIN.

ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS

NEGATIVE VOLTAGE OUTPUT

During transformer reset, NODE_3 will be held at ground when Q7 is on. D6

Publish our articles on your site. Learn how...

TAGS: DESIGN SOLUTIONS

TECHNOLOGIES > POWER

Compact 5-V, 10-A Synchronous Buck Regulator Cuts Heat, EMI

This “Power by Linear” step-down dc-dc switcher IC can operate at 5 MHz

Sam Davis | Nov 16, 2018

The Power by Linear LTC3310S developed by Analog Devices is a synchronous

1. This 1.2-V, 10-A step-down converter employs the LTC3310S.

Publish our articles on your site. Learn how...

What’s the Difference Between DC-DC Tiny Higher-Voltage Power Modules

Low EMI/EMC Emission Switching Why Automotive ECUs Need a High-

Sign up for the Electronic Design Today newsletter.

Email address United States SIGN UP ▸

TECHNOLOGIES > POWER

Why Special Care is Needed When Fuel-Gauging LiFeP04 Batteries

Accurate fuel-gauging is crucial for lithium-iron-phosphate batteries. This

Georgy Zerkalov, Jason Wortham, Bakul Damle | Nov 15, 2018

Lithium-iron-phosphate (also known as lithium ferrous phosphate, LiFeP04, or

Growing Popularity of Lithium-Ion Battery Types

A Closer Look at LFP Batteries

other chemistries, LFP batteries tend to perform worse at colder temperatures.

Why is Fuel-Gauging LFP Batteries Difficult?

2. A typical discharge curve of a lithium-nickel-cobalt aluminum-oxide battery.

How to Accurately Fuel-Gauge LFP Batteries

Cell Under Test

5. The SOC error stays under 2% even at −5°C.

Example ICs for LFP Battery Fuel-Gauging

For the fuel-gauge algorithm to achieve an accurate, full-capacity measurement

Figure 6 shows a OCV-SOC curve of a lithium-iron-phosphate cell as well as an

To configure the MAX172xx for LFP support, do the following:

1 Send the battery to Maxim for characterization The characterization data

1. Send the battery to Maxim for characterization. The characterization data

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