P 17 Zone Hoffman Salinity-Training-Manual

Salinity Training Manual
S A L I N I T Y I D E N T I F I C AT I O N , C A U S E S A N D M A N A G E M E N T
w w w.dpi.nsw.gov.au
Salinity Training Manual
Salinity Training Manual.
Published by NSW Department of Primary Industries, June 2014
Compiled by Kathy Tenison, Advisory Officer, Industry & Investment NSW, Yanco.
Scientific editor: Dr Janet Wild, former soils specialist, Department of Environment & Climate Change and
lecturer in soil and water quality, Murrumbidgee College of Agriculture, Yanco.
Authors and contributing departments acknowledged in the ‘List of Contributors’.
Editors: Elizabeth Madden, Salinity Advisory Officer, Industry & Investment NSW, Wagga Wagga.
Valerie Draper, Project Officer Natural resource management, Industry & Investment NSW, Yanco.
Lynne McMahon, Project Officer, NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga
Note: Industry & Investment NSW changed name to the NSW Department of Primary Industries during final
production of these guidelines and the former name is used throughout. This may affect the currency of
links and websites in some cases.
ISBN 978 1 74256 076 2
© State of New South Wales through the Department of Trade and Investment, Regional Infrastructure and
Services 2014
JTN 12832 06/14
Disclaimer
The information contained in this publication is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (September 2010). However,
because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information on which they rely is up to date and to check the
currency of the information with the appropriate officer of NSW Department of Primary Industries or the user’s independent advisor.
The product trade names in this publication are supplied on the understanding that no preference between equivalent products is intended and
that the inclusion of a product name does not imply endorsement by NSW Department of Primary Industries over any equivalent product from
another manufacturer.
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 Introduction
As the impact of salinity on agricultural, urban and natural landscapes became evident in 1980s and 1990s,
research into its causes and management also grew.
Thanks to the efforts of research scientists and land managers we now have a sound understanding of salinity
processes and management in the Australian environment.
Based on the outcomes of this salinity research, The Salinity Training Manual is a training resource for the
delivery of training in natural resource management and agriculture.
The Manual meets the requirements of a number of nationally accredited competencies determined by the
Vocational Education and Accreditation Training Board (Department of Education).
This means it will be valuable to trainers delivering the Agriculture, Horticulture & Conservation and Land
Management Training Package.
The Manual was developed for registered training organisations, secondary schools and tertiary institutions—
universities, TAFE.
Four accompanying summary booklets specific to four major catchments in NSW called Salinity Glove Box
Guides have also been published by I&I NSW.
Although the Salinity Training Manual focuses on NSW, trainers across Australia can adapt their local situation
to the Manual’s general principles and training design.
The many contributors to this publication are acknowledged throughout The Manual.
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 Salinity Training Manual Outline
Part 1 – Processes and extent
Chapter 1: Salinity basics
Chapter 2: Extent and impact of salinity
Chapter 3: Hydrological cycle
Chapter 4: Groundwater systems
Chapter 5: Soils and geology
Chapter 6: Vegetation systems and the water balance
Chapter 7: Landscape features
Part 2 – Identification and monitoring

Chapter 8: Measuring salinity
Chapter 9: Identifying and investigating a saline site
Chapter 10: Salinity assessment and management planning
Chapter 11: Testing water
Chapter 12: Testing soil
Chapter 13: Monitoring groundwater
Part 3 – Management
Chapter 14: Recharge management options (pasture/crop)
Chapter 15: Effective management of saline discharge Sites
Chapter 16: Recharge management for different landscapes
Chapter 17: Engineering options
Chapter 18: Recharge management options (farm forestry)
Part 4 – Economics
Chapter 19: Salinity economics
Glossary of terms
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 Contributors
Thank you to all the following contributors to this manual. Names and workplace of contributors remain the same
as at the time of contribution.
Part 1 – Processes and extent
Chapter 1: Salinity basics

Geoff Beecher – Industry and Investment NSW
Elizabeth Madden – Industry and Investment NSW
Tania Moore – Industry and Investment NSW
Sian McGhie – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Kathy Tenison – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 2: Extent and impact of salinity

Neeraj Maini – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Elizabeth Madden – Industry and Investment NSW
David Mitchell – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 3: Hydrological cycle

Josh Gordon – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Iain Hume – Industry and Investment NSW
Sean Murphy – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 4: Groundwater systems

Justin Hughes – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Rob Muller – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Chapter 5: Soils and geology

Ian Daniells – Industry and Investment NSW
Janelle Jenkins – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Janet Wild – formerly Department of Environment & Climate Change
Chapter 6: Vegetation systems and the water balance

Brian Dear – Industry and Investment NSW
Belinda Hackney – Industry and Investment NSW
Dale Stringer – Formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Chapter 7: Landscape features

John Friend – Industry and Investment NSW
Dale Stringer – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Andrew Wooldridge – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
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Part 2 – Identification and monitoring
Chapter 8: Measuring salinity

Graham Barron – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Lindsay Evans – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Lachlan Rowling – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 9: Identifying and investigating a saline site

Luke Beange – Industry and Investment NSW
Glenn Lyons – Central Rivers Catchment Management Authority
Bill Semple – Department of Environment & Climate Change
Deb Slinger – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 10: Salinity assessment and management planning

Anthony Collins – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Nick Henry – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Anthony Watson – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Chapter 11: Testing water

Peter Smith – Industry and Investment NSW
Mary-Jane Rodgers – Primary Industries Research Victoria
Chapter 12: Testing soil

Geoff Beecher – Industry and Investment NSW
Ian Daniells – Industry and Investment NSW
Janet Wild – formerly Department of Environment & Climate Change
Chapter 13: Monitoring groundwater

Russell Crosbie – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Justin Hughes – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Prem Kumar – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Samuel North – Industry and Investment NSW
Darice Pepper – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
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Part 3 – Management
Chapter 14: Recharge management options (pasture/crop)

Belinda Hackney – Industry and Investment NSW
Carol Harris – Industry and Investment NSW
Kate Sargeant – Victorian Department of Primary Industries
Cathleen Waters – Industry and Investment NSW
Jim Virgona – Charles Sturt University
Chapter 15: Effective management of saline discharge sites

Bill Semple – Department of Environment & Climate Change
Chapter 16: Recharge management for different landscapes

Rob Muller – Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
Andrew Wooldridge – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Chapter 17: Engineering options

John Hornbuckle – CSIRO
Nimal Kulatunga – Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water
Prem Kumar – Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
Iva Quarisa – Industry and Investment NSW
Peter Smith – Industry and Investment NSW
Chapter 18: Recharge management options (farm forestry)

Craig Barton – Industry and Investment NSW
Angus Carnegie – State Forests NSW
Brendan George – Industry and Investment NSW
Zial Hougue – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Rod Kavanagh – Industry and Investment NSW
Jason Kelly – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Nico Marcar – CSIRO
Fiona McDonald – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Part 4 – Economics
Chapter 19: Salinity economics

Jason Kelly – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Bob Farquharson – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Michael Reynolds – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
Pam Welsh – Industry and Investment NSW
Rob Welsh – formerly NSW Department of Primary Industries
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1
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Definition of salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Measuring salinity.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Sources of salt............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Fossil/connate salt ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Rock weathering salt........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Aeolian salt ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Cyclic salt ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
 Leaching of salt............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
 Salt in the soil profile ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
 Salinity origin ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Primary salinity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Secondary salinity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
 Salinity processes....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 What is salt? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Plants and salt .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

Osmotic effect ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Toxic effect .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Ionic imbalance ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Waterlogging on salinity tolerance ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
 Plant mechanisms to cope with excess salt ................................................................................................................................................................. 9
 The effect of salt on soil ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
 Types of salinity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Dryland salinity...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Irrigation salinity .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Bore drain salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Urban salinity .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
River salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
 Key points and further information................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Further information........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Video ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
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 Introduction
Understanding what causes salinity, where the salt comes from, how it moves and the effect that it has on the
environment is vital in targeting management strategies. If salt in the environment remains well below the
soil surface away from the root zone of plants and water bodies, it is not a problem. However, if it is
transported to locations where it impacts on humans and natural assets, then both the severity and cause of
the problem need to be evaluated and addressed.
 Definition of salinity
Salinity is the accumulation of salts (usually sodium
chloride) in soil and water to sufficient levels that
impact on human and natural assets (e.g. plants,
animals, aquatic ecosystems, water supplies,
agriculture or infrastructure).
Measuring salinity
An electrical conductivity (EC) meter is used to
measure salinity. Electrical Conductivity meters can
be small hand-held pocket meters, larger portable
meters designed for field use or more sophisticated
bench-top models designed for use in a laboratory.
The concentration and composition of salts
determine the electrical conductivity of the soil or
water tested. Electrical conductivity increases as salt
concentration rises. A salt meter does not measure
the type of salt occurring in a water or soil sample
(see Chapter 8).
Water salinity may be measured at many points
in the landscape (dams, rivers, irrigation channels,
creeks and bores) to determine water quality
and suitability for use for specific purposes (e.g. Figure 1.1 Salt sources include connate/fossil, rock weathering
(parent material in-situ), aeolian and cyclic salts (transported from
irrigation, stock and domestic supply, human an off-site source). This simplified map of Australia illustrates the
consumption or industry processes) (see Chapter relative geographical dominance of each source.
Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
11).
Soil salinity is measured to determine soil suitability seas. Fossil salts are readily mobilised by rising
for its intended use, such as agriculture, and to assist groundwater while salts that are released as rock
in landuse planning decisions (see Chapter 12). chemically weathers2 convert more slowly.
Sources of salt Rock weathering salt

There are a number of different sources of salt in Rocks release soluble salt as their minerals break
the landscape (see Figure 1.1). Salt deposits are down by chemical weathering over time. The
often classified according to the source of the salt or composition and amount of salts released depend
its transport process. These classifications include: on the types of rock minerals present and the
connate/fossil, rock weathering (parent material weathering rate. As rocks break down through
in-situ), aeolian and cyclic salts (transported from an weathering, soil formation begins. Generally salt
off-site source). release is slow because the rate of soil formation by
chemical weathering is slow. However, as Australian
Fossil/connate salt soils are often old and have formed over hundreds
Fossil salts originate from marine sediments of thousands of years, the total amount of salt
deposited during earlier geological periods when released can be significant.
Australia was partly covered by sea. Some areas,
such as parts of Western NSW, were once below sea Aeolian salt
level during the early1 Quaternary period two million Aeolian salts are transported by wind and originate
years ago (Wasson 1989). A lot of marine salt was from inland sedimentary deposits, including dune
trapped in the sediments of these low-lying inland sand and soil. Dry windy periods over geological
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time have moved large amounts of soil across the Cyclic salt
landscape. As it travelled, this soil often brought
Ocean spray, made up of fine droplets of airborne
salt with it. The movement of soil and salt was
salt water, is produced by wave action. Once
generally north-easterly and easterly across NSW
airborne, ocean spray can be blown inland
due to the prevailing south-westerly to westerly
and deposited in rainfall. Over time these salts
winds at that time. Large amounts of saline aeolian
accumulate in the landscape. The amount of salt
clay (parna) are believed to have been deposited by
deposited on the landscape (see Figure 1.2) in this
this mechanism on the western slopes of the Great
way ranges from 200–300 kg/ha/year at the coast
Dividing Range in NSW. These deposits have been
to 15–35 kg/ha/year inland (Blackburn and McLeod
reworked over the intervening thousands of years so
1983).
they can be difficult to identify as a clear layer in the
soil, but their legacy of salt remains in the landscape.
Erosion and leaching3 of these deposits can release
significant quantities of salt into waterways.
 Leaching of salt
Water is a major determinant in salt movement deep-rooted perennial plants) the leaching of salt
in the landscape. Once dissolved in rainwater or down the profile also increases. This produces a salt
groundwater, salt can then move laterally or up and bulge in the profile as explained in the next section.
down a soil profile and across landscapes. Note: there are a number of factors that restrict
leaching such as clay or rock layers and watertables.
Rainfall patterns, soil properties, geology, land
management and topography determine the extent
to which salts remain in the soil profile. In areas
with high rainfall and good drainage, most of the
salt produced by weathering is flushed out of the
landscape and can either leave the system via rivers
or creeks, or accumulate in natural drainage lines
in the lower parts of the landscape e.g. swamps. In
more arid areas where rainfall is insufficient to leach
salt and in areas where topography limits drainage
out of the region, salt is less mobile and remains
in the landscape. All of these concepts will be
explained in following chapters.
In undisturbed natural conditions there is often a
steady-state balance of salt in a profile or landscape,
such that the rate of salt gain (accession from all
sources) and its rate of loss by leaching are equal.
Figure 1.2 Graph indicating relationship between the amount of
However, when the net movement of water down cyclic salt deposited and distance inland from the sea.
a soil profile is increased (for example, by removing Source: J Wild 2008, pers. comm., 30 January
 Salt in the soil profile

A typical salt bulge is shown in Figure 1.3 where of native vegetation as shown by the solid line
salt concentration is low in surface soil (0–2 m) and in Figure 1.3. (Allison et al 1990). Under semi-arid
further down the profile (2–10 m) the salt store conditions, rainfall was generally inadequate to
increases greatly. Below 10 m, salinity decreases leach all salts into the groundwater. The clay layer
again as salts cannot be leached any further due to in the deep subsoils also hindered the movement
the restrictive clay layers in the deep subsoil of this of water and salt with the result that a ‘bulge’ of
profile. salt accumulated at depths of 3–10m from the
surface. Watertables were usually below 30 m from
The following is a generalised summary of a
the surface and the quality of groundwater was
complex system. Before modern agriculture
frequently fresh/not saline (Fitzpatrick et al. 2001).
in Australia, the dominance of deep-rooted
perennial plants meant salts were leached only a Modern agricultural practices such as land clearing,
short distance down the profile by rainfall. They and replacement of deep-rooted perennial plants
accumulated within or just below the root zones with shallow-rooted annuals, allows rainfall to leach
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salts deeper into the profile. The salt bulge therefore profile and into the watertable. This is the situation
moves to greater depth as shown by the dotted line in many parts of NSW where there is the potential
in Figure 1.3. There is then a risk of the salt bulge for mobilisation of salt into watertables, which may
being leached below the root zone, out of the soil then surface lower in the catchment.
The location of a salt bulge is a balance between
the soil, geology, climate and vegetation factors
as well as the changes imposed by agriculture or
urbanisation within a region (Fitzpatrick et al. 2001).
In summary, a salt bulge may occur at any depth
in the soil profile, regolith4 or deeper into the
stratigraphic profile5. It usually occurs because of
a climatic or landuse change that alters the water
balance in a soil profile or a whole landscape. One
such change can be increased water infiltration due
to widespread clearing of deep-rooted perennial
vegetation such as forests, and replacement with
shallow-rooted annual crops. The average annual
rainfall may be unchanged but under these
conditions more water infiltrates the soil, so leaching
of salt increases, producing a salt bulge lower in
Figure 1.3 Diagram of salt bulge in deep soil under native the profile. Irrigation of a soil can also change the
vegetation and cropping. location of a salt bulge in the soil profile.
Source: After Holmes (1960)
 Salinity origin
Soil salinity may be primary or
secondary in origin.
Primary salinity
Primary salinity occurs
naturally in the landscape.
Examples of primary salinity
are salt marshes, salt lakes, tidal
swamps or natural salt scalds6.
Primary salinity is sometimes
called inherent salinity (see
plate 1.1).
Plate 1.1 Primary salinity in Lake Eyre is naturally occurring.
Source: Adam McLean, Department of Water Land and Conservation (2000)
Secondary salinity
Secondary salinity occurs in
the landscape due to human
activity. In Australia this is
typically human activity post
European settlement. Examples
of secondary salinity (Plate 1.2)
are salinisation of soil, surface
water or groundwater due to
urbanisation and agriculture
(irrigated and dryland).
If the watertable is within
three metres of the soil surface
in clay soils, (less distance
in sands) groundwater can
rise by capillary action to the Plate 1.2 Secondary salinity is caused by rising watertables due to human activity such as land
soil surface. The water then clearing.
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evaporates from the surface, leaving the salt behind. into other landscapes or catchments. The poor
This produces a salt bulge at the soil surface. If this structure of saline soils increases the risk of salt
soil is relocated by wind or water, it often carries the movement through wind and water erosion.
concentrated salt with it. Thus salt can be moved
 Salinity processes
Secondary salinity occurs where salt is mobilised like water soaks into a dry sponge. Capillary action
and redistributed closer to the soil surface and/or can occur at any depth, but salinity risk is greatest
into waterways. This can occur due to: when the watertable is within three metres of the
soil surface. Capillary action then draws water and
• rising saline groundwater (dryland agriculture
salt closer to the soil surface and into the plant root
processes)
zone (see Figure 1.4).
• rising saline groundwater (irrigation agriculture
Over time, as plants use water (by transpiration) and
induced)
water evaporates from the soil surface, salt is left
• rising saline groundwater (urban development behind and can accumulate to levels that are toxic
induced) to plants. This leads to poor plant health, a loss of
productive species and dominance of salt tolerant
• use of saline irrigation water (pumped
groundwater) and species, e.g. Sea barley grass (Hordeum marinum)
(see Chapter 9). On very saline sites, salt crystals, bare
• cyclic and aeolian processes (salt redistributed). areas and a complete loss of groundcover often
Soil and water become saline when salts are occur making them vulnerable to wind and water
brought to the soil surface. This usually occurs when erosion. Salts can then move into waterways or to
water moves/leaks past the plant root zone, enters other sites.
the groundwater system, fills the spaces within the Poor plant health may result from waterlogging
soil and rocks, and causes the watertable to rise. rather than salinity if the groundwater under the
As watertables rise, salts found naturally in rocks shallow watertable is non-saline. Eventually salinity
and soils are dissolved in the groundwater and are may occur with even relatively fresh groundwater
carried by it toward the soil surface. as salts concentrate over time. In this situation,
Salts are also moved up the soil profile by groundwater may pool on the soil surface or fill
capillary action. This process draws groundwater the profile to saturation point. When the water
from the watertable up through the soil, much evaporates, however, there is no evidence of salt or
Figure 1.4 How salt moves to the soil surface.

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changes to the soil structure such as puffiness or is impermeable (see Chapter 5) and limits deep
dark patches caused by destabilisation of organic leaching of salts. These soils retain both rainfall
matter associated with saline conditions. Plants and salts above the impermeable soil layer. Most
tolerant of waterlogging will often dominate areas water leaves these soils by evapotranspiration9,
with high non-saline watertables e.g. common rush leaving behind the salt. The retained salt
(Juncus usitatus), paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) increases osmotic stress on the plants and can be
(see Chapter 9). mobilised by subsequent rainfall. The extent and
severity of transient salinity varies from year to year
Salt can also move down the soil profile. This can
but tends to be greater towards the end of the
occur from leaching by rainfall, or by irrigation if a
growing season as the soils dry out due to greater
leaching fraction is used periodically to reduce salt
evapotranspiration from more leafy mature plants.
accumulation in the plant root zone.
Lateral movement of salt occurs when groundwater Global warming and salinity
moves through soil or rock down a slope, In general terms, the effect of global warming and
discharges into a stream, or moves within an aquifer climate change on salinity can be predicted from
or between aquifers (see Figure 1.10). the explanations above. Any climate changes
that increase infiltration of water beyond the root
Transient salinity After Rengasamy (2002) zone (e.g. increased rainfall or lower temperatures
Transient salinity describes a temporal7 and spatial due to their effect of reducing evaporation and
increase in the salt content of the root zone. It may transpiration) are likely to raise watertables and
be due to the rise and fall of saline watertables or a increase salinity. Any decrease in infiltration (e.g.
combination of soil properties and seasonal rainfall decreased rainfall or increased evapotranspiration)
conditions causing temporary or seasonal perched will have the opposite effect and reduce salt
watertables8. mobility within the landscape. The new and
Transient salinity is extensive in dryland regions changing areas of salinity will be transient.
and occurs mainly in landscapes dominated by
sodic subsoils (Shaw et al. 1998). The sodic subsoil
 What is salt?
A salt molecule is made up of electrically charged particles called ions. Overall, the positive and negative
charges on the ions are in balance, so an individual salt molecule is electrically neutral. Cations such as sodium
Na+, magnesium Mg2+ and calcium Ca2+, are positively charged ions. Anions such as chloride Clˉ, sulphate SO42ˉ,
bicarbonate HCO3ˉ and carbonate CO32ˉ, are negatively charged. A salt is formed when the anions and cations
come together; examples are given in Table 1.1 Types of salt.
Cations +ve Anions -ve SALT

sodium Na +
chloride Clˉ sodium chloride (NaCl) table salt
sodium Na+ sulphate SO42ˉ sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)
sodium Na+ bicarbonate HCO3ˉ sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) baking soda
sodium Na+ carbonate CO32ˉ sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
magnesium Mg2+ chloride Clˉ magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

magnesium Mg2+ sulphate SO42ˉ magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) Epsom salts
magnesium Mg2+ bicarbonate HCO3ˉ magnesium bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3) 2)
magnesium Mg2+ carbonate CO32ˉ magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
calcium Ca2+ chloride Clˉ calcium chloride (CaCl2)

calcium Ca2+ sulphate SO42ˉ calcium sulphate (CaSO4) gypsum
calcium Ca2+ bicarbonate HCO3ˉ calcium bicarbonate (CaHCO3)
calcium Ca2+ carbonate CO32ˉ calcium carbonate (CaCO3) lime, limestone, marble
Table 1.1: Types of salt
Salts dissolve in water. Some salts are highly soluble so readily move in the soil solution. Other salts are
relatively insoluble (Table 1.2) and are less mobile in the soil. Where there is capillary rise from shallow
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watertables, the most soluble salts will accumulate Most soluble ion cation anion
on the soil surface first. Sodium chloride is highly
soluble and is usually the first to accumulate.
Calcium carbonate is relatively insoluble making it sodium chloride
less likely to build up at the soil surface.
The more soluble salts tend to be the most sulphate
problematic for plants. For example, sodium chloride magnesium
is highly soluble and very damaging to plants. By bicarbonate
contrast, calcium carbonate (lime) and calcium
sulphate (gypsum) are less soluble and support Least soluble ion calcium carbonate
plant health by improving pH and soil structure.
Table 1.2: Solubility of ions that make up salts
(left) Table 1.3: The risk to plants and soil from

different salts is related to their solubility. More
soluble salts are associated with greater risk.
Source: Wild, Howarth and Conyers (2004)
(below) Figure 1.5: Relative salt tolerance ratings

of agricultural plants.
Source: Ayers and Westcot (1985)
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 Plants and salt

Salinity tolerance and adaption to saline conditions osmotic pull of the plant and the need of the salt to
varies between plants e.g. some crops can produce surround itself with water molecules. Thus a build
acceptable yields at much greater soil salinity levels up of salt in the soil makes it more difficult for plants
than others (Ayers and Westcot 1985). Plants can be to extract water.
divided into two groups: salt-tolerant (halophytes)
and salt-resistant plants (glycophytes). Toxic effect
10
Salt-tolerant (halophytes ): These are plants The toxic effect of salinity is often due to the high
considered to be truly salt tolerant because levels of specific ions, such as sodium or chloride,
they continue to grow despite high internal rather than salinity in general (QDNR 1997).
concentrations of salts, (QDNR 2007). Examples of Reduced growth in plants subjected to high salt
halophytes include: saltbush (Atriplex spp.), bluebush concentrations is probably more closely related to
(Maireana spp.) and puccinellia (Puccinellia ciliata). high levels of individual toxic ions than to reduced
water absorption (Kramer 1969).
Salt resistant plants (glycophytes11): Most
agricultural plants fall into the salt-resistant category Sodium
of glycophytes. They cannot tolerate salt internally
Sodium can accumulate in both the plant and
but can maintain growth in mildly saline soil by
soil. If excess sodium accumulates in the leaves, it
excluding salts at the roots (Greenway and Munns
causes leaf burn, necrotic (dead) patches and even
1980). However, in extremely saline soils glycophytes
defoliation. Poor physical conditions in the soil
are unable to both exclude salt and obtain sufficient
caused by sodicity (excess sodium) will limit plant
water for maintenance (QDNR 1997). The impact of
growth (which is the major effect), (QDNR 1997).
salinity varies with plant species, stage of growth,
management practices, varieties and soil fertility. Chloride
Note: See Chapter 8 for definition of ECe (Soil Plants affected by chloride toxicity exhibit similar
salinity) and ECw (Water salinity). foliar symptoms to sodium toxicity, such as leaf
bronzing and necrotic spots in some species.
Osmotic effect Defoliation occurs in some woody species (QDNR
Plants take up water by a process called osmosis. 1997).
Water moves by osmosis through the semi-
permeable membrane of the plant-root surface, Which is more important –
from a low salt concentration in the soil to a higher the osmotic or toxic effect on the plant?
salt concentration in the plant. Under normal Some plants in saline soils appear to adjust to the
conditions, plants readily obtain water from the high osmotic potential. Eaton (1924) and (1942)
soil by osmosis. However, in a saline soil the soil studied crop plants and Black (1956) and (1960)
solution has a high concentration of salt, which studied halophytes. They found that the main
exerts its own osmotic force against the plant trying effects of salinity are probably associated with ion
to remove water from the soil. In effect, there is imbalances in the plant, rather than reduced water
a competition for water molecules between the availability in the soil. However in other cases, at
Plate 1.3: Grapevine leaves showing signs of salinity e.g. leaf burn Plate 1.4: Citrus trees defoliating due to salt stress.
and necrotic (dead) patches. Leaf petiole analysis for chloride and Source: Tania Midgley, NSW DPI (2006)
sodium also exceed toxic thresholds.
Source: Tania Midgley, NSW DPI (2005)
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least some of the effects have been shown to be due if used over a long period. The effect will happen
to the osmotic effect of reduced water availability faster the higher the concentrations in the water
(Slatyer 1967); (Scholander et al. 1962); (Greenway and the lower the soil’s cation exchange capacity.
and Thomas 1965). Peverill, Sparrow and Reuter (1999) describe a well
In more recent research, Sheldon et al (2004) balanced soil as containing exchangeable cations in
found that when salt concentration was increased, the proportions 65%–85% Ca, 6%–12% Mg and
chickpeas could extract less water from soil; whereas 2%–5% K when expressed relative to the CEC at pH
in wheat, water uptake remained unaffected over 7. They also reported that even when the concentration
the same range of concentrations. However, both of exchangeable Na is low, clayey soils with exchangeable
wheat and chickpeas grew more slowly even with Ca:Mg < 2:1 tend to be dispersive. Values widely outside
low salt concentrations. One explanation for this is these ranges are likely to cause an ionic imbalance.
that chloride (Cl-) toxicity reduces growth at a lower
concentration than the osmotic effect of salinity. Waterlogging on salinity tolerance
Alternatively, the metabolic demands of maintaining The physiological effects of salinity and
plant water balance and extracting soil water under waterlogging on plants are now reasonably well
saline conditions may reduce growth. Further understood. Published research findings show that
investigation of this subject is in progress. in general, waterlogging under saline conditions
increases Na+ and Clˉconcentrations in the plant
Ionic imbalance shoot, due mainly to the increased rates of transport
An excess of some ions present in salts can cause of Na+ and Clˉ (Barrett-Lennard 2003). Thus the plant
an imbalance in the ideal ratio of ions in solution is unable to exclude high Na+ and Clˉ at the soil-
and reduce the ability of plants to take up nutrients. root interface. As a result, plants growing in saline
For example, high calcium can inhibit the uptake and waterlogged conditions would suffer greater
of iron (lime-induced chlorosis), and high sodium physiological effects than those growing in saline
can exclude potassium. Ionic ratios in water can conditions where waterlogging is less likely.
affect the proportion of exchangeable cations in soil
 Plant mechanisms to cope with excess salt – DIPNR (2004)

Root filtering – the capacity to exert a greater osmotic pull and can prevent salt entering the roots.
Salt glands – enable a plant to direct salt into intercellular spaces where it is isolated from cell functioning.
Salt pump – plants pump salts to organs that excrete this salt through specialised cells at the leaf surface.
Saltbush is a plant that uses this mechanism.
Succulence – plants with fleshy leaves and stems that contain a high proportion of water are capable of
diluting the salt concentration.
Short life-cycle – plants may complete their growth phase and life cycle in a short window of opportunity
before salts become toxic.
 The effect of salt on soil

Landuse such as urban development, road building been used if salt was not identified or present at the
or agriculture, is based on a soil maintaining its time of development.
current characteristics. Changes in soil salt levels and
For agricultural use, a soil should provide plants with
the processes that caused this change can influence
adequate water, air, nutrients and physical support.
both soil structure, fertility and erosion risk. Soil
Few soils are ideal in all aspects. However, soils
salinity caused by rising watertables, and the often
that have most (but not necessarily all) of the ideal
associated waterlogging, have major implications for
features produce good crops, pastures and trees.
landuse due to the effect of salts on soil.
Saline environments, with or without associated
In urban development, stable soils provide a reliable
waterlogged conditions, are detrimental to most
physical support for infrastructure (roads, buildings,
plants. Highly saline soils often become highly sodic,
and underground services) and plants growing
visible as severe crusting (the blocking of soil pores
in parks, gardens and playing fields. Damp, saline by dispersed soil particles restricts soil water and air
soils require specialised management, building movement).
techniques and plant species which may not have
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The ion imbalance in these soils and their Waterlogging, if also present, compounds the effect
corresponding effect on the soil will depend on of salinity. The poor soil aeration affects not only
the type of salt present. Sodium and magnesium the plant directly, but also the soil biology, which
ions can destroy soil structure, whereas calcium converts soil nutrients to their plant-available
carbonate may improve soil structure (due to forms. Thus a plant in waterlogged conditions may
calcium) and increase soil pH (due to carbonate). suffer from nutrient deficiency as well as the direct
physical effect of waterlogging.
Highly saline soils may have dark greasy patches
where organic matter has been destabilised (for
details on saline and sodic soil see Chapter 5).
 Types of salinity
Dryland salinity groundwater system and causing the watertable to
rise (Figure 1.7). Recharge rates in irrigation areas
Dryland salinity occurs when deep-rooted perennial can be much higher than dryland areas due to
plants such as native trees, shrubs and pasture are leakage from both rainfall and irrigation.
replaced with shallow-rooted annuals. It also results
from long fallows in a cropping rotation. As more Factors such as irrigation layout and management
water enters the groundwater system (because practices, soil type, the quality of water applied
shallow-rooted annuals use less available rainfall and climate greatly influence the development of
than perennials) the resulting rise in groundwater irrigation salinity.
level brings salt to the soil surface, indicating a Irrigation salinity can also result from under-
landscape ‘out of balance’ (see Figure 1.6). irrigation (insufficient irrigation water) and poor
water distribution. Poor irrigation layout leads to
Irrigation salinity uneven water distribution. This results in some
Irrigation salinity involves the same process as areas being under-irrigated which causes salts to
dryland salinity. Both result from excessive leakage accumulate. Other areas may become over-irrigated,
of water past the plant root zone adding to the causing waterlogging.
Plate 1.5: Balanced catchment Plate 1.6: Unbalanced catchment
Trees, deep-rooted perennials and native vegetation use Removing native vegetation, growing shallow-rooted annuals
most of the water that enters the soil resulting in less leakage and long fallowing increase leakage to the groundwater system.
past the plant root zone. Deep-rooted perennials can access Watertable rise brings salt to the root zone and soil surface.
moisture stored deeper in the soil profile during dry periods.
Figure 1.6: Balanced and unbalanced catchments demonstrating vegetation impacts on the watertable.
Source: After Walker, Gilfedder and Williams (1999) Photo source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
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Figure 1.7: Causes of irrigation salinity.

Figure 1.8: Groundwater mounds.

Source: Adapted from Smithson (2003)
Inappropriate matching of crop, soil type and to develop. This results in both water and salt being
irrigation method can also lead to excessive leakage. held in the plant root zone for extended periods of
For example, irrigating high water-use crops using time (see Figure 1.7).
inappropriate irrigation methods should not occur
Groundwater mounds (see Figure 1.8) can occur
on permeable soils with high sand content.
under irrigation areas, putting pressure on the
The salinity of irrigation water and groundwater regional groundwater system and forcing saline
is another important factor in irrigation salinity. groundwater to enter waterways. A groundwater
The salt in irrigation water remains in the soil as mound is where there is a watertable bulge caused
water is taken up by plants or lost to evaporation. by excessive leakage over time from a confined area
Periodically, it may become necessary to leach these e.g. from a lake or irrigation.
salts to prevent accumulation in the plant root zone
to levels that impact on productivity. Over time, Bore drain salinity
continual under irrigation (insufficient water to leach Located in northern NSW and QLD, bore drains
the salts below the root zone) can result in salts access water from the Great Artesian Basin to
accumulating within the plant root zone. provide water for stock and domestic use.
Poor drainage due to less permeable layers in the Bore drain salinity is a significant problem in many
soil profile limits the ability of the water to drain of the western alluvial landscapes of Northern
away and can cause a local or perched watertable
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Plate 1.7: Bore drain water flows into a depression which Plate 1.8: A blow-out in a bore drain bank due to high soil sodicity
eventually feeds into the Namoi River. The soil is both highly sodic causing clay dispersion resulting in the bank slumping. Large
and saline. The hard setting and crusted surface of the sodic soil is quantities of water flow onto the already sodic soil adding to the
visible in the foreground. The lack of low vegetation leaves the soil waterlogging and salinity problem (salt crystals visible on the
vulnerable to erosion. Photo taken near Walgett. bank). Photo taken near Pilliga.
Source: George Truman, Namoi CMA (2007) Source: George Truman, Namoi CMA (2007)
NSW, particularly around Walgett, Cryon, Ashley, (and salt) are applied to the land. Also see Chapter
Garah and Burren Junction. Water flows freely from 17.
artesian bores and up to 95% can be lost through
evaporation, seepage and blow-outs in bore drain Urban salinity
banks (DNR 2006). Some drains dry up completely in Urban salinity, like dryland and irrigation salinity,
summer (Eigeland 1999). may develop if there is an imbalance in the
Many artesian bore drains terminate in natural hydrology of the landscape. This may occur if
watercourses. The salt load of these systems, landuse change increases the amount of water
including nutrients that enter the water from a seeping past the root zone and adds to the
variety of landuse practices including grazing, enters watertable. As the watertable rises it may cause or
directly into the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB). exacerbate local salinity (see Figure 1.9). Equally,
salinity can impact on urban development through
Bore drain salinity occurs where saline groundwater: damage to infrastructure such as roads, buildings,
• flows out over paddocks (not confined to drains, underground pipes and salinisation of gardens and
see plate 1.7) public parks.
• overflows low or broken banks (see plate 1.8) Factors that contribute to urban salinity are changes
to:
• terminates in open drains on the property.
• soil properties down the profile or across a
Bore water is typically high in salts, particularly
landscape
sodium ions which adversely affect soil chemical
and physical properties. Soils with excessive sodium • vegetation type and composition
(sodic soil) make soil structure more compact and • the water cycle and
hard setting, both at the surface and at depth. Sodic
soils typically have poor water infiltration, poor • landuse in surrounding landscapes.
drainage and aeration and consequently poor plant
root development. Large areas of bare, hard-setting Soil properties
soil, devoid of vegetation (scalds) are evident along Sudden changes in soil permeability down the
these drains. Adjacent areas often show nil or poor profile or across a landscape can predispose an
growth of pastures and crops. area to salinity as it impacts on the free movement
of groundwater. Any restriction in the vertical or
Capping and piping of bores is a NSW and
lateral movement of water may cause groundwater
Commonwealth Government initiative where
to accumulate up-slope and risk salinity at that site.
artesian bores are being capped and bore drains
This may happen for example in the following cases:
replaced with efficient piped systems, so that water
can be controlled and used only when and where Compaction – Soil profile compaction during road
required (DNR 2006). As well as increasing water- construction and the building of foundations
use efficiency, capping and piping bores reduces the reduces infiltration and increases run-off. These
development of salinity as lower volumes of water processes may result in the ponding of water in
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Figure 1.9: Causes of urban salinity.

areas where it can recharge the watertable. When much greater capacity to pump groundwater than
foundations for buildings are constructed across their shallow-rooted replacements.
slopes they can impede the lateral movement of
Changes in growth patterns – Summer-growing
groundwater and cause salinity to develop up-slope
native plants have the ability to dry the soil during
of the building.
the summer months and to provide a dry soil buffer
Cut – Building and road construction often requires in preparation for the wet winter months that follow
soil profiles to be cut for trenches or levelled for (Southern NSW). This dry soil buffer has a greater
building pads. This process can expose saline capacity to absorb and hold water over the winter
subsoil, intercept lateral flows of groundwater or months, reducing the amount of water entering the
lower the soil surface within the influence of shallow watertable. The amount of water held in the profile
watertables. depends on soil type and depth.
Fill – Importing soil often introduces soil with Composition – The removal of trees and shrubs
different characteristics to the soil found on site e.g. and the reliance on shallow-rooted plants in high
importing a light-texture soil to be placed over a less watertable areas can increase evaporation from the
permeable, naturally occurring soil. In this example soil surface. High evaporation increases capillary
a perched watertable can occur where water rise and more salt concentrates on the soil surface.
infiltrates quickly and then reaches a less permeable The most desired species for urban gardens often
or restrictive layer that limits further downward require irrigation, which increases the risk of high
movement. The water builds up over time causing a watertables. Over irrigation decreases the dry soil
local or perched watertable, which is separate from buffer and often results in groundwater recharge. It
a deeper intermediate or regional watertable. Salt is important to match irrigation quantities with plant
can also be introduced via the imported fill. requirements to obtain a dry soil buffer.
Vegetation type and composition The hydrological cycle

Vegetation change in the landscape resulting in the Changes to the soil and vegetation in urban
removal of deep-rooted, summer-growing perennial landscapes alter the hydrological cycle as does the
plants can have a significant impact on leakage to installation of urban infrastructure which increases
the groundwater system. Recharge reduction can be recharge rates because:
achieved by selecting waterwise plant species that
• rainfall is no longer the only water source as
will assist in creating a dry soil buffer.
extra water is brought into the catchment. Water
Less vegetation – Clearing vegetation reduces the (surface and/or groundwater) is piped into the
amount of vegetation available to pump water from landscape through a reticulated water system for
a saturated soil by transpiration, therefore increases human use, watering gardens and public spaces.
the risk of recharge. Over-watering and leakage from the reticulated
system add to watertable levels.
Fewer deep roots – The removal of deep-rooted
local native vegetation and their replacement with • water movement is managed through a
annual shallow-rooted plants reduces the potential network of pipes for water, stormwater and
for evapotranspiration. Deep-rooted perennials have sewage which increase the risk of water
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leakage, especially as pipes age. This network rates in dryland agriculture areas can also increase
however can become a drainage system for salinity risk in townships located in low-lying parts
groundwater if the watertable comes close to of the catchment. Landscapes with a predominance
the soil surface, effectively submerging the pipes. of annual crops and pastures compared with
Saline groundwater flowing through these pipes perennials on high recharge areas of the catchment
can pollute waterways with salt. It is illegal in can lead to high recharge rates.
most States to allow saline water to drain into
When developing the salinity management options
waterways.
for these landscapes, issues such as land ownership
• the changed physical characteristics of the (number of landholders and area of land parcels),
landscape (increased impervious surfaces, and landholder characteristics (financial resources,
buildings, roads, earth banks, gutters, pipe skills and aspirations) must be considered. For
networks, water retention and detention example, working with a catchment consisting of
structures) affect natural drainage patterns and larger properties managed by a few landholders will
distribution of rainfall. These changes may lead to differ from working with large numbers of ‘hobby
increased recharge because water is less evenly farmers’ with smaller holdings.
distributed across the landscape. All of these land management practices, whether
In older urban areas, stormwater pipes may connect urban, irrigation or dryland related, are likely to
into the sewage system, reducing the natural be affected by change of ownership. Education
leaching of salts down the profile and accessions to of land managers in these environments needs
the watertable. to be ongoing to cater for moving populations
and advances in our knowledge. It is unlikely that
Surrounding landscapes salinity will stop urban development, however it
Landuse and land-management practices employed can add to its cost. It is important to focus on the
in the landscape surrounding towns and cities design, construction and management of urban
impact on urban salinity risk because they influence areas to reduce their contribution to salinity and,
groundwater recharge and discharge rates. conversely, to withstand the impact of salinity on
the infrastructure in the urban landscape.
Towns in irrigation areas may have salinity problems
caused by leakage from water-supply channels and
irrigation in the surrounding landscape. Recharge
Figure 1.10: Salt enters waterways through subsurface lateral groundwater movement and surface run-off from discharge sites.
Baseflow that contains salt also contributes to the salt load of waterways.
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River salinity Salt load and salinity concentration along a river
vary due to:
Salinity is one of the major threats to river health.
Towns and cities, irrigation, stock, domestic, • dilution from fresh streams – High rainfall
industry and the environment all depend on a catchments with low soil salinity provide a
reliable supply of good quality water from river good source of fresh water to dilute the salt
systems. As saline discharge within catchments concentration in the river.
increases, there is a greater potential for a
• extraction of salt with irrigation water – Salt is
corresponding rise in the salinity level of waterways.
extracted, along with the water diverted for
This is of concern as high salinity levels limit the
irrigation, which reduces the total salt load (not
suitability of the water for its many users.
its concentration) at that point in the river system.
There are a number of reasons for variations in river Water used for irrigation contains salt, which
salinity levels, both natural and as a result of human builds up over time in the soil. The extraction of
activities having contributed to groundwater rise salt and water for irrigation water reduces the salt
and land salinisation (MDBC 2003). Salt can enter load further down stream.
waterways in the following ways (see Figure 1.10):
• implementation of Land and Water Management
• surface run-off from saline discharge sites Plans (LWMP) – These plans monitor water quality
and allow an irrigation area to receive credits or
• subsurface lateral flow of saline groundwater
debits according to the health (quality) of the
• rising watertables intersect waterways as water.
baseflow and
• treatment of saline sites – Diversion of fresh water
• erosion (as a result of salinity) which contributes run-off away from saline sites using banks is often
saline sediment to rivers and streams (Kelly 2004). the only effective engineering option in dryland
situations. Diversion banks can be installed to
The introduction of river regulation and water
reduce the risk of fresh run-off moving over
storage structures has provided many benefits. At
the site and carrying salt with it. Fresh run-off
the same time, regulation has altered the water and
is best diverted into creeks and rivers to add to
salt balance in our river systems and surrounding
water volume. Saline run-off however cannot
landscapes. Prior to regulation, water levels in rivers
be diverted to a creek or river system. NSW
naturally varied with season and climate. However,
Department of Environment Climate Change and
increased storage, regulatory structures (dams) and
Water (DECCW) should be contacted for further
diversions e.g. for irrigation in the Murray–Darling
advice on the disposal of saline water.
Basin, have changed the natural flow regime of
rivers. Total annual flows and seasonal flood peaks • implementation of evaporation basins
have been reduced. There is now maximum flow – Evaporation basins are areas where salt water
in summer for irrigation instead of in spring from has been diverted away from productive land
melting snow. The level of these changes in different and river areas, to evaporate water leaving the
parts of the Basin varies. River regulation influences salt behind. Evaporation basins are often used
salinity by: in conjunction with interception schemes where
large scale groundwater pumping and drainage
• the capture of water in dams and weirs which
projects intercept saline water flows and dispose
are operated to meet urban, irrigation and
of them by evaporation.
environmental requirements (water storage,
regulation and timing of flow and quality) Major salinity initiatives have also been
implemented over the years to reduce the amount
• moderation of flood events (reduced size and
of salt entering our rivers. These include the:
frequency)
• building of salt interception schemes e.g. Mallee
• the extraction of water for irrigation, urban and
Cliffs
industrial use (redistribution of salt)
• implementation of Land and Water Management
• salt interception schemes (interception and
Plans e.g. Murrumbidgee Irrigation District
disposal of saline water).
• treatment of saline sites
Salinity in rivers can be measured as salt load and
salt concentration. Salt load is a measure of the • construction of evaporation basins e.g. Wakool.
amount of salt carried in a waterway over a given
These changes, together with changes to the water
time period. Salt concentration is the amount of salt
balance resulting from land management practices,
in a given volume of water.
have influenced river salinity both over time and at
various locations.
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 Endnotes
1
‘Early’ in geological terms means before recent times, therefore is an older deposit and deeper than more recent deposits.
2
Chemical weathering – Very slow chemical alteration or decomposition of rocks and minerals.
3
Leaching – The process by which soluble materials in the soil, such as salts, nutrients, pesticide chemicals or contaminants, are washed
into a lower layer of soil or are dissolved and carried away by water.
4
Regolith: The layer of loose but cohesive material that includes soil and weathered rock which sits over solid massive bedrock and
forms the surface of the land. Includes C horizon.
5
Stratigraphic profile – Describes the vertical position and distribution of soil/rock material.
6
Salt scald: Area of land that has become bare due to salinity-induced loss of vegetation or erosion.
7
Temporal – Lasting only for a short time.
8
Perched watertable – A local watertable that sits above a low permeability layer of clay, shale or unfractured massive rock. These are
not connected with deeper, regional watertables.
9
Evapotranspiration is the movement of water to the atmosphere from the combined sources of vegetation (transpiration), soil and
water bodies (evaporation).
10
Halophyte: A terrestrial plant adapted to living in a highly saline environment.
11
Glycophyte: Non Halophyte. A terrestrial plant only adapted to living in a mildly saline environment
Glossary – For further information please see the full glossary available at the end of this manual.
 Key points and further information

The key points canvassed in this chapter are summarised below. Additional information is also provided suggesting further reading,
relevant websites and a selection of useful references.
Key points Further reading

 Salinity impacts on human and natural assets (e.g. plants, DIPNR (2003), Local Government Salinity Initiative series.
animals, aquatic ecosystems, water supplies, agriculture and Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
infrastructure).
O’Dowd, C, Smith, M, Consterdine, I & Lowe, J 1996, Marine
 Water and soil salinity are measured in EC (Electrical aerosol, sea-salt and the marine sulphur cycle: A short review.
Conductivity) units. Physics Department, University of Manchester Institute of Science
 Major sources of salinity are cyclic, aeolian, fossil (or connate) and Technology (UMIST), Manchester, UK.
and rock weathering. Sheldon, A, Menzies, N, Bing, S & Dalal, R 2004, ‘The effect of
rd
 Capillary rise allows groundwater to rise into the dry soil salinity on plant available water’, Supersoil 2004: 3 Australian New
above the watertable like water into a sponge. This gives the Zealand Soils Conference, University of Sydney, Australia.
soil profile a damp appearance. Water then evaporates from Sexton, M 2003, Silent Flood – Australia’s Salinity Crisis, ABC
the soil surface leaving the salt behind. Books, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
 There are many different types of salt. Each affects plants Walker, G, Christian, E, Jolly, I & Leaney, F 2000, On-farm and
and soil in different ways. Some are more toxic to plants than community scale salt disposal basins on the Riverine Plain, CSIRO
others. Land and Water Technical Report 25/00, CRC for Catchment
 The major effects of salt on plants are as individual toxic ions, Hydrology Report 00/18, Murray Darling Basin Commission.
osmotic effects and changes to soil structure.
 Salinity can be described as primary or secondary, depending Video
on its cause. Wenham, D 2002, Salinity – Australia’s Silent Flood. Episodes 1–4.,
 Types of salinity are dryland, irrigation, urban. All of these Australian Broadcasting Corporation video program sales.
types of salinity can affect river salinity.
Websites
CRC for Plant-based Management of Dryland Salinity, viewed 10
Further information September 2009, http://www.crcsalinity.com/index.php
Industry and Investments NSW Wagga Wagga City Council, Urban salinity, viewed 21 June 2010,
Advisory Officers (Soils and salinity) http://www.wagga.nsw.gov.au/www/html/4099-salinity.asp
Irrigation Officers National Dryland Salinity Program, ‘Know how to tackle salinity’,
District Agronomists viewed 10 September 2009, http://www.ndsp.gov.au
District Horticulturists
Pasture Specialists NSW Government, Department Natural Resources, ‘Salinity
Solutions’, viewed 10 September 2009, http://www.dlwc.nsw.
Catchment Management Authorities gov.au
Community Support Officers
NSW Water information. Viewed 10 September 2009. http://
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water www.waterinfo.nsw.gov.au/
(DECCW)
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors
16
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 References
Kelly, J 2004, Salinity in NSW: Economic perspectives, NSW
Allison, GB, Cook, PG, Barnett, SR, Walker, GR, Jolly, ID & Hughes,
Agriculture, Dubbo, NSW.
MW 1990, ‘Land clearance and river salinisation in the
western Murray Basin, Australia’, Journal of Hydrology, vol. 119, Kramer, PJ 1969, Plant & soil water relationships: a modern
pp.1–20. synthesis, McCraw Hill, New York.
Ayers, R & Westcot, D 1985, Water quality for agriculture, Food MDBC 2003, Keeping salt out of the Murray – poster,
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Murray–Darling Basin Commission: Canberra, ACT.
Barrett-Lennard, EG 2003, ‘The interaction between waterlogging Peverill, K I, Sparrow, L A & Reuter, D J (eds) 1999, Soil
and salinity in higher plants: causes, consequences and implications’, analysis: an interpretation manual, CSIRO, Collingwood, Vic.
Plant and Soil, vol. 253, pp.35–54. QDNR 1997, Salinity management handbook, Department of
Black, R 1956, ‘Effect of NaCl in water culture on the ion uptake Natural Resources, Indooroopilly, Qld.
and growth of Atriplex hastate L.’, Australian Journal of Biological Rengasamy, P 2002, ‘Transient salinity and subsoil constraints to
Sciences, vol. 9, pp.67–80. dryland farming in Australian sodic soils: an overview’, Australian
Black, R 1960, ‘Effects of NaCl on ion update and growth of Atriplex Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 42, pp.351–361.
vesicaria Heward’, Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. Scholander, PF, Hammel, HT, Hemmingsen, E & Garey, W 1962,
13, pp.249–266. ‘Salt balance in mangroves’, Plant Physiology, vol. 37, pp. 722–729.
Blackburn, G & McLeod, S 1983, Salinity of atmospheric Shaw, R, Coughlan, K & Bell, L 1998, ‘Rootzone sodicity’ in Sodic
precipitation in the Murray–Darling drainage division, Australia, soils: distribution porcesses, management and environmental
Australian Journal of Soil Research, vol. 21, pp.411–434. consequences, (eds Sumner, M & Naidu, R) pp. 95–106, Oxford
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources University Press, New York.
(DIPNR) 2004, Waterwise Parks and Gardens, Department of Sheldon, A, Menzies, N, Bing, S & Dalal, R 2004, ‘The effect of
Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Sydney, NSW. salinity on plant available water’ in ‘Supersoil 2004: 3rd Australian
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) 2006, Cap and Pipe the New Zealand Soils Conference’, University of Sydney, Australia.
Bores, Department of Natural Resources, Sydney, NSW. Slatyer, RO 1967, Plant-water relationships, Academic Press, New
Eaton, F 1924, ‘The water-requirements and cell-sap concentration York.
of Australian saltbush and wheat as related to the salinity of the soil’, Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
American Journal of Botany, vol.14, pp.212–226. Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Eaton, F 1942, ‘Toxicity and accumulation of chloride and sulfate Industrie, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
salts in plants’, Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 64, pp.357– Smithson, A 2003, Original drawing of Figure 1.7 Causes of
399. irrigation salinity, (unpublished), Department of Infrastructure,
Eigeland, N 1999, Salt loads from the Great Artesian Basin (GAB), Planning and Natural Resources: Dubbo, NSW.
Department of Land and Water Conservation, Inverell, NSW. Walker, G, Gilfedder, M & Williams, J 1999, Effectiveness of
Fitzpatrick, R, Rengasamy, P, Merry, R & Cox, J 2001, ‘Is current farming systems in the control of dryland salinity, CSIRO
dryland soil salinisation reversible?’, viewed12 December 2007, Land and Water, Canberra, ACT.
http://downloads.lwa2.com/downloads/final_reports/CLW27.pdf
Wasson, RJ 1989, ‘Landforms’, in Mediterranean landscapes in
Greenway, H & Munns, R 1980, ‘Mechanisms of salt tolerance in Australia (eds Noble, J C & Bradstock, R A), pp.13–34, CSIRO,
non-halophytes’, Annual Review Plant Physiology, vol. 31, pp.149– East Melbourne, Vic.
190.
Wild, J, Howarth, C & Conyers, M 2004, The risk to plants and
Greenway, H & Thomas, D 1965, ‘Plant response to saline soil from different salts (unpublished), Wagga Wagga, NSW.
substrates v. chloride regulation in the individual organs of
Hordeum vulgare during treatment with sodium chloride’, Australian
Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 18, pp.505–534.
Holmes, JW 1960, ‘Water balance and the water-table in deep
sandy soils of the upper south-east, South Australia’, Australian
Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 11, pp.970–988.
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 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Salinity in Australia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
 Salinity in NSW .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Dryland salinity......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Irrigation salinity ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Urban salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Industrial salinity..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
River salinity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Types of salinity and their relationship............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
 NSW response to salinity................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
 States and Territories salinity extent................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

Australian Capital Territory......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Northern Territory ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Queensland ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
South Australia....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Tasmania ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Victoria ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Western Australia................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
 Impact of salinity in NSW ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Agricultural ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Urban............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Social ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Environmental ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
 Appendix 1...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Commonly used salinity acronyms.................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
 Key points and additional information.......................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Video .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
1
2
 Introduction
Primary salinity in Australia occurs as a natural part of the landscape. The extent and impacts of secondary
salinity (human-induced irrigation, dryland, urban and river salinity) make it a significant resource
management issue. The impact of salinity occurs both on-site and off-site.
Salinity occurs in Western Australia, Victoria, South Australia, NSW, Tasmania and Queensland in order of
severity. Both Northern Territory and the ACT are considered to have only minor occurrences of salinity.
The National Land and Water Resources Audit 2002 (DECC 2006) found that approximately 180 000 hectares of
land in NSW was affected by dryland salinity or had watertables that were predicted to be within two meters
of the surface. Recent studies and reviews of the historical observations have confirmed the actual extent and
outbreaks, but have serious reservations on trends predicted using rising groundwater extrapolations. The
predicted occurrences of salinity for 2020 and 2050 are less than what was originally claimed, due to a greater
understanding of climatic patterns, response times, impact of clearing and dynamic equilibrium.
 Salinity in Australia
Salinity in dryland, irrigated and urban environments
Note: The specific definitions of ‘hazard’ and ‘risk’
has been recognised as a major issue by Australian used in this chapter and in the National Land and
governments and communities for at least the past Water Resources Audit’s Australian Dryland Salinity
three decades. Assessment 2000 vary between States. The following
The resulting investment in salinity management definitions have been established in NSW:
and its recognition as a natural resource 1. Dryland salinity hazard is the extent to which
management issue are testimony to the significant natural physical characteristics, excluding land
costs and impacts of salinisation of land and water cover, predispose a landscape to salinisation.
resources. Relevant characteristics include topography, soils,
geology and climate.
These costs and impacts appear in salinity audits
and strategies and are usually described in 2. Dryland salinity risk measures the likelihood
monetary terms or expressed as area of salt-affected of salinity occurring as a result of landuse and
land (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2). Equally important, but other activities and of the severity of the impact
more difficult to value, are the costs and impacts of (economic, social and environmental costs) caused
salinity on the environment and society. by that salinity (Risk = likelihood x consequences). A
landuse or management practice can either reduce
The National Action Plan for Soil and Water Quality or increase risk (Robins 2004).
(NAPSWQ 2000) reported that:
• More than $130 million of agricultural production
is lost annually from salinity. State/Territory* Potentially saline
area (ha) 1998–2000
• More than $6 million is spent every year on
building maintenance related to salinity in South Western Australia 4 363 000
Australia.
Victoria 670 000
• Salinity causes $9 million damage annually to
roads and highways in south-west New South South Australia 390 000
Wales. New South Wales 181 000
• The area of salt affected land in Western Australia Tasmania 54 000
is increasing at a rate of one football field an hour.
Queensland Not assessed
• If salinity is not effectively managed within 20
years the salt content in Adelaide’s drinking water Total 5 658 000
may exceed World Health Organisation standards
Table 2.1: Areas (ha) with a potential to develop dryland salinity in
for desirable drinking water in two of every five Australia.
days. Source: Robins (2004)
• Increased salinity could cause the extinction of * The Northern Territory and the Australian Capital
approximately 450 species of native flora and 250 Territory were not included as the occurrence of
species of invertebrate water fauna in the Western dryland salinity was considered to be very minor.
Australian wheat belt.
2
2
These figures do not take into account the effect The Salinity and Biodiversity Task Force formed
(1)
of salinity on water in the river and creek systems by the Australian and New Zealand Conservation
throughout Australia. Council (ANZECC) through its Standing Committee
on Conservation considers that the figures
The National Land and Water Resources Audit
for important wetlands are likely to be an
– NLWRA (2001) estimates the assets at risk from
underestimate.
shallow watertables or with a high salinity hazard in
Australia as shown in Table 2.2.
Asset area in Australia Year 2000

Agricultural land (ha) 4 650 000
Remnant and planted 631 000
perennial vegetation (ha)
Length of streams and lake 11 800
perimeter (km)
Rail (km2) 1 600
2
Road (km ) 19 900
Towns (number) 68
Important wetlands (1) 80
Table 2.2: Assets at risk from shallow watertables or with high
salinity hazards in Australia.
Source: NLWRA (2001)
 Salinity in NSW
Adapted from DECC (2006) The effects of salinity on soil and water resources
include:
Dryland salinity was first noticed in the south-east
of NSW between 1880 and 1900 when new scalds1 • decreased agricultural production
appeared after periods of high rainfall. The extent of
• damage to infrastructure such as underground
the problem increased significantly in the late 1950s
services, roads, buildings, playing fields and
and up to the early 1970s.
bridges
Salinity, whatever its origin or cause (see Chapter 1)
• landscape degradation through soil erosion
has serious and wide-ranging environmental and
socio-economic implications throughout NSW in • decline in ecosystem health.
urban and rural catchments (see Table 2.3).
In 2001–02, local governments, households,
businesses, NSW state government agencies, utilities
Area of impact in NSW Year 2000 and agricultural producers incurred a direct annual
Crop (ha) 28 700 cost from salinity in excess of $151 million. The loss
of agricultural production from dryland salinity was
Pasture (ha) 132 400 estimated to be $6 million annually.
Horticulture (ha) 1 000 The current cost of dryland salinity to agricultural
landholders in selected NSW catchments can be
Urban land (ha) 1 182
obtained from National Dryland Salinity Program
Native vegetation (ha) 8 370 (NDSP 2007).
Roads (km) 940 Salinity is often linked to another soil degradation
process known as soil sodicity; however, they
Railways (km) 100 are very different. Saline soils are high in total
Table 2.3: Key assets at salinity risk in NSW. soluble salts. By contrast sodic soils are high in
Source: NLWRA (2001) exchangeable sodium (see Chapter 5). Saline and
sodic conditions commonly occur together, though
they may also occur independently in NSW.
3
2
Dryland salinity two metres of the surface. More than 90% of this
The extent of dryland salinity is measured in four area occurred in just five catchments:
ways (see Chapter 10):
• Murray
• aerial photography to identify areas of actual
• Murrumbidgee
saline discharge or salt scald
• Lachlan
• measurements of depth to groundwater
• Macquarie
• soil and water testing
• Hunter Rivers.
• modelled salinity risk mapping, which attempts to
predict the future extent of saline areas. It was estimated that by 2020 some 577 000
hectares could potentially be at risk, based on
The formal assessment and mapping of dryland
average rises in catchment watertables. This
salinity outbreaks in NSW began in 1990 using aerial
prediction was similar to the 1999 Salinity Audit for
photography taken in 1980. This approach identified
the Murray–Darling Basin Commission (MDBC 1999).
approximately 14 000 ha of dryland salinity,
compared to only 4 000 ha identified by ground Recent studies and reviews of historical observations
observation in 1982. By 1996 the area identified as have confirmed the actual extent of outbreaks, but
being affected had risen to 25 000 ha. have also cast serious doubt on trends predicted
using rising groundwater extrapolations.
The National Land and Water Resources Audit
(NLWRA 2002) found that approximately 180 000 ha Since 2001, research into the extent of salinity
of land in NSW was affected by dryland salinity or and its relationship with the hydrological cycle,
had watertables that were predicted to be within climate variability and groundwater behaviour in
Figure 2.1: Known extent of salinity outbreaks in 2000. Yellow area has been mapped and saline areas appear as small coloured dots. Solid
grey area has not been mapped as yet.
Source: DECC (2006)
4
2
different contexts, has improved our understanding
Type of salinity Estimates of area in
of regional rising watertables. Salinity predicted NSW affected by salt (ha)
for 2020 and 2050 will be less extensive than once
thought, as: Dryland salinity 96 000
• Climate patterns can influence salinity trends Irrigation areas 4 800
to the degree that it is difficult to discern the
impacts of landuse or management interventions. Marine (coastal) 77 000
areas
• Response times between recharge and discharge
are much shorter than previously thought, Total area 177 800
especially at the local scale and within the
Table 2.4: Estimates of salt affected area in NSW (ha).
fractured rock aquifer systems that dominate the Source: DECC (2006)
tablelands and slopes of eastern NSW.
Previous mapping has identified areas of salinity
• The impacts of vegetation clearing on
to the west of the mapped coverage, particularly
groundwater levels have already occurred, so no
along the Murray River, and significant areas of the
continuing effect can be attributed to this cause.
Hawkesbury–Nepean catchment affected by dryland
• A dynamic equilibrium is being experienced in and urban salinity. Although calculated using
many catchments with groundwater levels different methods to those illustrated in Fig 2.1, a
fluctuating around a new average value in total of around 240 000 ha is believed to be at high
response to climate variability (that is, to periods or moderate risk from salinity. A further 90 000 ha is
of wet weather and drought). In the Murray, considered to be at low risk.
Murrumbidgee and Lachlan basins, eight of the
26 southern sub-catchments have river salinity Irrigation salinity
trends that appear stable and in equilibrium, and Irrigation salinity is most evident in the southern
10 sub-catchments have major rising trends. In regions of NSW. Irrigation salinity mapping of NSW
the Gwydir, Namoi and Border Rivers, eight of the is incomplete, making a direct assessment of the
36 northern sub-catchments are displaying trends current extent of salinity outbreaks and trends in
towards lower salinity values, while 16 have trend irrigation areas impossible.
slopes that are statistically not significant.
The areas of greatest risk of irrigation salinity in NSW
The actual extent of dryland salinity outbreaks are:
appears to be relatively stable. Figure 2.1 shows the
geographic distribution of actual dryland salinity • The Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas in the vicinity
outbreaks in 2005 in both urban and rural of Griffith, including the Mirrool, Yanco and
environments in eastern and central NSW. Coleambally Irrigation Areas.
• The Murray Irrigation Areas and Districts around
The map shows a total area of about 177 800 ha
Deniliquin, including the Berriquin, Deniboota
affected by salt. Of this, nearly 77 000 ha (43%)
and Wakool Irrigation Districts.
occur in marine (coastal) areas with 4800 ha (3%) in
irrigation areas. About 96 000 ha (54%) are affected • The Jemalong Irrigation District west of Forbes.
by dryland salinity (Table 2.4) of which 71 000 ha
(74%) are in the early stages of salinisation and Land and Water Management Plans (LWMPs) have
25 000 ha (26%) are associated with sheet and gully been implemented in many of these areas to reduce
erosion. Approximately 64 000 ha occurs within the risk of irrigation salinity. These plans monitor
the Murray–Darling Basin in NSW. However, these water quality and allow an Irrigation Area to receive
figures are likely to underestimate the true extent of credits or debits (see chapter 17) according to the
salinity for the whole of the State as there are known quality of the water.
outbreaks outside of the area (shown as grey areas Watertables within two metres of the soil surface
on Figure 2.1) where mapping has been completed indicate the potential for waterlogging and salt
(shown in yellow on Figure 2.1). accumulation on the surface. Data on watertable
Risk assessments based on the assumption of heights are not available for all irrigated land.
rising regional watertables (MDBC 1999; NLWRA However, the irrigation companies Murray Irrigation
2001) will need to be recalculated in the light of Limited (MIL) and Murrumbidgee Irrigation (MI)
this new understanding, but the research offers report annually on environmental performance,
some optimism for the current salinity status of the including the depth to watertable. In the Murray
Murray–Darling Basin in NSW. Irrigation Area, watertables have generally fallen
over a 10 year period, but about 0.5% of the area
continues to have watertables within two metres
5
2
of the surface. No new salinity outbreaks were particular, it enables comparisons of the cost of
reported by the Murray Irrigation Area in 2005. In salinity to agriculture with costs to rural (off-farm),
the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, 17.7% of the area regional and urban infrastructure. The guidelines
has watertables within two metres of the surface, and regional reports from this project (NDSP 2007)
and these levels fell on average by 0.44 m in 2003– include estimates of the percentage and severity
04. of salinity within the 220 towns affected by salinity
in the MDB. Results were extrapolated from data
(Information in this section on dryland and irrigation
obtained through surveys sent to state agencies,
salinity has been adapted from DECC (2006) New
local governments and regional water authorities,
South Wales State of the Environment (SoE),
and used the latest Geographic Information System
Department of Environment and Climate Change,
(GIS) datasets available. Ground-truthing of all
New South Wales).
surveys is necessary for accurate data (MDBC 1999).
Urban salinity Industrial salinity
In the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) there are
Salinity impacts and is impacted on by the industrial
currently 220 towns identified as being at risk from
sector. A number of industries produce salt as a
urban salinity including the cities of Wagga Wagga,
by-product of their operations, which can cause
Tamworth, and Dubbo (Wilson, MDBC and NDSP
industrial salinity if it is allowed to affect the
2003). Salinity has also been indentified as an issue
surrounding landscape. For example, effluent from
in western Sydney. Salinity can undermine urban
towns, intensive agriculture such as feedlots, and
buildings and infrastructure at a significant cost to
industry can contain high levels of salt that may
local communities (NSW DLWC 2000).
build up over time and require safe storage and
In 1998 the Murray–Darling Basin Commission disposal. Salinity impacts on industry through the
initiated the project: Determining the full cost increased operation costs incurred when dealing
of dryland and urban salinity across the Murray– with saline water supplies or salt-affected land,
Darling Basin (which includes large areas of NSW). damaged infrastructure and seepage of saline
This project attempted to quantify the full cost groundwater into mine sites.
of dryland salinity impact across the Basin. In
Figure 2.2: Salt mobilisation throughout NSW in thousands of tonnes per year. Numbers indicate the rainfall isohyets.
Source: Helyar et al. (2003)
6
2
River salinity • The climatic conditions and trends e.g. wet and
2 dry years. During high flow events, the electrical
River salinity levels increase when:
conductivity (EC) of run-off may decrease due
• Surface run-off carries salt from discharge sites to dilution by fresher flood flows. Conversely,
(An area from which groundwater is discharged) run-off EC may increase as extra salts reach the
to waterways. waterway via saline run-off. Electrical conductivity
also varies with timing of sampling, that is, if
• Saline groundwater enters waterways through
measurement occurs during the rise and/or the
subsurface lateral flow3 and baseflow.4
fall of the flood. The preceding climatic conditions
Major points for consideration (Figure 2.2): are also influential.
• Most saline discharge sites occur in zones with • The landuse practices in the catchment that
greater than 400 mm average annual rainfall (see drains into a particular waterway.
Chapter 3 – episodic rainfall section). Salt load is a measure of the total amount of salt
• Saline run-off from these rainfall zones drains to carried in waterways, for example, by a river or a
the nearest flowline or waterway. creek in a given period. It is expressed as kg/day,
t/day or t/yr of salt passing a particular point during
• As NSW inland rivers flow westerly, the salt a particular time frame. Salt load estimates are vital
load accumulated along this route impacts as they indicate the amount of salt:
downstream on the environment, irrigation areas
and stock and domestic users. • stored in a catchment
• Impacts are also severe on wetlands and along • deposited in the landscape for example, through
the river. applying irrigation water
• Selectively preventing saline run-off from these • washed from saline discharge sites in the
source zones can reduce salt movement into landscape
nearby waterways. • entering the landscape from rising groundwater.
Calculating river salinity If salt concentration was the only indicator of salinity
Salinity in some NSW rivers is increasing, namely there would be little understanding of the total
rivers west of the Great Dividing Range and in the quantity of salt in the system. By measuring salt
Hunter Valley. load along a river system, the salt contributed by
different sub-catchments, or contributors such as
River salinity quantifies both salt load and salt industry or urban areas, can be identified.
concentration, both of which can vary in response
to flow. Salt load and salt concentration in rivers Salt loads also indicate the potential rate of salt
vary according to how much salt is stored in the accumulation in areas such as wetlands and
landscape, and how much water is available to depressions on floodplains. Load estimates are
mobilise it. important in predicting the impacts of salinity
further downstream in the system.
A waterway’s salt load and salt concentration is
influenced by factors such as: Estimated average salt loads in t/yr from 1998–2001
are shown for the following catchments:
• The effects of freshwater inflows e.g. water
released from storage dams such as Hume Weir or • Southern NSW Murrumbidgee and Murray
Burrinjuck Dam or from freshwater tributaries. catchments (see Figures 2.3, 2.4).
• The extraction of water for irrigation. Even good • Central Western NSW Lachlan and Macquarie
quality water usually contains small amounts of catchments (see Figures 2.5, 2.6).
salt. Irrigation water imported an average salt • Northern NSW Namoi, Border Rivers, and Gwydir
load of 115 t/yr between 1998 and 2001 into the catchments (see Figures 2.7, 2.8).
Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas (DIPNR 2003).
• The implementation of Land and Water Salt load = Salt concentration (EC) x River flow
Management Plans to reduce the amount of salt
mobilised into waterways through treatment
of saline sites and more efficient application of Salt concentration is a measure of the amount of
water. salt in a given volume of water and is expressed
in terms of mass per unit volume hence the unit
• The implementation of salt interception schemes
mg/l (milligrams per litre) or ppm (parts per
(see Chapter 17).
million). The value depends on the concentration
7
2
and composition of dissolved salts in the water. The Murrumbidgee River is a highly regulated river5
The higher the EC reading, the higher the salt with two major dams (Burrinjuck and Blowering
concentration. The results can be expressed in a Reservoirs) at its headwaters. It receives additional
number of different units such as deciSiemens input from the Snowy Mountain Scheme and is a
per metre (dS/m) or microSiemens per centimeter major source of irrigation water. Despite the high
(µS/cm). Salt concentration estimates are important salt loads, the dilution flows6 available maintain low
in determining the salinity level of a waterway salinity levels in the river (MDBC 1999). For further
(for water use purposes) and salt load. As either information on measuring water salinity see
the solute (salt) or the solvent (water) change, so Chapter 8.
will the concentration. Table 2.5 lists the mean
When daily average results are considered, no
salt concentrations for the major river systems
river EC exceeded 800 µS/cm (the recommended
throughout NSW.
desirable limit for human consumption). Castlereagh
Salt concentration should not be confused with salt River was 985 µS/cm in 2002-3. This location has an
loads. Good quality and high volume stream flow incomplete period of record. However, maximum
can dilute salt concentration, enabling catchments spot readings in Table 2.5 show that limits for
to export high salt loads without exceeding drinking water are exceeded in most river systems,
surface water salinity guidelines. This is the case at least for short periods.
for catchments such as the Murrumbidgee, which
recorded low salinity levels (salt concentration – see
Table 2.5), but is known to export considerable salt
loads downstream (MDBC 1999).
Stream and measuring point Daily river salinity levels (EC units, µS/cm) for specified period
(d)
Years recorded 2000–03 2003–06 Maximum
mean mean (c)
(a)
Murrumbidgee at Balranald 1992–2006 158 135 1133
Murrumbidgee at Wagga Wagga 1993–2006 142 135 521
(a)
Lachlan at Booligal 1999–2006 545 723 1097
Lachlan at Forbes 1999–2006 472 552 1170
Barwon–Darling at Colllarenabri 2002–06 345 (b) 300 533
(a)
Bogan at Gongolgon 2000–06 534 425 982
(a)
Macquarie at Carinda 1999–2006 559 651 1207
Macquarie at Baroona 1999–2006 476 499 989
Castlereagh at Gungalman Bridge (a) 2001–06 985 (b) 531 1555
(a)
Namoi at Goangara 1995–2006 495 395 1165
Namoi at Gunnedah 1995–2006 578 534 1170
(a)
Mehi at Bronte 2001–06 505 (b) 511 966
(b)
Macintyre at Holdfast 2002–06 349 309 575
Hunter at Greta 1992–2006 672 690 1417
Table 2.5: Recorded NSW river salinity for State of the Environment reporting periods.
Source: DECC (2006)
Notes:
(a)
End-of-valley site.
(b)
Incomplete period of record.
(c)
Data only available to March 2006.
(d)
Maximum spot readings (not means).
8
2
Types of salinity Irrigation areas in the lower parts of the catchment
extract water and in the process import salt. As the
and their relationship land is irrigated, salt is added to the soil where it
Dryland, irrigation and urban salinity are often accumulates over time. Even if the water is of good
considered separately when measuring salinity quality (low salt concentration) the amount of salt
levels due to the different causative landuse imported can still be many t/yr or kg/ha over a
(dryland agriculture, irrigated agriculture and urban growing season.
development). However, the same salinisation
process is operating in these environments— that is, Land and Water Management Plans in irrigation
the mobilisation and redistribution of salt to the areas focus on efficient water use and reduction
soil surface due to a change in a catchment’s water in drainage volumes7. As a result, strict rules on
balance. What happens to the salt in these salt- irrigation drainage retention ensure most of the salt
affected landscapes is important to the health of the applied through irrigation water remains on-farm
whole catchment. The salt may stay in the affected and in the soil profile.
location (discharge site) or be moved to another The high salt loads in the Murrumbidgee River
location by run-off. at Yass (147 000 t/yr) and Wagga (377 000 t/yr)
All three types of salinity induce similar effects on are reduced to 5 000 t/yr once the river passes
soil, water, vegetation and infrastructure. They may the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas due to water
also exist in relationship to each other, for example, extraction. Most of the salt imported with the
recharge from urban development may contribute irrigation water into the Irrigation Areas remains
to rising watertables and dryland salinity in adjacent there. Unless carefully managed, the resulting
dryland agricultural landscapes and vice versa. increase in soil salinity can reduce the sustainability
Rising watertables associated with dryland, irrigation of the Irrigation Areas (Figure 2.3).
and urban salinity may cause groundwater to Dryland, irrigation and urban salinity can
intersect with waterways, providing another avenue contribute to river salinity. Salt from these sources
for salt to enter the surface water system and result move down catchments as run-off carries it into
in river salinity. Run-off from saline discharge sites waterways. Saline watertables can also intersect
in dryland, irrigation, and or urban salinity areas waterways (gaining streams). In gaining streams,
also contributes to river salinity. the watertable is situated above the stream where
In many parts of NSW, salt is washed from dryland groundwater flows into the stream systems (see
salinity discharge sites located higher in the Figure 4.7). Data on river salinity can determine
catchment. These salts ultimately enter a river via where salt enters the river and identify catchments
diffuse (spread out) surface run-off to flowlines, contributing large amount of salt (salt load) from
creeks and streams. This adds to the total salt load any source. This allows catchments to be prioritised
and salt concentration in a river, reducing the water for implementation of management strategies to
quality downstream. reduce salinity in waterways (Figures 2.3-8).
Note: The salt load quantities are indicative only. They are based
on averaged data from various sources and collection periods.
Figure 2.3: Estimated average salt load in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Murrumbidgee Catchment based on the years 1998–2001.
Note the extraction of salt with water for irrigation of the Murrumbidgee and Coleambally Irrigation Areas.
9
2
Note: The salt load quantities are indicative only. They are based
on averaged data from various sources and collection periods.
Figure 2.4: Estimated average salt load in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Murray Catchment based on the years 1998–2001.
Figure 2.5: Estimated average salt load in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Lachlan Catchment based on the years 2000–2004.
Source: Beange and Slinger (2007)
Note: The salt load quantities are indicative only. They are based on averaged data from various sources and collection periods.
10
2
Figure 2.6: Estimated average salt load

in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Macquarie
Catchment based on the years 1999–2004.
Source: Beange and Slinger (2007)
Note: The salt load

quantities are indicative
only. They are based
on averaged data from
various sources and
collection periods.
Note: The salt load quantities are indicative only.

They are based on averaged data from various
sources and collection periods.
Figure 2.7: Estimated average salt load in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Border Rivers-Gwydir Catchment based on the years 1998–2001.
Source: Rowling and Slinger (2007)
11
2
Note: The salt load quantities are

indicative only. They are based on
averaged data from various sources
and collection periods.
Figure 2.8: Estimated average salt load in tonnes/year (t/yr) for the Namoi Catchment based on the years 1998–2001.
Southern NSW Central NSW Northern NSW
Murrumbidgee Macquarie Border – Rivers Gwydir
Location Salt load Location Salt load Location Salt load

(t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr)
Yass 147 000 Macquarie River 11 800 Macintyre River 36 000
below Bathurst
Wagga 377 000 Lower Burrendong 141 000 Inverell 5 100
Dam
Griffith in 115 000 Little River 3 300 Gwydir River 35 500
Griffith out 5 000 Dubbo 169 000 Mungindi 20 500
Balranald 139 000 Macquarie Marshes 20 000 Mehi River 8 000
Murray Lachlan Namoi
Holbrook 68 000 Boorowa River 12 000 Tamworth 125 000

Albury 175 000 Cowra 115 000 Mooki River 47 000
Tocumwal 134 000 Belubula River 20 000 Gunnedah 142 000
Barham 147 000 Forbes 149 000 Boggabri 15 800
Moulamein 53 000 Lake Cargelligo 81 000 Narrabri 69 300
Near Kyalite 127 000 Booligal 31 000 Namoi River 92 000
Table 2.6: Estimated average salt loads in tonnes/year (t/yr) from 1998–2001 in NSW river systems.
Source: Compiled from NSW DPI, Salinity Glove Box Guides for NSW (Slinger and Tenison 2005), (Beange and Slinger 2007), (Rowling and Slinger 2007)
Note: The salt load quantities are indicative only. They are based on averaged data from various sources and collection periods.
12
2
 NSW response to salinity

Commonwealth and State Government agencies work with the latest information and science with
play a major role in coordinating and supporting local knowledge.
work in salinity. A further array of intersecting
Funding in the past has been exclusively for salinity.
research and development institutions continuously
Salinity is now part of the broader Natural Resource
feed new technical, social and economic information
Management (NRM) funding arrangements for
into an ever-evolving policy and regulatory
Local, State, Basin and National projects. The focus
environment (MDBC 2003).
is now more on the integration of NRM issues. New
The Nation Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality programs such as ‘Water for the Future’ address
(NAPSWQ 2000), launched by the Commonwealth water availability and water quality where salinity
Government in November 2000, provided a is one of the issues to be addressed. Other projects
comprehensive framework for decisive salinity and such as ‘Caring for Our Country’ include salinity
water quality related action. components.
The goal of the NAPSWQ was to motivate and Research and extension projects involving salinity
enable regional communities to use coordinated will continue, however they will be part of the
and targeted action to address dryland salinity and broader NRM umbrella. One of the major platforms
improve water quality (MDBC 2003). is the Future Farm Industries Cooperative Research
Centre (FFI CRC). It is a unique co-investment
In NSW the Salt Action Program has supported the
and integration of activities between major
development of salinity management strategies
agricultural Research and Development investors,
within regional catchment plans over many years.
an agribusiness company, six state agencies,
The NSW Government released the NSW Salinity four CSIRO Divisions and four universities. These
Strategy 2000. Catchment blueprints were then participants work together with companies,
released for priority regions and formed the basis of catchment management organisations and farm
integrated catchment plans for the purposes of NAP research groups to enhance the CRC’s adoption and
(National Action Plan) investment. commercialisation activities.
In October 2003 NSW announced the formation For information on current and past salinity research
of Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) projects visit:
which are responsible for the implementation of http://www.futurefarmcrc.com.au/index.html
Catchment Blueprints. The CMAs role is to prepare Viewed 5 August 2010.
Catchment Action Plans (CAPs) and manage
See Appendix 1: Common acronyms used in the
incentive programs to implement the plans. The
field of salinity.
preparation of CAPs involves integrating previous
 States and Territories salinity extent

Adapted from Dillon and Lewis (2001)
Australian Capital Territory Northern Territory

In the ACT the areas affected by salinity tend to be The NLWRA (2001) indicates that the Northern
relatively small and isolated and generally the result Territory has a relatively low salinity hazard. The
of localised conditions. Over 50% of the land area greatest potential for dryland salinity is in the
of the ACT is National Park or Nature Reserve. Many inland semi-arid areas (Sturt Plateau) where isolated
of the potential recharge areas on the ridges and patches may develop.
slopes around the city of Canberra are extensively
The threats are low, well known and taken into
covered by native vegetation. The rural areas of the
account in regional development planning.
ACT have not been subject to the high intensity
agricultural practices undertaken in some other
areas of Australia that increase recharge rates.
Queensland
Most dryland salinity areas are in eastern
Dryland salinity and the relatively low levels of Queensland and there is potential for dryland
stream salinity are not expected to have any marked salinity to occur elsewhere in the state (NLWRA
impact on local biodiversity. 2001). Major areas include the lower Central Coast
(Lower Fitzroy and the Burnett Basin), the South East
13
2
(Lower Mary Irrigation Area, Lockyer Valley) and the More threatened species are currently associated
Murray–Darling (Condamine, Balonne, Maranoa). with shallow watertable areas in the Wimmera
Salinity outbreaks are localised in extent. region than elsewhere in the State. The greatest
long-term threat to such species appears to be
In Queensland there is little specific data on impacts
in the Goulburn–Broken, Glenelg–Hopkins and
on flora and fauna except for a small number of
Corangamite regions.
site-specific studies on in-stream salinity impacts.
Like South Australia and Victoria, it is expected that
wetlands and rivers are most at risk from increasing Western Australia
salinity. Data from monitoring 1000 bores placed
throughout WA agricultural land indicates salinity
South Australia is declining in the eastern parts of the Northern
Agricultural region, but is either stable or continues
Dryland salinity affects 5% of SA agricultural land
to increase across most of the agricultural areas
And, with even the worst case scenario, it is unlikely
(L & WA 2006).
to change significantly for the next 50 years. Most of
the dryland salinity occurs in the Upper South East The Salinity Action Plan and Situation Statement
of the State (L & WA 2006). (Dillon and Lewis 2001), drew attention to some
current indicators of the high salinity risk to
Initial assessments of the biodiversity risk
biodiversity:
assessment mapping for South Australia indicate a
high risk to natural ecosystem viability in the Mid- • Of the divertible surface-water resource, 36% is
and Upper South East, Kangaroo Island, Lower and brackish or saline and a further 16% is of marginal
Western Eyre Peninsula and Coorong districts. The quality.
ecosystems facing the greatest risk from increasing
• Eleven species of threatened flora have at least
salinity are the rivers and wetlands.
one population considered to be at threat from
salinity, and one species was considered likely to
Tasmania disappear.
Most land at risk of dryland salinity in Tasmania
is in the agricultural midlands and north (NLWRA Salinity: A New Balance, The report of the Salinity
2001). In 2003 the estimate of dryland salinity Taskforce (Frost, et al. 2001), stimulated the state
affected areas was revised from 53 000 to 73 800 ha, government’s policy on salinity and its management,
which is approximately 4% of private land (L & WA committing it to three main actions:
2006). Salinity impacts are the greatest in 1. Protection of outstanding public assets
the low rainfall areas of Tasmania where there has (biodiversity, water resources, infrastructure) from
already been considerable impact on biodiversity the consequences of salinity and other forms of
following European occupation. These areas have resource degradation.
little remaining vegetation and have the highest
2. Investment in, and support for, major actions
numbers of locally-extinct plant and animal species.
on private land by developing new technologies
and new industries (for example, new perennial
Victoria plants, commercial farm forestry, engineering
Currently around 1 480 000 ha are at high risk from solutions).
developing salinity in the State’s six National Action
Plan regions. This can be compared with the 3. Provide support and incentives for planning,
897 000 ha (best case scenario) and 2 145 000 ha coordination and implementation of smaller on-
(worse case scenario) for the same areas in the Audit ground works on private land.
(L & WA 2006).
 Impact of salinity in NSW

This section summarises the impact of salinity on agriculture, urban areas, the environment and society.
Adapted from (Kelly 2004).
Agricultural • reduced options for production

Direct costs of increasing salinity to agricultural
• reduced access and trafficability on waterlogged
producers include:
land
• reduced agricultural production
• reduced water quality for stock, domestic and
• reduced farm income irrigation use
14
2
• reduced life of farm structures such as buildings, • reduced aesthetic value of the landscape
roads, fences and underground services
• reduced recreational and tourism values
• animal health problems
• reduced agricultural incomes due to productivity
• farm machinery problems (bogging, rusting) losses
• breakdown of soil structure, increased erosion • reduced flow-on impact on employment
and nutrient loss
• reduced regional population (in both rural and
• loss of beneficial native flora and fauna urban communities)
• reduced aesthetic value • increased pressure for consolidation of
agricultural properties
• decreased land value (Wilson 1999).
• reduced service levels to regional towns
• increased demand on government to support
(especially <5000 persons)
(training, extension, research) the agricultural
sector in managing salinity. • increased social adjustment costs for example,
welfare, marriage breakdown and bankruptcy
Urban • increased demand on government to support
Many of the costs of salinity in urban areas are (training, extension, research) the community in
equally applicable to rural infrastructure. Salinity can managing salinity.
affect the urban environment in the following ways.
• damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges, Environmental
buildings and other structures, underground The impacts of salinity on the environment are
water and sewage pipes, railways and other steel difficult to evaluate and to put into monetary terms.
structures, telecommunications and industry They include:
• degradation of sports fields, open spaces and • decline of native vegetation and loss of habitat
vegetation in parks and gardens will also reduce
• loss of nesting sites and decline in bird
the amenity values of the urban environment.
populations
Increasing salinity levels in urban water supplies
• decline in wildlife fauna other than birds
may result in:
• reduced food for wildlife populations
• damage to household items such as hot water
systems, plumbing and household appliances • reduced wetland habitat and decline in fish and
aquatic populations
• reduced effectiveness of soaps and detergents as
washing in ‘hard’ water (hardness)8. • increased soil and wind erosion
• sourcing alternative water supplies via rainwater • reduced aesthetic value
tanks or bottled water
• reduced biodiversity in stream fauna, riparian
• treating water supplies with domestic water filters vegetation, and wetlands
and water softeners
• increases in weeds and undesirable changes in
• increased maintenance on cooling towers, plant populations
reticulation systems, boilers, and water treatment
• damage to state/national parks and wildlife
plants. sanctuaries
Stakeholders in a catchment who may be directly • reduced recreational and tourism values (Wilson
affected by salinity include households, commercial 1999).
and industrial businesses, state government
agencies, public utilities, and local councils. As these AFFA (2000) stated that: ‘Perhaps the greatest
stakeholders are not normally the parties that have impacts (of dryland salinity) will be on stream water
caused the problems, these are considered to be quality and the environment’.
social costs or externalities of salinity (Wilson 1999). Salinity / Biodiversity (Dillon and Lewis 2001)
Social There has been a significant research effort in

Australia directed to salinity and biodiversity, but
Impacts on the framework and structure of our
largely as unrelated issues. Other than in Western
society from increasing salinity are real concerns.
Australia and some regional projects in other States,
Again, these costs are difficult to evaluate and put
insufficient work has been done on the impact of
into monetary terms. However, expected impacts
salinity on biodiversity or the potential threat of
include:
increased salinity to biodiversity.
15
2
In late 2000, the Australian and New Zealand • Extensive areas of both agricultural land and
Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) natural ecosystems that currently do not display
requested its Standing Committee on Conservation obvious symptoms of salinity may nevertheless
(SCC) to establish a Task force to examine the be at risk from salinity in the foreseeable future.
linkages between biodiversity and salinity. A Salinity
• Salinity is a critical issue for native biodiversity in
and Biodiversity Task Force was established with
Australia, not only for biodiversity represented in
representation from the Commonwealth, States and
uncleared communities but also to native biota
Territories with a brief to review the issues and to
on agricultural lands – for example, soil biota.
develop a paper for ANZECC consideration (Dillon
and Lewis 2001). • The salinity problems confronting vast areas of
Australia are directly linked with the extensive
The Task Force reached the following major
clearance of native vegetation, past and present.
conclusions:
• Integrated programs for salinity management
• Salinity is contributing to species extinctions, loss
and biodiversity conservation are needed,
of ecosystem health and is destroying Australian
incorporating long-term commitments to these
landscapes.
programs.
• The effects of salinity upon Australia’s
biodiversity are poorly understood and grossly
underestimated.
 Endnotes
1
Salt Scald: Area of land that has become bare due to salinity-induced loss of vegetation or erosion.
2
River salinity: Concentration of salts in rivers and creeks caused by saline discharges from dryland, irrigation and urban salinity.
3
Lateral-flow: Movement of groundwater laterally in the soil profile rather than the vertical movement that results in rise and fall of
watertables. It is usually associated with slope or changes in hydraulic head.
4
Baseflow: Groundwater that discharges into surface waterways such as streams and lakes.
5
Regulated river: A river or creek whose flow is determined primarily by a major dam.
6
Dilution flow: Fresh water added to a body of water to make it less concentrated.
7
Drainage volume: Is the amount of water that runs off the soil surface (paddock). The water is often collected in a drainage system and
reused.
2+ 2+
8
Hardness is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved calcium (Ca ) and magnesium (Mg ) ions expressed as mg CaCO3/L
(Nielsen, et al. 2003).
16
2
 Appendix 1
Commonly used salinity acronyms
National
State
DAFF – The Commonwealth Department of
Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry DECCW – Department of Environment, Climate
Change and Water
ANRA – Australian Natural Resources Atlas
I&I NSW – Industry and Investment NSW
ANZECC – Australian and New Zealand
Environmental Conservation Council NSW State Salinity Strategy 2000
CEF – Commercial and Environmental Forestry SEPP – State Environmental Planning Policy
COAG – Council of Australian Government Basin
CRC – Cooperative Research Centres MDBC – Murray–Darling Basin Commission
CRC FFI – Future Farm Industries (post June 2007) Region
CRC – For plant-based management of dryland REP – Regional Environmental Plan
salinity (prior to June 2007) Catchment
CSIRO – Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Catchment Blueprints
Research Organisation
CMA – Catchment Management Authority
DWLBC – Department of Water Land and
LEP – Local Environmental Plan
Biodiversity Conservation
Council
EPA – Environment Protection Authority
DCP – Development Control Plans
Landcare – Landcare Australia
Industry
LWA – Land and Water Australia
GRDC – Grains Research and Development
NAP – National Action Plan for salinity and water
Corporation
– Australian State and Territory Governments
MLA – Meat and Livestock Australia
NAPSWQ – National Action Plan for Salinity and
Water Quality RIRDC – Rural Industries and Research
Development Corporation
NATA – National Association of Testing Authorities
Programs
NDSP – National Dryland Salinity Program
Evergraze – More livestock from perennial
NHT – National Heritage Trust
pastures
NLWRA – National Land and Water Resources
EverTrain – On-line training portal
Audit
SGLS – Sustainable Grazing for Saline Land
NSW NRC – New South Wales Natural Resources
Commission
NWC – National Water Commission
17
2
 Key points and additional information

Key points Websites

 Salinity is a national issue affecting the agricultural, urban Australian Government – Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and natural environment. and Forestry, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.daff.gov.au/
 Salinity effects are not just localised, the wider community is National Land and Water Resources Audit. Australian Government,
directly and indirectly affected. Land Salinity, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.nlwra.gov.
 Salinity has social, environmental and economic impacts. au/national-land-and-water-resources-audit/land-salinity
 In 2002, shallow watertables and dryland salinity in NSW Nova-Science in the News, Australian Academy of Science,
affected 180 000 ha. Commonwealth Bank Foundation, ‘Monitoring the white death
– soil salinity’, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.science.org.
 More than 90% of salt-affected land in NSW occurs in the au/nova/032/032key.htm
Murray, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, Macquarie and Hunter River
catchments. NSW Government – Department Environment, Climate Change
and Water, Salinity, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.
 The estimate of area of saline land for 2020 and 2050, environment.nsw.gov.au/salinity/index.htm
will be less than predicted in 2001.
Australian Government
 There are 220 towns in the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) that
are currently at risk from urban salinity (Wilson, MDBC and National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality, viewed 20
NDSP 2003). February 2006, http://www.napswq.gov.au/index.html
 Salt from landscapes in higher catchments moves through South Australia
flowlines, creeks, streams and eventually into the river system Government of South Australia, Primary Industries and Resources,
where it affects downstream users. Salinity fact sheets, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.pir.
 When irrigators apply water to their land, its salt load is sa.gov.au/factsheets
deposited on the soil and accumulates over time. Victoria
 Salt concentration should not be confused with salt Victorian Department of Primary industries, viewed 28 October
load. High-volume stream flow can dilute a river’s salt 2010, http://new.dpi.vic.gov.au/home
concentration, enabling catchments to export high salt loads Government of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and
without exceeding surface water salinity guidelines. Environment, viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.dse.vic.gov.
au/dse/nrenlwm.nsf
Further information Queensland
Industry and Investment NSW Queensland Government – Environment and Resource
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) Management, viewed 28 October 2010, http://www.nrm.qld.
Irrigation Officers gov.au/salinity/
District Agronomists
Queensland Government – Department of Environment and
Resource Management, viewed 28 October 2010, http://www.
Pasture Specialists
derm.qld.gov.au/factsheets/pdf/land/l51.pdf
Catchment Management Authorities
Tasmania
Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment,
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
viewed 2 August 2010, http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.
(DECCW)
nsf/Home/1?Open
Western Australia
Further reading Government of Western Australia – Department of Primary

Industries, viewed 28 October 2010, http://www.agric.wa.gov.
DIPNR 2003, Local Government Salinity Initiative series, au/
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources.
Northern Territory
MDBMC 1999, ‘Salinity Predictions for NSW Rivers in the Murray–
Northern Territory Government – Natural Resources, Environment,
Darling Basin’, Murray–Darling Basin Ministerial Council.
The Arts and Sport, viewed 28 October 2010, http://www.nt.gov.
NDSP 2004, Dryland salinity and catchment management: a au/nreta/natres/index.html
resource directory and action manual for catchment managers,
New South Wales
National Dryland Salinity Program.
NSW State of the Environment 2006 – Land, viewed 2 August
NDSP 2004, Key findings from 10 years of Australian’s national
2010, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/SOE/soe2006/
dryland salinity program, Land and Water Australia.
chapter4/chp_4.3.htm
New South Wales Government 2000, NSW Salinity Strategy, NSW
Department of Land and Water Conservation.
Sexton, M 2003, Silent flood—Australia’s Salinity Crisis, ABC Books,
Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
Video
Wenham, D 2002, Salinity – Australia’s Silent Flood, episodes 1–4,
Australian Broadcasting Corporation video program sales.
18
2
 References
Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry Australia 2000, Sustainable NDSP 2007, Determining the costs of dryland salinity, National
Land and Water Resources Management Committee working Dryland Salinity Program, Canberra, ACT.
group on dryland salinity, Management of Dryland Salinity – Future Nielsen, DL, Brock, MA, Rees, GN & Baldwin, DS 2003,
Strategic Directions, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic. ‘Effects of increasing salinity on freshwater ecosystems in Australia’,
Beange, L & Slinger, D 2007, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 51, pp.655–665.
Lachlan and Macquarie Catchments, NSW Department of Primary NLWRA 2001, Australian Dryland Salinity Assessment 2000: Extent,
Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW. impacts, processes, monitoring and management options, National
DECC 2006, New South Wales State of the Environment (SoE), Land and Water Resources Audit, Turner, ACT.
Department of Environment and Climate Change, Sydney, NSW. NLWRA 2002, Australians and natural resource management,
Dillon, B. and Lewis, S. 2001) Implication of salinity for biodiversity National Land and Water Resources Audit, Turner, ACT.
conservation and management. South Australian Department for NSW DLWC 2000, NSW Salinity Strategy: Salinity Targets
Environment and Heritage. Supplementary Paper, NSW Department of Land and Water
DIPNR 2003, Local Government Salinity Kit, Department of Conservation, Sydney, NSW.
Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Sydney, NSW. Robins, L. 2004, Dryland salinity and catchment management: a
Frost, F, Hamilton, B, Lloyd, M & Pannell, D 2001, Salinity: a resource directory and action manual for catchment managers,
new balance, report of the Salinity Taskforce established to National Dryland Salinity Program, Land and Water Australia,
review salinity management in Western Australia, viewed 16 May Canberra ACT.
2008, http://www.crcsalinity.com/newsletter/SeaNews/taskfch2. Rowling, L & Slinger, D 2007, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
htm Namoi, Border Rivers and Gwydir Catchments, NSW Department of
Helyar, K, Orchard, P, Scott, B & Hume, I 2003, ‘Cooperative Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Research Centre for plant based Management of Dryland Salinity, Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
Full Proposal 2002-2003’. Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Kelly, J 2004, Salinity in NSW: Economic Perspectives, NSW Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW
Agriculture, Dubbo, NSW. Wilson, S 1999, Dryland Salinity: What are the impacts and how
L & WA 2006, Managing dryland salinity in Australia, Land & Water do you value them? Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra,
Australia, Canberra, ACT. ACT.
MDBC 1999, Salinity audit – community summary, Murray–Darling Wilson, SM, MDBC & NDSP 2003, Determining the full costs
Basin Commission, Canberra, ACT. of dryland and urban salinity across the Murray–Darling Basin.,
MDBC 2003, ‘Working with State and Commonwealth agencies’, Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra, ACT.
viewed 14 May 08, http://www.ndsp.gov.au/salinitytools/tools/
package_fs.html
NAPSWQ 2000, National action plan for salinity and water quality,
Council of Australian Governments, Canberra, ACT.
19
2
20
3
 Contents
 The hydrological cycle .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Components of the hydrological cycle .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Precipitation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Run-off .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Infiltration ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Evaporation .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Transpiration ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Evapotranspiration = transpiration + evaporation ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Leakage ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Groundwater recharge...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Groundwater system........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Lateral flow (through flow) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Baseflow .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Groundwater discharge ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Excess water = precipitation – ET............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
 What can be changed? ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Soil-water balance..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Salt store .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
 Managing catchment scale water balance .................................................................................................................................................................... 8
 Monitoring and measuring salt movement in a catchment...................................................................................................................... 9
 Methods of estimating excess water in a catchment ........................................................................................................................................ 9
 Choosing the most appropriate landuse ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
 Managing the water balance ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Climate........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Irrigation....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Run-off ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Evapotranspiration............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Soil moisture content ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Recharge ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1
3
 The hydrological cycle

Water is a major transporter of salt. Detailing the movement of water from rainfall through its various pathways
back to the atmosphere highlights the potential areas for improved water use and the balance necessary to
prevent or manage salinity. Only certain processes in the hydrological cycle can be manipulated for salinity
management. Vegetation and soil management are two major areas where excess water in the form of run-
off, infiltration and leakage can be modified. Efficient use of water prevents leakage past the root zone, which
promotes better production and helps to meet salinity management targets.
 Components of the hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle is the movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere. The main
components of the hydrological cycle are illustrated in Figure 3.1. There are many ways that water can recycle
between earth and atmosphere:
Figure 3.1: Water movement in the hydrological cycle as depicted by the arrows.
Source: Adapted from Ward and Robinson (1990)
We can study this cycle from a convenient starting such as slope, texture, surface condition (e.g. bare
point of when the water falls on the ground, and soil or vegetated), vegetation, and climate.
track the possible fates of water as it returns to the
Run-off from saline areas will carry salt, both
atmosphere. These routes can be followed in Figure
dissolved and attached to any eroded soil particles.
3.1.
Therefore to control salinity, run-off from saline areas
should be minimised by appropriate management
Precipitation strategies, either plant-based (e.g. revegetation) or
Precipitation is moisture or water that falls from the by engineering e.g. (run-off diversion banks).
atmosphere. It can include rain, snow, sleet and hail.
For convenience, all forms of precipitation are often In non-saline, high rainfall areas, run-off is usually
lumped together and referred to colloquially as just of high quality (low salinity) and provides ‘dilution
‘rainfall’ as in Figure 3.1. flows’ to river and creek systems. By adding good
quality water to waterways the dilution flows reduce
the salinity levels.
Run-off
Run-off is the proportion of precipitation that Infiltration
flows across the ground surface generally to enter
drainage lines. Run-off occurs when the rate of Infiltration is surface water that soaks into the soil.
precipitation exceeds the rate of infiltration of the Soil type, vegetative cover, climate and slope are all
soil at that moment. The quantity and rate of run-off factors that determine the infiltration rate of rainfall
is primarily determined by edaphic (soil) factors; or irrigation water.
2
3
Evaporation Evapotranspiration =
Evaporation is described as the process by which transpiration + evaporation
water moves into the air by changing from a liquid Evapotranspiration (ET) is the movement of water
to a vapour (gas). Water may evaporate from the to the atmosphere from the combined sources of
surface of soil and water bodies such as dams vegetation, soil and water bodies. It is a convenient
and rivers. The rate of evaporation depends on term describing the total loss of water from plants
air temperature and its (relative) humidity. So in growing on a soil surface. Vegetation type and
summer, evaporation of water from a dam surface climate are major factors in determining the rate of
can drop the level by perhaps a metre; whereas the evapotranspiration.
level drops by only millimetres in winter. Monteith
(1973) reports that tree leaves can intercept and Leakage
evaporate up to 20% of precipitation.
Leakage is the movement of water downwards
through the soil past the plant root zone or the
Transpiration movement of water from below water bodies.
Transpiration is where water taken up by plants is Sometimes referred to as deep drainage. Deep
released through their leaves to the atmosphere. drainage occurs when the infiltration exceeds the
Transpiration includes a phase change from liquid waterholding capacity (field capacity) of the soil. As
to gas as in evaporation, but it is not from the water moves through the soil to deep drainage, it
surface of a free water body such as a dam or lake. dissolves any soluble salts and moves less soluble
Instead it comes from inside a plant leaf through salts down the profile (leaching). Thus leakage
cell walls, then out to the atmosphere via pores from saline areas is likely to have a high electrical
called stomata. A plant can usually open and close conductivity.
its stomata to control its rate of transpiration.
It may close its stomata, for example, when soil Groundwater recharge
water is less available as in a dry or saline soil. The
Groundwater recharge occurs when water enters
disadvantage of closing its stomata however is that
the groundwater system from the saturated zone
the plant cannot exchange gases for photosynthesis
immediately above the watertable. Groundwater is
as quickly and so its productivity drops. This is why
recharged by deep drainage water.
plants suffering from the effects of salinity are often
smaller and grow more slowly.
Figure 3.2: Illustrates groundwater discharge to the land surface (discharge site) and to a surface water body (baseflow to the river).
The discharge site often occurs at the break-of-slope as shown here.
3
3
Figure 3.3: Discharge sites occur where the groundwater reaches the surface.
Source: NSW Agriculture, Department Land and Water Conservation (1993)
Recharge sites
Discharge sites
Plate 3.1: Recharge area on the slopes and hills in the background has been mostly cleared. Discharge sites at the base of the photo showing
signs of salinity.
Groundwater system Baseflow

The groundwater system is the underground Baseflow is groundwater that discharges into surface
section of a hydrological system. It includes where waterways such as streams and lakes. See also
water enters, is transmitted, stored and departs the Figure 3.2.
system.
Groundwater discharge
Lateral flow (through flow) Groundwater discharges to the land surface via
Lateral flow is the movement of groundwater springs and surface seepage or through movement
laterally in the soil profile rather than the vertical of groundwater into surface water bodies such as
movement that results in rise and fall of watertables. dams and rivers.
It is usually associated with sloping landscapes and See Figures 3.2 and 3.3. Note: groundwater
hydraulic head1. In a dam wall it may be visible as discharge does not always follow the simple pattern
a wet patch or seepage at the base of the wall. See shown (see Chapters 7 and 16 for more detail).
also Figure 3.2.
4
3
 Excess water = precipitation – evapotranspiration (ET)

Excess water is the difference between precipitation water also provides run-off and recharge that can
and ET, and is the fraction of rainfall that needs to be be either saline or fresh. As noted above, run-off
managed to control salinity and rising watertables. and recharge are necessary for dams to fill, and
The size of this fraction of water depends on all the rivers and streams to flow. However these processes
factors that affect evapotranspiration. An aim of may also cause or aggravate salinity (see Managing
agricultural enterprises in NSW is to minimise excess catchment scale water balance in this chapter).
water, i.e. turn all rainfall into ET. However, excess
 What can be changed?

Only certain processes in the hydrological cycle than 0.1 mm/yr. Average recharge under cropping
can be manipulated for salinity management. systems typically increases 300 fold to around 5 to
Precipitation and groundwater flow rates are difficult 35 mm/yr. To use this water and reduce recharge,
or impractical to alter. plants with a deeper root system such as lucerne
can be included in the farming system (Murphy
Excess water in the form of run-off, infiltration and
2004).
leakage can be modified, mainly through vegetation
and soil management to influence water movement, Water may follow a number of pathways including
and consequently the manner in which salt is soil evaporation, run-off, recharge, plus transpiration
transported and accumulated. from both weeds and crops. Management should
aim to limit unproductive pathways and maximise
Vegetation systems may also affect the influence
water available for crop transpiration, which is the
of rainfall on the hydrological cycle. If the plant
only component of the water budget linked directly
species composition is changed to increase
to productivity (Murphy 2004). Run-off that provides
evapotranspiration, then recharge can be reduced.
recharge for dams and other water supplies is useful
For example, average recharge under mallee
providing it is not saline.
woodland and perennial pasture is typically less
 Soil-water balance
The soil-water balance is a way to balance the water allows managers to target high salt contribution
that enters, is stored in and leaves the soil profile. zones and to apply management strategies
It is a useful technique for monitoring the water appropriate to the particular landscape.
cycle in a small ecosystem such as a farm or a whole
Figures 3.4 and 3.5 illustrate two scenarios,
catchment. It can help indicate sources of salinity,
that have been measured in New South Wales.
and how salinity can be controlled generally or in
Each example has different rates of run-off,
specific catchments. The soil water balance can be
evapotranspiration, soil-water content and recharge.
used to monitor changes across a landscape and
over time as water moves through the landscape. Figure 3.4 shows a water balance for Barraba, a high
For example, there will be changes in water balance: rainfall area in North Western NSW. Recharge is
lower under native pasture than under cereal crops.
• Seasonally on a farm between hot dry summers
Recharge and run-off are higher in the steeper and
and cool wet winters and
higher rainfall area of Barraba than in Balranald
• Over decades in a landscape as it is cleared of (Figure 3.5) where there is little slope and a much
native vegetation on the upper slopes, planted to lower rainfall.
annual crops and irrigation may develop on the
Figure 3.5 below shows water balance figures for
alluvial river flats.
Balranald, a low rainfall area in the Mallee Region
If the components of the hydrological cycle are of NSW. Again recharge is less under a native
understood well and each component of the water woodland system than under a cropping system.
balance is accounted for, appropriate management The exact figures for each situation will depend on
strategies can be developed to address salinity. the salt storage in the soil and whether the water
moving through the profile is fresh or saline.
Understanding how water moves in the landscape,
for example, where infiltration and recharge occur,
5
3
Figure 3.4: Water balance for annual pasture compared with native perennial pasture for a high rainfall zone at Barraba, NSW.
Source: Murphy (2002)
Figure 3.5: Water balance for annual cereal cropping compared with native woodland for the low rainfall zone at Balranald, NSW
Sources: Kennett-Smith, Walker and Budd (1992) and Murphy (1993)
6
3
Figure 3.6: Salinity outbreaks in the Muttama Catchment.

Source: Prepared by Murrumbidgee Catchment Management Authority, Wagga Wagga (2007)
7
3
 Salt store
In areas of high rainfall and low salt storage it may 1.6% of the flow in the Murrumbidgee River at the
be desirable to have higher run-off and higher nearby gauging station at Gundagai. However, the
recharge values as these areas contribute fresh salt load, as measured at the same point and
water to streams and groundwater systems. This added by Muttama Creek, accounts for about 19%
results in a net salinity benefit by diluting saline of the total salt load in the Murrumbidgee River.
contributions flowing in from other highly saline This represents a major amount of salt being
areas. added to the Murrumbidgee River from the
Muttama Creek Tributary. Salt originating from the
In areas where salt storage is high and saline areas Muttama Creek Catchment represents about 4.3%
are common it would be desirable to reduce run-off, of the total salt load flowing past Morgan in South
increase evapotranspiration, increase soil water Australia (Webb1999).
storage and reduce recharge values. These actions
Muttama Creek is therefore an area where
will reduce water and salt movement through the
intervention or salinity management is
system and the concentration salts further down the
advantageous. For example, it may be desirable to
system.
increase the proportion of water that is transpired.
Muttama Creek Catchment north of Gundagai This would decrease the chance of recharge and
(Figure 3.6) is an example of a catchment with high reduce water and salt accessions to groundwater.
salt storage and expression (saline outbreaks). In
this catchment the Muttama Creek represents about
 Managing catchment scale water balance

Not all the water draining past the root zone causes water use (transpiration) may exacerbate the salinity
salinity. Leakage only becomes a problem when it problem downstream. So, to select the best salinity
mobilises salt. management option, we need to know:
When managing salinity it is important to 1. Where the salt is located.
distinguish between high recharge catchments 2. The water balance of the different agricultural
that are saline and those that are fresh (Figure 3.7). practices.
Fresh catchments produce fresh run-off that can 3. How to match 1 with 2.
dilute the salt originating from saline catchments
(see Figure 3.7). Therefore reducing run-off from
fresh catchments, for example by increasing plant
Figure 3.7: Upper Little River Catchment divided into 80 sub-catchments where red indicates those that deliver flows of high salt
concentration, blue are relatively fresh and all other shades are in between.
Source: Nordblom, Hume and Bathgate (2004). See Chapter 19 Economics, for more information on the Little River Catchment.
8
3
 Monitoring and measuring

salt movement in a catchment
There are a number of methods to monitor and The reasons for this are:
measure the movement of salt in the landscape and
• metamorphic rocks tend to weather more easily
they range in complexity and accuracy.
and
1. Rapid stream survey (RSS) • landscapes formed on metamorphic rocks tend
RSS is where a water sample is taken from surface to be more porous and offer greater capability to
water such as a stream or river as it flows past. absorb and concentrate rainfall salt4.
It can be done automatically by machine or by Coram et al. (2000) explain the framework widely
hand on an opportunity basis. RSS’s provide useful used within CSIRO, DECCW and CMA’s for hydrology
information when carried out in small creek systems research and investigations in the Murray–Darling
(catchments between 30,000-100,000 ha). Surveying Basin. Groundwater Flow Systems are broken
these streams will indicate the natural groundwater into three major systems, local, intermediate and
input from the underlying aquifer system. Creek regional, which are then further divided into 11
systems that are considered to be gaining streams2 subsystems (Coram 1998).
(see chapter 4) may be identified using this method.
The water samples are taken at least five days after Groundwater salinity data provides a guide to
rainfall when baseflow3 can be measured as the the areas where changing the water balance will
most likely input to the creek system (as opposed to have greatest impact on mobilisation of salt. If it is
rainfall). Measurements taken at approximately 5 km available, data from aquifers, such as the aquifer’s
intervals throughout the stream length will indicate ability to transport water and salt, predict where
the location of baseflow input from local geological changes in vegetation will have most impact on
source. salinity.
RSS is not useful on regulated rivers as the water 3. Electromagnetic surveys
input in these rivers is often not from a local source. These are electromagnetic measurements across
A large river water source may be from a reservoir the surface of the land using, for example, an
many hundreds of miles from the river in question.
EM38 meter. The reading depends on clay content
and water content as well as salinity. Therefore
2. Groundwater Flow Systems (GFS) the EM survey should be carefully interpreted
The second method of classifying high salt areas (groundtruthed) using results from field drilling
is to use regional information, both geology and before it can provide useful information on salinity.
groundwater data. This may be as simple as an Such surveys can provide three-dimensional
interpretation of geological mapping and catchment patterns of salt stores and aquifer detail, accurate to
characteristics (see Chapter 7), for example, more salt a few metres. (See Chapter 10 Salinity assessment
will usually be delivered from the metamorphic and management planning).
(fractured rock) landscapes than from granitic ones.
 Methods of estimating excess water in a catchment

To assess or estimate the magnitude of excess 1. Estimates by Zhang curves
water and the pathways the water takes through The first method is a desktop approach using Zhang
the landscape there are a number of methods, curves to estimate excess water.
which differ in degree of accuracy and cost. These
estimates allow the landholder/researcher to Named after the original developers, this method
get a feel for the risk a landuse may impose on a partitions rainfall into transpired and non-transpired
landscape. or excess water. Their work examined the data
produced from nearly 300 catchment experiments
The three methods that will be discussed briefly in worldwide, and shows the relationship between
this section are: average annual rainfall and excess water for broad
1. estimates by Zhang curves types of vegetation: annuals, perennials and
trees. Zhang, Walker and Dawes (1999) and Zhang,
2. computer modelling Dawes and Walker (2001) produced an equation
3. site-specific investigation. for predicting the proportion of rainfall that
9
3
ends up as evapotranspiration under native and 175 mm is partitioned between run-off (R) and
cleared conditions. The method uses some general recharge (D)
approximations (for example, that water use is a The accepted ratio is 4:1
proportion of annual rainfall) then scales water use i.e. four parts run-off to one part recharge
between high use by forests and low use by annual 140 mm of run-off
farming (Zhang, Walker and Dawes 1999). Zhang 35 mm of recharge
curves are a useful starting point to indicate the
For annuals:
approximate amount of recharge that may occur at
There is 475 mm ET and 180 mm of excess water
a site.
(EW)
Excess water can be estimated using this 180 mm is partitioned between run-off (R) and
relationship so recharge and run-off can be recharge (D)
partitioned. Where rainfall exceeds transpiration, it The accepted ratio is 4:1
is assumed that the excess water reaches streams i.e. four parts run-off to one part recharge
as run-off or recharge to groundwater. Soil water 180 mm of run-off
storage is often used to make up the difference. 45 mm of recharge
For example: using a median annual rainfall of The Zhang curve has therefore partitioned the
700 mm (Dawes et al 2001) and Figure 3.8: median annual rainfall into transpired and non-
transpired or excess water.
For perennials (phalaris):
There is 525 mm of ET and 175 mm of excess
water (EW).
Figure 3.8: Zhang

curves showing
increasing
evapotranspiration
of perennial and
annual pastures
with increasing
rainfall. Note that
annual vegetation is
predicted to use less
water.
Source: Adapted from
Beverly et al. (2003)
2. Computer modelling as rainfall, stream flow, evapotranspiration and

If the approximations of the Zhang curve are recharge. This requires a highly specialised set of
not valid or a second more detailed approach is equipment and technical expertise, therefore is
necessary, computer modelling can use a water more expensive.
balance model such as WaVES, CLASS or PERFECT to Upper Little River catchment has been studied using
estimate recharge over a climate sequence of usually this method. In this case, an initial understanding
100 years. This requires a detailed understanding was developed from modelling the water balance
of the soil hydraulic properties and access to long using typical values for the vegetation and soil
term climate data. Some of the models come with of the area of interest. Measurements from field
a database of soil hydraulic properties so initial experiments were then used to refine these models
estimates can be completed quite quickly. (Hume, Mitchell & Kingston 1998) and (Hume et al.
1998). These calibrated models probably provide
3. Site specific investigation a higher degree of confidence than the above
The third approach is to undertake a site specific methods. They also allow more precise assessment
investigation in the field. This may include of the consequence of climate variability on the
measuring the soil hydraulic properties or ongoing water balance and productivity.
monitoring of the environmental fluxes5 such
10
3
 Choosing the most appropriate landuse

Agricultural systems such as forestry that transpire For example, extensive reafforestation of three fresh
much water, and reduce leakage in the interests of (non-saline) subcatchments of the small Upper
salinity control, are often less profitable than those Little River catchment in the Central West of NSW
they replace. Thus, changing landuse to deliver (Figure 3.7) could reduce water quality and cost $6
less salt may reduce farm income. Traditionally, million per year in lost farm production. Whereas
salinity costs have been calculated as the cost of applying carefully targeted landuse change could
higher stream salinity for downstream users. The halve the salt load contributed by these three
cost of manipulating the salt and water yield of a subcatchments with little loss of water yield and cost
catchment can be more appropriately calculated the catchment only $ 0.4 million per year (Nordbloom,
if the lower farm income of these new landuses is Hume and Bathgate 2004). This research shows the
factored in (Nordbloom, Hume, and Bathgate 2004). need to fully understand the effects of new landuses
This new evaluation method uses basic landscape in a hydrological as well as economic sense. This
scale, landuse, soil and hydrogeology information to research clearly demonstrates that inappropriately
identify areas where changing landuse will achieve targeted landuse can increase salt concentrations,
the desired salt and water yield with least financial decrease water yields and would be a poor use of
cost. public money.
 Managing the water balance

A primary aim of Australian agricultural systems is selected locations. For the majority of the state,
to store soil water to produce economically viable except some coastal areas, potential evaporation is
crops or pasture. One of the consequences of two to three times greater than average monthly
agricultural production is that additional water can rainfall. If this is the case how is there any recharge
leak through the soil profile and cause watertables of groundwater?
to rise. From a productivity point of view, water
Australia has some of the most episodic6 and
leakage past the root zone is a lost resource.
variable rainfall on the globe. Rainfall usually
The efficient use of soil water prevents leakage.
occurs at irregular intervals. Rainfall patterns are
Understanding all components of the water balance
normally highly variable between seasons and
and reducing leakage meets both production and
between years in NSW.
salinity management targets.
Storm rains, especially in the central and northern
Climate areas of the state contribute greatly to the total
Climate determines the amount of water that is rainfall especially in summer months. Northern
available in the landscape throughout the year and rainfall is mostly generated by summer storm
is one important factor in defining salinity priority events.
areas (Watson 2004). For example, if average annual The result of this variable and episodic rainfall is
rainfall is 500 mm and evapotranspiration is 300 mm, that in any month there are periods of hours or
excess water and salinity problems may occur. days where rainfall is far greater than potential
A region’s rainfall pattern i.e. distribution throughout evaporation. This, combined with the geography of
the seasons is also important. Seasonal forecasting a particular area, may lead to recharge which can
can help determine rainfall patterns, which may be significant. The episodic peaks of NSW rainfall
identify extreme seasons and early seasonal rainfall. and the high permeability of the geology are
Analysis of long term rainfall records may show major reasons contributing to periodic recharge of
patterns of seasonal rainfall i.e. whether it is winter groundwater, even though the total annual rainfall is
or summer dominant. Seasonal forecasting provides less than evapotranspiration.
probabilities of wetter or drier than average years i.e. When rainfall exceeds potential evapotranspiration;
long-term trends in climate, which are different from soil, geology and topography determine surface
actual rainfall. storage, run-off and the capacity for recharge.
Climatic variation can have a long-term effect on Rainfall is highly variable over most of Australia,
recharge. The potential for leakage to the watertable including NSW. Even though on an annual basis
is greater in a ‘wet period’ when average monthly evapotranspiration may greatly exceed precipitation
rainfall exceeds evaporation. Figure 3.9 shows a map such as at Balranald, Ivanhoe and Bourke (Figure
of NSW which graphs monthly rainfall and potential 3.9), storms in any part of the state can have a high
evaporation averages between 1900 and 2006 for risk of episodically recharging the groundwater.
11
3
Figure 3.9: Evaporation and

rainfall graphs indicate the
potential for recharge across
NSW. Note this is long-term
average annual rainfall. Rainfall
in any given year can be highly
variable, particularly in the west
of the state.
Source: Gordon (2007)
Where precipitation normally does seasonally Run-off

exceed evapotranspiration, for example during
Run-off from saline areas should be minimised
winter at Orange (Figure 3.9) or for the first 6
by appropriate discharge management such
months of the year at Dorrigo and Lismore, there is
as maximising groundcover (Chapter 15), or
additional opportunity for groundwater recharge.
engineering solutions (Chapter 17).
Although there is recharge due to average rainfall
Assessment of each site on its merits will determine
events, Zhang et al. (1999) showed the importance
whether tactical grazing management will be
of episodic recharge just below the root zone.
sufficient to adequately improve groundcover
They calculated that just 10% of annual recharge
of existing species, even when these may be
events contributed over 85% of long-term total
considered ‘weedy’ e.g. couch grass and annual rye
recharge. These recharge episodes were caused by
grass.
high rainfall events combined with fallow-based
rotations, which allowed a build up of soil moisture Where the discharge site is severely degraded,
and recharge to occur. Management options such more intensive management such as pasture
as incorporating lucerne and deep-rooted non- establishment may be required. The costs and risks
fallow rotations can reduce both mean annual of such an approach, however, should be carefully
recharge and the number of episodic events, but not considered. The Sustainable Grazing on Saline
eliminate recharge completely. Lands (SGSL) Producers Network provides financial
and technical support for wool and meat producer
Irrigation groups undertaking on-farm trials into profitable
Appropriate irrigation and drainage management and sustainable use of saline land.
along with correct crop and soil selection in
irrigation areas can help alleviate salinity problems Evapotranspiration
and reduce salinity risk. These practices also provide As discussed above, some agricultural practices
the opportunity to increase productivity and such as fallowing can contribute large amounts
profitability through more efficient use of water. The to recharge due to lack of transpiration and
result produces healthy crops and pastures more particularly during high rainfall events. Reducing
economically. the time that paddocks are in fallow minimises the
potential recharge (Murphy 2004). If the soil moisture
12
3
level is monitored during the fallow period, overfull Recharge
profiles can be avoided to assist in better overall
Recharge is the part of the hydrological cycle that is
water management. This is preferable to fixed
of most concern in saline environments as it causes
fallow lengths. Actively growing plants, planted at
the watertable to rise, which brings salt into the
the optimum time, with good nutrient availability
plant root zone and closer to the soil surface where
and control of disease will use the most water and
it accumulates. Management strategies that reduce
reduce the risk of recharge to the groundwater
recharge are essential for salinity management.
system.
The type of recharge that occurs throughout
Soil moisture content NSW will depend largely on the geology, soil
As discussed above, we need to minimise the type and topography of the landscape. Chapter 7
amount of time the paddock has a full soil moisture gives further details on the major landscapes that
profile as this will increase the risk of recharge. occur throughout the state, the movement of the
However there is a need to encourage soil moisture groundwater and the resulting discharge.
conservation to increase productivity (see Chapter The individual properties of these landscapes will
14, Opportunity Cropping) determine the management strategies that are
For example, compared to a bare fallow, stubble recommended. For example, in Northern NSW,
retention: lateral groundwater flow is the key driver of salinity.
• holds more soil water from frequent small rainfall Lateral groundwater movement results when
events groundwater perches above solid rock or clay soil
• lowers soil temperature layers and is forced downslope via gravity. The key
• reduces leakage. to salinity management in these areas is using water
where it falls in an attempt to reduce the amount of
Light textured sandy soils have a low waterholding groundwater recharge, thus reducing its contribution
capacity and therefore less ability to store extra to lateral groundwater flow.
water. Sandy soils will leak faster and earlier
compared with clay soils, given the same amount of
rainfall. Sandy soils in particular should not be left
fallow. (see Chapter 5: Soils/Geology)
 Endnotes
1
Hydraulic head: The sum of the elevation head and the pressure head. Same as piezometric head.
2
Gaining streams: The watertable is situated above the stream such that the watertable will flow into the stream.
3
4
Rainfall salt = Aeolian + Cyclic salt. In the Riverina area of NSW, rainfall delivers around 30 kg /ha of salt. Obviously there is more salt in
the rain in coastal regions. (Blackburn and McLeod 1983).
5
Flux: The amount flowing per unit time. Flow rate.
6
Episodic rainfall: Infrequent heavy rainfall.
13
3


The key points on the hydrological cycle are: Hughes, J. Friend, J., Wilson, B. & McCulloch, C 2004, Is
 A hydrological cycle that is in balance is unlikely to cause perenniality enough? Investigating water balance in Central NSW,
salinity problems. NSW Department of Primary Industries.
 Components of the cycle that are disturbed by human Hatton, T 2001, Landuse and Catchment Water Balance, Technical
intervention can result in rising watertables and consequently Report 18/01, CSIRO.
salinity. Murphy, S 2003, Managing Water, Mallee Sustainable Farming
 The aim of salinity management is to reduce run-off from and Inc.
recharge in areas with high salt export potential, and avoid
discharge sites developing. Websites
 Episodic high intensity rainfall is a major contributor to Some useful websites relevant to the hydrological cycle and water
groundwater recharge in NSW. balance are;
 Changes to agricultural systems should consider the Nova-Science in the News, Australian Academy of Science,
landscape, landuse, soil and hydrogeological information Commonwealth Bank foundation, ‘Monitoring the white death
to identify where changing landuse will achieve the desired – soil salinity’, viewed 15 September 2009, http://www.science.
water/salt yield with least financial cost. org.au/nova/032/032key.htm
Land Water and Wool, Shaping the future, the SGSL producer
Further information network in New South Wales, viewed 19 April 2010, http://lwa.gov.
au/projects/222
Industry and Investment NSW
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) Mallee Sustainable Farming Inc, 2005, viewed16 September 2009,
Irrigation Officers http://www.msfp.org.au
District Agronomists Government of Western Australia – Department of Primary
District Horticulturists Industries, viewed 26 May 2010, http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/
Pasture Specialists
Government of Western Australia – Department of Primary
Catchment Management Authorities Industries, ‘Flowtube’ – a very user friendly groundwater
Community Support Officers modelling tool, viewed 16 September 2009, www.agric.wa.gov.
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water au/PC_92354.html?s=1001
(DECCW)
 References
Beverly, C, Avery, A, Ridley, A and Littleboy, M 2003, Linking Hume, IH, Mitchell, DC, Milthorpe, PL, Yea, M, O’Connell, M &
farm management with catchment response in a modelling Zhang, L 1998b, Episodic recharge under crops and shrubs in the
framework’, viewed 16 September 2009, Mallee Zone, project no. M4025, NSW Agriculture, Deniliquin, NSW.
http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/i/5/beverly.htm Kennett-Smith, AK, Walker, GR & Budd, GR 1992, Groundwater
Blackburn, G and McLeod, S 1983, ‘Salinity of atmospheric recharge beneath woodlands cleared for grazing south western New
precipitation in the Murray–Darling drainage division, Australia’, South Wales. CSIRO Division of Water Resources,Canberra, ACT.
Australian Journal of Soil Research, vol. 21, pp. 411–434. Monteith, JL 1973, Principles of environmental physics, American
Coram, J 1998, National classification of catchments for land and Elsevier Publishing Company, New York.
river salinity control, Rural Industries Research and Development Murphy, S 1993, ‘Land management options to reduce recharge
Corporation, Barton, ACT. in far south west New South Wales’, in National conference on
Coram, JE, Dyson, R, Houlder, PA & Evans, WR 2000, land management for dryland salinity control (eds Taylor, J &
Australian groundwater flow systems contributing to dryland Clifton, C), pp.50–53, La Trobe University, Bendigo.
salinity. In. National Land & Water Resources Audit: Canberra, ACT. Murphy, S 2002, Effects of grazing management on the
Dawes, WR, Gilfedder, M, Walker, G & Evans, RW 2001, hydrological balance, University of New England.
‘Biophysical modelling of catchment-scale surface water and Murphy, S 2004, ‘The deep down on deep drainage in the Mallee’,
groundwater response to land-use change’, in MODSIM 2001: viewed 16 September 2009,
International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, pp.535–540, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_
Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New Zealand, file/0006/164922/Farmtalk-11The-Deep-Down-on-deep-drainage-
Inc, Australian National University. in-the-Mallee.pdf
Gordon, J 2007, Figure 3.9: Evaporation and rainfall graphs Nordbloom, T, Hume, I & Bathgate, A 2004, ‘Economically
indicate the potential for recharge across NSW, interview with the author, targeted salinity management: linking farm and catchment scales’,
13th June 2007. in Salinity Solutions working with science and society, (eds
Hume, IH, Mitchell, DC & Kingston, H 1998a, Total water Ridley A, Feikama P, Bennet S, Rogers MJ, Wilkinson R & JH), CRC
for Plant-based management of dryland salinity, Bendigo, Vic.
use policy for the Southern Riverina: final report, NSW Agriculture,
Orange, NSW.
14
3
NSW Agriculture, Department Land and Water Conservation and Webb, L 1999, Hydrogeology report for the Muttama Catchment,
Riverina Field Studies Centre 1993, Salinity: our problem, NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Wagga Wagga,
Agriculture: Orange, NSW. NSW.
Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity glove box guide: NSW Zhang, L, Dawes, WR, Hatton, TJ, Hume, IH, O’Connell, MG,
Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments. NSW Department of Primary Mitchell, DC, Milthorp, PL & Yee, M 1999, ‘Estimating episodic
Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW. recharge under different crop/pasture rotations in the Mallee region,
Ward, RC & Robinson, M 1990, Principles of hydrology, Part 2: Recharge control by agronomic practices’, Agricultural Water
McGraw-Hill, New York. Management, vol. 42, pp. 237–249.
Watson, AJ 2004, Healthy catchment guide: vegetation for salinity Zhang, L, Dawes, WR & Walker, G 2001, ‘Response of mean
management in the South West slopes of the Murray Catchment annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes at catchment
(NSW), Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural scale’, Water Resources Research, vol. 37, pp.701–708.
Resources, Albury, NSW. Zhang, L, Walker, GR & Dawes, W 1999, Predicting the effect of
vegetation changes on catchment average water balance, CRC for
Catchment Hydrology, Clayton, Vic.
15
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16
4
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Groundwater ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Groundwater definition ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Groundwater systems ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Local groundwater systems ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Intermediate groundwater systems..................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Regional groundwater systems................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
 Groundwater models ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
 Components of sub-surface water systems ................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Plant root zone ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Unsaturated zone................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Saturated zone.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Aquifer............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Types of aquifers......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Confined aquifer .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Unconfined aquifer ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
 Aquifers in different geologies................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Sedimentary aquifer .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Fractured rock aquifer ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Watertable surface ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
 Gaining and losing streams............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
 Groundwater restrictions.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Valley constriction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Closed drainage system................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Change in basement rock .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10
 Key points and further information................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1
4
 Introduction
Awareness of groundwater levels, the pathways groundwater travels and the time it takes to move through
these pathways assists with the understanding of salinity expression. The aquifer type and the quality of the
groundwater will determine the prospective use of the water and the volumes possible for irrigation, urban,
and stock and domestic use. Saline groundwater discharging to or near the surface often results in a saline
discharge site. An insight into the delivery mechanism of saline groundwater to or near the surface, or to
water bodies such as rivers and dams, will assist in determining management strategies.
 Groundwater
There are numerous uses for groundwater within economy and human society directly or indirectly in
a catchment. Groundwater is an important water most catchments.
source for natural ecosystems; dryland and irrigated
Changes to the water cycle through human activities
agriculture; and urban, industrial and commercial
(e.g. urbanisation and agriculture) often change
development. Both dryland and irrigated agriculture
the levels, quality and quantity of groundwater. For
partially depend on groundwater for stock and
example, excessive application of surface water that
domestic as well as crop production purposes.
causes groundwater to rise will bring salts to the
Groundwater moves laterally in aquifers and as soil surface causing salinisation of urban, irrigation
baseflow1 into rivers and streams to supply water and dryland environments. Excessive extraction of
to wetlands. These wetlands host a variety of groundwater causing a drop in levels is also an issue
species including birds and specialised vegetation. for some parts of Australia.
Groundwater supports the environment, the
 Groundwater definition
Groundwater is defined as subsurface water in and other structures and its expression on the soil
the saturated zone, including water occupying surface is required when managing salinity.
pores, cracks and voids in soil and rock material. An
understanding of water movement through rock
 Groundwater systems
The groundwater system is the underground section around the aquifer. The transfer of water from one
of a hydrological system, including places where location to another depends on the materials it
water enters, is transmitted, stored and departs. moves through. The ease and speed with which
water moves through an aquifer will depend on:
It includes the particular physical attributes of
that system, including geophysical characteristics, • Porosity – the capacity of soil or rock to hold
geology, regolith and topography. Groundwater water. This is defined as the percentage of the
systems may be local, intermediate or regional in bulk volume of the soil or rock that is occupied
extent (Figure 4.1). Different groundwater systems by openings such as pores and fractures. A
may overlap in a catchment, for example a shallow geological material with a high porosity (more
local system may overlay a deeper regional system. openings) can hold more water than a geological
material with fewer openings (low porosity)
Sediments or rocks porous enough to store water
and permeable enough to allow water to flow • Permeability (also called transmissivity) – the
through them in quantities that yield usable ease with which a porous media can transmit
amounts of water to bores and springs are called water. This is a measure of the ability of the
aquifers. If the sediment of rock does not contain material to drain and is dependent on how well
usable amounts of water and its permeability is very the pores or fractures are connected.
low, then it is referred to as an aquitard2. Aquitards
• Total hydraulic head – the energy contained in
constrain groundwater, aquifers contain it.
a water mass due to its elevation, pressure and
How groundwater travels through an aquifer velocity. Elevation head and pressure head are
depends on the geology of the material in and most important in groundwater studies and their
2
4
sum is equivalent to the total hydraulic head. It on a slope and discharges at the break or base of
can be determined by measuring the elevation of the slope in the same sub-catchment.
the water level in a bore or piezometer.
They occur where there is pronounced (hilly
Water and salt movement in a groundwater system or depressed) local topography. The size of the
with low permeability and high porosity (e.g. high recharge area is a large proportion of the total size
clay content) will be slower; as opposed to a system of the system. Local groundwater systems respond
with higher permeability and low to moderate rapidly to changes in water inputs. As the diagram
porosity (e.g. coarse sand and gravel) where below (Figure 4.1) shows, a local groundwater
groundwater movement will be rapid. system can occur within an intermediate and
regional groundwater system.
Groundwater systems respond to recharge in
two ways. If the system is permeable the water
will move within the aquifer. If the system is Intermediate groundwater systems
constrained e.g. by an aquitard, then there may be These groundwater systems are between local and
no net movement, but a build up in pressure. Salts regional (5 to 50km) groundwater systems.
cannot be flushed and water cannot drain from An example of an intermediate system is where
groundwater systems that do not transmit water recharge occurs at the top of a larger catchment and
easily. discharge occurs lower in the catchment or across
Groundwater levels closely follow both short and surface catchment boundaries.
long term climate trends. When water recharges
groundwater systems with little storage space Regional groundwater systems
or low permeability, it may cause a significant Regional groundwater systems are deep, have long
rise in groundwater level. These are the kind of flow paths (>50km) and are generally confined.
groundwater systems most often involved in the Discharge areas may be hundreds of kilometres
salinity process. In this case watertables rise bringing from their recharge areas. Groundwater moves very
salts closer to the surface. slowly and the size of the recharge area is small
compared with the total size of the system. Regional
Local groundwater systems groundwater systems can take hundreds of years to
Local groundwater systems are shallow and have respond to recharge.
short flow paths (several kilometres). Their discharge Local groundwater systems are those most
areas are adjacent and in close proximity to their commonly associated with salinity. However,
recharge areas. An example of a local groundwater intermediate and regional groundwater systems can
system is where water leaks past the plant root zone also predispose an area to salinity.
Figure 4.1: Groundwater systems: extent and predicted path of

local and intermediate regional groundwater.
Source: Adapted from Smithson (2003)
3
4
 Groundwater models
Adapted from Walker et al (2003) National Catchment Classification System
categorises Australia’s groundwater flow systems
There are many different types of groundwater
into the broad categories of local, intermediate and
models that may predict groundwater behaviour
regional. The classification (Coram 1998) is based
under various conditions.
on recharge and flow behaviour and uses criteria
Conceptual models allow us to simplify complex such as length of flow paths through aquifers,
systems and predict their behaviour under various aquifer permeability and driving pressure gradients
conditions. Groundwater systems vary from for groundwater flow. It groups groundwater flow
catchment to catchment and within catchments systems according to their geology, age and the
according to their geology and geomorphology. extent of the groundwater. It is a useful classification
Each system has key features that must be because groundwater systems within a group often
considered when assessing how a system will react similarly to a particular change. The broad
respond to management activities. categories of groundwater flow systems in Australia
are listed in Table 4.1 below, summarised from
Research over the last 30 years has studied,
documented and interpreted many catchments, Coram et al (1999). However, the national system is
such as the Loddon Plains, Axe Creek and Burkes probably too general to use state-wide and more
local knowledge is needed.
Flat in Victoria, Western Murray Basin in South
Australia, Brymaroo in Queensland and the Yass In some landscapes there is a combination of
Valley in NSW. Detailed investigation of these real- groundwater systems, for example regional systems
world catchments has led to the development in an unconfined marine sediment overlain by
of improved computer models that can predict, a local flow system in aeolian sediments. The
with some success, groundwater behaviour possibility of a combination of groundwater
in other catchments with similar geology and systems interacting clearly illustrates why expert
geomorphology. interpretation of data is important before investing
in salinity control.
No Groundwater flow system

1 Local flow system in Precambrian rocks
2 Intermediate flow system in Precambrian rocks
3 Intermediate flow system in Cainozoic sediments
4 Local flow systems in deeply weathered terrain
5 Local flow systems in fractured rock aquifers.
6 Local flow systems in colluvial aprons
7 Intermediate flow systems in Palaeozoic rocks
8 Local flow systems in Cainozoic volcanic or Mesozoic sediments/volcanics
9 Regional flow systems in Cainozoic volcanics or Mesozoic sediments/volcanics
10 Regional and local flow systems in Cainozoic sediments
11 Regional and local flow systems in Cainozoic marine sediments
Table 4.1: Australian Groundwater flow systems classification.
Source: Coram et al (1999)
Note: It is important to emphasise that the hydrogeological provinces3 and groundwater flow systems shown
on this table have been derived using national scale datasets, and the classification is therefore appropriate for
use at a strategic, rather that an operational scale (Coram, et al. 1999).
4
4
 Components of sub-surface water systems

These are illustrated in Figures 4.2 and 4.3
Plant root zone Unsaturated zone
The plant root zone is the area below the soil surface The unsaturated zone is the area between the
occupied by plant roots and is very important in ground surface and the watertable which is not
salinity management. A deeper root zone means completely saturated with water. Pore spaces
better access to water deeper in the profile and contain water at less than atmospheric pressure
greater potential for increased evapotranspiration along with air. It includes the root zone where
and consequently lower leakage and recharge to soil water is stored, an intermediate zone and the
the groundwater system. Figure 4.2 below illustrates capillary fringe (Figure 4.3). Water is preferably
a groundwater system and the plant root zone stored here on a temporary basis for plant use rather
component. than leaking to the watertable to become recharge.
Figure 4.2: The groundwater system.

Source: Adapted from Anderson, Britten and Francis (1993)
Saturated zone
The saturated zone (Figure 4.3) is the area
below the watertable where all available
pore spaces in the soil, sediment and
rock fractures are filled with water. All
water below the watertable is known as
groundwater. The upper surface of this zone
in an unconfined aquifer is the watertable.
If the saturated zone is close to the ground
surface and within the root zone, the
plants will be affected by waterlogging and
possibly salinity. This will result in reduced
production or species change due to varying
tolerances to waterlogging and salinity.
Aquifer
An aquifer is formed by sediment
(unconsolidated material) or rocks. They are porous Figure 4.3: Saturated and unsaturated soil zones.
Source: Gill (2002)
enough to store water and permeable enough to
allow water to flow through them in quantities that
yield usable amounts of water. The porosity (spaces
between individual grains) of a geological material
determines how much water the material can hold.
A material with a high porosity will hold more water
than a material with a low porosity, providing it has
adequate permeability (Gill 2002).
5
4
 Types of aquifers
There are two main types of aquifers:
Confined aquifer
A confined aquifer usually has a
confining impermeable bed as
an upper boundary as well as
an impermeable layer (aquitard)
below. These two upper and
lower layers restrict water
movement to the confined
pathway. Unlike an unconfined
aquifer, a confined aquifer
is fully saturated. Confined
aquifers are recharged in areas
where the confined layer is
exposed to the surface and
also from leaky confining beds
(aquitards). The water level in a
monitoring bore (piezometer)
drilled in a confined aquifer
will generally rise above the Figure 4.4: Confined and unconfined aquifers.
Source: Smithson (2001)
top of the aquifer due to the weight of water within
the aquifer and of the overlying material. The water is able to rise and fall in response to recharge events.
level in the piezometer is the potentiometric surface If a monitoring bore is drilled within an unconfined
(Figure 4.4). aquifer, then the water level in the well defines
the watertable. Perched aquifers are a special case
of an unconfined aquifer. They occur as saturated
Unconfined aquifer lenses that lie upon less permeable lenses within the
An unconfined aquifer has no confining layer above unsaturated zone.
it. As the materials above the unconfined aquifer
are permeable, the watertable forms an upper Figure 4.4 above illustrates confined and unconfined
boundary. The watertable in an unconfined aquifer aquifers.
 Aquifers in different geologies

Sedimentary aquifer
Sedimentary aquifers are
made up of unconsolidated
sediments such as alluvial and
colluvial sand and gravel. They
can have high porosity and
permeability, allowing water
to move more easily through
them. Sedimentary aquifers are
often layered, consisting of
unconfined aquifers often with
numerous aquifers beneath,
separated by confining beds.
They can also occur in sediment
associated with river networks.
It should be noted that some
Figure 4.5: Sedimentary aquifer.
sedimentary materials such as clay can also act Source: Gill (2002)
as aquitards. Figure 4.5 illustrates a sedimentary
aquifer.
6
4
Fractured rock aquifer moves through the system will impact on water
chemistry as the water will be in contact with the
Fractured rock aquifers occur in consolidated
surrounding rocks for longer. Variations in the rock
sedimentary and metamorphic rock types such
chemistry and secondary infill minerals can also
as sandstone, slate and shale, and in igneous rocks
affect the chemistry of the water.
such as granite and basalt. With the exception of
sandstone, these rock types generally have low Generally groundwater near a recharge zone has
primary (pore space) porosity and therefore do not a different chemistry to that further down the
hold a lot of water. High secondary porosity due gradient where it has been in contact with the
to fracturing can increase the storage capacity of surrounding rock for longer.
fractured rocks. Sandstone
is unusual in that it can have
high values of both primary
and secondary porosity (dual
porosity), so can yield large
amounts of water.
If a groundwater bore
is drilled that does not
intercept a fracture system,
then the well will be dry
or low yielding. Within a
sedimentary aquifer the
quality (salinity) and quantity
(yield) of the groundwater
pumped from the aquifer
is relatively uniform across
the aquifer. However, in a Figure 4.6: Fractured rock aquifer showing how adjacent wells can yield
fractured rock aquifer (Figure different quantities of water due to different fracturing.
Source: Gill (2002)
4.6) the quality and quantity between bores in the
same aquifer (sometimes only a hundred metres
apart) can differ dramatically. Watertable surface
The watertable is the surface at which the water
Quantity of water yielded by the aquifer depends
pressure in the pores of the porous material (soil or
on:
rock) is exactly atmospheric pressure. It is the upper
• intensity of fracturing
surface of the saturated zone in an unconfined
• extent of the fracture zone
aquifer. It defines the boundary between the
• whether the fractures are open or closed
unconfined and confined aquifers (illustrated in
• interconnectivity between fractures
Figure 4.4). Watertables rise and fall over time as
• porosity and permeability of the fracture zone
water is added to, or removed from the groundwater
• amount of infill from secondary minerals.
system. The watertable surface may drop due
Because all these characteristics are quite variable to climatic variation, seasonal rainfall change,
within a fractured rock, yield is also quite variable. groundwater pumping or from evapotranspiration.
Water quality is less variable, but any factor that
significantly slows down the rate at which water
 Gaining and losing streams

Groundwater and surface water can be the stream water. If the groundwater is saline and
interconnected and often flow from one to the flows into a stream, the water quality of the stream
other. The major direction of flow will determine will deteriorate and vice versa, surface water can
if a waterway is a losing stream or a gaining contaminate groundwater.
stream. If the watertable is below the stream bed,
(The information in this section has been adapted
surface water will flow from the stream to the
from Gill, R (2002), ABCs of groundwater, Centre for
groundwater and this is then called a losing stream.
Groundwater Studies, Adelaide).
If the watertable intersects the stream bed, the
groundwater will flow into the stream as baseflow. Figures 4.7 to 4.9 following illustrate gaining and
The stream is called a gaining stream. The quality losing streams.
of the groundwater can have a major effect on
7
4
Figure 4.7: Gaining stream – the

watertable is situated above the
stream such that the groundwater
flows into the stream.
Source: Gill (2002)
Figure 4.8: Losing stream – the

watertable is below the stream so
the water flows from the stream to
the groundwater.
Source: Gill (2002)
Figure 4.9: Losing stream that is

disconnected from the watertable
shows how the permeable bed of
a stream allows water to recharge
the watertable below.
Source: Gill (2002)
The information in 'Types of Aquifers’ and ‘Aquifers in different Geologies’ has been adapted from
Gill, R (2002) ABCs of Groundwater, Centre of Groundwater Studies, Adelaide.
8
4
 Groundwater restrictions
Both geological structures beneath the ground and landscape features can influence groundwater movement.
When groundwater movement is restricted and its pathway altered, pressure often builds up and groundwater
is forced to discharge wherever it can. The break-of-slope and low-lying areas are often points of release. If
the geology beneath the surface and the cause of possible restrictions is understood, suitable management
strategies can be employed to rectify the situation. Some examples are given below (Figure 4.10 – 4.13).
Valley constriction
Figure 4.10: Valley constrictions may result in groundwater Plate 4.1: The town of Junee is located in a valley with a
discharge. Where a bottleneck occurs, groundwater is restricted and constriction at its northern end.
may discharge onto the surface. For example, Junee urban area. Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
Source: Anderson, Francis and Britten (1993)
Closed drainage system
Figure 4.11: A closed drainage system has no outlet, such as a Plate 4.2: A closed drainage system in the Burrumbuttock area.
stream, for groundwater discharge. Salts are concentrated by Any surface run-off or groundwater discharge to this lake will be
evaporation. For example Willandra Lakes and Lake Urana. contained as it is lower than the surrounding landscape. In effect
Source: Anderson, Britten and Francis (1993) the site acts as a natural evaporation basin.
Change in basement rock

The solid rock found under unconsolidated material, or exposed to the soil surface, influence groundwater
storage, movement and discharge. The occurrence of a discharge area may indicate a change in basement or
bedrock height, however as this occurs underground it can be difficult to determine. Groundwater discharge
due to basement rock change often occurs in particular locations such as break-of-slope, where different rock
types meet or where faulting occurs.
Figure 4.12: A change in basement rock level and compaction Plate 4.3: Soil compaction impedes groundwater movement and
beneath the road restrict groundwater movement causing a may restrict surface water drainage. The result is waterlogging and
dam effect. Groundwater rises each side of the road resulting in a salt concentration beside the road.
discharge area where salt is often visible. Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
Source: Adapted from Salas (2004)
9
4
Figure 4.13: Groundwater movement may be restricted where Plate 4.4: Rock structures can force groundwater to the surface as
a less permeable layer has formed a geological fault against a lateral flow is impeded.
more permeable unit. As groundwater is forced to the surface and Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
evaporates, salts are deposited.
Source: Adapted from Salas (2004)
 Endnotes
1
2
Aquitard: Geological semi-permeable formation retarding water; it may contain groundwater but is incapable of transferring that water
to the surface.
3
Hydrogeological province: Part of the landscape where the physical processes contributing to dryland salinity are similar and where the
salinity management options are also similar Walker et al (2003).
10
4
 Key points and further information


The key points relevant to groundwater flow are: Robins, L.2004, Dryland Salinity and Catchment Management
 There are three groundwater systems that characterise – A Resource Directory and Action Manual for Catchment
the extent of a groundwater system: Local, Intermediate and Managers, Land and Water Australia, Canberra ACT.
Regional. Walker, G, Gilfedder, M, Evans, R, Dyson, P & Stauffacher,
 The National Catchment Classification System categorises M 2003, Groundwater Flow Systems – Framework – Essential
Australia’s groundwater flow systems into 11 subsystems Tools for Planning Salinity Management, Murray–Darling Basin
depending on the age and geology of the groundwater Commission and CSIRO.
system and its extent.
 Characteristics of groundwater systems determine response Websites
time and length of flow paths. Centre for Groundwater Studies, Adelaide, viewed 1 Oct 2009,
 Computer models allow us to simplify complex groundwater http://www.groundwater.com.au
systems and predict their behaviour under various conditions. NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water,
 The two major types of aquifers are confined and unconfined. viewed 27 April 2010, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.
au/contact/
 When the watertable is above a stream, groundwater flows
into the stream and the stream is called a gaining stream. National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality, viewed 22
April 2010, http://www.napswq.gov.au/
 A losing stream occurs where the watertable is below
the stream and the water flows from the stream into the Government of Western Australia, Department of Agriculture and
groundwater system. Food, ‘Flowtube’ – a very user-friendly groundwater modelling
Tool, viewed 22 April 2010, http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_
 The groundwater quality can have a major effect on the
92354.html?s=1001
stream water.
National Dryland Salinity Program Catchment Classification,
 When the groundwater is saline and flows into a stream, the
viewed 2 October 2009, http://www.ndsp.gov.au/catchclass/
water quality of the stream will deteriorate.
index.html
Further information
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity)
(DECCW)
 References
Anderson, JD, Francis, J & Britten, R 1993, Dryland salinity – Slinger, D and Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
the causes, Department of Conservation and Land Management, Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of
Sydney, NSW. Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Coram, J 1998, National classification of catchments for land and Smithson, A 2001, Figure 4.4: Confined and unconfined aquifers,
river salinity control, Rural Industries Research and Development (unpublished), DLWC, Groundwater and salinity processes, NSW
Corporation, Barton, ACT. State Salinity Strategy initiative, Dubbo, NSW.
Coram, J, Dyson, P, Houlder, P & Evans, R 1999, Australian Smithson, A 2003, Figure 4.1: Groundwater systems: extent and
groundwater flow systems contributing to dryland salinity, viewed predicted path of local and intermediate regional groundwater,
16 May 2008, http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/salinity/pubs/ (unpublished), DIPNR.
national/salinity_gfs_report/report/pdf/report.pdf Walker, GSR, Gilfedder, M, Evans, R, Dyson, P & Stauffacher, M 2003,
Gill, R 2002, ABCs of groundwater, Centre for Groundwater Groundwater flow systems framework: essential tools for
Studies, Adelaide, SA. planning salinity management, CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra,
ACT.
Salas, G 2004, Original drawings of Figures 4.12 and 4.13.,
(unpublished), Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural
Resources, Forbes, NSW.
11
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12
5
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Soil physical characteristics and salinity ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Texture .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Texture and salt........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Structure ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Porosity............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Permeability................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Soil waterholding capacity, drainage and salinity ................................................................................................................................................. 7
 Soil chemical characteristics ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Salinity and sodicity? .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Acidity............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Fertility ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
 Geology and soils .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Igneous .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Sedimentary ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Metamorphic ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
 Appendix 1: Sodic soil ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

About clay particles .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Appendix 2: Soil pH............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20

What is soil pH and why is it important? ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
How does soil pH relate to soil sodicity and salinity? ..................................................................................................................................... 20
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
1
5
 Introduction
This chapter discusses major soil properties that affect salinity processes and management options. Soil
properties impact on water movement and storage in landscapes. Some soil chemical properties including
acidity and fertility, and physical properties such as structure can be changed by management. On the other
hand, some soil physical properties such as texture cannot be changed.
 Soil physical characteristics and salinity

Texture
Figure 5.1: The soil texture
Texture is the term used triangle.
to describe the relative Source: Adapted from Charman
and Murphy (2000)
abundance of different
sizes of mineral particles
that make up a soil.
Texture is essentially a
fixed property of a soil.
It is determined by the
parent rock material and
the soil’s transportational
(wind or water) history. It
is not changed merely by
cultivation or by adding
gypsum.
Soil particles vary in size
(Table 5.1) from coarse
sand to clay. Those
larger than coarse sand
(2 mm), such as gravel and
cobbles, are generally not
included as part of the
soil because they do not
effectively contribute any
useful nutrients or water-holding capacity for plant Thus fine soils with a high proportion of particles
growth. From a plant root perspective, particles less than 0.002 mm are called clays or clay loam
larger than 2 mm just dilute the useful part of the textured soils. Coarse soils with a high proportion of
soil. Table 5.1 also shows how, as the sizes of soil particles at the large end of the scale are called
particles decrease, their surface area increases sands, loamy sands/sandy loams or loams (in order
much more. This is why clays are more reactive than of decreasing sand content).
sand particles and explains why we multiply the Soil texture can be measured accurately by a particle
measured soil salinity by a texture conversion factor size analysis test in the laboratory. However there
to estimate the effective salinity from a plant root is a field test that, with experience, can be accurate
perspective (see the Multiplier Factor below). enough for most purposes (refer to Chapter 12).
It is awkward to describe soils by their proportions Texture determines the number and nature of the
of different particle sizes, so we map them onto a spaces (pores) in the soil so it has a big impact on
triangle and give the sections names (Figure 5.1). how water behaves in a soil—both how water moves
Soil particle Particle size (mm) Relative surface area through a soil and how the soil holds water available
(chemical activity) for plant growth.
clay <0.002 1 000 000
Sandy soils have large pore spaces so tend to hold
silt 0.002 to 0.02 10 000 very little water and conduct water readily. They are
fine sand 0.02 to 0.2 100 referred to as highly permeable. Clay soils, on the
coarse sand 0.2 to 2 1 other hand, have lots of small particles that can pack
tightly with smaller pores between them. Thus clays
gravel >2 conduct water more slowly (depending on the
Table 5.1: Soil particle size and relative surface area. structure of the soil) and have low permeability
Source: Brown and Green (2001)
(Figure 5.2).
2
5
Figure 5.2: Permeability of different soil textures.

Source: Gill (2002)
The small pores in clays also tend to hold water the surface. This is why a high watertable usually
readily against drainage due to gravity so they causes surface salt accumulation.
usually have a good available waterholding capacity.
Waterbehaviour in silt or loam soils is usually Leaching is often relied upon to move salt from the
somewhere in between sands and clays. root zone of plants further down the profile where
it will not have a detrimental effect on the health
Texture and salt of the vegetation being grown, or away from
infrastructure in urban environments.
Soil texture affects many soil characteristics including
permeability and porosity, so knowledge of soil Soil texture can and does affect the rate and total
texture is important for understanding salt amount of infiltration, and therefore the level of
in soils and landscapes. (Note: Structure also affects leaching that can occur from the root zone. Salt
permeability and porosity – see section below). leaches more slowly from a clay compared to a
sandy soil because clay particles have a higher
In addition to differences in permeability between Cation Exchange Capacity to hold on to the sodium.
soils high in sand and those high in clay, we need
to understand a little about how the chemistry of b) Multiplier factor
clays differs from sands. Clay particles can hold onto
Plant salinity tolerance data is provided as an
nutrients (such as potassium, calciumand even
ECe value. It is therefore necessary to convert the
sodium) better against leaching. This is because clay
particles have a higher Cation Exchange Capacity1 measured EC1:5 to an ECe using a texture conversion
(CEC) than sand particles. Typical clay Cation factor, f (see Chapter 12).
Exchange Capacities are 20–200 milliequivalents per ECe = EC1:5 x f
100 g dry soil, compared to sands of 0–5 meq/100 g
(the larger the number, the better for adsorbing This factor f will vary according to the texture of
nutrients onto the surface of the particle). This the soil. A sandy soil will have a greater multiplier
means that clay particles are much better at holding factor than a clay soil. The factor variation is due
onto nutrients against leaching and why it can take to the difference in volume of water required
longer to leach salinity out of a clay soil than a sandy to make a saturated paste. A sandy soil requires
one. Organic matter has Cation Exchange Capacities much less water than clay soils to make a saturated
around 400 meq/100 g, which is why humus is so paste. Because the water volume is lower in the
important in soils. sand, the concentration of salt would be higher than
in clay with the same amount of salt.
Texture is important to an understanding of
salinity in two ways:
Structure
a) Leaching Structure describes how soil particles hold
Leaching is the process of water flowing through together to form aggregates or peds. Soil can be
the soil and dissolving or ’washing’ salt down the well structured, allowing the movement of water
soil profile below the plant root zone. Leaching and air into the soil through the large and stable
occurs whenever any water moves through the pore spaces between the peds. Soil can also be
profile, whether it is rainfall or irrigation, provided poorly structured with little space or aggregate
the watertable is sufficiently low. If the watertable development (Figure 5.3). Poor structure can occur
is high i.e. within the root zone, water cannot move in both very sandy and very clayey soils. In sandy
down and take the salt with it. The water and salt soils, poor structure results in single grain structure
then accumulate in the root zone and often also at which is very susceptible to wind erosion. In
clayey soils, poor structure is associated with low
3
5
permeability and waterlogging. High Exchangeable Organic matter in loamy and sandy soils: Structure
Sodium Percentage (ESP) often predicts poor and the presence of stable macropores are highly
structure (especially if salt content is low). influenced by soil organic matter. Sandy soils have a
low clay content (therefore a low Cation Exchange
Effect of texture: Large sand particles have a low
Capacity) so the chemical influence of high sodicity is
CEC so lack the effective electrochemical charge
less. Organic matter helps to bind soil particles into
needed for soil particles to aggregate. Physically,
peds and maintain macropores5 in the soil. Sandy
however, this may not cause problems as most
soils are usually more fragile (weaker structured)
sandy soils have a pore size distribution that allows
than clay soils as physical disturbance can easily
for rapid movement of air and water (i.e. have
destroy macropores and peds, and oxidise organic
relatively more large pores than a poorly structured
matter relatively quickly.
loam).
Structure has a major impact on the following
Soil chemistry: Some clay soils can be well
properties of soil:
structured and friable2. Others can be hard-setting
and compacted like concrete. Structure in clay soils • Soil drainage and aeration: Water and air move
is related to chemistry. For example, when cation through the pores or spaces within the soil.
exchange sites hold too much sodium (Na), soils The ability of the soil to conduct air and water
will be poorly structured. An Exchangeable Sodium is determined by the size, connectivity and
Percentage (ESP) greater than 5%–6%3 usually causes distribution of these spaces. Soils with compacted
clay dispersion. When the clay particles are pushed layers or few spaces are prone to waterlogging
further apart, the electrochemical forces that bind (Figure 5.3). Well-structured soils usually drain
clay particles into peds are weakened (the clay freely and are well aerated. This effect of structure
disperses into single particles) and peds breakdown is in addition to the impact of texture shown in
into a structureless mass. This is why sodic soils are Figure 5.2. This impacts directly on water and
poorly structured and do not conduct air or water oxygen availability and therefore plantgrowth.
well. See section on Soil Chemical Characteristics
• Waterholding capacity: A soil’s waterholding
– Salinity and Sodicity in this chapter. capacity is determined by the texture as well
Clay soils usually shrink and swell (depending upon as its structure. Soils with few spaces hold little
the type of clay mineral and its adsorbed cations) water. Soils with too many large spaces also hold
with changing water content. This will also influence little water because it drains out due to the pull
structure and is responsible for ‘self-mulching’4 of gravity (compare the waterholding capacity
behaviour often seen in smectite clays such as of a sponge with very large holes, to one with
montmorillonite that are low in sodium (Na) and small holes). The main force that holds the water
high in calcium (Ca). Conversely, some clays such in the soil is capillary force. Smaller pores have
as kaolinites that are high in sodium and low in greater capillary forces able to hold onto water
calcium can have very poor structure. Structure against the pull of gravity trying to ‘drain’ it out.
properties resulting from the inherent chemistry So soils with a lot of very small spaces (clays and
of the clay minerals can be made worse by poor well-structured loams) have a greater ability to
agricultural practices (such as over-cultivation), hold soil moisture. This ability to hold water in
which may destroy an already weak structure. Poorly the plant root zone is a major benefit for plant
structured soils often benefit from soil organic growth, particularly in low rainfall zones.
matter, which helps to stabilise soil structure.
Figure 5.3: Examples of poorly and well-structured soils.

Source: Charman and Murphy (2000)
4
5
There are three ways to improve soil structure: residues, which increase the fibre component of the
organic matter. The best way to increase soil organic
1. A dd gypsum: When gypsum (calcium sulphate)
matter is to return it to permanent woodland.
is added to soils with sodicity problems (sodic soils),
the calcium in the gypsum displaces sodium from Field tests can measure the sodicity and aggregate
the soil cation exchange sites. This reduces the ESP stability of a soil. These tests are called the
(Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) and stabilises dispersion test and the slaking test respectively
the soil aggregates. (refer to Chapter 12).
Lime (calcium carbonate) also contains calcium so
has a beneficial effect in improving soil structure. Porosity
However it also raises the soil pH which may not be Porosity is the number and connectivity of soil
desirable. spaces or pores. When the soil is dry, these pores are
full of air. As the soil gets wet, they are progressively
2. Reduce tillage: Excessive tillage on fragile filled with water until the soil is waterlogged
soils will result in the breakdown of peds (soil (saturated – 100% full of water). Clay soils can have
aggregates) to such an extent that large soil spaces a high porosity, but it can be distributed between
are destroyed, restricting air and water movement a large number of non-connected (discontinuous)
(Figure 5.4). The large soil pores are destroyed first small pores, which can make the soil impermeable.
as they are the weakest. Macropores can be easily On the other hand, deeply-cracking clays can be
damaged by tillage, especially in soils low in clay extremely permeable as the water just flows quickly
where there is little capacity for ’self-repair’ evident down the cracks (until they slowly close as the clay
in self-mulching clays. swells – this can take many days).
Tillage also decreases the amount of organic matter Bulk Density (BD) is usually used as a measure
in the soil by physically breaking it down into of porosity. Units are grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
smaller components faster than it would naturally or the numerically equal Mg/m3 . The higher the value
break down. Cultivation exposes organic matter the more compact is the soil, up to a limit of about
to air and microbes which oxidise it to soluble 2.65 g/cm3 which is the density of solid rock (zero
components that can leach out of the soil quickly. porosity).
3. I ncrease organic matter: As stated above, organic Bulk Density = Weight of dry undisturbed soil
matter helps to stabilise structure and protect soils divided by its volume.
from compaction and erosion. One way to increase
organic matter is to grow crops with high volume Soil pores can be described as macropores
(>0.5 mm) or micropores (<0.5 mm). The size of the
pores determines infiltration, drainage, aeration
and waterholding capacity characteristics. As a
general rule in the field, if pores are large enough
to see with the naked eye (say 0.5 mm) they are
important for water movement through soil. Pores
that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
(<0.5 mm) are important for holding water in the soil
against drainage due to gravity, but the water is still
available to plants. (This excludes water still present
in the soil at Permanent Wilting Point6, in ultra fine
pores).
Soils with high numbers of large pores (macropores)
are usually well aerated and have high infiltration
and drainage rates. Whereas soils with lots of small
pores (micropores) usually have a greater capacity
to store water for plant growth, but lower infiltration
and drainage rates.
Rankings for bulk density in Table 5.2 below are:
• Very open. Sandy soils with very low bulk
densities have large pore spaces between soil
aggregates. This makes it difficult for the plant
roots to extract moisture. These soils are highly
Figure 5.4: Illustration of the effects of good and poor soil permeable and have little capacity to retain
structures on plant growth moisture.
Source: adapted from Brown and Green (2001)
5
5
• Satisfactory. Bulk density is normally satisfactory roots, and water can be held tightly by the soil
for plant root growth. It has good pore space, making it more difficult for the plant roots to
good water infiltration and adequate water extract.
availability.
• Extremely compact. Bulk density is extreme
• Compact. Bulk density is raised and poor and soils are generally not suitable for plant
structure may be starting to become a problem growth without amelioration, such as improving l
for plant root growth and infiltration of water in soistructure with gypsum and organic matter,
topsoils. and reducing the movement of vehicles when
soils are wet.
• Very compact. Bulk density is high and soils
are likely to be too compact for plant roots to Note: It is normal for subsoils to have values higher
penetrate readily. The small soil pores, which are than topsoils by around 0.2 g/ml.
often present, limit the availability of air to the
Bulk density (g/cm3 or Mg/m3)

Soil texture
and approximate <1.2 >1.2–1.4 >1.4–1.6 >1.6–1.8 >1.8
% of clay
Sandy Very open Very open Satisfactory Compact Very compact
<20% clay
Loamy Satisfactory Satisfactory Compact Very compact Extremely
20% – 35% clay compact
Clayey Satisfactory Satisfactory Very compact Very compact Extremely

>35% clay to compact compact
Table 5.2: Bulk density of various soils.
Source: Adapted from Department of Natural Resources (2006)
Permeability Texture Structure Infiltration Permeability

The rate that water moves through a soil is referred (mm/h)
to as soil permeability. Permeability depends on the Sand Little to no structure Very rapid >120
soil’s texture, structure and porosity (Table 5.3).
Loam Some development Rapid 60–120
Within a soil profile, physical differences between Poor Mod. rapid 20–60
the layers (called horizons) can have a huge impact
on how water moves. The permeability of the least Light clay Some development Moderate 2.0–5
permeable horizon limits the infiltration rate of Poor Slow <2.5
the whole profile. Where a more permeable layer Medium to Strong development Slow 2.5–5
overlies a less permeable layer, surface waterlogging heavy clay Some development Very slow <2.5
or a perched watertable can develop (Figure 5.5).
Table 5.3: Permeability of soils.
Source: Adapted from Charman and Murphy (1991)
Figure 5.5: Permeability of a soil profile.

Source: Smithson et al. (2004)
6
5
Soil waterholding capacity, how a moderate soil waterholding capacity needs
about 50–75 cm root depth of sand, or 25–50 cm of
drainage and salinity loam, or only up to 25 cm of clayey soil.
Soil texture, structure, porosity and permeability
determine the Waterholding Capacity (WHC) and Water held in the plant root zone is available
drainage properties of a soil. Soil waterholding for plant growth. Any water that drains past the
capacity and drainage impact on the occurrence of root zone can contribute to rising watertables.
salinity. For this reason sandy soils usually develop high
watertables more rapidly than heavier textured
When a saturated soil has drained freely for about (clayey) soils. Thus increasing the WHC of a soil will
three days until no more water drains out of it, it is not completely eliminate leakage or drainage, but it
said to be at Field Capacity. The remaining water is may help reduce it if plant coverage is consequently
held in the micropores against the pull of gravity. improved.
Capillary attraction between the water and the soil
forming the sides of the pore keep the water from Soil water leakage is a major factor in rising
draining away. Some of the pore space at this stage watertables and groundwater movement, which
contains air—which is very necessary for most redistribute salts stored at depth in the soil profile or
plants to grow. Few plants (exceptions are rice, rocks.
rushes and sedges) can grow in soils where the pore Porosity and permeability influence the degree of
space is 100% occupied by water. Table 5.4 shows drainage within a soil. Drainage is usually greater in
soils with large numbers of continuous macropores
Soil depth (cm) Sand Loam Clay such as well-structured loams to sands. In clay
soils, structure has a significant effect. If the clay soil
0–25 low low moderate is well-structured, cracking or self-mulching, the soil
25–50 low moderate high will have good porosity, good permeability, good
drainage and excellent waterholding capacity.
50–75 moderate moderate high
Otherwise a poorly structured, e.g. sodic, clay will
Table 5.4: Soil waterholding capacity. have low porosity, low permeability and therefore
Source: Adapted from Charman and Murphy (1991) drain slowly.
 Soil chemical characteristics

Salinity and sodicity?
There is a big difference between salinity and
sodicity. Saline soils are high in total soluble salt,
which can be any combination of cations (e.g.
sodium, calcium or magnesium) and anions (e.g.
chloride, bicarbonate, carbonate or sulphate),
Table 5.5: Soil salinity classes.
though usually sodium and chloride dominate. Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005)
By contrast, sodic soils are high in exchangeable
sodium ions (this is the only criterion – see section Sodic soil can be well structured if the soil is saline
on sodic soils below). A soil can be saline or sodic, or enough to prevent dispersion (see Figure 5.6)
both saline and sodic.
How do soils become saline?
A saline soil contains soluble salts in sufficient
There are two main causes:
quantities that they adversely affect plant growth.
Soil salinity is quoted as ECe (Electrical Conductivity • Primary salinity: Naturally occurring salinity,
of the saturated extract) in deciSiemens per metre due to high perched watertables such as in the
(dS/m) or the numerically equivalent milliSiemens bed of a saline lake. A watertable does not need
per centimetre (mS/cm) as shown in Table 5.5. How to be very saline, but if it is within three metres or
to measure and calculate the ECe will be explained in less of the surface, the soil surface remains wet
Chapter 12. due to capillary rise from the watertable. When
water evaporates from the surface, it leaves the
Sodic soils are soils that are high in exchangeable
salt behind. A zone of high salt concentration (a
sodium ions. If the ESP (Exchangeable Sodium
salt bulge, described in more detail in Chapter 1)
Percentage) is greater than 5%–6% the soil is said to
develops at the soil surface. Alternatively, a soil
be sodic.
can be naturally saline by being formed from in
So a soil can be saline and sodic, or just sodic, or just situ7 weathering of a very saline parent material,
saline. for example, a marine sediment.
7
5
Figure 5.6: The relationship between soil salinity, soil sodicity and soil structure shows that as exchangeable sodium increases, increasing soil
salinity can prevent dispersion.
Source: McMullen (2000)
• Secondary salinity: Due to the actions of amount of sodium and salt left determine whether
humans. For example, excessive clearing of deep- the soil is non-sodic (very little sodium), sodic (a
rooted perennial vegetation, such as trees, in a lot of sodium), or saline sodic (a lot of both salt and
catchment can disturb the catchment hydrology. sodium).
Water then accumulates in the deep subsoil and
To determine the salinity and sodicity of soils,
may cause salinisation, typically at breaks of
tests should be conducted and interpreted by an
slope.
appropriately qualified person. Tests suitable for
These two types of salinity can combine of course, determining sodicity and salinity are outlined in
and naturally occurring salinity can be made worse by Chapter 12.
inappropriate landuse. This is covered in more detail
in Chapter 1. A little bit about clay particles
Some knowledge about the chemistry of clay
How do soils become sodic? particles is necessary to understand the behaviour
There are three theories as to how this happens. of sodic soils (see Appendix 1 for more details).
One possibility is that sodic soils are formed by
Clay particles have cations adsorbed on their outside
leaching of saline soils (all the cations except sodium
edges (Figure 5.8)
are leached out). Another possibility is that they
form by leaching of saline sodic soils (the salinity is Which cations are on the outside edges of clay
leached out leaving the sodicity behind). The third particles affects the way that the particles interact
possibility is that they are formed in situ from sodic with each other—particularly whether the clay will
parent materials. disperse or stay flocculated (and aggregated) when
the soil is wetted. If calcium ions dominate the
Figure 5.7 illustrates the leaching process, as in the
exchange sites on the edges of the clay particles,
first possible theory mentioned above (Rengasamy and
adjacent clay particles are strongly attracted to each
Bourne 1994). As salt is washed down through the soil
other.
it leaves some sodium behind bound to clay particles,
displacing more useful cations such as calcium. The
8
5
Figure 5.7: Saline soil leached with fresh water from rain or irrigation forms a sodic topsoil.
Source: Rengasamy and Bourne (1994)
When the soil is wetted, the forces of water moving • irrigation water becoming muddy with
around the particles are not enough to separate suspended clay
them. So the structure of a soil with calcium-
• severe gully and tunnel erosion
dominated clay therefore remains aggregated,
porous and permeable. • batter and dam wall collapse.
On the other hand, if sodium ions are dominant However, sodic soils that are irrigated with saline
on the clay exchange surface, the bonds between water do not disperse due to the electrolytic effect
adjacent particles are very weak and easily broken of the salt (see Figure 5.9). The electrolytic effect is
by the chemical and physical forces of water as it the same as the immediate effect that gypsum has
wets a soil. The clay particles disperse into the soil in flocculating clays, before the relatively slower
solution and can stay there for a long time (fully exchange of calcium for sodium takes effect (see
explained in Appendix 1). cation exchange below).
The electrolytic effect involves a competition for
Characteristics of a sodic soil water molecules. It is due to the slightly soluble salt
Sodic soils that disperse on wetting (see Figure 5.9)
in fresh water have a very unstable structure. This is
visible as:
• severe surface crusting and a surface like
concrete
• formation of hard dense subsoils
• blocking of soil pores by dispersed soil particles,
reducing internal drainage and causing
waterlogging
• slowed water infiltration to the root zone
following rainfall or irrigation
• poor soil water storage due to increased bulk Figure 5.8: Clay particle with adsorbed positive cations.
density and reduced air filled porosity Source: Wild (2007a)
9
5
The dispersed clay particles
can then move through the
soil, clogging pores. Both
swelling and dispersion
reduce infiltration and
drainage. Once the
aggregates of a sodic soil
disperse into individual clay
particles, the particles form
a stable turbidity which can
easily move long distances
in the water. The result can
be sedimentation problems
at great distances down-
catchment from the original
soil source. The turbidity
is also a problem for water
supplies as the clay is
difficult and expensive to
remove.
Figure 5.9: The Emerson Dispersion test illustrates the effects of saline and fresh water on swelling
Calculating ESP
A cation is a positively
and dispersion of a sodic soil. A few small aggregates of the soil are gently placed in shallow water in
a dish. Dispersion becomes visible as a cloudy layer that slowly spreads out from the soil aggregates charged ion that can be
across the base of the dish. The salt in the saline water suppresses the dispersion of the sodic soil.
Source: Rengasamy and Bourne (1994) held adsorbed onto clay
particles in the soil. Some
in gypsum (or the very soluble ions in saline water of these cations are referred to as exchangeable
in this case) competing with the clay particles for cations (see below). Sodium is one of the
water. The higher the concentration of soluble ions exchangeable cations, as are calcium, magnesium,
wanting to be hydrated, the less water is available potassium and hydrogen.
to disperse the clay. Thus high salt concentration
Cation exchange is the exchange of a cation in
suppresses dispersion (Figures 5.6 and 5.9).
solution with another cation on the surface of
Sodicity is the presence of a high amount of any surface-active material such as clay or organic
exchangeable sodium ions relative to other matter. A soil with a high Cation Exchange
exchangeable cations (positively charged ions) in Capacity (CEC) has a large number of potential sites
soil. It is measured as an Exchangeable Sodium that soil cations can adsorb onto. Sometimes called
Percentage (ESP). If the ESP is greater than 5%–6%, ‘total exchange capacity’ or ‘cation adsorption
then the soil is classed as sodic8. At this level, the Capacity’ (Brady and Buckman 1974).
high sodium is usually causing problems with
Sodicity is most commonly reported as
structure, such as hard-setting surface, cloddiness,
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) which is the
poor drainage, dispersion and perhaps tunnel
extent to which the adsorption complex of a soil
erosion.
is occupied by sodium (Brady and Buckman 1974).
In sodic soils, sodium exists mainly as cations Clay particles form clusters of many negatively
adsorbed on the negatively charged surface of clay charged particles held together by the positively
particles. In a well-structured soil, the clay particles charged cations that are adsorbed on their surface.
are aggregated into stable peds that retain their Sodium makes very weak bridges between the clay
structure even when wetted. However, clay particles particles and the particles can separate (disperse)
dominated by exchangeable sodium (as in a sodic when they come in contact with water. Dispersion
soil) have only weak bonds between them. When is visible as cloudiness in water caused by the
wetted, the water is able to squeeze between these separation of the clay particles (Figure 5.9).
clay particles and disperse them. Dispersed clay
Calculating Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
particles make the soil water cloudy or turbid. This
(ESP)
process of dispersion can occur spontaneously in
sodic soils without any disturbance of the soil but it ESP is calculated as follows:
is greatly aggravated by physical disturbance such ESP = Exchangeable sodium x 100
as cultivation.
Cation Exchange Capacity
10
5
Waterlogging is common in sodic soils as swelling so that this increased deep drainage does not
and dispersion of clay particles clog pores and simply add to the watertable. Management should
hence reduce internal drainage of the soil. When dry, ensure that plants growing in treated soils are able
these soils tend to be hard setting, making plant to use this excess water. Otherwise watertable or
germination difficult. salinity problems are likely to be compounded.
Improved drainage can also increase the leaching
Management of sodic soils of plant nutrients, particularly soluble nitrogen
Sodic soils, with an ESP greater than 5%–6%, can be (nitrate). Attention to plant nutrition becomes more
improved by the application of gypsum. However important after gypsum.
this is only a short term solution as the effects of
gypsum tend to dissipate in two to five years Acidity
depending on the degree of soil sodicity. Gypsum is Acidity refers to the concentration of hydrogen
very usefulwhen trying to establish new pasture in
cations in soil. It is measured in pH units, which is
sodic crusting soils.
actually a negative logarithmic scale with a range
As gypsum is slightly soluble, it can be spread on the from 0 to 14, with pH 7 being neutral. However
surface and will be leached into the soil by rainfall. in soils, the full range of the scale does not occur
Trials have been conducted with deep ripping of and neutral is taken as 6.5, as this is the pH at which
sodic soils and gypsum injection to ameliorate most plant nutrients are most available. High pH
sub-soil sodicity. However this has proven not to be soils (about 8 to 10) are said to be alkaline. Low pH
cost-effective in broadacre situations. soils (about 5 to 2) are acid. The extremely acid pH
soils around pH 2 are usually ‘Acid Sulphate Soils’,
Gypsum works in two ways. Both depend on the
which generally occur on coastal alluvial plains.
gypsum being dissolved by rain or irrigation water
Bear in mind that a pH tested in calcium chloride
and entering the soil solution.
solution (CaCl2 aq) by a laboratory will usually have a
The first is the electrolytic effect. Gypsum is a salt, pH (sometimes written as pHCa ) that is 1.0–1.5 units
calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H20). It is far less toxic more acid than a pHwater measured in the field with a
to plants than sodium chloride (NaCl). Some of colour-change indicator kit.
the structural benefit from gypsum is due to its
Soil pH impacts on:
immediate electrolytic effect. Any increase in salt
concentration in the soil solution will cause clay • the availability of nutrients
particles to aggregate. This is why saline water in • the levels of toxic elements
creeks and dams is usually clear because the clay
particles in suspension (turbidity) aggregate and • plant growth
settle to the bottom. This effect in improving soil • the ability of legumes to be infected by beneficial
structure is short lived because gypsum is slightly rhizobium.
soluble and the free ions (salt) are slowly leached
lower down the profile. One of the major problems with low pH is that
aluminium and manganese become too available
The second effect is specific to calcium. Over time, and toxic when present in large amounts.
the calcium component of gypsum displaces sodium
from the exchange sites on soil particles. The sodium Most agricultural plants need a slightly acid to
is then slowly leached deeper in the profile. slightly alkaline pH range (i.e. 5 to 8) to obtain
maximum growth. Below pH 5 most plants reduce
Both effects are important—they just happen over yield. Some plants are more susceptible to acid soils
different time-frames. The electrolytic (salt) effect is than others, for example, lucerne and canola are
immediate (beginning in a few minutes and lasting sensitive, while Diamondbird wheat and cocksfoot
until perhaps the first decent rainfall). The calcium are tolerant.
displacement of sodium from the exchange sites is
much slower and longer lasting (perhaps from the Soil acidity is influenced by:
first decent rainfall until several years). • the type of parent material
As a general rule of thumb 2.5 t/ha of gypsum • the amount of leaching and weathering of the
is applied to improve soil structure. However a parent material and/or soil
laboratory test of the soil will recommend a more
accurate application rate. The quality of the gypsum • climate (especially total rainfall, seasonality of
also determines application rate. rainfall and temperature)
As a result of gypsum application, the permeability • the types of agricultural practices that have been
and deep drainage of the soil will often increase. carried out on the soil.
It is important that the soil and land are managed These are explained in more detail below.
11
5
Agricultural influences on the acidification rates are Acidity and salinity (also see appendix 2)
(see Figure 5.10): Salinity management using vegetation focuses on
• the amount of legumes grown, and the amount minimising groundwater recharge by maximising
of nitrate that has been leached plant water use. Acid soils restrict the root
development of many species due to aluminium
• the amount of alkaline product that has been being more readily available to the plant at toxic
removed from the soil levels. This leads to reduced productivity and less
• any net increases of organic matter in soils that water use, resulting in a greater risk of leakage of
have previously been depleted of organic matter water past the plant root zone into the groundwater
system.
• any excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers
Acid soils also reduce the vegetation options
• the history of lime application. available for salinity management as plant tolerance
There are a number of management options that are varies between crops and pastures (see Table 5.6).
available to reduce, rectify or manage topsoil acidity. Lucerne, for example, is highly sensitive to soil
The options for managing subsoil acidity, whether acidity and would therefore not achieve the desired
naturally occurring or agriculturally induced, are salinity outcome of maximising water use if it were
limited and expensive. Growing acid tolerant species sown into acid soils.
and managing the topsoil to prevent the occurrence
of subsoil acidity are the main recommendations. Management for reducing salinity
Conyers and Li (2006) showed that subsurface soil on acid soils:
pHCa at 15–20 cm depth could increase by one unit • Reduce nitrate leaching: This can be achieved
over 20 years by maintaining an average soil pHCa by reducing water leakage (deep drainage)
of 5.5 in the top 10 cm. This is a result of acidity through the soil profile. Leakage also takes the
leaching down the profile. On the other hand, if lime soluble nitrate past the root zone. Include grass
was applied to the surface, exchangeable aluminium with annual legumes to use excess nitrate (the
at 15–20 cm depth decreased from 42% to below grass will mop up some of the nitrogen fixed
10% over 13 years. by legumes).
Figure 5.10: The causes of agriculturally induced soil acidity show how acidity can be caused by one or more of the following: addition
of fertiliser nitrogen as ammonium salts; removal of products high in nitrogen such as grains; growing leguminous plants which fix
atmospheric nitrogen, and increasing soil organic matter.
Source: Adapted from NSW Agriculture (1996)
12
5
Table 5.6: Plant tolerance to aluminium and manganese (aluminium and manganeses become more available <pH 4.8) .
Source: NSW DPI (2003)
Avoiding long fallows also reduces nitrate leaching. of lime required to neutralise the acid. Due to
the low solubility of lime it is rarely useful in the
• Reduce the use of strongly acid fertilisers such remediation of subsoil acidity.
as ammonium sulphate. Time fertiliser application
by applying it when the plants are most likely to Fertility
use the nutrients. Avoid large amounts of fertiliser Soil fertility is influenced by parent material,
at sowing and use split applications (smaller weathering history and climate. As a general rule
amounts of fertiliser applied at various stages of of thumb, the heavier the texture (more clay) the
growth). greater the fertility. Clay soils are generally more
• Use acid tolerant plant species in already fertile than sands as clay particles have negative
acidified soils (see Table 5.6). This maximises charges on their surface that hold positively charged
plant growth and ensures that as much water as cations (such as calcium, potassium, magnesium and
possible is used by plants, so reducing leaching of molybdenum) and phosphate more tightly, and are
nitrate. less likely to be affected by nutrient leaching.
• Apply lime to neutralise acid soils. This is an Australian soils, due to their extreme age and long
expensive option so it is important that extra weathering history, are typically deficient in nitrogen
production is achieved from the limed soils. It is and phosphorus; and sometimes also potassium.
important to test soils to determine the amount These macronutrients are major requirements
for plant growth. Other micronutrients, such as
molybdenum, magnesium, copper, selenium9
13
5
and zinc can be deficient in some situations. Salinity reduces vegetative growth, resulting in low
For example, selenium is commonly deficient on levels of organic matter and therefore lower fertility.
acid, highly leached granitic soils of the Southern Beacause the soil has nothing to bind it together
Tablelands. and low nutrient value, bare patches develop and
increase the chances of erosion.
The soil’s agricultural history can also greatly affect
fertility. Many modern agricultural practices, such as Fertilizer application does not change the salinity
aggressive tillage and continuous cropping, have led response function of crops. Shalhevet (1994) found
to a reduction in levels of soil organic matter. that the level of soil fertility had no effect on the
Organic matter can be a major source of nutrients, tolerance of crops to salinity.
particularly in lighter textured soils.
Organic matter eventually decomposes to humus, a
dark crumbly, highly complex material which is the
basis of a soil’s natural fertility (Lines-Kelly 2000).
 Geology and soils

The parent rock from which a soil is formed impacts solidify into large crystals. Whereas if it cools quickly
on the physical and chemical qualities of that soil. at the surface, only small crystals have time to form.
Rocks are made up of siliceous10 to basic minerals. Large crystals (grains) in a rock tend to form sandy
Which mineral type dominates depends on the soils. Small crystals (grains) in the rock tend to form
origin of the rock (see Table 5.7). clayey soils (see Figure 5.11).
Soils high in siliceous mineral tend to be sandy and Granites are formed from more siliceous materials
often form duplex profiles (soils where there is a that cooled slowly at depth. Molten granite has a
sharp or abrupt texture contrast between the A and B high viscosity11 and usually forms large mounds of
horizons). Sandy soils tend to have low fertility and material (plutons) under the earth’s surface. Soils
be susceptible to acidification. formed from granitic material with large grain size
(because the rock cooled slowly) form soils that
Soils formed on basic parent material such as basalt are usually sandy textured, less fertile than average
tend to have a smaller particle size (higher in clay). and susceptible to high leaching, leading to acidity.
They are also generally much more fertile (Figure
5.11) due to their chemical reactivity (higher Cation Molten basaltic lava has a low viscosity and readily
Exchange Capacity) and large surface area. flows from cracks in the earth over the land’s
surface. Basalts are fine-grained and high in basic
Igneous ferromagnesium minerals so tend to form clays on
weathering. Basalt soils are generally more fertile
Igneous rocks are formed as a result of volcanic
(see Figure 5.12) and resistant to acidification.
activity—either molten lava, which cools at depth
below the earth’s surface (granite, for example) or
comes to the surface as lava and flows out over Sedimentary
the surface and cools quickly (e.g. basalt). General Sedimentary soils are formed on materials deposited
principle is that if a rock cools slowly, it has time to by water. Examples are alluvial river valley and lake
bed soils. They can form
young soils in the position
where they are deposited
(in situ), or they can be
metamorphosed (heated
and squashed over time
by geological processes).
If they form young soils,
the soils typically represent
the fertility of the parent
rock from which they
were eroded higher up
the slope or catchment.
Other characteristics
of alluvial soils are that
they are usually layered
Table 5.7: Rock type and mineral content.
Source: adapted from Charman and Murphy (1991) (reflecting their depositional
14
5
history), and vary greatly within
short distances both laterally
and vertically. For example if
the water that deposited the
particles was flowing quickly, the
soils will be gravelly. If the water
was flowing slowly at that time,
the resultant soil will be high in
clay. Often these soils are fertile
because they are young and
have not had time to be leached
of their nutrients. However, their
low position in the landscape
and their layered nature means
that they can be susceptible to Figure 5.11: Formation of soil from molten rock.
outbreaks of salinity. Source: Wild (2007b)
Thus sedimentary materials

are formed from weathering
products, such as sand, silt, clay
and gravel, of other rocks. The
source rock can be igneous,
metamorphic or sedimentary.
The source rock and speed of
water depositing the material
affect the type of alluvium and
the subsequent soil formed.
It is important to note that
sedimentary rocks have at least
one weathering history, if not
more.
Each time a rock weathers, the
percentage of siliceous minerals
increases (the most resistant to
weathering) and percentage
of ferromagnesium minerals
reduces (the least resistant to
weathering), resulting in a loss in Figure 5.12: Influence of parent rock on soil fertility.
fertility. Source: NSW Agriculture and Acid Soil Action (2002)
Metamorphic
These rocks are either sedimentary or igneous rocks
that have been affected by heat and/or pressure
over geological time. This treatment alters the
chemistry and mineral arrangement resulting in
very different properties compared to the original
rock. However, the soils that develop on these rocks
usually have some properties in common with the
soils that form on the pre-metamorphosed material.
15
5
 Endnotes
1
Cation Exchange Capacity: Cation exchange is the exchange of a cation (positively charged ion such as sodium) in solution with
another cation on the surface of any surface-active material such as clay or organic matter. Cation Exchange Capacity is a measurement
of this value in a laboratory.
2
Friable: Refers to a soil property of consistence, which describes the resistance of a material to deformation or rupture.
Consistence refers to the degree of cohesion or adhesion of the soil mass and is strongly affected by the moisture content of the soil. A
friable soil tends naturally to produce a suitable aggregate size distribution with the single pass of an implement.
3
Sodic soils: The presence of a high proportion of sodium ions relative to other cations in water or soil.
4
Self-mulching: A soil with a naturally formed, well aggregated surface which does not crust and seal under the impact of raindrops.
5
Macropores: Pore holes (diameter >0.5mm) that are drained at ‘Field Capacity’ (percentage of moisture remaining in a soil horizon 2–3
days after being saturated by rainfall or irrigation). They are transmission channels in the soil profile that are created by cracking, old
plant roots and soil fauna (eg earthworms). As a rough guide, macropores are visible to the naked eye; micropores are not. You need at
least a hand lens to see micropores.
6
Permanent Wilting Point: The moisture content of the soil, expressed as a percentage of the soil volume or as a percentage of dry
weight, at the time when the plant will be under permanent stress as a result of the deficiency in the soil moisture. Permanent stress
means that it will not recover overnight from wilting.
7
In situ: Items are said to be ‘in situ’ when they are found in the location where they were last deposited.
8
Sodic soils: The presence of a high proportion of sodium ions relative to other cations in water or soil.
9
Selenium is an oddity. It is not essential for plants but is for animals. So pastures grazed by stock should have adequate selenium if the
animals are not otherwise supplemented.
10
Siliceous: A mineral that is high in silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2). A common silicate mineral is quartz. A common product made principally
of silica is glass.
11
Viscosity: The thickness or resistance to flow of a liquid.
12
Colloid: Any substance that is broken down into minute particles and dispersed throughout a second substance.
16
5

Key points Further information

The key points relevant to soils and geology are listed below: Industry and Investment NSW
 Texture is essentially a fixed property of soil. It is determined
Irrigation Officers
by the parent rock material and the soil’s transportational and
weathering history.
 Structure describes how the soil particles hold together to Pasture Specialists
form aggregates (or peds). Soils can be well structured with
stable peds that allow the movement of water and air into the
spaces between the peds. They can also be poorly structured
with little pore space or aggregate development. Sodic soils NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
with high Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) are usually (DECCW)
poorly structured. Structure affects the porosity of a soil and Soil landscape maps
its waterholding capacity. Soil testing information
 Plant salinity tolerance data is provided as an ECe value. It is Appropriately qualified consultants, agronomists and contractors.
therefore necessary to convert the measured EC1:5 to an ECe
using a texture conversion factor, f . Further reading
ECe = EC1:5 x f
Beecher, G, Thompson, J, and McCaffery, D 1997, Cropping on
 The rate that water moves through a soil or soil profile is raised beds in southern NSW, NSW Agriculture.
called the soil permeability. Permeability is the result of soil
DNRQ 1997, Salinity Management Handbook, Department of
texture and structure. Structure can be changed, for example,
Natural Resources, Queensland.
by over-cultivation causing compaction. Sands are usually more
permeable than clay textured soils. Queensland Government 2004, Subsoil constraints to crop
production in north-eastern Australia, Queensland Government,
 Acid soils reduce the vegetation options available for salinity
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.
management, as many crops and pastures are sensitive to
high acidity and the associated toxicities of aluminium and Rengasamy, P and Olsson, K 1991, ‘Sodicity and soil structure’,
manganese. Australian Journal of Soil Research, vol. 29, 935–52.
nd
 Sodicity is high levels of sodium ions in the soil. It becomes Taylor, S 1996, Dryland Salinity—Introductory Extension Notes, 2
a problem when the sodium ions affect soil structure. It is edition, Department of Land and Water Conservation.
measured as Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP). A sodic
soil has an ESP greater than 5%–6%. Websites
 Soil tends to have an inherent fertility depending on its parent Industry and Investment NSW – Agriculture, Soil health and
material, weathering history and the climate it was formed Fertility, viewed 2 October 2009, http://www.agric.nsw.gov.
under. As a general rule of thumb, the heavier the texture the au/reader/soil-health-fertility
greater the fertility, i.e. clay soils are generally more fertile
Australian clay mineral society, viewed 2 October 2009, http://
than sands.
www.clays.org.au/mins.htm
 Clay soils are capable of holding large amounts of beneficial
Australian Academy of Science – Search ‘sodicity’, viewed 2
nutrients as well as salt.
October 2009, http://www.science.org.au/
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water,
Maps for landholders, viewed 23 April 2010, http://www.
environment.nsw.gov.au/soils/maps.htm
17
5
 Appendix 1: Sodic soil

About clay particles
Some knowledge about the chemistry of clay particles is necessary to understand the behaviour of sodic soils:
The structure of clay particles resembles a stack of sandwiches, with the ‘bread’ being aluminosilicate layers
and the ‘filling’ being plant nutrient cations such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium and many trace
elements. On the outside edges of the bread, on the ‘crusts’, are remnant negative charges because some
ingredients (chemical substitutions) in the bread layers are not fully electrically balanced. These remnant
negative charges form the Cation Exchange Capacity of the clay. The plant root can only take up nutrient
cations that are dissolved in the soil solution and by exchange with the cations on the ‘crusty edges’ of the
clay particles, on the cation exchange site. The cations in the ‘filling’ are not readily available to plants
because the plant roots are much too large to squeeze between the layers of aluminosilicate ‘bread’.
Over long periods of time (hundreds to thousands of years), the edges of the stack of sandwiches are slowly
weathered away (become frayed) and the nutrients in the filling become available to plants. This is part of the
process of soil formation from parent rocks. In the short term (decades), however, plants have to be content
with merely exchanging cation nutrients on the clay edges and in the soil solution. Fortunately, this is usually
adequate for the plant.
Clay particles are very small, less than 0.002 mm in diameter. If we take the diameter of a human hair as say
0.2 mm, that means 100 clay particles could be laid side to side across one hair. Clay particles are a bit too large
however to dissolve like salt and form a true solution, but instead form a semi-stable colloid12. Other examples
of colloids are milk, fog and smoke. A typical unique property of colloids is that their particles can repel each
other so they can stay in suspension for a long time. For example, smoke generated by bushfires in Australia
can easily cross to New Zealand, or smoke from volcanoes can easily travel round the world before it settles
out. Similarly, if clay particles disperse into the soil solution they can travel a long way down a catchment before
eventually settling out or flocculating.
The types of cations that are adsorbed on the outside edges of these clay particles affects the way that
the particles interact with each other—particularly whether the clay will disperse or stay flocculated (and
aggregated) when the soil is wetted. If calcium ions dominate the exchange sites on the edges of the clay
particles, adjacent clay particles are strongly attracted to each other.
When a calcium-dominated soil is wetted, the forces of water moving around the particles are not enough to
separate the clay particles, so the structure of a soil with calcium-dominated clay remains aggregated, porous
and permeable. On the other hand, if sodium ions are dominant on the clay exchange surface, the bonds
between adjacent particles are very weak and easily broken by the chemical and physical forces of water as
it wets a soil (Figure 5.13). The sodic clay particles disperse into the soil solution and can stay there for a long
time, much as smoke can travel round the world. In soils, this means that the dispersed clay can:
• move with the water down the soil profile and block soil pores, reducing drainage
• form a crust on the soil surface, preventing further infiltration
• travel out of the profile completely, causing tunnel erosion and
• stay in suspension, causing turbidity (cloudiness) in dam water and streams.
This is why soils with high exchangeable sodium (ESP>5% or 6%) generally cause problems.
However, saline sodic soils may not show these problems! Why? High salt in the soil solution attracts water
away from the clay particles. Water is greatly attracted to most salts. This can be viewed as a competition for
water between the sodic clay and the salt in the soil solution. When there is a high concentration of salt as in a
saline soil, the salt wins the water. The clay particles are then forced to clump together and flocculate. However,
in a non-saline sodic soil, the clay particles win the competition for the water because the salt concentration in
the soil solution is low, so the clay disperses.
As explained above, salts cause clay particles to flocculate, i.e. fall out of suspension. So salty water in a dam or
stream, for example, is usually clear, i.e. not muddy.
Any soluble salts can be used to flocculate dispersed clays from muddy water in dams, but gypsum (calcium
sulphate) and alum (aluminium sulphate) are particularly good. This is because their calcium or aluminium
cations can exchange with the sodium cations on the clay. Clay particles dominated by calcium or aluminium
clump together and fall to the bottom of the dam—i.e. the clay flocculates and the muddy water becomes
clear.
18
5
So, to summarise, soils that are saline and sodic often have the sodicity problem hidden by salinity. Once
salinity is reduced, they can become dispersible. This is a relevant problem in reclaiming sodic saline soils
where gypsum needs to be added as the salt is leached out, to prevent dispersion and maintain structure
and permeability.
Figure 5.13 The reaction to the addition of water of sodic and non-sodic clay.
Source: Adapted by Wild and Tenison from Anderson and McKenzie et al (1998)
19
5
 Appendix 2: Soil pH
What is soil pH and why is it important?
Soil pH describes the acidity or alkalinity of a soil and is important because it affects the availability of plant
nutrients (see Figure 5.14). Soil pH ranges from about 2.0 to around 10.0. The wider the bar, in Figure 5.14, the
more available is the nutrient. Thus nitrogen, for example, is readily available between pH 5.5–6.5 but
decreases in availability as the soil pH moves further from this range.
In chemical terms, pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. The full range
of the scale extends from 1 to 14 and a pH of 7 is considered chemically neutral. However, looking at figure
5.14, a pH of about 6.5 is where most nutrients are available. This is why, in soils, pH 6.5 is referred to as being
neutral. Plants vary in their sensitivity to soil pH, with some preferring acidic conditions (less than 6.5) and
others preferring alkaline conditions (greater than 6.5).
It is important to recognise that availability of a nutrient does not mean that there is an adequate amount of it
in the soil. If the soil pH is 5.5, but say copper or zinc are deficient in the soil, the plant will still be deficient. (It’s
like having no money in the bank but the ATM is working—your money would be available, but your account
is deficient!)
How does soil pH relate to soil sodicity and salinity?

How soil pH relates to sodicity is easy—it doesn’t. There is no relationship between pH and sodicity.
However, soil pH is related to soil salinity in particular cases e.g. black alkali soils. When salinity is very high,
the high salt content effectively ‘pickles’ the soil and prevents microbial breakdown of organic matter. The
organic matter in soil therefore accumulates because it is not broken down, so the soil becomes dark coloured.
In addition, the cation exchange sites on the organic matter become saturated with sodium and especially
calcium, which make
the organic matter
even darker coloured.
Thus the soil becomes
a dark black colour.
The dominant anion in
very saline soils is often
bicarbonate—which is
alkaline. Hence these
soils are called ‘Black
Alkali Soils’. They are a
particular case where
soil salinity affects pH.
Plants growing on these
soils need to be able to
survive the compound
effects of soil salinity
and extremely high pH.
If the dominant anion
causing the soil salinity
is bicarbonate, (or if
there are white nodules
of calcium carbonate
present) then the pH is
likely to be high. In most
other cases however, soil
pH is not directly related
to salinity—for example,
sodium chloride is a
neutral salt.
Figure 5.14: Effect of pH on the
availability of soil nutrients.
Source: Truog (1946)
20
5
 References
Anderson, AN, McKenzie, DC and Friend, JJ 1998, SOILpak: NSW Agriculture and Acid Soil Action 2002, Landscan: soil test
for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW, NSW & landscape interpretation for sustainable pasture management:
Agriculture: Orange, NSW. a workshop series for farmers, graziers and land managers, NSW
Brady, NC & Buckman, HO 1974, The nature and properties of Agriculture, Orange, NSW.
Soils, Macmillan, New York. NSW DPI 2003, Lachlan Soil Management Guide, New South
Brown, N & Green, B 2001, Southern Dryland SOILpak, NSW Wales, Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW.
Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Rengasamy, P & Bourne, J 1994, Managing sodic, acidic
Charman, PEV & Murphy, BW 1991, Soils: their properties and and saline soils, Cooperative Research Centre for Soil & Land
management: a soil conservation handbook for New South Wales, Management, Glen Osmond, SA.
Sydney University Press, Sydney, NSW. Shalhevet, J 1994, ‘Using water of marginal quality for crop
Charman, PEV & Murphy, BW (eds) (2000), Soils: their production: major issues’, Agricultural Water Management, vol. 25,
properties and management, Oxford University Press, South pp. 233–269.
Melbourne, VIC. Slinger, D &Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
Conyers, M & Li, G 2006, MASTER: soil acidity and lime Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Responses, viewed 14 November 2007, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/ Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW
agriculture/resources/soils/acidity/master/MASTER-soil-acidity-lime Smithson, A, Muller, R, Nicholson, A & Wooldridge, A 2004,
DNR 2006, Estimating Bulk Density, viewed 23 October 2006, Groundwater flow systems in the Central West Region, NSW (stage 1):
http://www.naturalresources.nsw.gov.au/care/soil/ssu/tests/tests3. a technical framework for salinity management, NSW Department
htm#Estimated%20Bulk%20Density of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Orange, NSW.
Gill, R 2002, ABCs of groundwater, Centre for Groundwater Truog, E 1946, ‘Soil reaction influence on availability of plant
Studies, Adelaide, SA. Nutrients’, Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 11,
pp.305–308.
Lines-Kelly, R 2000, Soil sense: soil management for NSW north
coast farmers, NSW Agriculture, Wollongbar, NSW. Wild, J 2007a, Figure 5.8: Clay particle with adsorbed positive
Cations, interview with the author, 30 January 2008.
McMullen, BJ 2000, SOILpak for vegetable growers, NSW
Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Wild, J 2007b, Figure 5.11: Formation of soil from molten rock,’
interview with the author, 30 January 2008.
NSW Agriculture (ed.) 1996, Soil acidity and liming, NSW
Agriculture.
21
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22
6
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Soil water balance ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Rainfall and the water balance ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Winter-dominant rainfall areas ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Summer-dominant rainfall areas ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Episodic rainfall ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
 Vegetation and the water balance ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Soil waterholding capacity .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Dry soil buffer ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Autumn soil water deficit ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Pasture and the water balance ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Depth of soil water use .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Quantity of soil water use .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
How rainfall zones affect recharge management .................................................................................................................................................. 6
 Trees and the water balance.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
1
6
 Introduction
Variation in vegetation is one of the major features influencing the hydrological cycle and the soil water
balance for a given landscape. Selecting vegetation that best suits a landscape in terms of salinity control will
require detailing of the soil water balance for a given region. These details will assist in the understanding of
where water is used by plants and stored in the hydrological cycle. The soil water balance will vary across the
state of NSW according to rainfall patterns, soil type, topography, geology, landuse and vegetation. Accounting
for water leads to more efficient and productive use of the resource and reduces the potential for leakage and
risk of salinity.
 Soil water balance

Knowing about the soil water balance is a useful So if we look at the components of water input
tool to help identify the likely causes of salinity in and output, make them equal and rearrange the
any particular case and how best to manage it. Soil equation, we get:
water balance describes the water inputs and
exports from a system with boundaries. Those Rainfall – Evapotranspiration – (Run-off) – Recharge – Δ Soil Water1 = 0
boundaries can be, for example, a single paddock,
a farm or a catchment, and time. Figure 6.1: The water balance. Δ means ‘change in’.
Source: Carberry (2004)
The hydrological cycle and groundwater systems
are covered Chapters 3 and 4 respectively. The water balance can be applied over a defined
They explained how water moves within the time period e.g. day, month, season or year. All
landscape. Vegetation plays an important role in components must be the total quantity in that time
the hydrological cycle through its influence on e.g. sum of daily rainfall, evapotranspiration, run-off,
components of the ‘Soil Water Balance’ (SWB). recharge, and change in soil moisture.
The soil water balance is an accounting tool that The input to the system is total precipitation
describes the fate of rainfall over a given time (rainfall). Note that in irrigation areas, irrigation water
period, usually annually. It calculates the amount needs to be added to rainfall as input. Evaporation,
of water: stored in a soil profile; transpired by run-off, recharge and Δ soil water (change in soil
plants; evaporated or lost through surface run- water) are the outputs.
off or leakage below the root zone. The soil water
If all components except one in the water balance
balance differs geographically and through time as
are known, the unknown value can be determined
water movement and storage in the landscape are
from the equation. Figure 6.2 shows how the above
influenced by soil type, landuse and vegetation. It
equation can be rearranged to calculate other
also varies with climate.
components of the water balance.
In saline environments, groundwater recharge
is the part of the water balance that is of most Δ Soil Water = Rain – Evapotranspiration – (Run-off) – Recharge
concern, and this depends particularly on the OR
type and management of vegetation. The Recharge = Rainfall – Evapotranspiration – (Run-off) – Δ Soil Water
amount of run-off and where it comes from are
also important, as good fresh run-off from non- Figure 6.2: Water balance
saline areas can dilute saline waterways. Source: Carberry (2004)
The principle of the soil water balance equation

is that the sum of inputs is equal to the sum of Example 1 of a water balance equation
outputs (Figure 6.1).
The water budget must equal zero (so all water Rainfall = Evapotranspiration + (Run-off) + Recharge + Δ Soil Water
is accounted for)
Rainfall = Evapotranspiration + (Run-off) + Recharge + Δ Soil Water

298mm 276mm + 0 mm + 21mm + 1mm
Figure 6.3: Example 1 (for the Mallee region) illustrates low
average annual rainfall and high evapotranspiration. Note that the
input figures should all be in the same units.
Adapted from Murphy (2004b). The soil water balance workshops for Mallee
Farming systems – Power Point Presentation
2
6
 Rainfall and the water balance

Rainfall in NSW varies dramatically across the state important in summer-dominant rainfall areas,
with summer rainfall dominating in the north and because of the high erosivity of the summer storms
winter rainfall dominating in the south. Rainfall also and the need to reduce episodic leakage When
decreases from east to west (see Figure 6.4). groundcover is low, summer storms can lead to
large amounts of run-off and soil erosion. Where
Winter-dominant rainfall areas run-off occurs from saline discharge sites, much salt
In winter-dominant rainfall areas, rainfall in winter and sediment may be washed into waterways.
often exceeds evapotranspiration. The excess water Vegetation systems that are active in both summer
will then run-off, increase soil moisture (up to a limit) and winter will provide groundcover all year round.
or leak past the root zone as leakage. The leakage This will maintain the best dry soil buffer against
may then enter the groundwater and cause the episodic recharge to the watertable, erosion and
watertable to rise. Leakage can be minimised if the run-off (which if saline will reduce the water quality
soil is dry going into the winter period. A soil profile down-catchment).
that is dry in autumn has a high soil water deficit
and will act as a buffer, storing winter rainfall and Episodic rainfall
minimising any excess leakage to the watertable.
Rainfall in excess of evapotranspiration and soil
storage at any time of the year can result in recharge
Summer-dominant rainfall areas to the groundwater system. Episodic rainfall1 events
In summer-dominant rainfall areas, wet periods may are known to be a major cause of groundwater rise,
occur at any time of the year (see episodic rainfall in both the northern and southern parts of Australia
below). However, highest seasonal rainfall generally (Webb 2002).
corresponds with highest evapotranspiration in
summer. Evapotranspiration may also exceed winter In the winter-dominant rainfall zones of southern
rainfall. Therefore, it is important to have plants NSW, recharge generally occurs on a regular basis
growing year round to maintain a dry soil buffer and in the cooler months, where rainfall exceeds both
minimise leakage below the root zone. evapotranspiration and the soil storage capacity.
In summer-dominant rainfall zones of northern
Vegetation providing groundcover is always NSW, rainfall does not normally exceed evaporation
important to reduce surface run-off, but is most on an annual basis, but recharge is driven by
Figure 6.4: Rainfall variation throughout NSW compiled from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology data for 1961-1990.
Source: Prepared by Geographic Information System Staff, NSW DPI, Orange.
3
6
periods of exceptionally high ‘episodic’ rainfall Incorporating lucerne and deep-rooted

(summer storms). Episodic rainfall can also be a non-fallow rotations can reduce both mean
major contributor to groundwater in climate zones annual recharge and the number of episodic
with more reliable (less variable) rainfall patterns events, but not eliminate recharge completely.
and is thought to be responsible for major, abrupt • Winter fallows increased soil-water storage and
increases in groundwater levels (Coram and Beverly some of the additional water was stored in the
2003). lower portion of the root zone, or below it, where
Land management aimed at maintaining year-round the plant was unlikely to make use of it. This
active vegetation cover and a dry soil buffer in the non-productive ‘wasted’ water can increase the
root zone can reduce the risk of episodic recharge risk of recharge to groundwater system.
events. Zhang et al. (1999) identified the major • Changes in land management may take a
contributors to recharge and listed options for considerable period of time (>10 years) to have
minimising risk of occurrence. They showed that: any noticeable impacts on recharge.
• Recharge just below the root zone was episodic
and that just 10% of annual recharge events
contributed over 85% of long-term totals.
 Vegetation and the water balance

As shown above, surface salinity results from an Soil waterholding capacity
imbalance in the hydrological cycle as greater
The waterholding capacity of a soil is the amount of
amounts of surface water leak into the groundwater
water that a soil is capable of holding after drainage
system causing the watertable to rise, and
of free water has occurred and is called Field
concentrating salt at or near the soil surface. The
Capacity. In practice this usually takes about three
amount of recharge reaching the groundwater
days free drainage. Waterholding capacity is
system depends on a combination of interacting proportional to the amount of fine soil pores, which is
factors such as landuse, vegetation, soil, geology, why a clay soil can hold more water than can a sandy
topography and climate. Of these factors, only soil. When a soil with good waterholding capacity is
vegetation and landuse can be realistically managed dry it will have a large soil buffer. Modest
by landowners to control salinity although in some improvements can be made to the waterholding
cases, expensive engineering solutions such as capacity through increases in soil organic matter and
drains or groundwater pumping may be feasible. improved soil structure.
Plant species selected according to their
perenniality, growing season, and adaptation Dry soil buffer
to local conditions are factors likely to reduce The dry soil buffer describes the amount of rainfall
groundwater recharge, although as Zhang et al and or irrigation water (mm) required to wet a soil
(1999) showed, the benefits may take some time to to the point where leakage occurs and water is
become apparent. added to the watertable. Vegetation type can be
used to increase soil drying and so increase the dry
In order to understand the value of vegetation, three soil buffer as a salinity management option.
factors associated with soil should be considered:
• soil waterholding capacity Autumn soil water deficit
This describes how dry the soil root zone is in
• dry soil buffer (otherwise known as soil water
deficit) autumn and is a useful tool for understanding
leakage in winter dominant rainfall areas. A dry soil
• autumn soil water deficit (for winter rainfall in autumn has a high soil water deficit and a high
zones). capacity to store much of the winter rainfall and so
reduce the amount of water entering the watertable.
The size of the autumn soil water deficit depends
largely on the transpiration and rooting depth of the
plants grown (Watson 2004).
4
6
 Pasture and the water balance

Vegetation can be managed in recharge areas How quickly lucerne dries out the profile, and
(Figure 6.5) to reduce both leakage and lateral flow. the profile rewets under cereal crops, depends on
factors such as climate, soil type, and crop/pasture
Perennial vegetation that is both deep-rooted and
management (Verburg, et al. 2001).
active in summer can reduce leakage as it has a
greater potential to dry the soil profile over a longer Subsoil constraints such as soil acidity, salinity or
growing season compared to annual vegetation. waterlogging are the major limitations to the use of
lucerne in farming systems to retrieve deep drainage
Annual pasture species generally have shallow root
and increase the dry soil buffer. They limit plant
systems and only use rainfall during their 6–7 month
rooting depth and therefore water extraction. The
growing season. Rainfall occurring outside of their
duration of the lucerne phase will also be affected
growing season is often lost through evaporation,
by how much stored soil water is available to grow
run-off or leakage to the groundwater system
lucerne (Murphy and Leys 2004).
(Jenkins 2004).
Successfully growing lucerne requires conservative
Depth of soil water use grazing management. Over-grazing will result in
Mature lucerne plants can extract water from a soil rapid loss of lucerne from the pasture system. Low
depth of 2.5–5 m depending on subsoil constraints. density lucerne in the pasture will be insufficient to
Within their first year and under good conditions, control groundwater recharge.
lucerne plants can extract water from a soil depth of Native perennial grasses e.g. redgrass (Bothriochloa
1.8 m. In subsequent years their roots would grow macra) have been shown to extract soil water down
deeper if the soil conditions allow. Using lucerne to 1.8 m depth, while temperate sown species e.g.
as part of a rotation can produce a large ‘dry soil phalaris, extracted water to 1.4 m (Murphy and
buffer’ and so prevent leakage for longer if rainfall Lodge 2006). Annual crops sown at ideal times
occurs during the subsequent cropping phase. maximise their growing season and extract water
Depending on the ratio between the dry soil buffer to 1.0–1.4 m depth. However, late sown crops and
and the amount of annual excess rainfall under pastures extract water from less than 1m.
cropping, it may take 2–3 years of cropping to fill the
dry soil buffer created by lucerne (Ridley, et al. 2001). So, maintaining deep-rooted, actively growing
vegetation throughout the year will reduce leakage.
Figure 6.5: Comparison between vegetation types on similar landscapes shows how maintaining actively growing vegetation throughout
the year reduces leakage.
5
6
Quantity of soil water use Conservation farming practices, which promote
soil health and improve soil structure and organic
(Jenkins 2004)
matter, increase soil waterholding capacity and
Lucerne uses more water than most other pasture plant available water. This can potentially lead to
plants and can therefore create a larger dry soil greater plant water use and increased production
buffer than other crop and pasture plants. Lucerne so reducing the risk of deep drainage. However,
also has a greater rooting depth than annual improving soil structure and infiltration without
agricultural plants and can extract typically 140 mm maintaining sufficient vegetative cover can increase
more water. This is water that is used for production leakage risk.
instead of leaking past the plant root zone.
Perennial grasses use water less effectively than How rainfall zones affect recharge
Lucerne, however they still use at least 50 mm more management
soil water than annual pasture, providing a greater As mentioned previously, plant water use varies with
dry soil buffer. In ideal growing situations, the dry climate, plant type, soil type, and land management.
soil buffer created by lucerne can be almost as good Within the Murray–Darling Basin, which covers a
as that achieved by trees (Figure 6.6). large portion of NSW (Figure 6.7), the risk of leakage
Plant water use is highest when plants are actively generally increases from west to east, and north
growing (their stomata are open—see Chapter to south across the basin (Walker, Gilfedder and
3) and as a result, the dry soil buffer is maximised. Williams 1999). As rainfall increases, the usefulness
Strategic rotational grazing of pasture can prolong of perennial woody vegetation for water use
its growth, maintain the dry soil buffer and minimise increases. In lower mean annual rainfall areas
leakage. Overgrazed perennial pasture is likely (<600 mm) the extra benefit of trees over pastures
to use less water each year than a well-managed decreases (Figure 6.8).
annual pasture (Watson 2004). In the high rainfall zone (>600 mm) (Figure 6.9),
Native perennial grass based pastures may be annual pastures have been shown to use less water
adapted to harsh steep or rocky conditions than perennial ones (Ridley et al. 1997; Ridley et
providing the added benefit of groundcover in these al. 2001; Simpson et al. 1998; Heng et al. 2001).
areas where other introduced pasture would be Table 6.1 estimates leakage for high and low rainfall
difficult to establish, uneconomical and impractical. areas on different soil types. In this high rainfall
Red grass (Bothriochloa macra) and kangaroo zone, perennial species use around 25%–40% more
grass (Themeda triandra) are almost exclusively water than annuals (Dolling 2001; Scott and
summer-active. Others such as wallaby grass Sudmeyer 1993). The Sustainable Grazing Systems
(Austrodanthonia spp.), weeping grass (Microlaena program (Mason and Andrew 1998) showed that
stipoides) and spear grass (Austrostipa spp.) are green perennials (such as phalaris) may use 40–140 mm
per year more water than annuals (such as ryegrass).
throughout the year and not specifically summer-
However, for maximum control of drainage in this
active, although they do provide useful summer
zone, trees may be the only option (Simpson, et al.
feed. They are all effective at using soil water and 1998).
creating a large autumn soil water deficit (drying out
the soil) prior to winter.
Figure 6.6: Dry soil buffer (mm of water extracted) by different vegetation types in southern NSW.
Source: Jenkins (2004)
6
6
In the Murray–
Darling Basin of
NSW, the risk of
leakage generally
increases along west
to east, and north
to south transects of
the basin.
Figure 6.7: The Murray–Darling Basin covers much of NSW.

This shows the trends in risk of deep drainage across it
due to increasing winter rainfall.
Source: Walker, Gilfedder & Williams (1999)
Figure 6.8: The relationship between the water-use benefits of woody perennial vegetation and average rainfall compiled from the
Australian Bureau of Meteorology data for 1961–1990.
In the medium rainfall zone (450–600 mm) (Figure 30 mm per year and can be up to 100 mm (Jenkins
6.9), the benefit of perennials over annuals is similar 2004).
to the high rainfall areas, but the amount of leakage
To summarise: use of perennial lucerne-based
is generally less.
pastures in this zone can limit drainage to less than
In the medium rainfall zone where cereal farming 10 mm per year (Walker, Gilfedder and Williams
is dominant, on average less than 5 mm of excess 1999) and therefore reduce the need for trees.
water leaks past the roots of lucerne each year
In the low rainfall zone (<450 mm) (Figure 6.9),
(Table 6.1). However, under continuous cropping
there is no appreciable difference in leakage
and annual pastures this figure is likely to exceed
7
6
Figure 6.9: High, medium and low rainfall zones of NSW compiled from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology data
for 1961-1990.
between pastures (perennial/annual) and trees

High Rainfall Zone in NSW(>600 mm)
(McEwan et al. 1990).
Note: Economics should also be considered in Red soils
choosing deep-rooted perennial species to combat Wheat 56–88 mm/year2
recharge. For successful widespread adoption
by producers, the deep-rooted species chosen Lucerne Pasture 5–15 mm/year2
to replace the current enterprise should offer
equivalent financial returns. Depending on soil type, Black Soils (self-mulching clays)
location and climate, the optimal configuration of Wheat 48–63 mm/year2
cropping, pastures and trees should be determined
on a merits basis (Stirzaker, Vertessy and Sarre 2002). Lucerne Pasture 1–4 mm/year2
Table 6.1 estimates leakage for high and low rainfall Low Rainfall Zone in NSW(<400 mm)
areas in NSW growing wheat and lucerne on some
different soil types. Calcarosols (Mallee soils and Red-Brown Earths)
Wheat 8–30 mm/year1
Lucerne Pasture <1 mm/year1
Table 6.1: A range of leakage estimates for different crop and
pasture types in higher and lower rainfall zones of NSW on a range
of soils.
Sources: Murphy and Leys (2004); Murphy (2004a); White et al. (2003)
8
6
 Trees and the water balance

(Also see Chapter 18) • More efficient turbulent transfer – One process
responsible for continuous evapotranspiration
Perennial vegetation, including trees, generally has
is the transfer of water vapour from vegetation
a longer growing season and deeper root systems
surfaces to the atmosphere by turbulence. Forests
compared with annual crops and pastures, so uses
have much greater aerodynamic roughness
more water. The canopies of native and plantation
enabling more efficient turbulent transfer
forests also intercept more rainfall than pastures and
(Macdonald 2005).
crops, which add to their higher rates of evaporation
of rainfall before it hits the ground. Of the variables that affect tree water use (leaf area,
rate of water transpiration through leaves and tree
The most significant change in catchment water
rooting patterns), leaf area is the main component as
balance resulting from tree plantations is their effect
tree water use increases with leaf area. Selecting tree
on evapotranspiration. The observed difference in
species and provenances with high leaf area indices
evapotranspiration between forest and pasture is
and subsequently attaining high tree water use
mainly because forests have:
rates is vital in achieving reductions in groundwater
• Higher and more persistent leaf area – This helps recharge.
forest to evaporate more rainfall directly from
the leaves before it hits the ground, as well as
transpire more water from within its leaves.
• Deeper rooting depth – Allows forests to extract
more soil water and retain higher transpiration
during dry periods.
• Lower albedo – Albedo is the ratio of the reflected
light to the incident light2. It is estimated that
trees absorb 20% more of the net radiation than
pasture, enabling greater evapotranspiration.
• Greater advection – Due to the additional energy
received by forests through lateral movement
of air (advection), forests are believed to be able
to evaporate at much higher rates than pasture
(Macdonald 2005).
 Endnotes
1
Episodic rainfall: Infrequent heavy rainfall.
2
Incident light: The direct light that falls on a surface.
9
6


The key points relevant to vegetation systems and water balance Industry and Investment NSW
are listed below: District agronomist
 The soil water balance is a useful accounting system that Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity)
describes the fate of rainfall over a given time period, usually Catchment Management Authorities
annual. NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
 The sum of inputs in the water balance equals the sum of (DECCW)
outputs. Thus rainfall and/or irrigation is accounted for by the
sum of run-off, evapotranspiration, recharge and change in
soil moisture content.
Further reading
Johnston, B, Garden, D, Ellis, S & Clifton, C 2004, Hill country
 The effect of vegetation on components of the water balance
is a critical point in the management of salinity. native grasslands – better management for healthy catchments.
 Maximising the dry soil buffer, the autumn soil water deficit Jenkins, J 2004, Perennial pastures: their place in the rotation, NSW
and soil waterholding capacity are essential factors in Agriculture, Orange, NSW.
reducing recharge. Sandral, G, Dear, B, Virgona, J, Swan, A. & Orchard, B 2004,
 Deep rooted summer-active perennial vegetation minimises ‘Changes in soil water content under annual and perennial based
leakage to the watertable in both summer and winter rainfall pasture systems in the wheat-belt of southern NSW’, Aust. J. Agric.
zones. Res. Vol.57, pp. 321–333.
 Native pastures are adapted to harsh steep or rocky conditions Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
where other pasture would be impractical and uneconomical. Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
 The importance of high water-using perennial woody
vegetation increases as rainfall increases.
 In low rainfall areas (<450 mm annual rainfall) the extra
Websites
benefit of trees over perennial pasture becomes less. Australian Government – Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry, Bureau of Rural Science, ‘Integrated vegetation
 Deep rooted perennial species chosen to increase water use information for NAP and NRM Website’. Viewed 2 October 2009.
and reduce recharge should be at least as profitable as the <http://data.brs.gov.au/mapserv/intveg/index.html>
vegetation system that they replace.
 The configuration of cropping, pasture and trees needed for
a particular zone in NSW depends on soil type, location and
climate.
 References
Carberry, P 2004, NSW Salinity Workshop, (unpublished), Griffith Murphy, S 2004a, The deep down on deep drainage in the
NSW. Mallee, viewed 13 December 2007,
Coram, J & Beverly, C 2003, ‘Mobilisation of salts in Australian http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/
Landscapes: understanding water balance and salt movement’, pdf_file/0006/164922/Farmtalk-11The-Deep-Down-on-deep-
Proceedings of 9th PUR$L National Conference, Yeppoon’ Qld. drainage-in-the-Mallee.pdf
Dolling, PJ 2001, ‘Water use and drainage under phalaris, annual Murphy, S 2004b, Figure 6.3: Example 1 – For the Mallee region
pasture, and crops on a duplex soil in Western Australia’, Australian illustrates low average annual rainfall and high evapotranspiration.
Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 52, pp. 305–316. (unpublished),Tamworth Agricultural Institute.
Heng, LK, White, RE, Helyar, KR, Fisher, R & Chen, D 2001, Murphy, SR & Leys, JF 2004, Risk of deep drainage in the
‘Seasonal differences in the soil water balance under perennial and Mallee, Natural Resource Management 7, pp.14–28.
annual pastures on an acid Sodosol in southeastern Australia’, Murphy, SR & Lodge, GM 2006, ‘Root depth of native and
European Journal of Soil Science, vol. 52, pp. 227–236. sown perennial grass-based pastures, North-West Slopes, New South
Jenkins, J 2004, Perennial pastures: their place in the rotation, NSW Wales. 2. Estimates from changes in soil water content, Australian
Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 46, pp. 347–359.
Macdonald, F 2005, Interaction between water and trees, interview with Ridley, AM, Christy, B, Dunin, FX, Haines, PJ, Wilson, KF &
the author, 10 February 2005. Ellington, A 2001, ‘Lucerne in crop rotations on the Riverine
Plains. 1. The soil water balance’, Australian Journal of Agricultural
Mason, W & Andrew, M 1998, ‘Sustainable grazing systems
Research, vol. 52, pp. 263–277.
(SGS) – developing a national experiment’, in Agronomy, growing
a greener future: proceedings of the ninth Australian agronomy Ridley, AM, White, RE, Simpson, RJ & Callinan, L 1997, ‘Water
conference, (eds Pratley, JE& Michalk, DL), pp. 314–317, Australian use and drainage under phalaris, cocksfoot, and annual ryegrass
Society of Agronomy, Wagga Wagga, NSW pastures’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 48,
pp. 1011-1024.
McEwan, KL, Budd, G, Kennett-Smith, AK, Cook, P & Walker, G 1990,
Effect of lucerne on recharge to cleared Mallee lands:results of a Scott, PR & Sudmeyer, RA 1993, ‘Evapotranspiration from
drilling program at Buronga, Euston and Balranald, Division of Water agricultural plant communities in the high rainfall zone of the
Resources CSIRO, Canberra ACT. southwest of Western Australia’, Journal of Hydrology, vol. 146,
pp. 301–319.
10
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Simpson, R, Bond, W, Cresswell, H, Paydar, Z, Clark, S, Moore, A, Watson, AJ 2004, Healthy catchment guide: vegetation for salinity
Alscock, D, Donnelly, J, Freer, M, Keating, B, Huth, N & Snow, V 1998, management in the South West slopes of the Murray Catchment,
‘A strategic assessment of sustainability of grazed pasture Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
systems in terms of their water balance’ in Agronomy, growing a Albury, NSW.
greener future: proceedings of the Ninth Australian Agronomy Webb, A 2002, Dryland salinity risk assessment in Queensland,
Conference, (eds Michalk, DL & Pratley, JE) pp.239–242, Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Coorparoo, Qld.
Australian Society of Agronomy, Wagga Wagga, NSW. White, RE, Christy, BP, Ridley, AM, Okom, AE, Murphy, SR,
Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW Johnston, WH, Michalk, DÂ L, Sanford, P, McCaskill, MR,
Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchment, NSW Department of Primary Johnson, IR, Garden, DL, Hall, DJM & Andrew, MH 2003,
Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW. ‘SGS Water Theme: influence of soil, pasture type and management
Stirzaker, RJ, Vertessy, RA and Sarre, A (eds) 2002, Trees , water on water use in grazing systems across the high rainfall zone of
and salt: an Australian guide to using trees for healthy catchments southern Australia’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture,
and productive farms, Rural Industries Research and Development vol. 43, pp. 907–926.
Corporation Barton, ACT. Zhang, L, Dawes, WR, Hatton, TJ, Hume, IH, O’Connell, MG,
Verburg, K, Bond, W, Keating, B, Smith, C, Robertson, M & Mitchell, DC, Milthorp, PL & Yee, M 1999, ‘Estimating episodic
Hutchinson, P 2001, ‘Simulation of tactical use of phase farming recharge under different crop/pasture rotations in the Mallee region.
to reduce deep drainage’, Proceedings of the 10th Australian Part 2. Recharge control by agronomic practices’, Agricultural Water
Agronomy Conference, Hobart, Tas. Management, vol. 42, pp. 237–249.
Walker, G, Gilfedder, M & Williams, J 1999, Effectiveness of
current farming systems in the control of dryland salinity, CSIRO
Land and Water, Canberra, ACT.
11
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7
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 How landform and geology influence recharge ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Granite geology .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Main features .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Variability ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Granite example ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
High relief granite landforms ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Low relief granite landforms ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Metasedimentary/metavolcanic (fractured) geology ..................................................................................................................................... 6

Main features .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Variability ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Metasedimentary/metavolcanic (fractured) rock example........................................................................................................................... 6
High relief metasedimentary/metavolcanic landforms.................................................................................................................................... 8
Low relief metasedimentary/metavolcanic landforms...................................................................................................................................... 8
 Basalt geology ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Main features .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Variability ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Basalt example ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
 Unconsolidated sedimentary (alluvial) geology ................................................................................................................................................ 11

Main features ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Variability ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Unconsolidated sediment example .................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
 Consolidated sedimentary rock landscapes ............................................................................................................................................................ 13

Main features ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Variability ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Consolidated sedimentary example ............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
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 Introduction
This chapter looks at the five major geological types that form landscapes across NSW and the associated
salinity risk for each. The geological types are:
• granite
• metasedimentary/metavolcanic
• basalt
• unconsolidated sedimentary (alluvial)
• consolidated sedimentary.
Landholders and those involved with natural resource management are encouraged to read the landscape
and gain an understanding of the features that could contribute to salinity problems. The five geological
types occur in a complex mosaic across NSW (see Table 7.1). Determining which material is present on any
particular site or within a given catchment is best done by consulting maps of soil landscapes (DECC 2007)
and geological maps.
The main features of each geological type and the variability that can exist across the state have been included
in this chapter. Chapter 16 will look at management and discuss the opportunities and limitations of each.
See also the National Catchment Classification in Chapter 4 – ‘Groundwater systems’ to gain further
information.
 How landform and geology influence recharge

The landform (variations in elevation of an area of can have great influence on land degradation such
the earth’s surface) of the landscape can influence as recharge, watertables and expression of salinity
recharge, discharge and groundwater movement, Speight (1990). In effect, landform influences the
even within the same geology type. This has water balance of a site. Table 7.1 describes the
implications for management. distribution of the major geological landscapes in
the Murray/Murrumbidgee, Border Rivers, Gwydir,
Within a given area the landform can have different
Namoi, Central West and Lachlan catchments.
slope and morphological type (shape). This variation
Plate 7.1: Typical landforms on granite. Note the rounded hills, long gently sloping waning (concave) footslopes and broad drainage lines.
Source: Watson (2004)
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Geology type Murray/Murrumbidgee Central West/Lachlan Border Rivers/Gwydir and Namoi
Granite Central regions of both In many areas of the central and In a north-south belt through the
catchments around southern Lachlan and Macquarie eastern tablelands and as isolated
Wagga and Albury. catchments e.g. Bathurst, Gulgong, occurrences on the slopes. Locations
Yeoval, Cowra, Wyangala, Eugowra, include Tingha, Uralla and Bendemeer.
Young,
Metasedimentary Central regions of both Metasedimentary and metavolcanic In a central band through the slopes
catchments around landscapes occur right across the of the northwest region. Associated
Wagga and Albury. tablelands and slopes from south of with undulating hilly terrain extending
Dunedoo, Dubbo and Narromine in from Gravesend in the north,
the Central West catchment down to southeast through Manilla, Tamworth
Boorowa and Gunning in the Lachlan and to Willow Tree and beyond.
catchment.
Metavolcanic N/A As above N/A
Unconsolidated • the broad fan-shaped • the Riverine Plain associated with In the upland tributaries, throughout
sedimentary Riverine Plain, west from the Macquarie and Castlereagh Rivers the plains and valley regions of the
(alluvial) Narrandera and Corowa. extending northwest from Narromine, northwest. Examples are the rolling
It extends to Balranald west to Nyngan, east to Gilgandra plains around Wee Waa and Pilliga, the
and south to the Murray and north to the Barwon River and undulating alluvial landscapes in the
River. including Warren, Coonamble and the vicinity of Croppa Creek, North Star
• the Mallee area west Macquarie Marshes. and Yetman, the alluvial plains through
of Balranald and near • the Riverine Plain associated Bellata and Garah, and alluvial areas
Merriwagga with the Lachlan river west of Lake of the Liverpool Plains including Pine
Cargelligo and south of Ivanhoe to the Ridge, Goran Lake, and the Mooki River
• colluvial slopes and and Cox’s Creek floodplains.
alluvial infill materials in Murrumbidgee river including Hillston
the valley floors of the and the Great Cumbung Swamp
mid-catchments of the • the colluvial slopes in the upper
major rivers e.g. around catchments and alluvial materials in
Wagga Wagga, Albury the valley floors. Scale and drainage
and Gundagai. Scale and characteristics can differ from the larger
drainage characteristics Riverine Plains
can differ from the more
extensive Riverine Plain.
Consolidated N/A • northeast of Narromine, north Cental and southern regions of the
sedimentary of Wellington, east of Mudgee Liverpool plains around Gunnedah
and Rylstone extending west to through Curlewis and Pine Ridge.
Trangie and Gilgandra, and north to Isolated occurrences of sedimentary
Coonabarabran, including Dubbo, rocks throughout the central and
Coolah and Mendooran eastern regions of the Border Rivers
• north of Bogan Gate and south of and Gwydir catchment.
Tottenham
Basalt Localised small amounts Occurs throughout the eastern half of Occurs as large volcanic complexes
only the Lachlan and Macquarie Catchments (mountains) including the Liverpool
in the following locations: Ranges and the Nandewar volcanic
• volcanic complexes and lava flows complex east of Bellata. Also occurs
in the Warrumbungle, Coolah, Orange as smaller complexes which form hills
and Crookwell areas. and mounds typical of the lava fields
east of Croppa Creek through Inverell
• scattered volcanic centres and lava to Glen Innes and the Garawilla
flows in the Dubbo, Gulgong, Kandos, volcanics and basalts around Werris
Abercrombie and Tullibigeal areas. Creek and Quirindi.
Table 7.1: Distribution of the major geological types in the Murray/Murrumbidgee, Central West/Lachlan, Border Rivers, Gwydir and Namoi regions.
Source: Muller (2006)
 Granite geology
(see table 7.1 for major locations) Variability
• Joint (fracture) spacing can be variable.
Main features
• Joints1 may be present. • Depth of weathering can be variable depending
on composition of granite, landform, degree of
• Topsoil is permeable and coarse-grained. fracturing and possibly grain size.
• There is potential for lateral flow of groundwater. • May be overlain by soil materials from other
• Solid rock (massive structure) occurs at depth. sources, e.g. aeolian clay (Parna2) which may
affect where discharge occurs.
3
7
• There may be trends in water quality with (at the base of the slope) are often horizontally
landform relief. For example, granite landforms bedded coarse sands with finer silt and clay lenses,
with high relief such as hills and mountains tend encouraging lateral flow of water and local perched
to have fresher groundwater e.g. Bathurst and watertables.
Wyangala. Low relief landforms such as plains and
rises as at Yeoval have more saline groundwater. High relief granite landforms
High relief granite landforms have moderate
Granite example resistance to weathering and generally exhibit
From Southern NSW in the exposed granite outcrops on hill crests with tors
Wagga Wagga/Albury Region (rounded boulders) being common. Soils on the
hill crests, ridges and upper slopes are residual
Granitic rocks (Plate 7.1 and Figure 7.1) generally
(formed in situ). Locally, on steep maximal3 slopes,
have at least three joint (fracture) sets: two sub-
erosion is dominant and the soils are shallow (the
vertical (close to vertical) and one sub-horizontal
rate of erosion is much greater than the rate of soil
(close to horizontal). The joint spacing is uneven
formation). The waning footslopes are made up of
and plays an important part in the rate and depth
colluvium (rock and soil accumulated at the foot of
of weathering. The joints can be open and contain
a slope from erosional and gravitational forces) and
weathered material, but they normally close up
are often coarse and deep. Moving further down the
quickly with depth. They may also be filled with
slopes and as the gradient decreases to about 1%–
secondary minerals such as quartz. These landscapes
2%, the soils become deeper alluvial, and contain
are often identifiable by protruding rounded more silt and clay.
boulders on hill crests and upper slopes (Figure 7.2
and Plate 7.3). The soils tend to be shallow on hill The hill crest and upper slope areas in these
crests and upper slopes becoming deeper as the landscapes typically either don’t allow water to
slopes flatten and become plains. This influences penetrate (i.e. are exposed rock) or allow water
the way water moves through the profile and how to penetrate rapidly to a shallow depth where
recharge occurs. Hill crests, ridges and upper slopes it begins to move laterally (shallow lateral flow)
generally have shallow soil overlying the fresh across less permeable material below the surface.
unweathered rock (Plate 7.2) so are likely recharge Shallow lateral flow occurs until it reaches the
areas. Water readily infiltrates through the shallow deeper soils on the footslopes where movement
soil until it encounters less permeable material, such becomes restricted. The water can either leak down
as clay or solid rock. Some lateral flow then occurs to recharge watertables or, if the lower alluvial soils
through the deeper soil zone and through shallow are high in clay, it may be held up and express as a
fractures in the granite. The water can continue to discharge site at the break-of-slope or on the valley
flow laterally and vertically through this zone until it floor.
reaches the watertable. Discharge sites occur where
the watertable intersects the land surface, often
at the break-of-slope where soil textures become
heavier, over bedrock highs, or as baseflow into
flow lines at the base of the slope. The alluvial soils
Plate 7.2: Soil and weathered

granite overlying massive
impervious granite rock layer.
Figure 7.1: Water movement

through a typical granite
landscape; showing recharge on
the upper slopes, lateral movement
of water in the colluvial slopes and
groundwater discharge at break-of-
slope and into the stream bed.
Source: Adapted from Smithson (2003a)
4
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Figure 7.2: A typical high relief granite landform.

Plate 7.3: Granite landscape showing tors (rounded boulders)

Cootamundra district.
Source: Elizabeth Madden, NSW DPI (2005)
Inset: Granite landscape in the Albury district.

Source: Paul Robey, NSW DPI (2003)
5
7
relief granites (because the rate of erosion is less),
Low relief granite landforms and relatively permeable. Due to deeper weathering
Low relief granite landforms (Figure 7.3) have less processes and more gentle slopes, there will be
resistance to weathering, but display some similar fewer outcrops of granite. As the soils are usually
characteristics to high relief granite landforms in deeper, they are more capable of supporting mixed
that water generally moves laterally in the system farming or establishment of improved pasture.
and discharge is often found at the break-of-slope Recharge occurs readily due to the gentle slope and
or on the valley floor. Soils on the upper slopes are relatively permeable soils allowing water more time
similarly often shallow, but deeper than on the high to infiltrate rather than run-off.
Fig 7.3: A typical low relief granite landform.

Source: Watson(2004)
 Metasedimentary/metavolcanic (fractured) geology

(see table 7.1 for major locations)
Main features Metasedimentary/metavolcanic

• All of the landform is fractured and capable of (fractured) rock example
recharging. From Central NSW in the
• Rocks have been changed by deformation . 4 Wellington / Cowra Region
• There is gradual weathering from rock to soil Metasedimentary and metavolcanic geologies
tending to produce uniform and gradational soil contain sedimentary and volcanic rocks that have
profiles. been subjected to some degree of metamorphism
(heat, compression and folding). The mineralogical,
chemical and structural nature of these rocks have
Variability been altered deep in the earth. Metasedimentary
• Salt loads are variable, based on climate e.g. and metavolcanic rocks are generally fractured
fresher in the higher rainfall zones in the eastern (Figure 7.4) so have the potential to allow
catchments of NSW. groundwater recharge to occur across the
• Permeability is variable, both laterally and landscape. They can often be identified by the
horizontally e.g. some landscapes become appearance of rocky outcrops displaying layered
waterlogged while others drain quickly. formations of parent materials.
• Rocks and textures are variable e.g. fine grained The most common metasedimentary rocks are slate,
volcanic and marine sedimentary rocks to coarse phyllite, marble and quartzite.
grained fluvial (fresh water) sedimentary rocks. The most common metavolcanic rocks are
• Faulting is variable e.g. faults can be shallow/deep greenstone, schist and amphibolite. Folding and
or open/closed, which affects the amount and faulting in the rock have resulted in extensive tilting
depth of recharge. (Plate 7.5) and fracturing of units.
6
7
Plate 7.4: The Illunie Range near Koorawatha is an example of a metasedimentary landscape in Central West NSW.
Source: Rob Muller (2006)
In contrast to granite material, the fractured nature landscapes, the vertical flow component is more
of metasediments can often allow water to enter significant than in granite landscapes and lateral
more readily into the soil and leak through to the flow is generally deeper. Once water penetrates past
rock layer itself rather than remaining in the surface the plant root zone it can add directly to watertables
soil. This water can contribute directly to deeper through deeper flow paths which then discharge
watertables. Water may also move through the lower in the landscape in local, intermediate and
matrix5 of more porous surficial rock material. regional groundwater systems.
Water movement through both the rock matrix
Using water where it falls through vegetation
and through fractures is known as dual porosity
management results in less water reaching the
flow.
waterways, so recharge areas in saline upper
In metasedimentary landscapes, the emphasis is
catchments need to be targeted to minimise the
on using water where it falls on the landscape (i.e.
impact on downstream users and the riparian
where it infiltrates the soil profile) as there is not the
ecosystem.
same opportunity to intercept it later (as in granites
where water moves laterally). In metasedimentary
Figure 7.4: Water movement in a metasedimentary landscape showing dual porosity flow in both rock fractures and matrix.
Source: adapted from Smithson (2003b)
7
7
rock landscapes in general tend to recharge where
the water falls, due to the parent rock being more
densely fractured than in granite landscapes (Figure
7.5).
Low relief metasedimentary/

metavolcanic landforms
On low relief fractured landforms (figure 7.6),
recharge to the groundwater system is more likely
as the reduced gradient allows for slower run-off
providing more opportunity for water to infiltrate.
These low relief landforms have deeper soil, are
often quite arable and are used for a range of mixed
agriculture. They are also suitable for a wide range
Plate 7.5: Fractures in the metasedimentary rock allow water to of recharge control options from woody vegetation7
penetrate into groundwater systems. This metasedimentary rock through to cropping with perennials in rotation.
from Tullibigeal has been tilted.
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) The priority for minimising recharge on both high
and low relief fractured rock landscapes is to use
water where it falls. In most cases this involves
High relief metasedimentary/ using deep-rooted perennial vegetation which uses
metavolcanic landforms water effectively and dries out the soil profile. On
high relief landscapes this becomes more difficult,
Metasedimentary and metavolcanic landforms have
however if conditions allow, it is important that
high relief areas that often expose the country6 rock
recharge should be minimised on hill crests and
(e.g. slate, schist, mudstone and sandstone) because
upper slopes as well as at the break-of-slope. This is
these rocks are more resistant to weathering.
because the opportunity to intercept water falling
Shallow soils, which are difficult to access for
higher in the catchment as run-off and lateral
implementing salinity management options such
flows is limited on fractured rock landscapes in
as revegetation, are common. Steeper gradients in
comparison to granite landscapes due to the higher
high relief fractured rock landscapes produce some
leakage rates into the fractured parent material.
run-off and some lateral groundwater flow that may
result in discharge at the break-of-slope if the flow is Although soils at the top of these landforms are
impeded. Due to the fractured nature of the parent typically shallow, they will generally provide a good
rock, water is able to penetrate into underlying local opportunity for woody vegetation to improve water
groundwater systems and intermediate and regional use and soil. Their roots can pursue the water down
groundwater systems if they are present. Fractured the fractures and between exposed rock outcrops.
Figure 7.5: High relief fractured rock produces some run-off and lateral groundwater flow. However, due to the highly fractured
nature of the rock, recharge tends to occur where the water falls.
8
7
Break-of-slope plantings can still play a role to
intercept lateral flows and run-off in steeper
metasedimentary landscapes, however unlike the
granite landscapes, the priority here is using water
where it falls.
Figure 7.6: On low relief fractured rock, water has the opportunity
to infiltrate due to low slope.
 Basalt geology
(see Table 7.1 for major locations) Variability
• Groundwater is relatively fresh, but salt loads can
Main features be variable due to evaporative concentration.
• Basalt cap.
• Size of caps varies—some can be small e.g. 500 m
• Flat plateaux8 in landscape. x 1.5 km (Cowra) or large 20 km x 20 km (Orange).
• Sudden change in permeability at the boundary • Thickness and number of flow events can be
between the basalt cap and underlying non- variable.
basalt geology (country rock).
• Relief of the flows—low profile flows e.g. Dubbo
• Recharge travels vertically through basalt cap have little change in relief and slower response
then horizontally at interface to country rock. times to recharge while elevated flows e.g.
Figure 7.7: Water movement and salinity in basalt landscapes. The figure shows the basalt cap derived from volcanic lava flow, overlying
country rock.
Source: Adapted from Smithson (2003d)
9
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Orange have greater changes in relief with Basalt example
relatively fast response times. This is due to the
From central NSW in the Orange/Crookwell/
effect of gravity on hydraulic flux9.
Dubbo Regions
• Agricultural use and degree of weathering are
Basalt landscapes comprise mainly Cainozoic10 lava
highly variable e.g. slightly weathered rock to
flows and products of weathering and erosion of
deep well-structured clays.
the flows. Over time, the resistant basalt surfaces
weather and erode more slowly than the adjacent
Plate 7.7: Well-developed vertical columnar (column-like) country rock resulting in areas of plains surrounding
fractures in this basalt rock allow water to leak into the underlying basalt capped plateaux and steep-sided hills (Figure
groundwater systems.
Source: Ann Smithson, NSW Department of Natural Resources (2005) 7.7 and Plate 7.6). In some areas (e.g. Dubbo) low
profile sheet flows and exposed sills produce a
more subdued landscape (because the lava was
of low viscosity when it flowed across the plain).
Soils formed on basalt are characteristically dark
chocolate coloured, highly structured clays, usually
found on the plains at the base of adjoining slopes.
Most basalt formations are extensively fractured
and form highly permeable systems allowing
groundwater recharge to occur across the
landscape. Fractured basalts can provide useful
water supplies. Groundwater recharge in these
landscapes is influenced by the degree of fracturing
of the basalt (which can be variable) and the depth
of overlying sediments to the bedrock. Aquifer
capacity depends upon the degree of fracturing.
Basalts weather to magnesium-, iron- and calcium-
dominant clays which shrink and swell greatly,
hence they crack when dry, allowing recharge; but
close up when wet, inhibiting recharge (Charman
and Murphy 2000).
Plate 7.6: Basaltic rocks form distinctive landscapes in the Toongi area south of Dubbo. The exposed basalt caps form abrupt
steep slopes to the surrounding plains.
Source: Smithson et al. (2004)
10
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Water movement is predominantly gravity-controlled permeability contrast results in discharge as springs
in basaltic formations (Mattson, Magnuson and and seeps at the contact between the two layers. In
Ansley 2004) and recharge is more likely to occur basalt landscapes, recharge and discharge are often
where there are shallow soils and where basalt is closely adjacent within local groundwater systems.
exposed at the land surface. In high relief basaltic
In high relief landscapes, management options
landscapes, water may infiltrate at the top of the
include increasing deep rooted perennial
slope to become groundwater recharge or it may
vegetation. Woody vegetation can effectively use
run-off. Some shallow lateral flow may occur with
rainfall and access groundwater from fractures in the
discharge occurring at the break-of-slope. In low relief
basalt before it contributes to the deeper aquifer.
landscapes, discharge may occur where lateral
It is also important to avoid cropping and annual
movement is impeded by less permeable clay
vegetation systems on the upper slopes where soils
soil layers.
are shallow and prone to leakage. There is potential
Some groundwater flow may occur through for opportunity cropping (see Chapter 14) on the
weathered horizons that are sometimes present lower slopes with deeper soils.
between successive lava flows.
Groundwater salinity in basalt landscapes is
The permeability of basalt is often greater than that generally low, suitable for town water supplies. The
of the underlying geology (non-basalt country rock). groundwater can also be used as a major source of
Common in northwest NSW are fractured basalt irrigation water for viticulture and orchards as is the
systems perched over less permeable geologies case in the Orange area.
often with horizontal sedimentary layers. This
 Unconsolidated sedimentary (alluvial) geology

(see Table 7.1 for major locations) Unconsolidated sediment example
From the MIA in South Western NSW
Main features between Narrandera and Balranald
• Alluvial material has been transported by water
from its weathered and eroded parent rock. For Unconsolidated sediments are sediments whose
example, the parent material of the alluvium of particles are loosely arranged and are not cemented
the Riverine Plain is in the Snowy Mountains. together. Examples are gravel, sand, silt and clay.
Some aeolian material also occurs. Unconsolidated landscapes generally occur on valley
• Range of salinity processes that occur depend on floors and plains. They consist of horizontal layers
texture changes. and lenses of transported sediments which vary in
size from coarse rounded and sub-angular gravel to
• Salinity may occur without a watertable (transient fine clay (see Plate 7.8) deposited by fast and slow
salinity11). moving water respectively. In addition they may also
contain windblown features such as sand dunes.
Variability Irrigation farming is widespread on the
• Regional groundwater systems are often broad unconsolidated landscapes along the major rivers
and deep e.g. Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area because of the ready availability of water. The
(MIA). recharge sites in these low-lying areas are the river
• Properties such as texture can vary greatly within itself and the surrounding associated irrigation
short distances both laterally and vertically, areas. Groundwater mounds can develop under
reflecting the speed of the water that deposited irrigation areas as well as under the river and are
the material. The faster the water, the coarser the connected to the regional groundwater system (see
particle size deposited12. Figure 7.8). Perched watertables are a local system
that is separate to the regional groundwater. They
• Shallow narrow upland alluvial sediments have a develop if water from irrigation or rainfall leaks
local groundwater system e.g. the Lachlan valley past the root zone of plants and is impeded by a
upstream of Cowra, Muttama Creek (between restrictive or low permeability layer of clay or rock.
Cootamundra and the Hume Highway) and Little Over time, these will drain if recharge from above
River Catchment south of Dubbo. is reduced, but they have the potential to travel
(usually in a south westerly direction) following the
bedding planes of the alluvial sediments.
11
7
much less permeable than those composed of sand
or gravel and therefore water movement is much
slower. Water movement occurs much more readily
in sandy and gravelly soils leading to a greater risk
of leakage to the groundwater system.
These unconsolidated sediments are horizontally
layered due to flooding and long term climate
changes when they were deposited. Properties such
as texture can vary greatly within short distances
both laterally and vertically, reflecting the speed of
the water that deposited the material. As a result
it is possible to have several separate aquifers
occurring vertically above each other separated by
less permeable horizons. Deeper aquifers may have
no direct connection with those above and receive
Plate 7.8: Layered configuration of unconsolidated sediments. most of their recharge from distant areas where the
Inset: horizon of coarse rounded gravel was deposited by faster bed is not confined by the upper low permeability
flowing water and is often more resistant to erosion. layer. Figure 7.9 shows a generalised geological
section through the Southwest Slopes and Plains of
Unconsolidated landscapes are often associated NSW.
with intermediate and regional groundwater
Saline discharge sites in unconsolidated landscapes
systems in the larger river valleys so their catchment
can occur throughout the system and in unexpected
areas (and recharge sites) are generally large and a
locations due to changes in soil properties and
long distance from each other.
minor changes in elevation. They commonly appear
Water movement in unconsolidated landscapes is in low lying or depression areas and along the far
largely governed by soil properties such as texture levees of prior streams where lighter-textured soils
and degree of secondary cementation rather meet heavy soils. In dry years they may appear as
than relief or underlying parent material. These green vegetation in contrast to the surrounding
landscapes have deep, layered deposits of sand, silt brown vegetation. Discharge sites can often be large
and clay that vary greatly in their ability to store and difficult to control due to their association with
and transmit water. Soils with high clay content are intermediate and regional groundwater systems.
Figure 7.8: Water movement in unconsolidated landscapes showing groundwater mounds and local perched watertables.
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Figure 7.9: A simplified geological cross section of the Murray/Murrumbidgee Region in NSW showing the fractured country rock of the mid-
and upper-catchments, contrasted with the unconsolidated sediments of the Riverine Plain which forms the lower catchment.
Source: Adapted from Pepper (2001)
 Consolidated sedimentary rock landscapes

Main features • form escarpment13 landscapes (Plate 7.9).
• dual porosity where water travels through rock
and fractures Variability
• flat-lying rock that has not been deformed e.g. no • Massive sandstone units and layered sandstone
folding and faulting alternating with coal seams, shale and other low
permeability rocks.
• remain in situ (in the location they were
deposited)
Plate 7.9: Consolidated sedimentary rock landscape forming an escarpment—Curlewis in Northern NSW
Source: George Truman Border Rivers-Gwydir CMA (2007)
13
7
Consolidated sedimentary example consolidated sedimentary landscapes have local and
intermediate groundwater flow systems consisting
From Northern NSW in the central and southern
of water moving down slope and discharging at
regions of the Liverpool Plains around Gunnedah
the break-of-slope or at a change in soil properties.
through Curlewis and Pine Ridge.
Typically, salinity discharges occur at the contact
Consolidated sedimentary geology is composed boundary between the sandstone ridges and the
of flat-lying or gently-dipping sedimentary rocks alluvial floodplain. The main recharge areas to the
that have undergone little or no deformation Great Artesian Basin (GAB, a regional groundwater
(folding or faulting) (Figure 7.10). These rocks system) are from the Pilliga and Hutton sandstones
have not been heated and metamorphosed, but and the Purlewaugh Formation of the Surat Basin
merely compressed and cemented at ambient14 in the south western part of the Namoi, Gwydir
temperatures. They include Mesozoic conglomerate, and Border Rivers Catchment. This includes areas
sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, ironstone and coal. around Pilliga, Coonabarabran, Baradine and Tambar
They are characterised by flat landscapes, plateaux, Springs. In Central West NSW, outcrops of flat-lying
mesas15 and escarpments (Plate 7.9) because they sandstone recharge the aquifers of the Great
are highly resistant to weathering and erosion. Artesian Basin.
The permeability of consolidated sedimentary Waterlogging and salinity occur where local
rocks depends on the degree of weathering. Water groundwater flows laterally along geological
moves into and along the more permeable rocks contacts until it discharges at the land surface (Plate
in the sedimentary sequence. Some fine-grained or 7.11). Waterlogging and/or salinity may also occur
cemented non-weathered consolidated sedimentary at the break-of-slope and within drainage lines.
rocks can be relatively impermeable to water
movement (Plate 7.10).
When sediments are horizontally layered, downward
water movement may be impeded by the less
permeable layers. Water is more likely to move
laterally as subsurface flow along horizontal
bedding planes of more permeable layers. Local South western part of the
Namoi, Gwydir and
perched watertables commonly occur in sandstones
Border Rivers Catchment
overlaying a lower permeability layer such as
siltstone, mudstone or ironston.
In NSW, consolidated sedimentary landscapes
can generally recharge local, intermediate or
regional groundwater systems. In northern NSW,
Figure 7.10: Consolidated sedimentary landscape.

Source: adapted from Smithson (Smithson 2003c)
14
7
Plate 7.10: Consolidated sedimentary geology typical of Northern NSW. Fine grained consolidated sedimentary
rocks have low permeability.
Source: Ann Smithson, NSW Department of Natural Resources (2003)
Plate 7.11: Weathered escarpment looking down slope. Foreground shows a discharge site where the groundwater intersects
or comes near to the surface (see Figure 7.10).
Source: George Truman Border Rivers Gwydir CMA (2007)
15
7
Regional groundwater systems discharge as springs, frequent cultivation. They are also salinity recharge
sometimes hundreds of kilometres away from the areas with salts and minerals leaching through the
recharge site of fractured rock. light soils and accumulating at the break-of-slope
along the contact boundary to the alluvial plains.
The soils that formed on these consolidated
These areas are now being targeted to re-establish
sediments are predominantly Red Chromosol soils.
perennial pastures and trees to increase water use
The topsoils are sandy and gravelly in texture with
and reduce potential salt mobilisation.
low waterholding capacity (Plate 7.12). These areas
have in the past been traditionally farmed with
Plate 7.12: Weathered escarpment near Curlewis, Northern NSW, looking down slope. Red Brown Earth soils are common on
these consolidated sediments. Topsoils are sandy and gravelly textured with low waterholding capacity.
Source: George Truman Border Rivers Gwydir CMA (2007)
 Endnotes
1
Joint: A fracture in a rock. One which exhibits no differential movement, in contrast to a fault.
2
Parna: Aeolian fine clayey material that has been transported and deposited by wind across much of southern NSW.
3
Maximal: The steepest part of the slope. The element upslope is gentler and the element downslope is gentler.
4
Deformation: Folding, faulting shearing, compression and extension of the rock mass.
5
Matrix: The fine-grained material of a rock in which the coarser components are embedded.
6
Country rock: The existing rock through which the molten material (magma) intrudes and solidifies. Source: Muller, R. (2008) Country
Rock definition. Personal communication, 14th March 2008.
7
Woody vegetation: Plants with a woody stem that livestock usually do not like to eat. Generally perennials.
8
Plateau: Tableland, a relatively flat highland.
9
Hydraulic flux: The amount flowing per unit time. Flow rate.
10
Cainozoic: The last of the geological eras, includes the Tertiary and Quaternary Periods. Extending from about 65 million years ago up
to the present.
11
Transient salinity: Describes the temporal (lasting only for a time) variation of the salt content of the root zone. This may be due to
the rise and fall of saline watertables or a combination of soil properties and rainfall conditions causing perched watertables. Transient
salinity is extensive in dryland regions and occurs mainly in landscapes dominated by sodic subsoils. Shaw Coughlan & Bell (1998).
12
Some of the cobbles deposited in the Riverine Plain around Coleambally are about 5–10 cm diameter, which makes you wonder at the
speed of the depositing stream!
13
Escarpments: A long cliff or steep slope separating two comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces and resulting from erosion
or faulting.
14
Ambient: Of the immediate or surrounding area.
15
Mesa: An elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs (characteristic table-top shape).
16
16
7

due to changes in soil properties. Discharge sites commonly

Key points appear in low-lying or depression areas and along far levees
The key points relevant to understanding landform features and of prior streams where lighter-textured soils meet heavy soils.
their influence on water movement are: They are often hard to manage due to their association with
Landform intermediate and regional groundwater systems.
 Landform is important in recharge, discharge and Consolidated Sedimentary geology
groundwater movement, even within the same geology.  These landscapes recharge local, intermediate and regional
Granite groundwater systems
 Granitic rocks generally have joints (fractures). The joint  Outcrops of horizontal-lying sandstone in Central West NSW
spacing is irregular and determines the rate and depth of recharge the Great Artesian Basin—a regional groundwater
weathering, hence affects the way water moves through the system.
landscape.  Regional groundwater systems discharge as springs, sometime
Metasedimentary / Metavolcanic geology hundreds of kilometres away from the recharge site of
 Due to the highly fractured nature of the geology, fractured rock.
medasedimentary landscapes generally tend to recharge in
situ, where the water falls. Further information
 Once water moves past the plant root zone, the opportunity Industry and Investment NSW
is generally lost to capture it. It can infiltrate directly to the Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity)
groundwater through deep flow paths which discharge Irrigation Officers
lower in the landscape in local, intermediate and regional Catchment Management Authorities
groundwater systems.
 The priority for addressing recharge on both high and low (DECCW)
relief matesedimentary landscapes is to use water where it
falls, before it moves further into the groundwater system. Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors
Basalt geology
 Basalt landscapes can be identified by the presence of high
Further reading
relief volcanic plateaux or thin sheet flows and exposed sills. Branagan, D F & Packam, G H 2000, Field Geology of NSW.
Soils are characteristically dark chocolate coloured, highly NSW, Department of Mineral Resources.
structured clays, usually found on the plains at the base of Hulme, P 2003, Soils of the Macquarie Bogan floodplain,
adjoining slopes. Sustainable Soil Management, issued in conjunction with
 Most basalt formations are extremely fractured and form Natural Heritage Trust, Warren NSW.
highly permeable systems, allowing groundwater recharge to Smithson, A, Muller, R, Nicholson, A & Wooldridge, A 2004,
occur across the landscape. Groundwater flow systems: A technical framework for salinity
 Recharge and discharge are often only a short distance apart management in the Central West region, NSW, Department of
within local groundwater systems. It is therefore important to Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources, Orange.
reduce recharge where it falls. NSW Soil Conservation Service, Department of Sustainable
 Waterlogging often occurs on the contact boundaries Natural Resources, Department of Conservation and Land
between basalt and underlying less permeable country rock. Management, Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural
Resources, Department of Natural Resources, Department of
 Groundwater can be relatively fresh, but salt loads can be Environment and Climate Change (1989-2007 and ongoing). Soil
variable due to evaporative concentration. Landscape Publications (maps and reports) at scales of 1:100 000 to
1:250 000.
Unconsolidated Sedimentary geology
 Generally occurs as alluvium on valley floors Websites
and plains. It’s horizontally-layered transported sediments
NSW Department of Environment Climate Change and Water
varying in particle size from coarse gravels to fine clay.
(DECCW), Soil landscape mapping program, viewed 21st May
 Unconsolidated landscapes are often associated with 2010, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/soils/soilmapping.
intermediate and regional groundwater systems. htm
 Soil type and minor changes in relief, rather than underlying
parent materials, largely govern water movement in
unconsolidated landscapes.
 Saline discharge sites in unconsolidated landscapes can
occur throughout the system and in unexpected locations
17
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 References
Charman, PEV & Murphy, BW (Eds) 2000, Soils: their Smithson, A 2003b, Original drawing of Figure 7.4: Water
properties and management, Oxford University Press, South movement in a metasedimentary landscape showing dual
Melbourne, Vic. porosity flow in both rock fractures and matrix, Department of
DECC 2007, Soil Landscapes of New South Wales, Maps and Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Dubbo, NSW.
Reports, viewed 21 October 2010, Smithson, A 2003c, Original drawing of Figure 7.10: Consolidated
http://www.naturalresources.nsw.gov.au/care/soil/ssu/ sedimentary landscape, Department of Infrastructure, Planning
nswssu2.htm and Natural Resources, Dubbo, NSW.
Mattson, ED, Magnuson, SO and Ansley, SL 2004, ‘Interpreting Smithson, A 2003d, Original drawing of Figure 7.7: Water
INEEL vadose zone water movement on the basis of large-scale field movement and salinity in basalt landscapes, Department of
tests and long-term vadose zone monitoring results’, Vadose Zone Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Dubbo, NSW.
Journal, vol 3, pp. 35–46. Smithson, A, Muller, R, Nicholson, A & Wooldridge, A 2004,
Muller, R 2006, Table 7.1: Distribution of the major geological types Groundwater flow systems in the Central West region, NSW (stage 1):
in the Murray/Murrumbidgee, Central West/ Lachlan, Border Rivers, a technical framework for salinity management NSW Department
Gwydir and Namoi regions (ed. Tenison, K), Department of of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Orange, NSW.
Environment and Climate Change, Wagga, NSW. Speight 1990, ‘Landform’ in Australian Soil and Land Survey Field
Muller, R 2008, Country Rock definition, interview with the author, Handbook (eds McDonald, RC, Isbell, RF, Speight, JG, J, W & MSH),
14 March 2008. Inkata Press: Melbourne, VIC.
Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW .Watson, AJ 2004 Healthy catchment guide: vegetation for salinity
Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchments, NSW Department of Primary management in the South West slopes of the Murray Catchment.
Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW. Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
Smithson, A 2003a, Original drawing of Figure 7.1: Water Albury, NSW.
movement through a typical granite landscape, Department of
Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Dubbo, NSW.
18
8
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Concepts in salinity measurement ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Salt load ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Salt concentration ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Factors affecting salt concentration and salt load................................................................................................................................................. 2
 Using measurement units ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
 Measuring water salinity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Total Dissolved Solids ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Electrical conductivity (EC) field method ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Measuring soil salinity ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

EC1:5 field test .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
ECe (electrical conductivity of a soil extract) ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
ECe (electrical conductivity converted from EC1:5).................................................................................................................................................. 5
 Origin of electrical conductivity readings ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5

ECw – the salinity of a water sample .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
EC1:5 – the salinity of a 1:5 soil-water extract ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
ECe – the salinity of a soil sample .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
ECa – the apparent electrical conductivity of soil from EM measurements ............................................................................... 6
 Salinity meters............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Calibration and maintenance ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Calibration procedure ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
 Key points and additional information............................................................................................................................................................................. 8

Key points ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Further information.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Further reading ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Website............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
 References .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1
8
 Introduction
The amount of salt in soil and water across a landscape varies considerably over time according to climatic
conditions, management, landuse history and landscape features. Monitoring salinity throughout the
landscape requires a knowledge of the units of measurement, and of equipment and procedures used
during measurement. Understanding salinity values is made more complicated as the unit descriptions are
often abbreviated on soil and water tests results sheets. The units used also vary from State to State. This
chapter is aimed at providing a reference for unit conversion and a background to abbreviations which will
assist in understanding soil and water salinity test results. Information will also be provided on salinity
meter calibration and maintenance.
 Concepts in salinity measurement

Salinity is measured to: Factors affecting
• benchmark and monitor the health of our natural
resources
salt concentration and salt load
• determine whether soil and water resources are Several factors influence salt load and salt
suitable for their intended use concentration. These factors must be considered
• assist with management decisions and on-ground when interpreting salinity measurements. For
actions. example, during periods of high freshwater flow
(due to rainfall or water released from storage
Salinity can be measured using a variety of methods. dams into a river), greater volumes of water dilute
It can also be reported in many different units. existing salts, resulting in a lower salt concentration
An understanding of these methods and units is reading. During periods of high flow, more salt
necessary for appropriate management decisions. may be washed into waterways resulting in a
higher salt load in terms of tonnes of salt passing
Salt load a certain monitoring point. In this example, lower
Salt load is a measure of the amount of salt carried salt concentration and high salt load are features of
in water flow such as a river or a bore, in a given time the high flow period, making the water less saline
period. It is expressed as kg/day, tonnes/day or but carrying larger amounts of salt. In this case, the
tonnes/year of salt passing a particular point in a unit t/km2 allows for different catchments and flow
particular time frame. For example: estimated events to be compared.
average salt load in the Murrumbidgee River passing During extended dry periods, the volume of river
through Wagga Wagga, based on 1998–2000 figures, water falls due to low rainfall, limited dam releases,
is 377 000 tonnes/year (Slinger and Tenison 2005). falling watertables and high evaporation rates
See Chapters 1 and 2. resulting in higher salt concentration. However low
Salt load is also reported as t/km where the km is flow means less water and salt passes a certain point
over a particular time frame and the result is a lower
the length of streamline (usually the length of the
salt load. In this example, higher salt concentration
river to that point). This allows the salt load to be and lower salt load are features of low flow. See
compared to a unit of drained area. bucket ‘B’ in Figure 8.1.
Salt concentration Figure 8.1 illustrates the relationship between salt

concentration and salt load in response to water
Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the
flow.
ability of water or a soil solution to conduct an
electrical current. It is the inverse of the electrical Salt concentration and salt load in waterways vary
resistance measured in ohms. Electrical conductivity according to:
depends on the concentration and composition of • environmental conditions
dissolved salts found in the soil or water being • monitoring methods e.g. frequency
measured. The more soluble salt present in water or • distance from high water input sites e.g. dams,
soil, the greater the electrical conductivity. towns, sewage treatment works, stormwater
pipes and industrial processes
For example: distilled water has an electrical
• types of salts coming from a catchment due to
conductivity (EC) reading of 0 deciseimens per
landuse and geology
metre (dS/m), sea water has an EC reading of
• salinity discharge areas in a catchments
35–55 dS/m and the desirable limit forhumans is
• climate conditions e.g. periods of drought or wet
0.8 dS/m. See Chapters 1 and 2.
years
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Figure 8.1: An example of the relationship between salt concentration and salt load during high water flow (A) compared to low flow (B).
Numbers for concentration and salt load are for illustration only.
• groundwater flows to waterways e.g. lateral flow, • the implementation of best management
surface run-off and baseflow practices (e.g. Land and Water Management
• extraction of water for various uses Plans)
• river flow management regimes • treatment of saline sites
• salt interception schemes and evaporation basins.
 Using measurement units

EC is often incorrectly referred to as a unit. EC is not a unit, it simply measures electrical conductivity.
Common units of measurement for salinity include: 25 degree Celsius (National Land and Water
• deciSiemens per metre (dS/m) (SI unit – Resources Audit 2001).
International system) While deciSiemens per metre (dS/m) is the
• microSiemens per centimetre (µS/cm) universally preferred unit for reporting both water
• milliSiemens per centimetre (mS/cm) same as and soil salinity, any of the units mentioned above
dS/m can be used (Western Australia prefers mS/m).
• parts per million (ppm) Therefore it may be necessary to convert between
• milligrams per litre (mg/L). different units to obtain the desired unit dS/m. The
The international unit (SI) for electrical conductivity relationship between these units and the equation
measurement and reporting is deciSiemens per to convert common units of salinity to deciSiemens
metre (dS/m). However, microSiemens per centimetre per metre are given below in table 8.1.
(µS/cm) remains a popular unit throughout Australia. 1 deciSiemens per metre (dS/m) = 1 milliSiemens
1000 µS/cm is equivalent to 1dS/m. Electrical per centimetre (mS/cm)
conductivity measurements are normally quoted at
= 1000 microSiemens per centimetre (µS/cm)
~ 640 parts per million in water (ppm or mg/L)
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So to convert……
do this
from this unit to this unit
µS/cm dS/m Divide by 1000
ppm (mg/L) dS/m Divide by 640 (see Table 8.2)
ppm (mg/L) µS/cm Multiply by 1.56
dS/m ppm (mg/L) Multiply by 640 (see Table 8.2)
dS/m µS/cm Multiply by 1000
Table 8.1: Converting between common units used to report salinity levels.
Source: Gibbs (2000)
Below are two examples that use the equations Example two:
shown in Table 8.1. One shows how to convert To convert an electrical conductivity reading of
from microSiemens per centimetre (µS/cm) to 0.8 dS/m to ppm (mg/L), multiply by 640 (see
deciSiemens per metre (dS/m). The other example below for an explanation of this number).
shows how to convert from deciSiemens per metre 0.8 dS/m x 640 = 512 ppm (mg/L)
(dS/m) to parts per million (ppm).
Example one:
To convert an electrical conductivity reading of
800 µS/cm to dS/m, divide by 1000.
800 ÷ 1000 = 0.8 dS/m
 Measuring water salinity

The amount of salt in water can be determined by either:
• measuring Total Dissolved Solids or salts directly (TDS by evaporation method); or
• indirectly by measuring the electrical conductivity of the water.
Total Dissolved Solids This test is conducted in a laboratory. It is also

possible to estimate TDS by multiplying an electrical
(or salts by evaporation (TDSevap) method)
conductivity reading expressed in dS/m (see EC field
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS evap) is the mass of method) by a conversion factor. The conversion
dissolved material remaining after the removal of factor used will depend on the type of the salts
all water from a sample under standard laboratory present. The conversion factor of 640 is used as it
conditions. It is expressed as mass per unit volume is an accepted average (Taylor 1996) for surface
i.e. milligrams of dissolved solid in 1 litre of water and groundwater in NSW . Therefore TDS can be
(mg/L) which is equivalent to parts per million estimated from the EC reading in dS/m as shown by
(ppm). the formula below (Table 8.2):
Total dissolved salts (mg/L or ppm) ~ EC (in dS/m) x 640
Single salt solution concentration in mg/l or ppm

MgCl2 400
CaCl2 465
NaCl 500
Na2SO4 630 Table 8.2: For each of the single
salt solutions shown above, an EC
MgSO4 710 of 1dS/m at 25ºC is equal to the
above concentration in milligrams
CaSO4 800 per litre or parts per million. The
weighted average of these for
NaHCO3 970 NSW is approximately 640.
Source: Richards (1954)
Average 640
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Electrical conductivity (EC) of the salt concentration. Handheld meters are not
as accurate as laboratory instruments and are only
field method intended to provide an estimate of salinity. The
Hand held salinity meters can be used quickly instructions supplied with the meter will advise
and easily in the field to determine electrical on the units used to report electrical conductivity.
conductivity and provide the user with a measure
 Measuring soil salinity

The amount of salt in soil can also be determined by comprehensive laboratory testing. Costly
either a field or laboratory test. These are described management decisions should not be based on
as: the results of an EC1:5 field test (see Chapter 12:
Testing soil).
• EC1:5 (EC ‘one to five’) field test
• ECse (electrical conductivity of the saturated ECe (electrical conductivity
extract laboratory test) of a soil extract)
• ECe (electrical conductivity converted from EC1:5 The electrical conductivity of a soil extract (ECe)
using a multiplying factor). is measured in a laboratory. It estimates the
concentration of soluble salts (i.e. kg salts/litre of
EC1:5 field test soil water) in the soil water at a reference point,
An EC1:5 (EC ‘one to five’) field test measures the which is taken as the point when all the soil pores
electrical conductivity of a soil-water suspension are occupied by water and there is no air in the soil
made up of one part soil to five parts water by (called the soil water saturation point) (Slavich and
weight. It provides an estimate of the total quantity Petterson 1993). This test gives a more accurate
of soluble salts per unit weight of soil (i.e. kg salts/kg indication of how salinity may affect plant growth
soil) (Slavich and Petterson 1993). Soil salinity is then than an EC1:5 test, as it is closely related to the soil
estimated by multiplying the EC1:5 test result by an waterholding capacity as determined by soil texture
appropriate conversion factor related to soil texture. (Slavich and Petterson 1993). This test involves
This test is not as accurate as laboratory testing of a mixing a dry, sieved soil sample with just enough
soil extract, but can be performed quickly and easily distilled water to obtain a saturated soil paste. The
in the field. The field test method is a useful guide saturation extract, containing the dissolved salts, is
for preliminary salinity testing and or monitoring soil removed from the saturated soil paste and analysed
salt levels over a period of time. for electrical conductivity (Rayment and Higginson
1992).
Note: When using this method, if the soil is high in
gypsum (CaSO4) the EC 1:5 will be higher than the EC ECe (electrical conductivity
in the soil water. Because gypsum is quite insoluble,
more will dissolve in a 1:5 solution than naturally in
converted from EC1:5)
field conditions, creating an artificially high EC1:5. To convert soil salinity EC1:5 to a figure for soil salinity
ECe the EC1:5 result is multiplied by a conversion
As this test is intended as only a guide, professional factor based on the soil texture group of the sample
advice should be obtained if salinity is suspected. (see Chapter 12).
This may include a recommendation for
 Origin of electrical conductivity readings

Letters or numbers are written as subscripts to the EC1:5 – the salinity of a 1:5
EC to indicate what the reading represents, as in the
list below:
soil-water extract
EC1:5 is the salinity of a soil-water suspension made
by mixing 1 part soil to 5 parts water by weight.
ECw – the salinity of a water sample When carrying out an EC1:5 measurements in the
The term ECw means the salinity of a water sample. field, mixing 1 part soil and 5 parts water by volume
Additional abbreviations such as ECiw or ECdw may be is more convenient. This result is then multiplied
used to indicate that the source of the water sample by a conversion factor based on soil texture to
is irrigation water or drainage water respectively. estimate actual soil salinity (ECe). This test can be
performed either in the field or in a laboratory.
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ECe – the salinity of a soil sample ECa – the apparent electrical
ECe is the salinity of a saturated soil water extract. conductivity of soil from EM
This may have been estimated from an EC1:5 field measurements
test (as above) or determined directly from a ECa is the apparent electrical conductivity of soil
saturated soil paste in a laboratory. If the soil using electromagnetic (EM) induction technology.
salinity has been estimated from an EC1:5 test it These instruments include an EM 31, EM 34 or EM
may be expressed in soil test reports as ECe(est). 38. Consultants or researchers survey land by this
If the soil salinity has been determined from a method for rapid assessment of soil salinity over
saturated soil extract it may be expressed as ECe(se). a large area. The EM instruments require trained
Laboratory reports should specify which of the two operators and interpretation of results by experts as
methods has been used (EC1:5 test or a saturated soil factors other than salinity can influence test results.
extract) as this has implications for test accuracy In particular, soil texture and moisture content can
as discussed above. Plant tolerance to soil salinity affect the reading.
generally refers to ECe.
 Salinity meters
Salinity meters measure the ability of a solution to • Calibrate regularly (each day it is used) as meters
conduct electricity between two electrodes and may drift in accuracy over time.
provide a digital readout of electrical conductivity
• If the meter is not reading zero when held in the
(EC).
air (electrodes are not immersed in any liquid),
Hand-held or pocket meters give reasonably then it needs calibration.
accurate readings, however it is recommended that
• Salinity meters can be calibrated with a range of
samples are sent for laboratory analysis if:
calibration solutions that vary in concentration
• results indicate salinity levels close to threshold (1.413 dS/m up to 12.88 dS/m). Always use the
values solution recommended by the manufacturer and
try to choose a calibration solution close to the
• water is to be used for stock and domestic
salinity of the samples being tested as this will
purposes
ensure greater accuracy.
• water is being used from a new source (e.g. a
• Calibrate more often if testing varied samples
bore) or a source that has not been tested for
where readings are expected to be greatly
some time such as a dam.
different (e.g. irrigation water and highly saline
Salinity meters can be purchased from some groundwater).
irrigation or laboratory suppliers, or DPINSW
• Keep the meter out of the sun and avoid
who supply them as part of a Salt Bag monitoring
exposure to extreme heat and rough treatment
kit) (Plate 8.1). For most accurate results, meters
need calibration against a solution of known e.g. avoid the dashboard of the farm ute.
salinity. • Always rinse the electrodes in distilled or fresh
water after use to prevent the electrodes from
Calibration and maintenance becoming corroded or dirty, and wipe dry before
replacing the cap.
Most salinity meters are factory-calibrated prior
to purchase and their instructions recommend some • If the electrodes become fouled, soak in
general care and maintenance tips to ensure they methylated spirits, dab clean with a cotton bud
continue to read accurately. However, the meter and wipe dry.
needs continued and regular calibration while in
• If the readout screen becomes faint, displays an
use. A calibration solution contains salts of a known
error message or does not show a reading at all,
concentration and has a shelf life of approximately
if readings fluctuate or are unusually high or low,
one year.
then the batteries probably need replacing.
The salinity meter is a scientific instrument that can Replace all batteries at the same time and
only give optimum results if treated with care and recalibrate.
•
calibrated regularly. When using a salinity meter: Take note of the expiry date of the calibration
• Calibrate the meter before its first use. Even fluid and discard fluid that has expired.
though most meters come factory-calibrated they
should be double-checked.
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Calibration procedure
The standard calibration procedure (Gibbs 2000),
provides six points to follow:
1. Pour some calibration solution into a clean
sample jar (enough to cover the salinity meter
electrodes).
2. Remove the cap from the salinity meter and
immerse the end 25 mm of the electrodes
into the solution (just until the electrodes are
covered).
3. Swirl the meter slowly in the sample and allow
the display to stabilise (about 20 seconds while
the meter adjusts for temperature), then read
the number on the meter.
4. The number should correspond to the
calibration solution. For example using a
calibration solution of 2.764 dS/m, then the
salinity meter should read 2.764 dS/m or
equivalent (eg. 2.764 mS/cm, 2764 µS/cm). It
Plate 8.1: Salt Bag Monitoring Kit.
should be noted that not all meters will read Source: Elizabeth Madden I&I NSW (2008)
to 3 decimal places, therefore it may only be
possible to calibrate the meter to 1 decimal
place (ie. 2.7 dS/m or 2.8 dS/m). This will not instructions) to match the calibration solution
affect accuracy as hand-held meters are only value.
intended to provide an estimate of salinity. 6. Rinse the electrode end of the meter in fresh
The result will be accurate enough for water, dry and replace the cap.
preliminary testing and monitoring.
5. If the meter is not reading correctly i.e. does
not correspond with the calibration solution,
adjust the reading (as per manufacturer’s
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8


The key relevant points when measuring salinity are: DPI (2008) Salt Bag Mamual, NSW Department of Primary
 SI units (International system) for recording salinity are dS/m Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
though others occasionally appear and it is important to be DNRQ 1997, Salinity Management Handbook, Department of
able to convert between units. Natural Resources, Queensland.
 Do not base costly management decisions on EC1:5 field tests Charnock, P & Tenison, K 2009, Measuring water salinity?
for soil salinity. If a problem is suspected, a soil test should be Primefact 856, Industry and Investment NSW.
carried out by a National Association of Testing Authorities Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glovebox Guide: NSW
(NATA) laboratory. Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchments, NSW Department of Primary
 Salinity meters should be calibrated regularly to ensure they Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
read accurately. Taylor, S 1993, Dryland Salinity: introductory extension notes,
 Follow care, maintenance and calibration instructions for Department of Conservation and Land Management, Sydney,
salinity meters to ensure accurate readings. NSW.
Further information Website

Industry and Investment NSW Industry and Investment NSW, Primary Industries, salinity, viewed
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) 26 May 2010, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/
Irrigation Officers soils/salinity
(DECCW)
Laboratories accredited with the National Association of Testing
Authorities (NATA), Australia for salinity testing and analysis
Laboratory or irrigation suppliers for salinity meters
Qualified consultants and contractors specialising in EM
technology for soil salinity surveys
 References
Gibbs, S 2000, Horticulture salt bag instruction manual, NSW Salt Slavich, PG & Petterson, GH 1993, ‘Estimating the electrical
Action Program, Deniliquin, NSW. conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil, water
NLWRA 2001, Australian dryland salinity assessment 2000: extent, suspensions and texture’, Australian Journal of Soil Research,
impacts, processes, monitoring and management options, National vol 31, pp. 73–81.
Land and Water Resources Audit, Turner, ACT. Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
Rayment, GE & Higginson, FR 1992, Australian laboratory Murray & Murrumbidgee Catchments, NSW Department of Primary
handbook of soil and water chemical methods, Inkata Press, Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Melbourne, VIC. Taylor, S 1996, Dryland salinity: introductory extension notes,
Richards, LA (ed.) 1954, ‘Diagnosis and improvement of saline and Department of Conservation and Land Management, Sydney,
alkali soils’, Agriculture handbook, United States Deptartment of NSW.
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
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 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 General salinity indicators............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Soil ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Water................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Vegetation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Livestock ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Dryland salinity indicators .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
 Irrigation salinity indicators .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Urban salinity indicators ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
 Indicator plants – salinity and waterlogging ............................................................................................................................................................. 9
 Recording saline site information ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 14

Initial site assessment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Follow up investigation................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Final report ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1
9
 Introduction
Salinity indicators will vary according to the type of salinity and current landuse (urban, irrigation, dryland).
However, there are general indicators that are common regardless of the type of salinity. Identifying the early
signs of salinity and the root cause of the problem will enable early intervention and a greater chance of
remediation. Identifying individual salinity indicators in isolation is not recommended. Reading the landscape
and documenting site characteristics to assist in benchmarking the site is recommended. A site investigation
involves field testing of soil and water along with the documentation of historical and current landuse
practices. Follow up laboratory testing is recommended prior to making management decisions.
 General salinity indicators

A salt affected site can show visible signs or Soil
indicators of salinity. Salinity expression or
Soil salinity indicators include:
occurrence in the landscape may be seen as
changes in the soil, vegetation, water, animal • waterlogged soil, Plate 9.1
behaviour and/or infrastructure (roads, building
• black greasy patches, Plate 9.2
and underground structures).
• salt crystals, Plate 9.3
Salinity indicators or symptoms are often grouped
according to the dominant landuse where they • bare patches of soil, Plate 9.4
occur e.g. dryland, irrigation or urban (Figure • puffy soil surface, Plate 9.5.
9.1). However, the principle of human-induced
salinisation remains the same: excessive water
leakage to the groundwater system leading to
Water
watertable rise and discharge at the soil surface. This Water salinity indicators include:
chapter examines the visual signs that can indicate a • excessive run-off due to reduced vegetative cover,
potential saline site. Plate 9.6
The general signs of salinity such as waterlogging, • very clear water in dams or channels, Plate 9.7
vegetation decline, indicator plants, saline
waterways, areas of bare soil and salt crystals on the • water smells salty like the ocean
soil surface may occur in all landscapes. • reduced freshwater biota.
The general signs of salinity will be considered first;
followed by the more specific signs of dryland, Vegetation
irrigation and urban salinity. Vegetation indicators of salinity include:
It should be noted that general indicators listed • trees show signs of stress or are dying, Plate 9.8
below may suggest a potential saline area. However,
• leaf burn, necrotic patches and even defoliation
single visual indicators should not be relied on as
due to excess sodium accumulation in the
a sole predictor of salinity. Further testing should
leaves; can be confirmed by leaf testing
be undertaken to confirm the presence of salinity.
Photographic examples of these indicators are • productive species (e.g. sensitive legumes) die out
provided in Plates 9.1 to 9.12. and are replaced by more salt tolerant species,
Plate 9.9
Figure 9.1 Salinity expressions in different landuses. The grey dots represent potential sites of accumulation of salt in the landscape.
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• yield of crop species reduces Livestock
• plant establishment or growth is stunted or poor Stock behaviour indicators are:
and patchy, Plate 9.10
• when salt concentrates on the surface, stock
• break-of-slope discharge areas remain green often congregate and lick the salt, Plate 9.12
during dry conditions or over summer, Plate 9.11.
• animals will not drink the water.
Plate 9.1: Waterlogged soil is often an early sign of salinity. Plate 9.2: Sodium saturation of organic matter and its inability to
decompose because of the high salt cause black greasy patches
on the soil surface
Plate 9.3: Salt crystals are visible when the soil surface is dry. Plate 9.4: Bare patches become progressively larger and erode
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) readily.
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
Plate 9.5: Bare soil is puffy to walk on when dry. Plate 9.6: A reduction in vegetation cover due to salts can expose
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) soil to runoff and erosion.
Source: George, Truman, Namoi CMA (2005)
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Plate 9.7: Very clear water may be due to deposition of sediment Plate 9.8: Tree death may be due to highly saline watertable.
after aggregation of salt particles due to the high salinity of the Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
water.
Plate 9.9: Productive annual and perennial species thin out and Plate 9.10: Bare areas in a barley crop caused by salinity.
die. They are replaced by salt tolerant plants such as Sea barley Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
grass and Spiny rush.
Plate 9.11: Discharge sites remain green during dry periods. Plate 9.12: Stock congregating on an area and licking the surface
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) salt, as seen here at a site near Bundarra in the Gwydir Region.
Source: Nicole Gammie CMA (2006)
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 Dryland salinity indicators

Saline discharge sites are likely to occur in low erosion by wind or water. Saline run-off into streams
lying areas and at the break-of-slope in a landscape and rivers may occur, carrying the salt down the
(Figure 9.2). The break-of-slope is the point where catchment.
the hill slope begins to decrease and the land
Dryland salinity indicators include:
become flatter. As the features of the underlying
rock and soil also usually change at this point, • Yellow and/or necrotic areas developing in crop
changes in the hydraulic conductivity1 or the way or pasture due to waterlogging and/or salt at
groundwater moves through the material results in discharge sites
a discharge site occurring.
• premature haying-off of vegetation
Note: Discharge sites do not always follow the • break-of-slope areas that remain green during
general pattern shown in the simplified Figure 9.2 dry conditions
below (See Chapters 7 and 16 for more detail –
particularly Consolidated Sedimentary Landscapes). • low-lying areas of paddocks that remain wet
long after surrounding areas have dried out
When salt affects the soil, plant growth is limited
and the amount of groundcover reduced. This • presence of springs.
causes the discharge site to be vulnerable to
Figure 9.2: Salinity is typically expressed in a dryland landscape at the break-of-slope. The exact point of expression will depend on
vegetation cover, climate, geology, soil type, landuse and the groundwater system.
Source: NSW Agriculture, Department land and Water Conservation et al (1993).
 Irrigation salinity indicators

The application of water in excess to plant • poor crop growth in low-lying areas where
requirements and soil waterholding capacity result water cannot drain freely due to poor layout and
in water leaking past the plant rootzone, increasing drainage problems, Plate 9.13
the risk of waterlogging and salinity in irrigation
• waterlogging tolerant species become dominant
areas. The locations of saline discharge in irrigation
e.g. Pin rush, Plate 9.14
areas are depicted in Figure 9.3. As irrigation areas
are usually located on naturally level or levelled • salt appearing adjacent to irrigation bays on
land, saline areas are expressed at different positions unirrigated land, Plate 9.15
in the landscape to discharge in dryland agriculture.
• leaf burn in rice crops irrigated with highly saline
Indicators of irrigation salinity include: water, Plate 9.16
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Figure 9.3: Sites where you are most likely to find symptoms of irrigation salinity shown as white patches.
• salt accumulation on check/contour banks due to • leaf burn at the tips and margins of plants, leaves
the process of capillary rise, Plate 9.17 are yellow or bronze
• sodium salts from saline water make the clay of • severe wilting or leaf drop often called haying-off
contour banks and supply channels dispersible,
• salt on a dry bore drain, Plate 9.21.
and hence susceptible to tunnel erosion (blowouts),
Plate 9.18
• sodic soils with high clay content are highly
dispersible. This results in slumping of banks and
batters, reduced bank height and muddy water
(Although this is not necessarily a sign of salinity,
highly sodic soils are often associated with saline
areas), Plate 9.19. See Chapter 5
• seepage from channels where water pools along
the side of the channel, Plate 9.20
Plate 9.13: Salinity induced by poor drainage and irrigation layout.

Plate 9.14: Waterlogging tolerant species e.g. Pin rush become Plate 9.15: Salt may appear adjacent to irrigation bays.
dominant. Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
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Plate 9.16: Leaf burn in rice crops irrigated with high salinity water. Plate 9.17: Salts accumulate on banks due to the process of
Saline water application over 2dS/m will result in yield decline. capillary rise.
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
Plate 9.18: Saline water weakens contour banks and supply Plate 9.19: Sodic soils with high clay content are highly dispersible.
channels making them susceptible to water and tunnel erosion This results in slumping of banks and batters, reduced bank height
(blow outs). and muddy water.
Plate 9.20: Seepage from channels. Plate 9.21: Salt on dry bore drain where groundwater has been
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) pumped and held in drains on the surface.
Source: George, Truman, Namoi CMA (2005)
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 Urban salinity indicators

Salinity in urban environments can be evident • water discharges onto road or up through the
in buildings, parks, sporting ovals, roads and road causing the road to break up, Plate 9.23
underground services. Figure 9.4 illustrates activities
• tree die-back or death, turf decline, bare
that contribute to salinity problems and the impact
areas and salt crystals in open space areas e.g.
salinity has on the urban environment.
backyards, parks and sporting ovals, Plate 9.24
Indicators of urban salinity include:
• metal pipes and fences that corrode prematurely,
• mould growth and bubbling of paint or rendering Plate 9.25
inside buildings
• salt levels in sewerage may increase as sewer
• rising damp in buildings causing a white crust pipes intercept groundwater.
on the bricks and or mortar (mortar may appear
These indicators can also be symptomatic of
damp), Plate 9.22
problems other than salinity. Therefore sole reliance
• salt on wooden bearers, joists and floorboards on symptoms is not recommended and further
under the house investigation should be undertaken to determine if
salinity is the causal factor.
Figure 9.4: Activities that contribute to salinity problems and the impact salinity has on the urban environment.
Plate 9.22: Salt damage to bricks and mortar. Plate 9.23: Destabilised road foundation resulting in road damage.
8
9
Plate 9.24: Saline discharge site on a cricket ground causing Plate 9.25: Galvanised pipes corrode prematurely.
vegetation decline. Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2004)
 Indicator plants – salinity and waterlogging

Plant tolerance to salinity and waterlogging is over-irrigation with good quality water occurs.
species specific. Some plants are more tolerant of Often plants with high water requirements (Table
these conditions than others. Their presence can 9.1), which persist in drier areas, may be indicators
indicate a waterlogged site or a saline site or both a of high watertables. Waterlogging may also be
saline and waterlogged site (Figure 9.5). seasonal during high rainfall events.
Note: Waterlogging occurs when water cannot drain away
from the plant root zone. This leads to a reduction
• The shaded areas provide a rough guide to
in available oxygen in the rootzone. The risk of
salinity and waterlogging tolerances.
waterlogging is higher in areas with:
• Salt and waterlogging tolerances vary depending
on the stage of plant growth
(germinating as opposed to
mature plants).
• Different cultivars of a species
may have different tolerance
ranges.
• A range of other factors will need
to be considered when selecting
plants e.g. soil texture, pH, rainfall.
• Areas below 350 mm rainfall
are generally not suitable for
establishing saltland pastures,
excepting saltbush or bluebush.
Volunteer species may provide
additional grazing production.
As some of these indicator plant
species do occur in areas that are
not salt affected, further investigation
is required before definitive
conclusions can be drawn.
Not all saline sites are waterlogged
and not all waterlogged sites are
saline. For example, waterlogged
sites may occur where fresh Figure 9.5: Weed and indicator species tolerance to salinity and waterlogging.
groundwater discharges or where Sources: Barrett-Lennard, Malcolm & Bathgate (2003)
9
9
• poor or insufficient drainage e.g. compacted or • excessive water application as water fills the
sodic clay soils soil profile and surplus water ponds on the soil
surface
• heavy textured soils because of their low
permeability • high rainfall areas
• soils high in sodium (sodic soils) as the clay • low-lying areas.
particles swell and disperse, clogging pores and
Saline and waterlogged sites do occur in some areas
reducing internal drainage
where saline groundwater discharges to the soil
• soils with a restrictive layer (clay, carbonate or surface. Plant species commonly found growing
cemented), which slows infiltration and causes a on saline and waterlogged areas in various regions
build up of water above the less permeable layer across New South Wales are presented in Table 9.2.
(local perched watertable)
Photos on Tolerance Tolerance Southern Northern Central Hunter

Common Name Botanical Name following to water- to salinity NSW NSW NSW NSW
page logging
Yorkshire fog Holcus lanatus H L
Dirty dora Cyperus difformis H L
Smart weed Persicaria H L

hydropiper
Curled leaf dock Rumex crispus H L
Nardoo Marsilea H L M. hirsuta

drummondii
Barnyard grass Echinochloa H L
crus-galli
Table 9.1: Grey areas indicate occurrence of species in various parts of NSW. ‘H-high’ and ‘L-low’ indicate the relative tolerance of the species
to salinity and waterlogging.
Sources: Slinger and Tenison (2005); Rowling and Slinger (2007) and Beange and Slinger (2007); Sainty and Associates (2006); Melehan (2007)
Plate 9.26: Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus). Plate 9.27: Dirty dora (Cyperus difformis).
Source: Harry Rose I&I NSW (2010) Source: Harry Rose I&I NSW (2010)
10
9
Plate 9.28: Smart weed (Persicaria hydropiper). Plate 9.29: Nardoo (Marsilea drummondii).
Plate 9.30: Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli). Plate 9.31: Curled leaf dock (Rumex crispus).
11
9
Photos on Tolerance Tolerance Southern Northern Central Hunter

Common Name Botanical Name following to water- to salinity NSW NSW NSW NSW
page logging
Annual beard grass* Polypogon M–H M–H
monspeliensis
Australian stone crop Crassula sieberiana M M
Creeping saltbush Atriplex semibaccata L–M L–M
Buck’s-horn plantain* Plantago coronopus M M
Bulrushes or cumbungi Typha sp. H L–M
Slender barb grass* Parapholis strigosa ND ND
Common couch grass Cynodon dactylon M M
Common pig weed Portulaca oleracea L–M M

Common rush Juncus usitatus H L–M
Curly ryegrass*/ Parapholis incurva M–H M–H
Coast barb grass
Paspalum* Paspalum dilatatum M–H L–M
Phragmites Phragmites australis H L
Rhodes grass* Chloris gayana M L–M
Ruby saltbush Enchylaena tomentosa L–M M
Salt couch Paspalum vaginatum ND ND

Salt sand-spurrey* Spergularia marina L–M M–H
Samphire Halosarcia species M–H M–H
Sea barley grass Hordeum marinum M M-H
Sea club-rush Bolboschoenus ND ND

caldwellii
Spike/Spiny rush* Juncus acutus M–H M
Spreading saltbush Atriplex limbata ND ND

Streaked arrowgrass Triglochin striatum ND ND
Toad rush* Juncus bufonius M–H L–M
Water buttons* Cotula coronopifolia M–H L–M
Wild aster* Aster subulatus
* naturalised non-native species

species commonly occurs in this region
“ND” indicates no data
“H” (high), “M” (medium) and “L” (low) indicate relative tolerance of the species to salinity and waterlogging
Indicates photo of species appears on the following pages
Table 9.2: Commonly found plant species that grow on saline and waterlogged areas across New South Wales. Grey areas.
Sources: Slinger and Tenison (2005); Rowling and Slinger (2007) and Beange and Slinger ((2007)); Lewer, Heinrich & Thomas (1998), McGhie & Ryan (2005) and Lyons
(2007). Salinity and waterlogging ratings; Sainty and Associates (2006).
12
9
Plate 9.32: Sea barley grass (Hordeum marinum). Plate 9.33: Toad rush (Juncus bufonius).
Plate 9.34: Common couch grass (Cynodon dactylon). Plate 9.35: Spike or spiny rush (Juncus acutus).
Plate 9.36: Water button or marsh daisy (Cotula coronopifolia). Plate 9.37: Samphire (Halosarcia species).
13
9
Plate 9.38: Ruby saltbush (Enchylaena tomentosa). Plate 9.39: Annual beard grass (Polypogon monspeliensis).
Plate 9.40: Curly ryegrass (Parapholis incurva). Plate 9.41: Creeping or berry saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata).
Source: Lachlan Rowling NSW DPI Source: Lachlan Rowling NSW DPI
 Recording saline site information

When considering if a site is saline, record as much • gather historical and current information about
information as possible about the site and its the site and the catchment in consultation with
surrounds to: the client
• benchmark site conditions • determine additional information that may exist
or need to be collected for the site
• complete an initial site assessment, which can
supplement and provide a framework for further • collect soil and vegetation samples for salinity
more detailed investigation. and other possible limitations e.g. sodicity and pH
(see Chapter 12).
Some of the information and tests required are
similar for all sites whilst others differ depending on The initial site visit should record information such
landuse/enterprise and practices. as:
A saline site checklist for the initial site visits ensures • the inspection date
no relevant information is overlooked for site
• the name of property and landowner(s)
assessment and benchmarking.
• property information, ownership details and
Initial site assessment location
The purposes of an initial site visit are to: • enterprise/landuse type at the site and the
• determine if soil and water tests have been done surrounding land
• assess and benchmark the site (photos are useful • a site sketch that identifies infrastructure,
here) geology, soil type, vegetation type, topography,
natural features and problem areas
14
9
• any visual indicators of a potential salinity • test and analyse samples (soil, water, plant and
problem infrastructure)
• discharge site characteristics • determine if any further laboratory testing is
necessary
• site landuse history
• consult relevant government or private
• current management practices
organisations who may have relevant information
• monitoring programs or support for salinity management
• the owner’s goals for the site. • seek specialist advice if required.
• recent climatic conditions and comparable long
term weather patterns. Final report
A final report should then be compiled which
The initial site visit is unlikely to provide all the
includes:
information required to make sound management
recommendations and in most cases will indicate • the initial site visit report
that further investigation may be necessary. • test results and further information relevant to
the site
Follow up investigation
• management options and recommendations.
Follow up investigations should be conducted and
documented before any recommendations are
made in order to:
• obtain any further information relevant to
the investigation (See Chapter 10) e.g. local
groundwater or soil data
 Endnotes
1
Hydraulic conductivity – The rate at which water (solvent) moves through a medium (in this case soil). It is determined by the particle
size and arrangement of the soil and to a lesser extent factors such as soil compaction and chemistry (e.g. sodic soil generally has a
small hydraulic conductivity).
15
9


The key points to consider when interpreting indicators on a Cunningham, G, Mulham, W, Milthorpe, P & Leigh, J 1981,
saline site are: Plants of Western New South Wales, Soil Conservation Service of
 General visual indicators of salinity can occur in the soil, water, New South Wales.
and vegetation and affect stock behaviour, biodiversity and Semple, B 2003, Review of saline seepage scalds and their
infrastructure. revegetation in Central Western NSW, Department of Infrastructure
 Symptoms of salinity may differ according to landuse, Planning and Natural Resources.
whether dryland, irrigated agriculture or urban. However the
underlying cause of rising watertables is likely to be the same. Websites
 Salinity and waterlogging are related as water is needed to Industry and Investment NSW, Primary Industries, salinity, viewed
mobilise salt. However they can occur independently of each 26 May 2010, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/
other. soils/salinity
 When recording information on a potentially saline site, Wagga Wagga City Council, Urban salinity, viewed 31 May 2010,
remember that preliminary tests are only indicative and care http://www.wagga.nsw.gov.au/www/html/4099-salinity.asp
should be taken with their interpretation. National Dryland Salinity Program, Know how to tackle salinity, .
 Accredited soil and water laboratory testing should be viewed 12 October 2009, <http://www.ndsp.gov.au>
conducted before committing to costly management PlantNET. New south Wales Flora Online, viewed 12 October 2009,
decisions. http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/
 Specialist advice should be sought when interpreting salinity
indicators and providing salinity management options.
Further information
Further assistance and information can be obtained from the
following authorities:
Industry and Investment NSW.
Irrigation Officers
Catchment Management Authorities.
(DECCW)
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors.
 References
Barrett-Lennard, EG, Malcolm, CV & Bathgate, A 2003, Melehan, P 2007, Table 9.1: Grey areas indicate occurrence of
Saltland pastures in Australia: a practical guide, Land, Water & Wool species in various parts of NSW, interview with the author, 24 July
Sustainable Grazing on Saline Lands sub-program, Perth, W.A. 2007.
Beange, L & Slinger, D (eds) 2007, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW Agriculture, DLWC, Riverina Field Studies Centre (1993)
NSW Lachlan and Macquarie Catchments, NSW Department of Salinity: Our problem, NSW Agriculture, Orange.
Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW. Rowling, L & Slinger, D (eds) 2007, Salinity Glove Box
Lewer, S, Heinrich, A & Thomas, D 1998, Spotting salinity using Guide: NSW Namoi, Border Rivers and Gwydir Catchments, NSW
indicator plants, Department of Land and Water Conservation: Department of Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Maitland, NSW. Sainty & Associates 2006, SALTdeck, Sainty & Associates Pty Ltd
Lyons, G 2007, Table 9.2: Commonly found plant species that and Land & Water Australia, Sydney, NSW.
grow on saline and waterlogged areas across New South Wales, Slinger, D &Tenison, K 2005, Salinity glove box guide: NSW
interview with the author, 20 March 2007. Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
McGhie, S & Ryan, M 2005, Salinity indicator plants, Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources:
Sydney, NSW.
16
10
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Planning the mapping.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 General landscape assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Reading the landscape ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Assessing land capability................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
 Existing salinity mapping ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
 Economic analysis – is mapping worthwhile? ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
 Mapping methods ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
 Mapping methods ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Aerial photograph interpretation (API)............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Electromagnetic conductivity mapping (ground-based EM mapping) ........................................................................................ 13
 Reliability of data .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
1
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 Introduction
Assessment and mapping of a saline site and its surrounding landscape are necessary to determine the most
cost-effective solution. Stakeholders in a saline area will regularly include more than just the landowner. As the
cause of salinity is often distant to its expression on a discharge site, and remediation may be expensive, there
are usually many stakeholders involved in the control and management of a saline area. Each stakeholder is
keen to know their financial investment and support are worthwhile. Some of them may also need to gain
approval and support from supervisors or decision-makers who may not personally know the site. Therefore a
scientific, objective and logical approach to describing the saline site is essential. This will include preparation
of a map at an appropriate scale and written background information.
The mapping intensity of the landscape should relate to the size of the salinity risk. Areas considered at high
risk justify more intense mapping, while those considered less likely to develop salinity will be mapped with
less detail.
The level of investment will differ according to the stakeholder’s goals. Farmers may have different specific
requirements and aims to catchment managers (Table 10.1). However, all in the community are likely to
support the overall aim of maintaining a healthy, productive and sustainable environment.
Users Scale Aim of assessment mapping Questions

Farmer or Paddock or Maintaining farm productivity Is salinity a problem on my farm and
urban home urban house and sustainability on farm what information do I need to collect to
owners block and within the catchment. determine its severity?
What will it cost?
Community Regional Protection of community Are we at risk of salinity in our

Sub-catchment values and assets. community and how can we all work
together to address the issue? What will
it cost?
Natural Regional 1. Assessing salt distribution. Where is salt being mobilised in the
Resource 2. Planning and prioritising catchment?
Managers actions to address salinity and Is it a threat?
guide investment. What is needed to stop or slow its
mobilisation?
National National and 1. Assess salt risk. How can we plan to ensure a
and State State 2. Development of, and coordinated response to salinity issues
Government investment in, salinity that involve all stakeholders? What will
strategies. it cost? Where are the best areas to
target investment?
Table 10.1: Baseline questions and aims of salinity assessment for different users.
Source: Adapted by Tania Midgley and Kathy Tenison from Spies and Woodgate (2005)
 Planning the mapping

Adapted from Spies and Woodgate (2005) threaten an asset, through mobilisation by surface
and groundwater (Spies and Woodgate 2005).
Consider the following when planning the
assessment and mapping of a saline area: A salinity hazard map defines the spatial
distribution (both vertically and horizontally) and
Dryland salinity hazard – is the extent to which
the concentration of salt that can potentially be
natural physical characteristics, excluding land cover,
mobilised by water (Spies and Woodgate 2005).
predispose a landscape to salinisation. Relevant
factors include topography, soils, geology and Salinity Risk – is the likelihood that a hazard will
climate. cause harm to an asset at some defined place and
time in the future. Risk is classically defined as an
Salinity hazard is salt that can potentially cause
impact (usually an unwanted impact) multiplied by
harm to an asset. Salt is only a hazard if it has the
its likelihood of occurrence at some given time in
potential to move into a location where it can
the future.
2
10
Risk = likelihood x consequences should be sought at the planning stage, before
committing resources to mapping programs.
A landuse or management practice can either
reduce or increase risk (Robins 2004). Scale – A balance needs to be struck between
the need for data at fine resolution at paddock
Choosing a suitable mapping system – The
scale and broader benefits obtained when data is
mapping system should be able to display
combined to produce a bigger picture at catchment,
information related to the hydrological pathways of
State/Territory and National levels. A scale should
the area as water is the main agent that moves salt
be chosen that is appropriate for the purpose and
in the landscape.
most cost effective to achieve the aim of salinity
Preliminary analyses – Use existing data sets management.
to develop an overview of the landscape and to
Evolving technology – New mapping technology,
identify priority areas for detailed mapping.
particularly satellite imagery, is evolving so it is
Integrate methods – Three-dimensional mapping of necessary to keep up with the new developments.
landscape, salinity and groundwater elements will This is another reason to consult with specialists for
provide valuable insight into salinity processes and their up to date knowledge.
salt store distribution.
Data quality – Salinity data collection requires
Ground-truthing – All maps should be ‘ground- systematic coordination, storage and management
truthed’ by field inspection before the final map to ensure quality standards.
is produced. In some cases fieldwork will include
Independent assessment – As a general rule, it is
borehole logging1.
advisable to organise an independent overview of
Expertise – Most mapping and site assessment all major mapping programs at the conclusion of
require a high level of expertise. Specialist advice mapping.
 General landscape assessment

The purposes of landscape assessment are to: • Soil type, which affects water holding capacity
and the rate at which water infiltrates and drains.
• Estimate the salinity risk based on landscape
characteristics and current management • Vegetation - its current extent, type and its
practices. Is it serious? How much is it costing us relationship to water use, leakage rates and the
in lost productivity? What will happen if we do creation of a dry soil buffer.
nothing?
• Climate, which influences leakage from rainfall,
• Identify an existing salinity problem and its evaporation rates and water availability.
severity or extent.
• Land capability- this is a major factor, so will be
• Aid in the selection and targeting of any actions considered separately in more detail below.
towards salinity management.
Information on geology, topography, soil type,
The first step is to obtain and use existing vegetation and climate are available from the
information to develop an overview and Department of Environment, Climate Change and
understanding of the landscape. Water, NSW Industry and Investment, Bureau of
Meteorology and web searches. There may be costs
Reading the landscape involved with acquiring this information.
Understanding the landscape from a salinity
perspective requires knowledge of the movement Assessing land capability
of surface and subsurface water. Features to gather Previous, perhaps historical, use of land beyond its
maps and other information on include: capability is one of the reasons salinity develops.
To control and manage salinity, the present land
• Geology, which affects salt store, fertility, soil
capability has to be assessed as a first step in
depth, water infiltration and water movement.
matching the future intensity of landuse. The
This includes maps and other information on local
development of salinity may reduce land capability.
hydrology such as aquifer types and groundwater
systems. Land capability is defined as the ability of land to
sustain a particular type and intensity of landuse
• Topography, which influences recharge, run-off
without causing it permanent damage. Landuse
and groundwater discharge or waterlogging
practices that are beyond the land capability
potential in break of slope areas.
increase the risk of salinity and other forms of land
degradation.
3
10
Salinity reduces land capability. Groundcover Classifying land in this way from a salinity
becomes harder to maintain as vegetation health perspective assesses:
suffers due to increasing salt concentration. If
• the suitability of current practices in relation to
salt continues to accumulate, vegetation dies off
the land that supports them
and bare patches develop, exposing the land to
erosion and further degradation. Using land within • the salinity and erosion risk associated with
its capability (Table 10.2) can prevent saline areas current landuse practices and their location
developing and expanding. It can also maximise
• how landuse can be changed to manage salinity
their long-term sustainable production.
(and control erosion).
The Soil Conservation Service of NSW rural land
The severity and extent of existing saline areas will
capability classification system is still used to provide
also impact on current and future landuse. Salinity
broad management options to protect against land
severity can be determined by soil and water testing
degradation such as salinity and erosion. Many
or the use of electromagnetic induction technology
of these recommendations also achieve salinity
(EM mapping). Salinity extent (area affected) can
management objectives. This classification system be determined either through visual observation,
groups land and associated management practices
aerial photography or EM mapping, which are also
into eight separate classes on the basis of soil
useful tools to assess changes in an area over time.
characteristics and slope. These classes describe the
These topics are covered in more detail later in this
capacity of the land for particular types of use and chapter.
the presence of physical and/or chemical limitations.
Specific descriptions and criteria can be obtained
from Emery (1985). Table 10.2 summarises this
information .
Land Most intensive Recommendations for salinity

Capability sustainable level Description of soil and landscape benefits
Class of landuse
I mainly cropping Deep fertile soils, low slope, no Perennial pasture or crop rotation
erosion. with perennial pasture.
II mainly cropping Low sloping fertile soils and little Perennial pasture or crop rotation
erosion hazard; slopes up to 5%. with perennial pasture.
III mainly cropping Sloping country requiring run- Salt tolerant species and controlled
off control; coarser textured and grazing on saline discharge areas to
erosion-sensitive soils; slopes 2–10%. stabilise and reduce run-off.
IV mainly grazing Slopes up to 25% and land subject Perennial pastures and/or woody
to minor erosion; unsuited to vegetation placed strategically to
regular cropping due to any of a intercept flow to reduce leakage.
number of limitations.
V mainly grazing Similar to class IV but requiring Perennial pastures and/or woody
more careful management due to vegetation placed strategically to
erosion hazard. intercept flow to reduce leakage.
VI grazing Slopes not exceeding 33%; includes Native pastures and/or woody
limitations such as rock outcrops; vegetation placed strategically to
shallow soils and severe soil erosion reduce leakage.
hazard.
VII tree cover Slopes exceeding 33%, having Best left to trees.
physical limitations that prevent any
form of cropping or grazing.
VIII unsuitable for Swamps, cliffs etc. Best left to adapted native
agriculture vegetation
Table 10.2: Land capability classes.

Source: Adapted from Watson (2004) after Emery (1985)
4
10
 Existing salinity mapping

A comprehensive national dryland salinity Government published ‘Our Vital Resources: A
assessment was carried out in 2000 in partnership National Action Plan (NAP) for Salinity and Water
with the States and the Territories (NLWRA 2001). It Quality’ (COAG 2000) which focused attention on
collates and provides information on the distribution some of our worst affected areas. It also prioritised
and impacts of dryland salinity across Australia. funding for these areas. (Also see Chapter 2 –The
Following this audit, the Council of Australian extent and impact of salinity).
1. Darwin-Katherine 10. Borders River 19. Lower Murray

2. Ord 11. Namoi-Gwydir 20. Mt Lofty-Kangaroo Island-
3. Northern Agricultural Regions 12. Macquarie-Castlereagh Northern Agricultural Districts
4. Avon 13. Lachlan-Murrumbidgee 21. Midlands
5. South West 14. Murray
6. South Coast 15. Goulburn-Brocken
7. Burdekin-Fitzroy 16. Avoca-Loddon-Campaspe Figure 10.1: Twenty-one priority regions
for the National Action Plan for salinity
8. Lockyer-Burnett-Mary 17. Glenelg-Hopkins-Corangamite and water quality in Australia.
9. Condamine-Balonne-Maranoa 18. South East Source: ERIN(2007)
5
10
Around mainland Australia, 21 priority regions were Completed maps of salinity outbreaks for the
identified as being affected by salinity and a decline eastern parts of New South Wales are available to
in water quality. These regions have subsequently the public and can be viewed on the Community
been supported under the NAP for on-ground Access to Natural Resources Information (CANRI)
salinity works. Of these 21 regions, 7 are located in web page.
NSW. They are Condamine-Balonne-Maranoa, Border
In October 2003 NSW announced the formation
Rivers, Namoi-Gwydir, Macquarie-Castlereagh,
of Catchment Management Authorities (CMA)
Lower Murray, Lachlan-Murrumbidgee and Murray
which are responsible for the implementation of
Catchments (Figure 10.1).
Catchment Blueprints, including end-of-valley
Part of the emphasis of the NAP for Salinity and targets (MDBC 2003). The CMAs role is to prepare
Water Quality was on mapping salinity. These Catchment Action Plans (CAPs) and manage
maps improved knowledge of salt distribution and incentive programs to implement the plans. The
movement through the landscape, so aiding land preparation of CAPs involves integrating previous
users in salinity control. work with the latest information and science, and
local knowledge.
Catchment Blueprints for individual regions
prioritised salinity areas for treatment and action The salinity risk map below (Figure 10.2) shows the
plans to meet catchment salinity or end-of-valley relative salinity risk of subcatchments in the Murray
salinity targets2. Salinity Risk Maps can predict the Catchment (NSW) (Watson 2004) and is based
areas within each region that will most likely suffer on several factors including salt source, leakage
land salinisation or contribute to salt export. Often potential, vegetation, landuse, topographic factors
these maps are used to direct remedial actions to and climate. This map assisted prioritisation of farm-
the most appropriate parts of the landscape. scale works to control salinity and meet catchment
targets.
Figure 10.2: Salinity risk map of part of the Murray Catchment (NSW).
6
10
 Economic analysis – is mapping worthwhile?

The full details of a cost-benefit analysis are beyond list all the same, with perhaps a best estimate of
the scope of this book. However, at some stage the their value.
balancing of costs and benefits, including the costs
Step 2: Assess the current level of knowledge about
of doing nothing, is advisable. The larger the salinity
salinity in the area of interest. Consider what is
project, the more details will need to be included in
possible and may be achievable.
the economic analysis.
Step 3: Consider whether the mapping techniques
For an individual land manager wishing to address
you are proposing to use are suitable for the specific
salinity on their land, the relative costs and benefits
case.
associated with obtaining new information such as
maps are major issues. The following five-step plan Step 4: Identify areas where no useful remedial
adapted from Spies and Woodgate (2005) may assist action is possible. Identify areas where results and
a landowner considering salinity control: change may be achievable.
An outline of matters to be considered: Step 5: Evaluate the costs and benefits of the
mapping and interpretation proposal. Is it worth
Step 1: Determine the value of the assets potentially
investing in mapping for salinity control?
at risk. Assess the cost of doing nothing. Some costs
and benefits may be intangible, i.e. it is difficult to For full details on the steps see Spies and Woodgate
put a monetary value on them. Include them in the (2005).
 Mapping methods
Methods listed in the following pages (Table is categorised by its depth of investigation into the
10.3) are generally for land degradation hazard subsurface (Spies and Woodgate 2005).
mapping, although some useful data on salinity risk
Also see Table 10.4 for a summary of mapping
may be acquired at the same time for input into
methods.
the overall assessment. Many of the techniques
may have only marginal direct use for mapping For full details on mapping methods see Spies and
salinity, but they are essential to derive maps of Woodgate (2005).
landscape, hydrological pathway and soil. Mapping
7
10
 Mapping methods
APPLICATION TO CONTRIBUTION TO COST* COMMENTS
HAZARD MAPPING RISK ASSESSMENT (Based on prices published in 2005)
1. LABORATORY ANALYSIS
The most rigorous Basic knowledge of Standard water set of basic Laborious – days or weeks
method of the amount and type anions and cations ~ $100 needed to obtain results.
quantitatively of salt is an important – $200 per sample. Salinity often varies
evaluating soil salinity, parameter. substantially laterally and
but many samples vertically, so samples may
may be necessary not be representative of a
to understand the larger area unless sampling
complete picture. density is high. Salinity may
also vary over time.
2. TOTAL SOLUBLE SALTS MEASURING EC OF SOIL PASTES AND EXTRACTS IN THE FIELD
A common and useful Useful as an adjunct to Around $10 per sample for Needs to be calibrated for
field procedure, but other techniques. EC and pH. solute type (laboratory
ignores soil moisture analyses). Not all salt
content and mobility measured in paste extracts
of salt. affects vegetation or is
readily mobilised.
3. VISUAL INSPECTION
Directly observes salt Provides spot checks Depends on the cost of Useful technique for
scalds and stressed for some attributes labour. mapping small areas
vegetation. Applicable required for risk (paddocks). Essential for
to both surface and assessment (e.g. soils, checking maps prepared
indirect root zones. vegetation type, from satellites, aircraft
geology and landuse). or systematic vehicle-
Essential for reality based EM surveys. Ensures
checking. that the extensive local
knowledge of landholders
is used (e.g. changes
of salinity outbreaks
through time) as well as
observations of causes/
effects (e.g. wet seasons,
floods).
4. AERIAL PHOTO INTERPRETATION (API)
Directly maps salt Substantial Each air photo costs around A well-established
scalds. Indirectly maps contribution as can $50. An experienced technique. Can be slow
stressed vegetation. also map vegetation interpreter can map 3 to to cover large areas but
Applicable to both type, streams, terrain, 6 photos per day. Cost very reliable for surface
surface and indirect landuse. is approximately $1/ha mapping.
root zones. (assumes existing air
photos and interpretation
at a scale of about 1:25 000).
Digital photography
costs $5 to $20/ha at
1:25 000 scale including
analysis.
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4. Aerial photograph interpretation Salinity-related mapping usually involves the
detection of visible salt on the surface or the
(API) identification of vegetation patterns or water bodies
Salinity maps are often derived from the that might imply salinity.
interpretation of aerial photography, followed up
by ground-truthing or confirmation in the field. Aerial photograph interpretation can also delineate
The following map, which was prepared from API, drainage lines (hydrology), landform, geology or
(Figure 10.3) shows the presence and severity of geomorphology to help with an understanding of
salinised land at a site near Muttama (NSW). landscape processes for use in risk assessment. Note
Plate 10.1 reproduces one of the aerial photographs that images affected by drought, bushfire damage,
used, showing a particular saline outbreak, and green flush (such as spring rains or the narrow track
a photograph taken of this salinity during field of summer storms) can be misleading (Spies and
confirmation. Woodgate 2005).
Bare eroded scalds
Baseflow
Salt crystals
Clear water due to high

salt content
Plate 10.1: Aerial photograph (Muttama) used to detect suspected salinity outbreak and site photo used to confirm it.
Sources: Aerial photo: Densmore(2007). Site photo: Jim Meckiff, NSW DPI (2007)
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Figure 10.3: Sample of salinity map showing saline locations at Muttama.

Source: Warren (2007)
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Mapping methods continued
5. AIRBORNE VIDEO
Applicable to the Potential contribution Cost $10 to $50/ha Competes with the
surface and indirect as can also map assuming new acquisitions multispectral instruments
root zones. vegetation type, at a scale of 1:25 000 for applications.
streams, terrain and including analysis.
landuse.
6. DIGIAL ELEVATION MODELS (DEM) (from AIR PHOTOS, STEREO MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY,
AIRBORNE LASER and RADAR)
Not relevant as DEM Very useful. Can Costs vary substantially The landscape context to
do not directly detect indicate drainage and depending on scale and spatial salinity patterns is
salt or groundwater. seepage patterns. level of detail. invaluable in being able to
Applicable to the Large surveys < $0.3/ha. enhance the final mapping
surface only quality and as a very
important aid to follow-
up management. DEM
data is normally acquired
simultaneously with
airborne electromagnetics
and with aeromagnetics.
7. AIRBORNE RADAR (e.g. AIRSAR)
Suitable through Radar can map very Around $5 - $15/ha. Fairly experimental at
indirectly mapping accurately the terrain Even small areas may cost present with potential
surface electrical surface (DEM) at fine $1000’s due to the cost of application to salinity
conductivity for radar resolution over large acquiring the imagery and mapping. Has potential for
wavelengths greater areas. the software required to creating DEM which could
than 6 cm. Applicable process it (one-off cost). therefore contribute to risk
from the surface to assessment.
several metres.
8. SATELLITE RADAR (e.g. SIR-C and D, JERS -1, SRTM)
Possibly useful Can map the Not meaningful to quote At present, satellite radar
through indirectly topography (digital cost per hectare. Even small has no proven operational
mapping electrical elevation models) areas will cost $1000’s due use for salinity hazard
conductivity of surface at fine resolution to the cost of acquiring the mapping although it does
and subsurface where over large areas very imagery and the software offer potential. However it
radar wavelengths accurately. required to process it. contributes to the mapping
exceed 6 cm. of topography, which
Applicable to between helps risk assessment. At
10’s and 100’s of the time of writing, NASA
centimetres only. plans to release the Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission
mapping. This will be the
first worldwide DEM and
topographic maps.
9. AIRBORNE IMAGING: MULTISPECTROMETRY (e.g. CASI)
Suitable through Substantial potential $10 to $50/ha (assuming Little used due to the high
directly observing salt contribution as new acquisitions at a scale cost of the imagery and
scalds or indirectly imagery can also of 1:25 000) including processing it to maps. Has
mapping stressed map vegetation type, analysis. Even small areas potential if it becomes
vegetation. Applicable streams, terrain and will cost $1000’s due to cheaper.
to the top few landuse. the cost of acquiring the
centimetres and the imagery and the software
indirect root zone. required to process it (one-
off cost).
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10. AIRBORNE IMAGING: HYPERSPECTROMETRY (e.g. HYMAP, AVIRIS)
Suitable through Substantial potential $10 to $50/ha (assuming A new technology still
direct observation of contribution as new acquisitions at a scale in the research phase;
salt scalds or indirect imagery can also of 1:25 000) including resolving ability higher than
mapping of stressed map vegetation type, analysis. Even small areas multispectral imagery.
vegetation. May streams, terrain and will cost $1000’s due to
also indicate salt by landuse. the cost of acquiring the
known association imagery and the software
with specific geology. required to process it (one-
Applicable to the top off cost).
few centimetres and
indirect root zone.
11. SATELLITE IMAGING: MULTISPECTROMETRY (e.g. LANDSAT, SPOT, IKONOS, EARTHWATCH)
Suitable through Substantial potential Usually much less than one Proven technique for near-
directly observing salt contribution as cent per hectare. Minimum surface salinity hazard
scalds or indirectly imagery can also area purchases usually apply mapping in the hands of
mapping stressed map vegetation type, so costs can typically run to skilled interpreters in some
vegetation. May streams, terrain and $100’s plus processing and regions. Well developed
also indicate salt by landuse. interpretation. for its contribution to risk
known association assessment (e.g. Western
with specific geology. Australia Land Monitor).
Applicable to the top
few centimetres and
indirect root zone.
12. SATELLITE IMAGING: HYPERSPECTROMETRY (e.g. HYPERION)
Suitable through Substantial potential Minimum purchase of 42 km Represents a new and
direct observation contribution as x 30 km for approximately significant improvement
of salt scalds or imagery can also $3000. Cost $5 to $50/ha in technology (compared
indirect mapping of map vegetation type, including processing. with multispectral sensors).
stressed vegetation. streams, terrain and Requires substantial
Experimental only landuse. research before it develops
at this stage. Offers proven applications.
potentially greater Likely to have broader
mapping accuracy applications than the
than the multispectral multispectral imagery. Price
instruments. set by vendors will in part
Applicable to the determine how widely it is
surface and indirect used.
root zones.
13. AIRBORNE AND GROUND GAMMA-RAY ASPECTROMETRY (RADIOMETRICS)
Provides mapping Able to supplement Airborne: < $1/ha, Airborne or ground.
of soil types that soil maps. depending on area. A demonstrated technique
sometimes correlates Ground: $10 to $20/ha. to support broad area
with salinity. soil mapping that shows
Applicable to the top great promise, especially
10’s of centimetres when combined with DEM.
only. Requires specialist analysis
and field checking for
interpretation. Claims about
its ability to directly map
near surface salinity do not
have scientific foundation.
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14. SHALLOW ELECTROMAGNETIC CONDUCTIVITY MAPPING (e.g. GEONICS EM31, EM38)
Strong correlation Useful in mapping Starts at approximately Some depth information
with salinity. A near-surface variability $1500 per day. Coverage is from varying coil
popular inexpensive and salt load. between 50 ha/day (detailed orientation. Moisture
method for mapping grid) to 500 ha/day (>100m variations and clay content
vertical and lines) at roughly $1 to are second-order effects.
horizontal variation $30/ha. Should be calibrated at
in conductivity in key locations for valid
the root zone at farm nterpretation.
scale. Applicable to
the root zone only.
14. Electromagnetic conductivity detector. By measuring the difference in strength

between the original signal and the secondary
mapping (ground-based EM signal, the EM device can give a measure of
mapping) conductivity of the ground (Martin and Metcalfe,
Ground-based electromagnetic induction 1998).
techniques (EM) measure the conductivity of
undisturbed soil in the field. The reading responds EM sensors differ in the depth to which they can
to salt content, moisture and clay levels. When measure. The EM38 measures to 1.5 m. The EM31
calibrated and interpreted with soil test results, EM measures down to 6 m. The EM34 can be set up to
read from 15–60 m. There are slight variations in
can provide useful information on salt and water
depth depending on whether the instrument is held
movement.
in vertical or horizontal mode. Deeper tests can be
An EM device has two coils of wire at each end of distorted and should be used as a guide to the
the instrument. One coil transmits a low-frequency presence of salinity, subject to ground-truthing.
radio signal to the ground, while the second coil
EM technology is useful for farmers, advisors
(the receiver) picks up the secondary (return)
(consultants), resource managers and researchers.
signal from the ground. Ground that is highly
EM surveys are usually carried out by consultants
electromagnetically conductive (such as saline,
and researchers (Martin and Metcalf 1998) because
clay or wet ground) produces a stronger secondary
of the skilled interpretation required.
signal than ground that is less conductive. The
instrument works on the same principle as a metal-
Plate 10.2: Handheld EM38 measures down to 1.5 m. Plate 10.3: Vehicle mounted EM31 measures down to 4 m.
Source: DPI (2003) Source: DPI (2003)
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15. SURFACE-BASED ELECTROMAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL DEPTH SOUNDING:
DEEPER-PROBING EM (e.g. GEONICS EM31, EM34-3, PROTEM, SMARTEM, TINYTEM)
Useful in mapping salt Can be used at More expensive than Cannot resolve conductivity
stores beneath root broader scales. Also shallow mapping. $2000 changes in root zone (with
zone to the regolith. to map groundwater per day for 30 to 40 exception of EM31). Use in
pathways and bedrock soundings. Profiling 20 conjunction with shallow-
topography. to 30 linear-km per day, probing EM.
processed data $300 per
linear km. Assuming a line
spacing of 200 m to 400 m
gives a cost of $6 to $15/ha.
16. SURFACE-BASED ELECTROMAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL DEPTH SOUNDING:
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY PROBING (e.g. ABEM TERRAMETER, GEOMETRICS OHMMAPPER)
Capable of resolving Useful for detailed $1400 for several km Requires use of grounded
vertical and mapping of profiling per day. Resistivity electrodes and towed
horizontal variations groundwater imaging: 1 to several linear- arrays. Robust automated
in conductivity, from pathways and bedrock km per day; $3000 to $5000 inversion software available
surface to bedrock. topography. per processed linear-km. to produce conductivity
Assuming line spacing of depth section. Higher
200 m to 400m gives a cost resolution than deep EM.
of $60 to $250/ha.
17. BOREHOLE CONDUCTIVITY LOGGING (e.g. GEONICS EM39)
Ideal method Useful for Usually charged on daily Boreholes should be logged
for measuring understanding basis; most instruments as a matter of routine.
conductivity versus changes in salt store owned by consultants or Important to map salinity
depth in situ for salt with depth. government agencies. profile and for calibration
store versus depth. Approximately $2000 per of surface and airborne
Applicable below the day, for up to 10 bores per systems.
root zone. day.
18. AIRBORNE ELECTROMAGNETICS
AEM is the only Useful for mapping From less than $1/ha, Cannot resolve vertical
regional technique palaeochannels, to more than $10/ha variations within the root
that maps salinity basement topography depending on line spacing, zone. Depth range depends
through the regolith and other pathways for size and location of area. on ground conductivity.
and can also map total groundwater flow. Must be calibrated with
salt store. Applicable ground and borehole
from the root zone data. Care should be
through to bedrock. taken with processing and
interpretation products.
19. AIRBORNE MAGNETICS
Used for geological Useful for its ability Less than a $1/ha. Excellent method for
mapping, especially to map gross mapping the factors that
through soil cover. features (such as improve risk assessment;
Application from the palaeochannels, faults, well proven in most
surface through to dykes and basement landscapes. Requires
bedrock. highs) in the landscape specialist interpretation.
that strongly influence Cost-effective contribution
groundwater to risk assessment and
movement. salinity management.
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20. STREAM SAMPLING
Provides an indication Provides evidence of An EC meter: $100 to This method is an indirect
of salt stores that mobilisation of salt. $2000. Thousands of indication of land salinity
have entered the hectares can be covered but provides a useful
catchment upstream relatively quickly trace-back mechanism to
of the sampling depending on road access salt store and lateral flow
location. Applicable to and density of streams and into streams. Continuous
indirect surface and rivers. profile can also be made
subsurface. in streams with towed EC
arrays. The method is easily
used by land managers and
community groups.
21. NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR)
Measures water May be useful in $3000 per day for 5 to Also known as magnetic
content in soil specialised studies 8 soundings at specific resonance imaging (MRI).
profile versus depth. when detailed locations. Cost per hectare One sounding per hour,
Applicable to the top knowledge of not meaningful. alternative to drilling and
10’s to 100’s of metres. hydrology is required. flow testing stratigraphic
layers.
22. SEISMIC REFRACTION AND REFLECTION
Maps subsurface May be useful in $2000/day for 1–3 km Common tool in
stratigraphy. specialised studies to profile. Refraction 10 engineering and
Applicable to the map soil thickness, spreads/day around 100 m geotechnical studies. Not
surface to sub- palaeochannels, flow each. $3000 per processed recommended for general
bedrock. paths and barriers. line-km. Cost per hectare use for salinity studies.
not meaningful.
23. SEISMO-ELECTRIC
Detects hydraulic Potential for research Research mode costs $2000 Very experimental and not
conductivity tool such as when to $3000/day. Cost per recommended for routine
(moveable pore detailed knowledge of hectare not meaningful. use.
water) in sediments. hydrology is required.
Applicable to the top
10’s of metres.
24. GROUND MAGNETICS
Used for geological Can be used to Reasonably inexpensive: Ground variant of common
mapping, especially map features in up to $1500/day or $10 airborne technique. Can be
through soil cover. the landscape (e.g. to $200/ha depending on carried or mounted on a
Applicable from the faults, dykes and line spacing. Rental plus 4-wheel bike with EM31.
surface through to basement highs) that operator: $100 + $200/day
bedrock. influence groundwater ~ 15 to 20 km per day.
movement.
25. GRAVITY
Maps variation in bulk Can be used to map Moderately expensive: at For specialist use only.
density of soil and rock features (e.g. faults, 20 m spacing microgravity,
in the subsurface. dykes and basement 100 stations cost $2000.
highs) that influence $1000s/ha.
groundwater
movement.
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26. MULTI-STAGE AND MULT-PHASE MAPPING
Suitable. Methods Useful. Salinity Variable depending on A combination approach
include mapping of risk data sources size of area to be covered, should always to be
surface salt and the and systems could resolution of mapping and considered, particularly
deeper subsurface, include: GIS-based combination of systems after reviewing existing
followed by post hydro-geology and used. data.
hazard mapping geoscience data,
verification. natural resource
data, landuse data,
groundwater systems,
Flowtube and DEM.
Table 10.3: Mapping Methods. * Note: costs are based on prices published in 2005.
Source: Spies and Woodgate (2005)
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Use in Use in Use in

Method Mapping Mapping Mapping Paddock Farm Catchment Regional National
Dryland Salt store Regolith and Scale Scale Scale Scale Scale
salinity hydrology
SURFACE
Visual *** - ***
Laboratory ** - -
Radiometrics – ground - - *
Radiometrics – airborne - - **
Air photo interpretation *** - **
DEM - - ***
Multi spect (CASI) - - -
Hyperspectral airborne - - -
Video - - -
Satellite imagery *** - *
Hyperspectral satellite - - -
ROOT ZONE (<2 m)

Shallow EM 38 ** *** -
Resistivity (Wenner, etc) - - -
Field/drilling, etc. - *** ***
Airborne radar - - -
Satellite radar - - -
DEEPER (>2 m)
Deeper EM31/34 etc. * ** *
Elect resist probing - * -
Stream sampling - ** -
GPR - - -
NMR, seismo-electric
Magnetics - - ***
Gravity - - -
Borehole logging - * -
AEM * ***
*** commonly used

** less often used
* some use
- not applicable
Table 10.4: Mapping methods available in Australia, and their relative level and type of use.
Source: Spies and Woodgate (2005)
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 Reliability of data
A map or other information on salinity is only as Derived maps, e.g. raw satellite imagery may
good as the data and methods that have been map areas that are continually bare (dams and
used to derive it. If a salinity map is used to make road verges) as saline areas.
investment decisions, knowledge of how the map
Interpreted data: Raw data is of no use until
was derived can help determine its usefulness and
it is analysed, checked and/or interpreted, e.g.
reliability for its intended purpose.
EM38 data needs to be interpreted by taking into
Deciding exactly the type of information that is account soil moisture and clay content.
required, where it should be sourced and how it will
Note: The usefulness of a map is not measured by
be interpreted are all important considerations.
how attractively it presents but by its validity and
To check if a salinity map meets your needs, applicability.
consider the following:
• Intention:
• Precision and accuracy: What is the limit of usefulness of the map
When obtaining information from maps considering the creator’s original intention?
and remotely sensed data it is important to
• Usefulness:
distinguish between accuracy and precision.
Does the collated data represent what the map
Accuracy relates to the exactness of the result
or tools claim it does? For example, do the EM
(how well a map reflects what is on the ground).
measurements relate to the appropriate depth?
Precision, however, relates to the exactness of
In some cases an EM 38 map depicting salinity in
the operation by which the result was obtained.
the top metre is appropriate, in other cases, EM34
An estimate can be accurate but not precise. depicting salt stores averaged through the top
For example, an aerial photo may show the salt 60 metres may be appropriate.
affected area accurately; however in terms of • Scale:
determining on-ground management strategies Ensure that method used is appropriate to the
this method is not precise. EM38 data collection scale of assessment, e.g. data collected at a farm
would be a more precise method of determining scale should be used to make recommendations
the severity of the salinity problem therefore a at a farm scale; and data collected for catchment
better method for management strategies. recommendations should be used at a catchment
level. Recommendations made at a catchment
The more precise and accurate the tools for
level may include increasing perenniality with
assessing salinity are, the better informed the
lucerne as a suggested species. If acidity is a
management decisions will be.
problem at a farm scale, lucerne will have to be
• Types of data sets: replaced by another perennial species that is
Raw spatial data can often be presented in more tolerant to acidity but achieve the same
map form for useful initial application, e.g. aerial objective. A second example of scale is where
photography to observe salt outbreaks. Ground- data input into models should be appropriate for
truthing would need to back it up. the model. Catchment scale data should not be
put into a farm based model.
 Endnotes
1
Borehole logging: Down-hole electromagnetic conductivity logging. Measures conductivity versus depth in situ to indicate salt store
versus depth. Applicable below the root zone.
2
End-of-valley salinity target: Means end-of-valley salinity targets established by catchment management plans. These targets describe
the quality of water, at the point where a river leaves a catchment, that the relevant Catchment Management Board is seeking to
achieve (COAG 2002).
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The key points when using salinity maps and tools are: Beecher, HG 2002, Electromagnetic Techniques for Agricultural
 Ground-truthing or field confirmation is essential when using Resource Management, Australian Society of Soil Science Inc.,
remote sensing such as aerial photos, EM and modelling to Riverina Branch.
provide information for salinity maps. Spies, B & Woodgate, P 2005, Salinity Mapping Methods in the
 Long-term trends are difficult to detect using aerial photos Australian Context. Prepared for Programs Committee of Natural
due to the complex interaction of the variables involved, the Resource Management Ministerial Council, through Land and
influence of seasonal conditions and site treatment. Water Australia and the National Dryland Salinity. Department
of the Environment and Heritage; and Agriculture, Fisheries and
 Salinity risk maps, land capability assessments and a wide Forestry.
range of information sources can be used to understand the
hydrological behaviour of the landscape, prioritise farm-scale Beverly, C, Bari, M, Christy, B, Hocking, M & Smettem, K 2005,
works and address salinity to meet associated targets. ‘Predicted salinity impacts from land use change: comparison
between rapid assessment approaches and a detailed modelling
 All remotely sensed technology to measure salinity requires framework’, Aust. J. Exper. Agric, vol. 45 (11), pp. 1453–1469, CSIRO.
quality data collection, interpretation and assessment.
Watson, A 2002, NSW Murray Catchment salinity report, salt loads,
 Critically consider the usefulness (for their intended purpose), salinity risk and a focus for actions, Department of Land and Water
accuracy and precision of salinity hazard and risk maps. Conservation, Albury NSW.
Further information Websites

Industry and Investment NSW Community Access to Natural Resources Information (CANRI)
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) NSW., viewed 12 October 2009, http://www.canri.nsw.gov.au/
Catchment Management Authorities Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Environments and
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water Mineral Exploration, 2004, Australian Government Cooperative
(DECCW) Research Centres Program, viewed 12 October 2009,
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors http://leme.anu.edu.au/
Department of Natural Resources. Salinity Solutions – New
South Wales. Book 3 Dryland Salinity: Investigating and
Assessment Techniques, viewed 12 October 2009, http://www.
naturalresources.nsw.gov.au/salinity/solutions/solutions_book03.
htm
 References
Emery, K 1985, Rural land capability mapping booklet, Soil MDBC 2003, ‘Working with State and Commonwealth agencies’,
Conservation Service of New South Wales. viewed 14 May 2008, http://www.ndsp.gov.au/salinitytools/tools/
COAG 2000, Our vital resource: A national action plan for salinity package_fs.html
and water quality, viewedt 13 December 2007, http://www.napswq. NLWRA 2001, Australian dryland salinity assessment 2000: extent,
gov.au/publications/policies/pubs/vital-resources.pdf impacts, processes, monitoring and management options, National
COAG 2002, Agreement between the Commonwealth of Australia Land and Water Resources Audit: Turner, ACT
and the State of New South Wales Relating to the National Action Robins, L. 2004, Dryland Salinity and Catchment Management – A
Plan for Salinity and Water Quality Initiative of the Council of Resource Directory and Action Manual for Catchment Managers,
Australian Governments, viewed 13 December 2007,http://www. National Dryland Salinity Program, Land and Water Australia,
napswq.gov.au/publications/agreements/bilateral-nsw.html Canberra ACT.
Densmore, T 2007, Plate 10.1: Aerial photograph (Muttama), Spies, B & Woodgate, P 2005, Salinity mapping methods in the
interview with the author, 16 March 2007. Australian context, Department of the Environment and Heritage
Emery, KA 1985, Rural land capability mapping booklet, Soil and Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, ACT.
Conservation Service of NSW: Sydney, NSW. Warren, R. 2007, Figure 10.3: Sample of salinity map showing saline
ERIN 2007, National Action Plan for salinity and water quality locations at Muttama, interview with the author, 5 March 2007.
(NAP), (September 2003), viewed 13 December 2007, http://www. Watson, A.J. 2004, Healthy catchment guide: vegetation for salinity
napswq.gov.au/napswq/pubs/priority-regions-mar07.pdf management in the South West slopes of the Murray Catchment,
Martin, L & Metcalf, J 1998, Assessing the causes, impacts cost Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
and management of dryland salinity, Land and Water Resources Albury, NSW.
Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, ACT.
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 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Testing surface water salinity ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Irrigation water ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Dams ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Channels, creeks or rivers ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Testing groundwater salinity........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3

Production bores and spear points ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Shallow monitoring bores ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Deep monitoring bores .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
 Field testing water for salinity (ECw) ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Equipment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Procedure ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Laboratory testing and interpretation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Water salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Chloride ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Sodium Adsorption Ration (SAR)............................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Alkalinity ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Other tests..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
pH .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Hardness ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Calcium carbonate saturation index (SI) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Salinity yardsticks...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
General yardsticks.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Animal yardsticks.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Irrigation yardsticks .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
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 Introduction
Testing water salinity levels determines the suitability of water for specific purposes and prevents
production losses caused by using water that is too saline. For accurate testing, representative samples should
be collected. The sampling methods for surface water will vary according to its source e.g. dams, rivers, creeks
and bores. However, the method used in testing the water is always the same, irrespective of the source.
Water testing should be processed through NATA (National Association of Testing Authorities) laboratories.
NATA laboratories have a recommended standard suite of tests for water, including salinity. Electrical
conductivity is only part of the salinity equation and other water quality factors also need to be considered.
Which tests are requested will depend on the intended use (e.g. stock, domestic, industrial or irrigation).
A single reading of surface water salinity reflects the water quality at a single point in time at a specific
location. However surface water quality often varies over time (for reasons explained in earlier chapters). For
example, some surface water sources may receive run-off from saline areas, intersect saline groundwater
or receive saline groundwater baseflow1 due to location or the presence of high watertables. Surface water
salinity readings taken on a regular basis provide a more comprehensive picture of water quality.
Irrigation with saline water will require specialist knowledge on the tolerance of plants, soil type, climate and
irrigation method. This chapter will provide information on the need for leaching fractions and the complexity
of management of saline irrigation water to maintain soil salinity at a level suitable for plant growth.
 Testing surface water salinity

Irrigation water • following a ’fresh’ flow in the river (i.e. a flushing
event following rain or storms) especially when
High salinity water can reduce the yield of crops,
flow has been low for some time.
decrease the quality of pastures and adversely affect
livestock health and productivity. The levels at which Under normal conditions, monthly water testing
impacts begin in stock (Table 11.9) and crops and/or monitoring should be sufficient. During
(Tables 11.11–11.14) are known as threshold extended hot dry periods, more frequent testing is
tolerance levels or salinity yardsticks. These yardsticks wise.
are referred to under specific headings throughout
this chapter.
Dams
Testing dam water regularly is important as:
There are several factors (time, location, collection
method and calibration of equipment) to consider • salinity levels can rise as water evaporates,
to ensure the collected samples truly represent decreasing water volume in the dam and leaving
the water quality. Results can then be compared salt behind to concentrate
with established salinity and related water quality • long dry periods without rainfall result in low
yardsticks to determine whether a water source is dilution (drought periods)
suitable for its intended purpose.
• saline groundwater can seep into the dam from
Salinity levels and other associated water quality rising watertables
parameters should be tested:
• nutrient run-off from the catchment or significant
• in new water sources e.g. bores, dams and creeks recycled volumes can increase salinity levels in
• when a water source has not been used for an the storage.
extended period Very clear dam water can indicate high salinity levels
• if you have any concerns about the quality of the as salt settles out sediment suspended in the water.
water supply Stock may also refuse to drink if the water is too
salty.
• if reusing drainage water
Collect the water sample from any dam entry points.
• after shandying (mixing saline water with Collect also from several other points and depths in
freshwater to reduce salt levels within an the dam. Avoid collecting muddy sediment as it will
acceptable range for an intended purpose) affect accuracy.
• during periods of low water allocation and
high evaporative demand (where water volume
reduces and salts concentrate)
2
© f & S |
11
Channels, creeks or rivers sources may rise to levels that can impact on plant
growth.
Testing channel, creek or river water is important
as these sources of irrigation water often vary in Collect a number of sub-samples2 from the middle
quality. Occasionally, salinity levels from these of the stream if possible and near the pump intake.
 Testing groundwater salinity

While assessment of groundwater for its salinity is Shallow monitoring bores
the highest priority, in some cases other properties
(test-wells/piezometers <4 m)
such as sodicity, hardness, and chloride and boron
content are important issues. For shallow monitoring bores, try to bail out as
much water already in the monitoring bore as
If groundwater is being monitored to assess long-
possible a couple of days before testing. This will
term trends in salinity, readings can be taken just allow fresh groundwater to flow in and will counter
once a year at the same time of year. This is because inaccurate readings caused by evaporation
groundwater quality readings are more stable than increasing the salinity. As shallow monitoring bores
surface water readings. are drilled into unconfined aquifers the bore may
If groundwater is being pumped for livestock, recover slowly. Consequently, allow a day or two for
domestic or agricultural purposes, regular the bore to refill.
monitoring is recommended to ensure that over- Deep monitoring bores
pumping is not affecting water quality.
(piezometers in confined aquifer >4 m)
Sampling methods designed to collect
representative samples of different groundwater Pump out about three to five times the amount of
sources are discussed below. groundwater volume in the bore column to ensure
all stagnant water is removed before a sample is
obtained. Some deeper monitoring bores do not
Production bores and spear points yield sufficient water to pump out. If this is the case,
For production bores, collect the sample from a bail out groundwater collected in the pipe and
turbulent area near the outlet pipe after pumping allow it to refill (sometimes you may need to leave it
for at least 30 minutes or when the drawdown has overnight) before collecting a sample.
stabilised to allow time for sufficient mixing to occur.
 Field testing water for salinity (ECw)

Field testing for water salinity is inexpensive and • a bottle taped to the end of a pole
requires minimal equipment. The test is simple
and straight-forward. For further information on Procedure
Electrical Conductivity of water (ECw) see chapter 8. (Gibbs 2000)
Equipment Below is an eleven-step procedure for field testing

water salinity:
You will need the following equipment to determine
ECw: 1. Calibrate the salinity meter before any testing
as per the instructions with the meter and the
• a salinity meter
nearest concentration of calibration solution to
• calibration solution(s)3 the expected salinity.
• distilled or deionised water (or rainwater) – 2. Thoroughly mix any sub-samples of the water
preferably not from roof run-off as it may contain to be tested before taking a sample.
dust and impurities
3. Dip a sample jar or bottle into the water and
• sample jars or bottles with lids. rinse thoroughly.
Additionally, for groundwater collection you will 4. Allow the sample jar to half fill with water.
need: Remove the EC meter cap and switch on the
meter.
• a bailer for groundwater sample collection
5. Immerse the salinity meter in the sample so
Additionally, for sampling the middle of the
the electrodes are covered.
waterway you will need:
3
11
6. Swirl the meter slowly and allow the display to 9. Compare the result against established salinity
stabilise (for up to 20 seconds), then read the yardsticks to determine if the water is suitable
number on the meter. Check the units on the for its intended use.
salinity meter. If you need to convert the units
10. Collect and retain a sample for laboratory
refer to Chapter 8.
testing if circumstances and preliminary
7. Record the result. readings suggest further testing for salinity
and other properties are required.
8. Rinse the electrodes with deionised water. Dry,
switch off and replace cap.
 Laboratory testing and interpretation

If preliminary water salinity tests indicate a potential Chloride
salinity problem, samples should be sent to an
High levels of chloride are toxic to plant growth and
accredited laboratory for more comprehensive
can impact on livestock health and productivity.
testing. This is because:
High chloride in water may burn the leaves, cause
• field observations need to be confirmed using poor plant growth and even death of plants. Some
more accurate testing procedures guidelines on plant tolerance and livestock tolerance
are given in Tables 11.1 and 11.2 respectively.
• electrical conductivity measures only the total
salt. Other chemical properties, such as the types
of salt present and their ratio to each other, as Chloride level Tolerant crops
well as other properties (such as high chloride < 175 mg/L Almond, apricot, citrus,
in the case of groundwater) can impact on plant grape, plum, many
growth, soil structure, infrastructure and water ornamentals
quality.
175–350 mg/L Pepper, potato, tomato
When submitting a water sample to a laboratory
for analysis, clearly label the water source (e.g. 350–700 mg/L Barley, maize, cucumber,
dam, river, creek, bore, drainage) and its intended lucerne, safflower,
purpose (irrigation, stock and domestic, human sorghum
consumption). This information will determine > 700 mg/L Cauliflower, cotton, sugar
which water quality tests are performed. beet, sunflower
Laboratory test results for irrigation and livestock
Table 11.1: Approximate chloride tolerance for a variety of crops.
include: Source: Yiasoumi, Evans & Rogers (2005)
• salinity (ECw)
• chloride High chloride is a greater problem with overhead
• Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) irrigation than with drip or surface irrigation. In
• alkalinity. surface or drip irrigation, for example; water is not
applied directly onto the plant, 360 to 720 mg/L
These tests are often interrelated and need to be
would still be the limit for most crops and pastures
considered together. Information presented later
(Yiasoumi, Evans and Rogers 2005).
in the chapter, allows interpretation of results
against established yardsticks to determine possible
impacts. Yardsticks indicate the limit of tolerance Livestock Chloride level (mg/L)
and are intended as a guide only. It is essential Adult dry sheep 5600
to seek advice on the water quality parameters
applicable to your situation. Advice should be Beef cattle 4000
sought from appropriate professional staff, as
Ewes and lambs 2400
enterprise-specific (e.g. irrigation method, crop type
and rootstock, condition of livestock) factors need to Dairy cattle 1600
be considered with test results.
Horses 1200
Water salinity Table 11.2: Approximate chloride tolerances of livestock. Lactating
For water salinity tolerances and guidelines for a and young animals have lower tolerances.
Source: Curran and Robson (2007)
range of agricultural plants, including the influence
of soil texture, refer to Tables 11.11–11.13.
4
11
Sodium Adsorption Ration (SAR) If SAR is greater than 3, seek advice from the
appropriate officer from Industry and Investment
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) measures the
NSW or other water quality specialist.
sodicity (sodium hazard) of water. SAR provides a
measure of the imbalance of sodium ions relative to
calcium and magnesium ions. Water is considered Alkalinity
sodic if the SAR is greater than three. Alkalinity is a quantitative measure of the total or
potential concentration of hydroxide (OH–) ions.
Na+ Highly alkaline water may contain high carbonate
SAR = and bicarbonate concentrations.
+
Ca 2+ + Mg 2 High bicarbonate and carbonate levels in water
can cause calcium to precipitate from the soil; this
2 reduces the soil’s exchangeable calcium content and
increases soil sodicity. Magnesium can also be lost
Using water with a high SAR leads to two potential in this way. In extreme cases, the loss of soil calcium
problems. The first is specific ion toxicity, where and magnesium will affect plant growth. Some
sodium ions accumulate to toxic levels in the plant. trace elements, like copper and zinc, will also be less
The second is a decline in soil structure. The build available to the plant in this situation (Yiasoumi,
up of sodium in the soil leads to problems of slaking Evans and Rogers 2005).
and dispersion (see Chapter 5). The result is surface
Levels of alkalinity which may cause problems are
crusting, poor water penetration, poor drainage and
shown in Table 11.4 below.
low aeration. Both of these problems will negatively
impact on plant growth.
Alkalinity Level of Associated
The SAR of groundwater in particular, needs to be (mg CaCO3 /L) risk problems
considered in conjunction with its salinity level
when assessing potential impacts (see Figure < 90 Low No problems
11.2). Applying high SAR water to soil over time expected
can increase the risk of the soil becoming sodic 90–335 Moderate Declining soil
(excess sodium). High sodium (Na) in soils causes structure, reduced
them to disperse. High salinity however stabilises plant growth with
soil structure due to the electrolytic effect of salt prolonged use,
keeping the clay particles flocculated. On heavier accumulation
soils (high clay content) where leaching is more of white scale
difficult, sodium may build up to levels that are toxic on plants spray
to plants. Sodium may also have a dispersing effect irrigated in high
humidity weather
on soil when fresher water is applied or after lengthy
rain periods due to the reduced electrolytic effect of > 335 High Soil structure
salt (Yiasoumi 2003). problems, reduced
plant growth, build
Table 11.3 provides some general guidelines on the up of scale which
SAR values and the associated soil hazards. can block metal
pipes
SAR Value Effect
> 500 Very high Harmful to human
<3 No problems are expected as the health
water is non-sodic
Table 11.4: Water alkalinity risks and associated problems.
3–6 Minor effects on clayey soil if ECw is Source: Evans (2004)
<1.5 dS/m
>6 Increasing effect on all soil types at Other tests
low to moderate salinities (up to 2.5 When water samples are sent for analysis there
dS/m) and impacts on plant growth are usually other water quality parameters tested
and reported with salinity. These may include:
>9 Severe risk of increasing soil sodicity
for most soils • pH
• hardness
Table 11.3: Guidelines on sodicity levels and associated soil
hazards.
• calcium carbonate Saturation Index (SI).
Source: Evans (2004)
General guidelines are presented here for these
elements to provide interpretation of test results.
5
11
pH Water class Hardness (mg CaCO3/L)
The measure of acidity or alkalinity is pH. It is
Soft < 50
measured on a scale of 0–14 and described as
neutral, alkaline or acidic as depicted below: Moderately soft 50–75
• pH 7 is neutral Slightly hard 75–150
• pH >7 is alkaline Hard 150–300
• pH < 7 is acidic.
Very hard > 300
Water is considered suitable for irrigation at a pH
of 6.5–8.0. Irrigation water with a pH outside this Table11.6: Guidelines for interpreting hardness.
Source: Yiasoumi, Evans & Rogers (2005)
range may impact on soil or plant health.
Table 11.5 below specifies pH values for water and
Hard water (>150 mg CaCO3/L) can cause problems
their associated impacts.
with pipes, hot water systems, dairy equipment and
other domestic equipment.
pH value of water Impact
Suggested hardness limits are (Evans 2004):
pH < 4 Water could contribute to
soil acidification. • 150 mg/L – Hot water systems and dairy
equipment
pH < 6 Water could be corrosive
to metal pipes, tanks and • 200 mg/L – Other domestic use
fittings. • 300 mg/L – For mixing chemicals and dips, and
pH < 6 or > 8.5 Can inactivate some can have adverse effect on soil structure
pesticides • > 500 mg/L – Limit for most other uses.
pH 8–9 Possible development of
soil sodicity problems due
to high levels of bicarbonate Calcium carbonate
precipitating calcium and saturation index (SI)
magnesium from the soil. The calcium carbonate saturation index (SI) gives
the relationship between pH, salinity, alkalinity and
Table 11.5: pH values for water and associated problems.
Source: Yiasoumi, Evans & Rogers (2005) hardness (Evans 2004). SI indicates the potential
scaling (encrustation) or the corrosive potential of
water, which has implications for damage to, or a
Hardness reduction in the life of, infrastructure.
Hardness is a measure of the total concentration
of dissolved calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) Some general guidelines are presented in Table 11.7.
ions expressed as mg CaCO3/L (Nielsen, et al. 2003).
This is more of a problem for groundwater than for SI Value Risk
surface water. Hard water can affect:
If < –1.5 Strong risk of
• soil structure (elevated bicarbonate levels corrosion
cause calcium and magnesium to precipitate as
If between –0.5 and –1.5 Moderate risk of
insoluble carbonates leading to an imbalance in corrosion
the ratio of calcium and magnesium to sodium
and lead to the development of a sodic soil If between –0.5 and +0.5 Low chance of scaling
—similar to alkalinity) or corrosion
• suitability for stock (diarrhoea if magnesium salts If between +0.5 and +1.5 Moderate risk of
predominate) scaling
• domestic use (scaling, encrustation, staining, If > +1.5 Strong risk of scaling
particularly in hot water systems)
Table 11.7: Calcium carbonate saturation index (SI) guidelines to
• infrastructure (encrustation and blockages). assess scaling or corrosion risk.
General guidelines for interpreting hardness are
shown in Table 11.6.
6
11
 Salinity yardsticks
Salinity yardsticks indicate the tolerance limit for the
Upper
particular purpose of the water. Yardsticks vary for Freshwater biota Effect limit ECw
plants, animals and humans. (dS/m)
General yardsticks Macroinvertebrates significant 15.0

reduction
Some general yardsticks and comparisons are
provided in Table 11.8. Aquatic plants upper limit for 6.2
mature plants
Water ECw (dS/m) Adult fish tolerance 4.6
Dead sea 550.0 Macroinvertebrates reduced 3.0
diversity
Sea water (typical) 50.0
Macroinvertebrates reduced 3.0
Maximum for mixing herbicides 4.7
emergence
Maximum for human consumption 2.5
Fish eggs and less tolerant 2.0
Desirable limit for humans 0.8 juveniles
Distilled water 0.0 Seed germination of reduced 1.5

aquatic plants
Table 11.8: General water quality yardsticks.
Source: Taylor (1996) Macroinvertebrates slight impact 1.5
Table 11.10: Freshwater biota yardsticks.

Animal yardsticks Source: Nielsen et al. (2003)
If animals are forced to drink water above the levels

in Table 11.9, their health and productivity may Irrigation yardsticks
suffer. Factors such as the type of feed, condition Historically, plant tolerance to salinity has been
and age of the animal and climatic conditions measured by assessing the plant’s survival, growth
modify these limits. and subsequent yield response to differing levels of
soil and water salinity. Examples of major research
Animals Desirable Maximum on salinity and yield responses have been carried
limit for concentration out by Richards (1956), Maas and Hoffman (1977),
healthy at which good and Ayers and Westcot (1985).
growth condition might be
(dS/m) expected (dS/m)* This research established the relative tolerance of
plants to salinity. However in more recent work it
sheep 5 5–10 has been recognised that the tolerance of plants to
beef cattle 4 4–5 soil and water salinity is not a fixed characteristic.
It differs with species and varieties, depending on
dairy cattle 2.5 2.5–4 stages of growth of the same species and is affected
by environmental conditions (Mitchell 2008). The
horses 4 4–6
salinity yardsticks used in this chapter are a guide
pigs 4 4–6 to relative salinity tolerance only and do not specify
the tolerances at various growth stages. Identifying
poultry 2 2–3 the effects of salinity on the growth stages of the
Table 11.9: Animal yardsticks for water salinity. many varieties of crops and pastures that exist in
Source: Yiasoumi, Evans & Rogers. (2005) NSW is beyond the scope of this document. The aim
*The levels depend on the type of feed of salinity management is to identify when stress
Freshwater biota4 yardsticks periods are, and to manage water and soil salinity
All of the plants and animals that make up around that period by using fresh water if possible.
freshwater aquatic communities are affected by Therefore advice from an irrigation specialist is
salinity. We have limited understanding of the recommended to ensure that stage of growth,
impacts of saline water management on species local climatic conditions and soil type are taken
interactions, food-web structures and how elevated into account before making decisions on the use of
salinity levels affect the integrity of communities. saline water to irrigate.
Freshwater biota yardsticks are given in Table 11.10.
7
11
The tolerance of plants to salinity in irrigation water The chemistry of both the soil and water have
is mainly affected by: important consequences for the water balance.
When using saline irrigation water, both the
• climate – particularly the abundance or lack of
water itself and the soil being irrigated need to
rainfall to leach salts from soils
be monitored for salinity and sodicity as they
• soil type and drainage within the root zone which are interrelated. In irrigation water, Electrical
influence salt accumulation. Salinity may vary Conductivity (ECw) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio
dramatically throughout a paddock both laterally (SAR) need to be monitored. In soil, Electrical
in the top 10 cm of the soil across the paddock Conductivity of the soil extract (ECe) and
and vertically with depth. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) need to be
monitored. (ECe) determines the average root zone
Other factors that influence the tolerance of plants
salinity and indicates the salt content of the soil-
to salinity include:
water in the crop’s root zone. In deep rooted crops
• rootstock or variety and pastures, the subsoil salinity and sodicity should
• irrigation method (surface or flood irrigation, also be monitored.
overhead sprinkler, drip) High levels of sodium in either soil or water can
• presence of a watertable within the root zone destroy soil structure. However poor soil structure
due to high sodium levels can be improved if the
• irrigation management salinity of the water is high enough. In the long
• leaching fraction term, high levels of sodicity and salinity will be
agronomically deleterious even though the soil
• stage of growth – the stage of growth affected structure may appear stable (see figures 11.2 and
by salinity depends on the particular species or 11.3).
variety. There are critical stress periods in the
growth cycle of plants when they are more ECw can be used to calculate the average root zone
sensitive to salinity than during other periods salinity (ECe) which will indicate which crops are
of growth e.g. rice is most sensitive to salinity suitable for growing in a particular soil. The salinity
between three leaf stage and panicle initiation of the irrigation water is the starting point and
(PI). This is expressed by reducing the number known value. In determining the suitability of the
of tillers and a subsequent reduction in grain water for irrigation of a particular crop, the leaching
yield (Zeng, Shannon and Lesch 2001). If possible fraction and average root zone salinity need to be
irrigation with saline water should be reserved calculated. This requires estimation of the average
for growth periods that are not sensitive. Note: root zone leaching fraction (LF) of the soil under
Contact your local Irrigation Specialist before irrigation, i.e. the proportion of applied water
irrigation with saline water. Also see information moving below the root zone (see figure 11.1). More
on interpreting results in Chapter 12. detail on the relationship of salinity and sodicity in
soil and water will be discussed further
into the chapter under the headings
Salinity and sodicity – relationship
in water, Salinity and sodicity
– relationship in soil.
Leaching
Leaching is a component of the water
balance. The build up of salts within
the root zone of irrigated soil can be
prevented by applying more water
than the plants need. When water is
leached it is not used by plants but is
used to flush the salts out of the root
zone of the soil.
The amount of leaching required
depends on the soil type, salinity of
the applied water, the salinity of the
soil before leaching and the desired
soil salinity. Too much leaching may
develop a watertable. However, with
Figure 11.1: Diagram illustrating the concept of the leaching fraction. too little leaching soil salinity will be
Source: Adapted from deHayr and Gordon (2006)
8
11
too high. A balance is needed between excess water • Moderate to slow draining soils like loams, which
draining below the root zone and a build up of salts make up most of the irrigated soils in NSW, have
in the root zone. an average leaching fraction of 30%.
In many texts, the term leaching fraction (LF) and • In heavy textured soils such as clays where
leaching requirement (LR) are used interchangeably. internal drainage is poor, water moves downward
However the terms, while similar, are distinct and more slowly. Salts tend to stay in the root zone
refer to different concepts. They both refer to that longer, and are likely to harm plants more than in
portion of the irrigation that should pass through well drained soils. These very slow draining soils
the root zone to control salts at a specific level have an average leaching fraction of 15%.
(Ayers and Westcot 1985).
The approximate average root zone leaching
Leaching fraction is the percentage of water that fraction for various soil types are summarised in
percolates below the rootzone. Table 11.11.
A leaching faction (LF) is the fraction or percentage
of applied water that passes through the entire Soil type Average root zone
rooting depth and percolates below. Leaching Fraction (LF)
A high leaching fraction (LF = 0.5 or 50%) would Well drained soil e.g. 0.45
result in less salt accumulation than a lower leaching sandy soil
fraction (LF = 0.1 or 10%) (Ayers and Westcot 1985).
Moderate to slow 0.30
Leaching fraction = draining soil e.g. loam
depth of water leached below the root zone Very slow draining soil 0.15
depth of water applied at the surface e.g. clay
A leaching requirement is the irrigation quantity in Table 11.11: Soil type and average root zone leaching fraction.
excess of Plant Water Requirement (PWR) needed to
keep soil salinity (ECe) from exceeding the tolerance The average root zone salinity (ECe) after leaching
level of the crop in question. The LR is expressed can then be calculated as follows. The resulting ECe
as a percentage of the total water applied or as is then used to select a suitable crop.
additional water required in mm above the PWR and
surface evaporation (Beecher 2010). Where:
ECe = Average root zone salinity in dS/m
To estimate the LR, both the irrigation salinity (ECw)
and the crop tolerance to salinity (ECe) should be ECw = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water in
estimated from appropriate crop tolerance data dS/m
(Ayers and Westcot 1985). The leaching requirements LF = The average leaching fraction
should be calculated by your local Irrigation Officer 2.2 = Conversion factor as recommended in ANZECC
or Agronomist. & ARMCANZ (2000).
Predetermined leaching factions are used as
examples in salinity tolerance tables as it would not ECe = ECw
be possible to have exact leaching figures for all
soils and all conditions. In Table 11.13 the leaching 2.2 x LF
fractions used for the relative tolerance of plants to
salinity are 15%, 30% and 45%. For a very slow draining soil (Table 11.1) with
The leaching fraction required to take salt away irrigation water:
from the root zone depends on the drainage ECw = 1.98 dS/m rounded off to 2 dS/m.
characteristics of the soil (Table 11.11). ECe = 2 ÷ (2.2 x .15)
• Water can move quickly through light-textured ECe = 2 ÷ .33
soils such as sandy soils. Salt leaches deep ECe = 6 dS/m average root zone salinity
into the soil profile, unless there is a shallow
watertable holding saline water in the root zone
or close to it. These well-drained soils have an The average root zone salinity resulting from the ECw
average leaching fraction of 45%. Thus when of 2 dS/m on a slow draining soil is 6 dS/m, which is
using surface application, 45% extra water above considered high, indicating that only crops tolerant
the plant use requirements may leak beyond the to salinity could be grown in this situation (see table
root zone. This may be undesirable for efficient 11.12).
irrigation.
9
11
Average If water to the left of the solid line is used, soil

Plant salt tolerance Soil salinity root zone ameliorants (e.g. application of lime or gypsum) will
grouping rating Salinity be required to prevent soil structural breakdown.
ECe (dS/m) Water that falls between the lines is of marginal
Sensitive crops Very low < 0.95 quality and should be used with caution.
Moderately sensitive Low 0.95–1.9 For example:

crops 1. Soil structure problems are likely where water
Moderately tolerant Medium 1.90–4.5 has an ECw of 0.1 dS/m and an SAR of 2.
crops 2. Stability of soil would depend on soil
Tolerant crops High 4.5–7.7 properties and rainfall if the water has an ECw
of 0.3 dS/m and an SAR of 2.
Very tolerant crops Very high 7.7–12.2
3. A stable soil structure is more likely where
Generally too saline Extreme > 12.2 water has an ECw of 1.5 ds/m and an SAR of 2.
Table 11.12: Soil salinity criteria based on plant salt tolerance Salinity and sodicity –
grouping.
Source: deHayr and Gordon (2006)
relationship in the soil
A saline soil contains enough soluble salts to
The ECe value can then be used to determine the adversely affect plant growth. Soil salinity is
suitability of crops and pasture (Table 11.13). In the measured as ECe (Electrical Conductivity of the
previous example wheat could be grown in a soil of saturated extract) in deciSiemens per metre (dS/m).
6 dS/m with a 5% yield reduction.
Sodic soils are soils that are high in exchangeable
Table 11.13 provides relative guidelines on water sodium. If ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) is
salinity tolerances for a variety of different crops greater than 5%–6% the soil is said to be sodic.
and pastures. It does not take account of any
A soil can be saline and sodic, or just sodic, or just
waterlogging for example, which will alter the plant
saline (for symptoms of these types of soils see
tolerance. An irrigation officer or qualified adviser
Chapter 12). A saline sodic soil may not show the
should be consulted on the suitability of irrigation
water for a particular use before making any
poor structural symptoms of sodicity even when
management decisions. exchangeable sodium is quite high.
Sodicity may build up in the soil. Unlike salinity,
Salinity and sodicity – sodicity can not be easily leached out of the soil.
relationship in water Experiments using high salinity groundwater
The salinity (ECw) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) for irrigation in the non-rice phase of a wheat
values of the irrigation water can be used to predict – subclover – rice rotation have shown irrigation
soil structure stability (SAR value
measures the relative concentration
of sodium to calcium and magnesium
– see previous section on sodium in
this chapter).
High concentrations of sodium in
irrigation water can degrade the
structure of soils. This will reduce
aeration and permeability of water,
reducing crop growth. However this
action is opposed by high salinity,
measured as ECW. Figure 11.2 shows
how to evaluate irrigation water
quality in relation to its potential
impact on soil structure using ECW and
SAR.
Water quality to the right of the
dashed line is unlikely to cause soil
structure problems. Water quality that
falls to the left of the solid line is likely Figure 11.2: Relationship between SAR and ECw of irrigation water for prediction of soil
to cause soil structural breakdown. structure stability.
Source: ANZECC – ARMCANZ (2000)
10
11
Where possible the references used
for this table have been obtained
from NSW field experiments, Beecher
(1994); Daniells et al. (2001); Prior et al
(2007) and Hulugalle (2007). Data from
Victorian field experiments in Rogers
(1997) was used for many of the
pasture legumes.
Where NSW data was not available,
references used were ANZECC &
ARMCANZ, and Ayers and Westcot
(1985). The latter uses data from
many farm areas throughout the
world. A vast majority of the data
has come from the western United
States, therefore caution and a critical
attitude should be taken when using
these guidelines in Australia.
Figure 11.3: The relationship between soil salinity, soil sodicity and soil structure shows Where there is uncertainty regarding
that as exchangeable sodium increases, increasing soil salinity can prevent dispersion.
Source: McMullen (2000) the effect of irrigation water quality
on soil structure stability, it is strongly
induced salinity can be leached out by growing recommended that a soil sample (representative
a rice crop. Average root zone sodicity however of the profile under irrigation) be submitted for
remained elevated at the end of each cycle and analysis. Expert management advice should also be
increased in successive cycles. Landholders need sought. Considering the costs of the consequences
to be mindful of the potential hazard of high soil in mismatching salinity water to soil, it is very wise
sodicity when using saline groundwater. to obtain test data and consult specialists.
Both crop salt tolerance and the effect on soil
Waterlogging and structure stability need to be taken into account when
salinity tolerance relationship determining the suitability of irrigation water.
The physiological effects of salinity and
waterlogging are now reasonably well understood.
In general, waterlogging under saline conditions
causes increased Na+ (sodium) and Cl– (chloride)
concentrations in the shoot, due mainly to the
increased rates of uptake and transport (Barrett-
Lennard 2003). Table 11.12 therefore is only a
guideline for matching crops and pasture to the
salinity of soil (ECe) and water (ECw or ECi) as it does
not take waterlogging into account.
11
11
ECe ECw (Irrigation salinity) for
Average 5% yield reduction dS/m
root zone Well drained Moderate Very slow
Common name Scientific name salinity for Reference
soils. to slow draining
5% yield Leaching draining soils. soils.
reduction fraction of Leaching Leaching
dS/m 45% fraction of fraction of
30% 15%
Pasture Legumes
Clover White Trifolium repens 1.2 1.2 0.8 NR 1
Red Trifolium pratense 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 2
Sub Trifolium subterraneum 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.4 1
Strawberry Trifolium fragiferum 2.3 2.3 1.5 0.8 1
Balansa Trifolium michelianum. 2.3 2.3 1.5 0.8 1
Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum 4.5 4.5 3.0 1.5 1
Lucerne Medicago sativa 2.0 2.0 1.3 NR 2
(most varieties)
Pasture Grasses
Couch Grass Cynodon dactylon 6.9 6.9 4.6 2.3 2
Tall Fescue Festuca elatior 3.9 3.9 2.6 1.3 2
Kikuyu Pennisetum clandestinum 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2
Paspalum Paspalum dilatatum 4.5 4.5 3.0 1.5 1
Phalaris Phalaris aquatica 4.2 4.2 2.8 1.4 2
Perennial Ryegrass Lolium perenne 5.6 5.6 3.7 1.8 3
Tall Wheatgrass Agropyron elongatum 7.5 7.5 5.0 2.5 2
Winter Crops
Barley Forage Hordeum vulgare 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 2
Grain Hordeum vulgare 8.0 8.0 5.3 2.6 2
Canola Brassica napus 6.5 6.5 4.3 2.1 4
Faba Beans Vicia faba 1.8 1.8 1.2 0.6 4
Oats Avena sativa 5.0 5.0 3.3 1.7 2
Wheat Triticum aestivum 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 2
Durum Triticum turgidum 5.7 5.7 3.8 1.9 2
Summer Crops
Cotton* Gossypium hirsutum 2.4 NR 1.6 0.8 5
Maize Zea mays 1.7 1.7 1.1 0.6 2
Soybeans** Glycine max 0.75 0.75 0.5 0.25 6
Sunflowers Helianthus annuus 5.5 5.5 3.6 NR 2
Millet Echinochloa utilis or 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 7
E. crusgalli
Sorghum Grain Sorghum bicolor 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 8
Rice Oryza sativa 3.0 NR NR 1.0 2
Horticulture
Grapes*** Vitis spp. 1.0 1.0 0.66 NR 9
Olives Olea europaea 4.0 4.0 2.6 NR 2
Oranges**** Citrus sinensis 2.0 2.0 NR NR 10-11
Peaches Prunus persica 3.2 3.2 2.1 NR 2
Plums Prunus domestica 1.5 1.5 1.0 NR 2
Table 11.13: Tolerance of various pasture legumes, grasses and crops to salinity levels under different leaching fractions and soil types.
Sources: 1.Rogers (1997), 2. ANZECC& ARMCANZ (2000), 3. Ayers and Westcot (1985) , 4. Liddicoat and McFarlane (2007), 5. Hulugalle (2007), 6. Beecher (1994), 7. Evans
(2006), 8. Daniells et al.(2001) 9. Prior, Grieve and Cullis (1992a); Prior, Grieve and Cullis (1992b); Prior et al (1992) 10. Prior et al. (2007), 11. Grieve, Prior and Bevington.
(2007)
For further information contact an Irrigation specialist.
12
11
Notes for Table 11.13:
Crop varieties – Salinity tolerances can
vary between crop varieties.
*Cotton – According to Maas and
Hoffman (1977) yield reduction of adult
cotton begins reducing above ECe of 7.7
dS/m (ECw 5.1 dS/m in moderate to slow
draining soils). However, 1.0 dS/m ECw
can affect seedlings in moderate to slow
draining soils. Experience in northern
NSW indicates that yield declines rapidly
after the initial threshold of ECe 2.4 dS/m
is reached, due mainly to the toxic effect
of chloride rather than the osmotic effect
of salinity (Hulugalle 2007).
**Soybeans – Tolerance of soybeans
is about half the level shown if they
have not been previously grown in that
area (there is a lack of suitable strain of Figure 11.4: Graph showing the ‘bent stick’ model for barley (grain). Barley grown in
Rhizobium). soil with salinity > 8 dS/m is unaffected (horizontal line). Soil salinity > 8 dS/m causes
***Grapes – There was no evidence of yield to decline (diagonal line). Source: Ayers and Westcot (1985)
safe threshold salinity levels for grapes,
so grape growers should aim to keep
tissue salinity levels as low as possible. Petiole chloride With appropriate irrigation management, soils and
should be kept below 1.5% and sodium below 0.5%. rootstocks, citrus trees can maintain productivity at
Soil salinity levels at the end of winter should be salinity levels of ECw 2.0 dS/m or more, but fresh fruit
maintained below 1.0 dS/m in order to keep yield profitability is likely to be lower because of a reduction
losses below 10%. in average fruit size.
****Citrus – Yield effects did not conform well to
the often used ‘bent-stick model’. (see figure 11.4)
 Endnotes
1
2
Sub samples: Several samples representing one area that are collected and mixed to make the bulk sample for laboratory testing.
3
For most work we use one calibration solution. However, for accurate work, two solutions should be used to prepare a
calibration curve, and the readings taken between the two points.
4
Biota: The animals, plants and microbes that live in a particular location or region.
13
11


The key points relevant to testing water are: The following publications are suggested as additional readings
 Preliminary field testing of water needs to be confirmed using in the area of testing water. These are:
more accurate laboratory tests before making expensive ANZECC & ARMCANZ 2000, Guidelines for Fresh and Marine
decisions. Water Quality, Australian and New Zealand Environment and
 Salinity readings are only accurate at the time of testing. Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management
Particularly with surface water, readings can vary considerably Council of Australia and New Zealand, Canberra.
in different locations, over time and with changes in James, K, Cant, B & Ryan, T 2003, ‘Responses of freshwater
environmental conditions. Groundwater varies less with time, biota to rising salinity levels and implications for saline water
but may be worth checking annually. management: a review’, Aust. J. Botany, vol. 51, pp.703–713,
 Correct sampling methods will improve the accuracy of the CSIRO.
water test. NSW Agriculture 2004, Drip Irrigation: A Grape-growers Guide,
 Electrical conductivity is only part of the salinity equation. Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra.
Other chemical properties, such as the composition of the salt NSW Agriculture 2003, (9th edition), Farm water quality and
and the ionic ratios, can affect plant growth and soil structure. treatment, Agfact AC.2, Sections 1, 3–7, Australian Government
Other water quality factors may also need to be considered, Printing Service, Canberra.
depending on the intended use. NSW Agriculture 1999, Water for livestock: interpreting water
 Plant tolerance depends on the specific crop, its stage of quality tests, AgNote DAI–299, Australian Government Printing
growth, soil properties, salinity and ionic composition of the Service, Canberra.
irrigation water, climate, irrigation method and management.
Websites
Further information Murray Darling Basin Commission, Natural Resource
Industry and Investment NSW Management, viewed 27 July 2010, http://www2.mdbc.gov.
Advisory Officers (Soils and salinity) au/nrm/
Irrigation Officers Industry and Investment, Primary Industries – Farm water testing,
District Agronomists viewed 26 July 2010, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/aboutus/
District Horticulturists services/das/water
(DECCW)
National Association of Testing Authorities laboratory staff for
information on tests for assessing suitability of water for intended
use
Where to obtain a water quality test
I&I NSW water testing as shown below, with costs as at January
2010. There may be other laboratories that carry out water
quality testing.
I&I NSW, Wollongbar Agricultural Institute,
Bruxner Highway, Wollongbar, NSW, 2477. Phone 02 6626 1103
Email: wollongbar.csu@dpi.nsw.gov.au
The standard Water Sampling Kit is available at I&I NSW offices. It
includes the costs of tests for pH, EC, SAR, alkalinity, hardness, SI,
chloride and turbidity. Cost is $75.45 (2013) which includes
postage
14
11
 References
ANZECC & ARMCANZ 2000, Guidelines for fresh and marine Maas, EV & Hoffman, GJ 1977, ‘Crop salt tolerance – current
water quality, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Assessment’, Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage, vol. 103,
Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management pp.115–134.
Council of Australia and New Zealand Canberra. McMullen, BJ 2000, SOILpak for vegetable growers. NSW
Ayers, R. & Westcot, D. 1985, Water quality for agriculture, Food Agriculture, Orange, NSW.
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Mitchell, D 2008, Salinity tolerance, interview with the author,
Barrett-Lennard, EG 2003, ‘The interaction between waterlogging 1 December 2008.
and salinity in higher plants: causes, consequences and implications’, Nielsen, DL, Brock, MA, Rees, GN & Baldwin, DS 2003, ‘Effects of
Plant and Soil, vol. 253, pp. 35–54. increasing salinity on freshwater ecosystems in Australia’,
Beecher, HG 1994, ‘Effects of saline irrigation water on soybean Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 51, pp. 655–665.
yield and soil salinity in the Murrumbidgee Valley’, Australian Journal Prior, LD, Grieve, AM, Bevington, KB & Slavich, PG 2007, ‘Long-term
of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 34, pp. 85-91. effects of saline irrigation water on ‘Valencia’ orange trees:
Beecher, HG 2010, Leaching, interview with the author, 12 August 2010. relationships between growth and yield, and salt levels in soil and
leaves’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 58, pp.349–358.
Curran, G & Robson, S 2007, ‘Water for livestock: interpreting
water quality tests’, Primefact 533, viewed 16 May 2008, Prior, LD, Grieve, AM & Cullis, BR 1992a, ‘Sodium chloride and
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/111348/ soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana grapevines. I.
water-for-livestock-interpreting-water-quality-tests.pdf Yield and fruit quality’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research
Vol. 43, pp.1051–1066.
Daniells, IG, Holland, JF, Young, RR, Alston, CL & Bernardi, AL 2001,
Relationship between yield of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and Prior, LD, Grieve, AM & Cullis, BR 1992b, ‘Sodium chloride and
soil salinity under field conditions. Australian Journal of Experimental soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana grapevines. II.
Agriculture, vol. 41, pp.211–217. Plant mineral content, growth and physiology’, Australian Journal of
Agricultural Research, vol. 43, pp.1067–1083.
deHayr, R & Gordon, I 2006, Irrigation water quality: salinity
and soil structure stability, Department of Natural Resources, Mines Prior, LD, Grieve, AM, Slavich, PG & Cullis, BR 1992, ‘Sodium
and Energy, Queensland. chloride and soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana
grapevines. III. Soil and root system effects’, Australian Journal of
Evans, L 1999, Water salinity guidelines, NSW Agriculture, Agricultural Research, vol. 43, pp.1085–1100.
Deniliquin, NSW.
Richards, LL 1956, Diagnosis and Improvement of saline and
Evans, L 2004, Interpreting water quality test results, viewed13 December alkaline soils, Agriculture Handbook 60, USDA, viewed 14 December
2007, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/water/quality/ 2010,
publications/results http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=10158&page=2
Evans, L 2006, Millet for reclaiming irrigated saline soils, viewed Rogers, MJ 1997, Salinity and the growth of forage species, viewed
16 May 2008, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_ 14 December 2010, http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/DPI/nreninf.nsf/v/
file/0007/86965/pf242-millet-for-reclaiming-irrigated-saline-soils. F6EFD6DEC83EEA4BCA257478000E5160/$file/Salinity_and_the_
pdf Growth_of_Forage_Species.pdf
Gibbs, S 2000, Horticulture salt bag instruction manual, NSW Salt Taylor, S 1996, Dryland salinity: introductory extension notes,
Action Program, Deniliquin, NSW. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Sydney.
Grieve, AM, Prior, LD & Bevington, KB 2007, ‘Long-term effects of Yiasoumi, B 2003, Farm water quality and treatment, Australian
saline irrigation water on growth, yield, and fruit quality of Valencia™ Government Printing service.
orange trees’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 58,
pp. 342–348. Yiasoumi, W, Evans, L & Rogers, L 2005, Farm water quality
and treatment, 14 December 2007,
Hulugalle, N 2007, Table 12.10: Tolerance of plants to salinity http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/164101/far
in irrigation water and average rootzone salinity, interview with the author, m-water-quality.pdf].
16 May 2007.
Zeng, L, Shannon, MC & Lesch, SM 2001, ‘Timing of salinity
Liddicoat, C & McFarlane, J 2007, Saltland pastures for stress affects rice growth and yield components’, Agricultural Water
South Australia, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Management, vol. 48, pp.191–206.
Conservation, Adelaide.
u 15
15
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16
12
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Saline and sodic soils ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Characteristics of soils that are both saline and sodic....................................................................................................................................... 2
 Soil testing ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Field testing ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Locations to be considered .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Performing EC field tests................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Determining EC1:5 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Determining soil texture ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Determining ECe ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Determining soil sodicity................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
 Laboratory testing ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

How to sample ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Where to sample .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Laboratory tests and results ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
 Interpreting soil salinity results ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1
12
 Introduction
Soil testing is important because it:
• identifies salinity and sodicity problems that may damage soil structure and limit plant growth
• is the most accurate way to identify the extent and severity of a saline or sodic problem
• is the only way to identify the types of salts causing the problem.
Soil testing helps with planning of appropriate management actions and remediation, if required.
This chapter:
• revises salinity and sodicity
• explains how to sample and test for salinity and sodicity, and identifies their effect on soil and plants
• identifies various salts that may cause salinity and the significance of each to plant growth and soil stability
• discusses the factors that influence plant tolerance and susceptibility to salinity.
 Saline and sodic soils

Saline and sodic soils can be tested in the field and
in the laboratory to aid productive long-term
landuse. Field tests will indicate possible salinity
and/or sodicity problems, however laboratory
testing will provide more detail on the severity of
the problem.
Saline and sodic conditions can be present at the
soil surface or deeper in the soil profile, so obvious
symptoms may not necessarily be visible on the
surface.
Sampling at depth is necessary where deep rooted
perennial plants are being established to check for
subsoil constraints. Conditions in the surface and Figure 12.1: Combinations of saline and sodic soil are possible in
sub-surface can be saline, sodic or both saline and the field, both on the surface and below.
sodic (see Figure 12.1. and Table 12.1.)
If the soil is reclaimed by simply leaching the salt out
Characteristics of soils that are of the affected soil layer, then the sodicity will cause
both saline and sodic symptoms of poor structure to appear. Temporary
A saline or salty sodic soil may not show the leaching of salts from surface soils, such as after a
poor structural symptoms of sodicity even when rain storm, can also result in sodicity symptoms. The
exchangeable sodium is quite high. This is because skill in successfully reclaiming a sodic saline soil is to
the high salt concentration prevents the clay replace the exchangeable sodium with calcium as
particles from dispersing (see Figure 12.1 and Table the salts are leached out. This means applying heavy
12.1). Also see Chapter 5 – Section on: Soil chemical applications of gypsum while the leaching reduces
characteristics – Salinity and sodicity. the soil salinity.
Soil depth Saline Sodic Saline and sodic

Surface White crystals on soil Surface crusting, blocking Sodic signs (poor structure)
surface. Vegetation changes of soil pores by dispersed may be masked by saline
to salt-tolerant species. Poor soil particles, poor internal conditions, so soil may
germination in commercial drainage, poor emergence appear well-structured.
crops. of crop and pasture.
Sub-surface Shallow watertables may be Impeded root penetration Sodic signs (poor structure)
present. (‘J’ roots), waterlogging and may be masked by saline
poor drainage. Mottled conditions.
and gleyed1 subsoils are
common.
Table 12.1: Characteristics of different saline / sodic soil combinations.
2
12
Soil can be tested for both salinity and sodicity both field and laboratory tests are described in more
initially in the field, with more detailed tests detail later in this chapter.
following in the laboratory. The results provide
Note: Field tests should be backed up by
information on:
laboratory test and sound agronomic advice
• the extent of any problem before management decisions are made. Salinity
readings vary according to the soil texture. Some
• the feasibility and options for control,
clay dominated soils may not display salinity
management and possible reclamation.
and/or sodicity constraints until values well over
Figure 12.2 shows a logical flowchart to test a soil recommended thresholds are reached.
in the field for salinity and sodicity. The methods for
Figure 12.2: Soil testing for salinity and sodicity.

 Soil testing
Field tests are quicker and easier than laboratory • soil texture using skills learnt by experience and
tests, however field tests are approximate. training
Laboratory testing is more complex, but also more
• pH using a small field indicator kit costing
accurate. Available field tests are;
approximately $20 to $25, or a calibrated field
• salinity (EC1:5) using a hand-held meter. Cost of meter.
the meter is approximately $135 in NSW
Field tests are used at the initial visit to a dryland
• the Emerson Dispersion test for sodicity using or irrigated property that has a suspected saline or
distilled or deionised water sodic site.
3
12
 Field testing
Locations to be considered
Good sites to test and the reasons why they are
tested are shown in Table 12.2 and Figure 12.3 below:
Site Why test?

Break-of-slope Common early warning site of salinity
Areas that remain waterlogged or wet after the rest Possible sodic areas
of the paddock has dried
Areas where soil type (texture) changes Changes in texture are often associated with perched
watertables or concentration of water flow in a
catchment – hence possible salinity
Areas where crop or pasture performance is poor or Possible salinity or sodicity
differs from the rest of the paddock (Figure 12.4)
Table 12.2: Sites to test soils for possible salinity and sodicity.
Source: Wild (2007)
Figure 12.4: Suitable container for the 1:5

soil salinity tests.
Note: This method gives an estimate,

not a precise measurement of soil
Figure 12.3: Soil sampling sites for a potential saline discharge area. salinity. The results should NOT be
Source: Slinger and Tenison (2005) used to make costly management
decisions. Use the test as a guide and
Note: Figure 12.3 shows a sampling method for initial if you suspect there is a problem, seek
site investigation. This method should not be used to advice and a more comprehensive
determine the persistence of perennial species. For more laboratory test.
detailed investigation and laboratory testing see section
on ‘Why laboratory test?’ later in this chapter.
4
12
Performing EC field tests 8. Test the solution with a calibrated salinity
meter. Immerse the electrode of the salinity
There are three steps: meter in the liquid above the settled soil.
• measure the salinity of a soil/water suspension 9. Allow the reading to stabilise and record it.
made up of 1 part soil to 5 parts water (EC1:5)
using a salinity meter that has been properly 10. Wash the salinity meter electrode and
calibrated against solutions of known salt container with deionised water or rainwater.
concentration While there is a difference between volume
• estimate soil texture and mass, the standard field test compares one
volume of soil with 5 equal volumes of water. The
• convert results from EC1:5 to actual soil salinity conversion factor to get from volume to mass is the
(ECe). density. The density of water is 1 g/ml, the density
of crumbled, dry soil is close to 1 g/ml and varies
Determining EC1:5 depending on how much you crumble it, how much
You will need the following equipment to you compact it into the container and its texture.
As a comparison, solid rock has a density of about
determine EC1:5:
2.7 g/ml; freshly ploughed soil has a density of
• a salinity (electrical conductivity) meter
about 0.9 g/ml. However the differences between
• one or more calibration solutions that have salt measurement by mass and by volume can be
concentrations in the general range of the salinity ignored for this convenient field test. This illustrates
that you expect to measure. Note: it is important why a positive result for salinity in a field test should
to calibrate your meter regularly—preferably be followed up by more accurate lab testing.
at least weekly depending on how often you
use it and its storage conditions. It is a scientific Determining soil texture
instrument so store it in a cool place such as the Texture describes the proportion of sand, silt and
boot of your car, not on the dash in the sun. clay particles in a soil. You need to estimate the
• deionised or distilled water (or rainwater) texture of your soil to convert your soil salinity from
EC1:5 to soil salinity as ECe.
• a clear, straight-sided, screw-top container with a
graduated volume scale (Figure 2.4). This method Follow the steps below and refer to the Plates
approximates volume for mass measurements. 12.1–12.4 and the texture table (Table 12.3).
For field purposes the difference is usually not It takes a little practice to get this skill, so don’t be
important. put off if at first it seems difficult to get the soil ball
to just the right moisture, or feeling the difference
Testing procedure between two different textures. Keep at it. It needs
1. Take a soil sample from each of the sites practice. Take every opportunity to texture in
recommended in the soil sampling diagram company to compare results!
(refer Figure 12.3 and Table 12.2). Keep each
soil sample separate so you can test each site 1. Take about a cupful of soil. Crush any clods and
for EC 1:5. remove stones and plant material.
2. Ensure each soil sample is air-dry by leaving 2. Moisten the soil with water. Add only a little
the soil sample in a warm dry room for 24 hrs. water at a time and knead the soil into a ball
about 3–5 cm in diameter ensuring any lumps
3. Gently crush the dried sample so there are no are broken up and thoroughly wetted. Add
aggregates larger than 2 mm. It helps if the soil more soil or water if necessary to obtain the
is dry enough that it crumbles easily. Remove right consistency. The sample should not be
foreign bodies such as grass and stones. too wet or dry, just uniformly moist such that
4. Fill the container with soil to the 20 ml mark the ball just sticks together. Continue kneading
(one part soil). (and moistening if necessary) until there is no
further change in the feel of the ball. About
5. Add 100 ml of distilled water or rainwater into three minutes should be enough. Assess the
the container to the 120 ml mark (five parts ball for coherence and feel (see Table 12.3).
water). You now have 20 ml soil + 100 ml water
making a total volume of 120 ml. 3. Ribbon the soil ball by pressing it between
your thumb and forefinger. Try to keep the
6. Replace container lid and shake for at least ribbon about 2 mm thick and continue
three minutes and up to ten minutes, to ensure squeezing out a ribbon of soil between your
any salts dissolve. thumb and forefinger until the ribbon breaks.
7. Allow sample to settle for up to ten minutes. It takes a little practice to get this technique.
5
12
Plate 12.1: Take a sample of crushed soil Plate 12.2: Roll into a moist ball
Plates 12.1–12.4:
Steps in determining
field texture.
Source: Slinger and
Tenison (2005)
Plate 12.3: Squeeze a soil ribbon between thumb Plate 12.4: Measure length of soil ribbon to
and forefinger. determine texture
Table 12.3: Soil Texturing.

6
12
Ribbon the soil several times and note an • Greasy, buttery or silky: a smooth, soapy,
average length of an unbroken piece of ribbon. slippery feel is typical of silty soil.
4. Use this length and Table 12.3 to estimate soil • Plastic and sticky: the ball can be squeezed and
texture. holds its new shape strongly; typical of clays.
Check the moist soil ball for coherence, feel and Resistance to shearing (how firm the soil feels as
resistance to shearing as follows: you form a ribbon): Place the ball of soil between
your thumb and forefinger and squeeze, pushing
• Coherence: Describes how the particles in the
your thumb into the soil. The amount of force
moist soil ball hold together:
needed to deform the moist ball of soil is a good
• Strong: holds shape well, little water is needed to way to distinguish between light, medium and
form ball, for example, clays. heavy clays. A light clay is fairly easy to shear; a
medium clay is stiff; a heavy clay is very stiff and
• Firm: holds together but needs more water to
takes a lot of force to squeeze into a ribbon.
form a ball, for example loams.
• Nil to slight: soil will not hold together or stay in Determining ECe
a moulded ball, for example sands.
To convert soil salinity EC1:5 to soil salinity as ECe
Feel of the ball: multiply the EC1:5 result by a conversion factor (refer
to Table 12.4) based on the soil texture of the soil
• Gritty: typical of soils high in sand. Coarser sand
sample. The result gives an estimate of soil salinity as
grains may be visible. Fine sand grains make a
ECe (refer to Figure 12.5).
grating sound as you rub the soil between your
thumb and fingers close to your ear.
Determining soil sodicity
• Equally smooth, sticky and gritty: a feature of Soils are classed as sodic when more than 5–6% of
loamy soils. Beware—high organic matter content the major exchangeable cations are sodium. This
gives a spongy feel that may be confused with measure of sodicity is called the Exchangeable
loam texture. However high organic matter Sodium Percentage (ESP).
usually colours fingers dark brown or black.
Figure 12.5: Example of the conversion of EC1:5 to ECe for the case of a medium clay.
7
12
The first step to find out if a soil is sodic is to do a
‘dispersion test’. This needs very little equipment
and can be done at home or in an office if you have
access to some deionised water or rainwater.
1. Half fill a clear plastic test dish with deionised
water or rain water.
2. Place the dish in an undisturbed location
(stable surface, out of wind).
3. Place 2–3 air-dried (not moist) soil crumbs
(3–5 mm diameter) into the dish (do not bump).
Note: Only use a few soil crumbs in relation to
the volume of water, otherwise any salt from Table 12.4: Conversion factors for soil groups.
Adapted from Slavich and Petterson (1993)
the soil will increase the salinity of the water
and you might not get dispersion from a sodic
soil!
4. After 10 minutes, score the dispersion by
referring to Table 12.5 and the accompanying
photos.
5. Repeat step 4 after 2 hours.
6. Add the dispersion scores from Table 12.5 for
the 10 minutes and the 2 hour immersions
together to get the total dispersion score.
7. See Table 12.6 for management
recommendation using the total dispersion
score. Any score over 1, seek specialist advice.
Note: This is adapted from the Emerson (1967)
Dispersion Test reported as the ASWAT (Aggregate
Stability in WATer) test. ASWAT is reported in Field,
McKenzie and Koppie (1997). It ignores dispersion
after remoulding.
8
12
Dispersion Total score

score on Observation after 10
wetting minutes Management decision
plus 2
0 No dispersion. hours
Water is clear.
0–1 Negligible dispersion:
Soil does not disperse on
wetting and is unlikely
to form crusts, cemented
surface or hard blocks on
drying.
2–4 Major dispersion:

1 Slight Amelioration with gypsum
dispersion, and/or lime may reduce
recognised clay dispersion and
by a slight improve soil structure if
cloudiness texture is clay loam or
of water heavier. Avoid working the
adjacent soil when wet. Build up
to the soil organic matter if possible.
crumbs. Major dispersion is likely
to be less problematic in
subsoil than in topsoil,
2 Moderate but avoid cultivation that
dispersion exposes subsoil at surface.
with obvious
cloudiness of
water. 5–8 Extreme dispersion:
Gypsum and/or lime may
reduce clay dispersion
and improve soil structure
if texture is clay loam or
heavier. Avoid working the
soil when wet. Build up
organic matter if possible.
3 Strong
Extreme dispersion is likely
dispersion
to be less problematic in
with
subsoil than in topsoil,
considerable
but avoid cultivation that
cloudiness
exposes subsoil at surface
and about
half the
original
Table 12.6: Interpreting dispersion scores.
volume of
soil dispersed
outwards.
4 Complete
dispersion,
leaving only
sand grains
in a cloud of Use the test as a guide and if you
clayey water. suspect there is a problem, seek
advice and a more comprehensive
laboratory test.
Table 12.5: Reading the dispersion score at 10 minutes and 2 hours.
9
12
 Laboratory testing
Soil chemical and physical laboratory tests can check If none of the above are available, an ‘x’ or ‘z’ pattern
field observations, and are recommended when (Figures 12.6-12.8) could be used to ensure that all
field tests indicate that the soil may be saline and/or areas are represented.
sodic.
Laboratory tests and results
How to sample As salt concentrations increase in the soil solution
Collect at least twenty samples from each of the around plant roots, water and nutrients essential for
depths in one of the patterns shown in Figures growth become less available for the plant. As soil
12.6–12.8 for shallow rooted crops and pasture. In becomes more saline, plant growth is inhibited and
horticultural blocks or where there are deep-rooted suitability for agricultural production declines. Soil
perennials, use an auger or a shovel to dig a hole to testing can help avoid production losses attributable
the bottom of the root zone if practical (see Chapter to adverse soil conditions by identifying problem
1 for section on salt bulge). Dig down 5–10 cm at areas early.
a time and lay the soil down in a line in the same
order it comes out of the hole. Note carefully any Salinity measurement
change in soil colour. This avoids mixing soils and The original way to measure soil salinity was to take
provides greater accuracy when determining where a known weight of dry soil, leach it thoroughly to
any soil layers begin and end. extract all the salt, and evaporate the solution to
dryness. When the water evaporates, it leaves the
Take a sample (several handfuls) from each soil
salt behind just as it does on the soil surface. So the
layer (or at intervals of 30 cm if layers are not clearly
remaining dry salt could be weighed to give Total
defined).
Dissolved Salts (TDS) by evaporation by weight.
For monitoring purposes it is advisable to collect
This was obviously a tedious process, so a quicker
samples in a defined pattern, so sampling can be
method was developed that relies on measuring
repeated over time (see Figures 12.6–12.8 below).
the Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the saline solution
These samples can be bulked together for an overall in equilibrium with the soil, then calculating with
picture of the paddock or left separate and tested reasonable accuracy, the TDS. The more salt is
individually for a detailed site assessment. dissolved, the more the solution will conduct
electricity. EC and TDS (calculated) are related by a
Where to sample constant (0.34) for most Australian soils and saline
When selecting a suitable sampling pattern, the waters as follows:
following information can help: TDS as g salt/100 g of dry soil (%) = 0.34 x EC1:5
(dS/m)
• EM (electromagnetic) mapping – EM38 or EM31
instruments are used to estimate and map areas Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) is the same as Total
of high and low conductivity (see Chapter 10) Soluble Salts (TSS).
• aerial photos showing waterlogged or saline Laboratory tests that may be requested on saline
areas soils include:
• salinity (as EC and Total Dissolved Salts (TDS))
• cut and fill maps showing sodic or saline subsoil
• specific anions (chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate
• visual indicators of salinity (see Chapter 9). and carbonate)
• Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP).
Figure 12.6: ‘x’ pattern for bulk sampling Figure 12.7: Alternative ‘z’ pattern for bulk Figure 12.8: sampling a potential saline site
sampling
Figures 12.6 – 12.8: Suggested sampling patterns.
10
12
Specific anions (chloride, sulphate, Chloride concentration is often a better indicator
bicarbonate, carbonate) than EC of a subsoil salinity problem because
There are many different types of salt found in the the existence of beneficial salts such as gypsum
soil. Some are more harmful than others depending (may contribute to high EC readings). The anion
on different factors e.g. soil type, plant species, in gypsum is sulphate which does not restrict root
irrigation method and climate. growth, unlike the highly soluble chloride anion
which is toxic to plants at lower concentrations
The cations and anions commonly found in soil, the (> 300 mg/kg soil – see Table 12.8).
salts they form and their relative risk to agricultural
production are shown in Table 12.7. Level of ppm
With rising watertables and capillary rise, the most chloride toxicity
soluble salts will accumulate on the soil surface.
Usually sodium chloride (a very soluble salt) is the Non-toxic < 300 mg/kg
first to accumulate on the soil surface. Calcium Marginal 300–600 mg/kg
carbonate is relatively insoluble so it does not build
up at the soil surface. Calcium sulphate (gypsum) Toxic < 600 mg/kg
is a moderately soluble salt, so it occasionally Table 12.8: Critical values for chloride in the subsoil for sensitive
accumulates at the surface. species.
Chloride
Chloride (Cl-) is the most commonly occurring Sulphate
soluble anion in Australian soils (Rayment and High levels of sulphate can limit calcium uptake in
Higginson 1992). It is very soluble and hence mobile some plants (Taylor 1996).
in the soil solution. It has little effect on the soil
itself and is readily leached from sandier soils. It is Bicarbonate
often called a spectator anion because it usually Bicarbonate can sometimes exert a specific effect,
‘watches’ but does not take part in soil chemical even at low levels, becoming toxic at 10 to 12 meq/L
reactions. However, problems can develop on (610–732 ppm) in water extract. Beans, for example,
heavier soils where leaching is restricted, or drainage are sensitive to low levels, whereas Rhodes grass is
is impeded. In this case chloride may accumulate to tolerant. Bicarbonate can also reduce the absorption
levels toxic to plants, especially if the water applied of phosphate and other ions by plants (Taylor 1996).
is high in chloride (any leaching of an anion must Bicarbonate is more soluble than carbonate and in
be accompanied by leaching of an equivalent and arid areas can accumulate at the soil surface (typical
balancing charge of cations). of black alkali soils. See Chapter 5 – Appendix 2).
Table 12.7: Different salt types and their risk to plants.

Source: Wild, Howarth & Conyers. (2004)
11
12
Carbonate dispersion. High concentrations of sodium in the
Carbonate and bicarbonate ions are interrelated soil directly impact on plant growth through toxicity
in equilibrium. The relative amount of each ion effects. Sodium readily competes with potassium for
depends on the pH of the soil. Appreciable amounts plant uptake (Incitec Analysis System 1994/1995).
of carbonate may be present above pH 9.5. Below General guidelines for soil sodicity levels are:
pH 9.5, carbonate is usually not a problem (Taylor
1996). Carbonate is less soluble than bicarbonate ESP Level of sodicity
and can occur as nodules in the subsoil. If these
nodules are within the root zone of susceptible ESP < 6 non-sodic
plants such as citrus, the carbonate can reduce iron
ESP 6–15 sodic
uptake. Other plants, such as vines, are not affected.
ESP > 15 strongly sodic
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
Table 12.9: Guidelines for categorising soil sodicity.
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) is a Source: Northcote and Skene, cited in Rayment and Higginson, (1992)
measure of soil sodicity. It refers to the amount
of exchangeable sodium ions on the soil’s cation Notes:
exchange complex (Rayment and Higginson 1992).
Laboratory testing is required as some (saline) soils
When exchangeable sodium accumulates in the
will not disperse despite ESP > 15%.
soil to a level where the ESP is greater than 5–6%,
a soil is considered sodic (Table 12.9). Sodicity is Some references give 5% as the boundary between
more of a problem on heavy soils as higher clay sodic and non-sodic. The difference is not significant.
content results in proportionately higher effects on
 Interpreting soil salinity results

(Also see Chapter 11) on permeable soil and absence of a shallow
watertable. It also needs consideration of long-
A soil salinity test result should be interpreted in
term consequences, e.g. where is the extra
the context of the whole plant growth environment
leaching fraction moving the salt to? Will it merely
as tolerance to salinity and susceptibility to salt
salinise land elsewhere?
damage depends on factors such as:
• Method of irrigation – Some irrigation methods
• Specific crop tolerance – Crops, varieties and
can concentrate salinity more than others. Higher
even rootstocks can differ in their tolerance of
salinity water is better applied by drip irrigation
salinity and concentrations of specific ions (such
as opposed to irrigation systems that apply
as chloride and sodium).
water directly to plant foliage. This is due to
• Stage of plant growth – Plants are more reduced evaporation losses, the maintenance of
susceptible during germination and seedling a continually moist root zone and the leaching of
stages (see Plate: 12.5) than when fully salts to the edge of the wetted zone. Also plant
established. leaves are more sensitive to salinity and specific
ion toxicities than their roots. For example, it
• Soil properties – If the soil drainage or
waterholding capacities are also poor, the plant may be possible to irrigate successfully with
water with high chloride by under-tree drippers,
is more susceptible to salinity. Some plants can
to avoid the leaf burn and scorch that overhead
tolerate salinity, but few can tolerate salinity with
poor drainage and waterlogging. Soil drainage sprinklers may cause.
determines how well any accumulated salts can • Frequency and timing of irrigation (time
be leached below the root zone by rainfall or a of day) – Evaporation on hot windy days
leaching fraction2. Soil texture determines the concentrates salts, so irrigate at night, in the
multiplier factor necessary to convert measured evening, or early morning.
EC1:5 to ECe.
• Climate – Under hot dry conditions, plants
• Salinity of the irrigation water – Irrigating are more susceptible to salt damage due to
with water of high salinity or with excessive evaporation concentrating salts and increased
concentrations of specific ions can aggravate the osmotic stress. So it may be possible to use saline
effects of any soil salinity. If the soil is permeable, irrigation water in spring and autumn but not in
it may be possible to leach accumulated salts summer.
below the root zone. A Leaching Fraction2 relies
12
12
Plate: 12.5: Salt reduces seedling growth and germination. Note the extensive bare patches.
You can determine if soil salinity is likely to affect

production by comparing the results from your tests
with the salinity tolerance of pasture, crops (see
Table 12.10), commercial timber and amenity trees
and shrubs (see Table 18.1).
13
12
ECe ECw (Irrigation salinity) for
Average 5% Yield reduction
root zone Well Moderate Very slow
salinity drained to slow draining Reference
Common name Scientific names for 5% soils, draining soils,
Yield Leaching soils, Leaching
reduction fraction Leaching fraction of
of 45% fraction of 15%
30%
Pasture Legumes
Clover White Trifolium repens 1.2 1.2 0.8 NR 1
Red Trifolium pratense 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 2
Sub Trifolium subterraneum 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.4 1
Strawberry Trifolium fragiferum 2.3 2.3 1.5 0.8 1
Balansa Trifolium michelianum. 2.3 2.3 1.5 0.8 1
Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum 4.5 4.5 3.0 1.5 1
Lucerne (most varieties) Medicago sativa 2.0 2.0 1.3 NR 2
Pasture Grasses and saltbush
Couch Grass Cynodon dactylon 6.9 6.9 4.6 2.3 2
Tall Fescue Festuca elatior 3.9 3.9 2.6 1.3 2
Kikuyu Pennisetum clandestinum 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2
Paspalum Paspalum dilatatum 4.5 4.5 3.0 1.5 1
Phalaris Phalaris aquatica 4.2 4.2 2.8 1.4 2
Perennial Ryegrass Lolium perenne 5.6 5.6 3.7 1.8 3
Puccinellia Puccinellia ciliata 20 20 13.2 6.6 4
Saltbush Atriplex spp. 16 16 10.6 5.3 4
Tall Wheatgrass Agropyron elongatum 7.5 7.5 5.0 2.5 2
Winter Crops
Barley – Forage Hordeum vulgare 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 2
Barley – Grain Hordeum vulgare 8.0 8.0 5.3 2.6 2
Canola Brassica napus 6.5 6.5 4.3 2.1 4
Faba Beans Vicia faba 1.8 1.8 1.2 0.6 4
Oats Avena sativa 5.0 5.0 3.3 1.7 2
Wheat Triticum aestivum 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 2
Wheat – Durum Triticum turgidum 5.7 5.7 3.8 1.9 2
Summer Crops
Cotton* Gossypium hirsutum 2.4 NR 1.6 0.8 5
Maize Zea mays 1.7 1.7 1.1 0.6 2
Soybeans** Glycine max 0.75 0.75 0.5 0.25 6
Sunflowers Helianthus annuus 5.5 5.5 3.6 NR 2
Millet Echinochloa utilis 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 7
or E. crusgalli
Sorghum – Grain Sorghum bicolor 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 8
Rice Oryza sativa 3.0 NR NR 1.0 2
Horticulture
Grapes*** Vitis spp. 1.0 1.0 0.66 NR 9
Olives Olea europaea 4.0 4.0 2.6 NR 2
Oranges**** Citrus sinensis 2.0 2.0 NR NR 10–11
Peaches Prunus persica 3.2 3.2 2.1 NR 2
Plums Prunus domestica 1.5 1.5 1.0 NR 2
Table 12.10: Tolerance of plants to salinity in irrigation water and average rootzone salinity.
Source: 1. Rogers (1997); 2. ANZECC & ARMCANZ (2000); 3. Ayers and Westcot (1985); 4. Liddicoat and McFarlane (2007); 5. Hulugalle (2007); 6. Beecher (1994); 7. Evans
(2006); 8. Daniells et al. (2001); 9. Prior, Grieve and Cullis (1992a), Prior, Grieve and Cullis (1992b), Prior et al. (1992); 10. Prior, Grieve, and Bevington (2007); 11. Grieve,
Prior and Bevington (2007)
14
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Notes: ***Grapes – There was no evidence of safe
Crop varieties – Salinity tolerances can vary threshold salinity levels, so grape growers should
between crop varieties. aim to keep tissue salinity levels as low as possible.
For petiole, Cl below 1.5% and Na below 0.5%.
*Cotton – According to Maas, Hoffman et al (1977) Soil salinity levels at the end of winter should be
yield reduction of adult cotton begins at ECe of maintained below 1.0 dS/m in order to keep yield
7.7 dS/m (ECw 5.1 dS/m in moderate to slow draining losses below 10%.
soils). However, 1.0 dS/m ECw can affect seedlings
in moderate to slow draining soils. Experience in ****Citrus – Yield effects did not conform well to
northern NSW indicated that yield declines rapidly the often used bent-stick model.
after the initial threshold of ECe 2.4 dS/m is reached, With appropriate irrigation management, soils, and
due mainly to the toxic effect of the chloride rather rootstocks, citrus trees can maintain productivity
than the osmotic effect of salinity alone (Hulugalle at salinity levels of ECw 2.0 dS/m or more, but fresh
2007). fruit profitability is likely to be lower because of a
**Soybeans – Tolerance of soybeans is about reduction in average fruit size.
half the level shown if soybeans have not been For further information contact your nearest
previously grown in the field (lack of suitable strain Industry and Investment NSW Irrigation Officer or
of Rhizobium). Agronomist.
 Endnotes
1
Gleyed: Soil that develops under anaerobic, reducing conditions. These soils are generally grayish, bluish, or greenish in colour.
2
Leaching fraction: A fraction of infiltrated irrigation water that percolates below the root zone. This water is not used by plants and
ends up adding to the watertable.
15
12


The key points relevant to testing soils are: Isbell, R F 2002, The Australian Soil Classification System,
 Combinations of sodic and saline soil can occur in surface and Revised Edition, CSIRO Publishing Melbourne.
subsurface soil. Queensland Government 2004, Subsoil constraints to crop
 Field tests are carried out on initial farm visits. production in north-eastern Australia, Department of Primary
Industries and Fisheries, Queensland Government.
 Laboratory tests should be carried out before changing
management practices. Reppel, B 2004, ‘The battle against hostile soils’, Ground Cover,
Issue 48, GRDC.
 ECe is more accurate than EC1:5 as it takes soil texture into
account.
 Soils are considered sodic when more than 5–6% of their
Websites
major exchangeable cations are sodium. Victorian Department of Primary Industries, viewed 13 October
2009, http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/index.htm
 When soil sampling for laboratory testing, it is helpful to use
EM (electromagnetic) mapping, aerial photos, cut and fill Australian Academy of Science – Search Sodicity, viewed 13
maps and visual indicators of salinity to select sampling sites. October 2009, http://www.science.org.au/
 The major laboratory tests associated with salinity are: Salinity Industries and Investment NSW – ‘ SOILpak’ Soil management
(TDS and ECe), chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, carbonate and guides, viewed 10 June 2010, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.
sodium (ESP). au/agriculture/resources/soils/guides
 Tolerance to salinity and susceptibility to salt damage vary
depending on: specific crop tolerance, stage of growth, soil
characteristics, salinity of the irrigation water, method of
irrigation, frequency and timing of irrigation and climate.
Further information
Irrigation Officers
(DECCW)
 References
ANZECC & ARMCANZ 2000, Guidelines for fresh and marine Grieve, AM, Prior, LD & Bevington, KB 2007, ‘Long-term
water quality, Australian and New Zealand Environment and effects of saline irrigation water on growth, yield, and fruit quality of
Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Valencia™ orange trees’, Australian Journal of Agricultural
Council of Australia and New Zealand Canberra. Research, vol. 58, pp. 342–348.
Ayers, R & Westcot, D 1985, Water quality for agriculture, Food Hulugalle, N 2007, Table 12.10: Tolerance of plants to salinity
and Agriculture Organization of the �nited Nations, Rome. in irrigation water and average rootzone salinity, interview with the
author, 16 May 2007.
Beecher, HG 1994, ‘Effects of saline irrigation water on soybean
yield and soil salinity in the Murrumbidgee Valley’, Australian Journal Incitec Analysis System 1994/1995, Soil Analysis Interpretation
of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 34, pp. 85–91. Manual for New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, Incitec:
Morningside, QLD.
Daniells, IG, Holland, JF, Young, RR, Alston, CL & Bernardi,
AL 2001, ‘Relationship between yield of grain sorghum (Sorghum Liddicoat, C & McFarlane, J 2007, Saltland pastures for
bicolor) and soil salinity under field conditions’, Australian Journal of South Australia, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity
Experimental Agriculture, vol. 41, pp. 211–217. Conservation, Adelaide, SA.
Emerson, WW 1967, ‘A classification of soil aggregates based on Maas, EV & Hoffman, GJ 1977, ‘Crop salt tolerance - current
their coherence in water’, Australian Journal of Soil Research, vol. 5, Assessment’, Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage, vol. 103,
pp.47–57. pp. 115–134.
Evans, L 2006, Millet for reclaiming irrigated saline soils, Prior, LD, Grieve, AM, Bevington, KB & Slavich, PG 2007,
Viewed 16 May 2008, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/ ‘Long-term effects of saline irrigation water on “Valencia” orange
pdf_file/0007/86965/pf242-millet-for-reclaiming-irrigated-saline-soils. trees: relationships between growth and yield, and salt levels in soil
pdf and leaves’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 58,
pp. 349–358.
Field, DJ, McKenzie, DC & Koppi, AJ 1997, ‘Development of
an improved Vertisol stability test for SOILpak’, Australian Journal of
Soil Research, vol. 35, pp. 843–852.
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Prior, LD, Grieve, AM & Cullis, B.R. 1992a, ‘Sodium chloride and Rowling, L & Slinger, D 2007, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana grapevines. I. Namoi, Border Rivers and Gwydir Catchments, NSW Department of
Yield and fruit quality’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Vol. 43, pp. 1051–1066. Slavich, PG & Petterson, GH 1993, ‘Estimating the electrical
Prior, LD, Grieve, AM & Cullis, BR 1992b, ‘Sodium chloride and conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil, water
soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana grapevines. II. suspensions and texture’, Australian Journal of Soil Research,
Plant mineral content, growth and physiology’, Australian Journal of vol. 31, pp. 73–81.
Agricultural Research, vol. 43, pp. 1067–1083. Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
Prior, LD, Grieve, AM, Slavich, PG & Cullis, BR 1992, ‘Sodium Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of
chloride and soil texture interactions in irrigated field grown sultana Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
grapevines. III. Soil and root system effects’, Australian Journal of Taylor, S 1996, Dryland salinity: introductory extension notes,
Agricultural Research, vol. 43, pp. 1085–1100. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Sydney,
Rayment, GE, Higginson, FR 1992, Australian laboratory NSW.
handbook of soil and water chemical methods., Inkata Press: Wild, J, Howarth, C & Conyers, M 2004, The risk to plants and
Melbourne, VIC. soil from different salts (unpublished), Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Rogers, MJ 1997, Salinity and the growth of forage Wild, W 2007, Table 12.2: Sites to test soils for possible salinity
Species, viewed 14 December 2007, http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/ and sodicity, interview with the author, 30 January 2008.
nreninf.nsf/9e58661e880ba9e44a256c640023eb2e/
c1fadcde9d82bb69ca256f2000039c63/$FILE/AG0284.pdf
17
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18
13
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Bores (wells) ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Types of groundwater bores ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Monitoring bores........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Types of groundwater monitoring bores ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Monitoring groundwater .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Monitoring bores in irrigation areas (testwells) ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
 How to measure groundwater level ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Determining groundwater level................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
 Testing groundwater salinity........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
 Maintenance .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
 Interpreting groundwater level data................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Testwells .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Piezometers.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1
13
 Introduction
Groundwater is used in dryland, irrigated, urban, industrial and commercial environments as an important
water source. As groundwater moves laterally and as baseflow into rivers and streams it also supplies water to
wetlands supporting native species of flora and fauna. Changes to the water cycle through human activities
and natural climatic events can change the quantity and quality of the groundwater. Monitoring of bores
provides data for the users of the groundwater as well as for those involved in recording the quality and
quantity for sustainable yield1 . Maintaining the groundwater quality and quantity for its varied uses is only
possible when monitoring procedures are established. Groundwater is monitored in all cases by looking at the
height and salinity of water in a hole in the ground. The hole can be a bore (well) for water supply, or a special-
purpose monitoring bore.
 Bores (wells)
A bore (well) is a hole drilled into the ground for the techniques that allow for long-term production of
extraction of water or for observation purposes. clear, silt-free water.
Production bores are constructed for the extraction
Irrigation bores are high yielding and more costly to
of water for stock and domestic purposes or for
install, often tapping into more than one aquifer. The
irrigation, while monitoring bores are constructed to
major objective when drilling a high-yield bore is to
obtain samples and monitor water levels. Although
ensure that the bore remains stable and capable of
production bores are not constructed primarily for
being pumped at the maximum efficient water yield
taking samples, monitoring is still important. Any
with no contamination, particularly from the surface.
water taken from the ground should be sampled
periodically to ensure consistent quality for its Monitoring or observation bores are drilled
intended use. specifically to obtain accurate information samples
of the soil and rock types beneath the surface.
Types of groundwater bores They are then equipped and used for taking water
Stock and domestic bores are usually low yielding samples and/or monitoring water levels. They tend
and of relatively low cost to install. They tap into to be smaller diameter because water does not need
a single aquifer. These bores are shallower than to be pumped at high flow rates from them.
irrigation bores and need to be constructed using
 Monitoring bores
The main types of monitoring bores are testwells depends on what is being monitored and should lie
and piezometers. They are used for scientific within the aquifer of interest.
research and on farms to collect data on
groundwater: Most irrigation testwells have slots in only the lower
0.5–1 metres of their length (none higher or irrigation
• level such as watertable2 depth (testwells) water may enter the pipe and give false readings).
• quality such as salinity and specific ions A sealing medium (e.g. bentonite plug) often
surrounds the outside of the pipe to seal it against
• pressure levels (piezometers) the soil to prevent irrigation water from entering the
testwell (see Figure 13.3). The watertable beneath
• production rates and direction of groundwater
the rootzone can thus be monitored.
flow (piezometers).
However, testwells in a dryland, unconfined sandy
Types of groundwater aquifer may be slotted throughout the entire length
monitoring bores of the pipe to allow for variations in the watertable
in the surrounding soil. When designing the testwell
Testwells – are generally installed to a depth of
it must be clear what is being monitored and why.
3–6 metres and measure the freestanding water
depth (not under pressure) of an unconfined Testwells are cheap to install. They are mainly
shallow, local or perched watertable on a paddock used in irrigation areas to determine watertable
scale. depth, pre- and post-irrigation. If testwells show
that the watertable is rising over time the problem
Testwells consist of PVC pipes with slots in them.
The position of the slots over the length of the pipe
2
13
could be associated with excessive irrigation, poor
drainage, heavy rainfall, leaking supply channels or a
combination of these.
Testwells have also been used in both urban and
irrigation areas for education purposes to alert
people to the problems associated with rising
watertables (Plate13.1). They are not used during
prolonged drought as local watertables are often
low at this time. They are, however, useful in
prolonged wet years when the watertable is closer
to the soil surface. Watertables that reach the root
zone of plants will affect plant growth, particularly
if the watertable is saline. Table 13.1 shows the risk
associated with the various watertable heights.
Note: Testwells are not used for irrigation scheduling
because they monitor water that is too deep.
Instead, high intensity horticulture blocks have
sophisticated soil moisture monitoring equipment
that indicates watertable depth. Irrigation
scheduling equipment usually monitors water to a
depth of 1.2 metres, whereas testwells monitor to
3–6 metres.
Piezometer – A pipe in which the elevation of the
Plate13.1: Testwell located near
water level or potentiometric surface (pressure mature citrus trees to monitor the impact of irrigation.
level) can be determined. The pipe is sealed along Source: Tania Midgley NSW DPI (2004)
Watertable Risk of salinity Management considerations

depth and waterlogging
Less than Extreme Watertable is dangerously close to the surface. Waterlogging and
1 metre salinity are likely to affect plant growth and soil structure. There is
little opportunity to leach salts from the surface soil or root zone.
1 to 2 metres High Capillary rise will bring some salts into the root zone during the year
and maybe onto the surface. Salts can be controlled by leaching to
some extent. Plant growth is probably affected. Water management
is critical to prevent further groundwater rise.
2 to 3 metres Medium Possible problems especially in clay-textured soils, so monitor the
area regularly. Manage irrigation carefully. Root zone salting may
be controlled by leaching. In dryland areas, maintain productive
groundcover all year round to maximise water use.
Deeper than Low Monitor groundwater levels and salinity to see if the watertable is
3 metres rising over time. Deep-rooted trees may be affected.
Table 13.1: The meaning of watertable depth.

Source: Adapted from Gibbs (1997)
its length and open to water flow only at the were no confining layers on top of the aquifer
bottom. Peizometers are more expensive and time (see Figure 13.1). They are slotted to allow water
consuming to install than testwells. They are often in only at the depth of the desired aquifer. In this
installed at a greater depth than testwells and can way specific aquifers in a vertical series can be
target individual aquifers as explained below. targeted individually. Ideally the piezometers are
surveyed into position. However this is an expensive
Groundwater is under pressure when aquifers
operation and is therefore only done when
are confined (Figure 13.1) or semi-confined (Plate
necessary.
13.2). Monitoring bores (piezometers ≥ 3 metres)
are drilled directly into these aquifers to measure When the hole is drilled, soil samples are retained
the pressure of the water at a point. This indicates to provide information on the type of soil or rock
the height to which the water would rise if there underneath and what depth the water is coming
3
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Figure 13.1: Illustration showing confined (lower) and unconfined (upper) aquifers.
Source: adapted from Smithson (2001)
Plate 13.2: Monitoring

bore (piezometer)
showing an aquifer
under pressure. Note
the pipe extends for
considerable distance
above the ground
3
surface. Artesian bores
such as this should
have a lockable cap
on the top of the pipe
to ensure that the
water in the aquifer
does not overflow
unsupervised causing
the areas around the
bore to be flooded and
waterlogged.
Source: Darice Pepper, DWE
(2006)
from (i.e. depth of the aquifer). A bore log showing Nested piezometers – Piezometers are often nested
a salinity profile (i.e. a salinity measurement each or grouped together. A nest of piezometers (two
metre) will show where the salt is concentrated. or more) is used to monitor water quality and
Measuring water and salinity levels over time will movement in a given area. Nested piezometers
provide information on general trends. provide information on the vertical or lateral
movement of groundwater (Francis, Bittens and
Tuckson 1993).
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13
Aquifers occur at various depths and a separate For more detail on the construction, location and
monitoring bore is used to measure each. If each interpretation of data from monitoring bores
piezometer in the ‘nest’ measures pressure within contact the NSW Department of Environment,
the same aquifer, then information can be obtained Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
on the direction of lateral groundwater flows within Transect of piezometers – If more detailed
the aquifer (see Figure 13.2). If each piezometer information is required, a row of piezometers can be
in the ‘nest’ measures pressure in a different but installed. Bore transects are useful for identifying the
overlying aquifer, then information will be obtained horizontal flow characteristics, while nested bores
on the vertical pressure gradient. This enables focus on the vertical component of groundwater
estimation of vertical leakage between aquifers. In movement. It is best to use both as illustrated in
discharge areas, groundwater moves up towards Figure 13.2.
the surface. In this case the deeper aquifers and
piezometers will have a higher water level or The direction of groundwater flow is indicated by
pressure head than the shallow ones (see Figure 13.2). water levels in the piezometers, with groundwater
flowing from a high head (or level) to a lower head
In recharge areas after high rainfall, those aquifers (or level). Piezometers must be surveyed to compare
closer to the surface have higher water levels water level height differences between each one in
than the deeper ones, indicating downward water the transect.
movement or recharge (see Figure 13.2).
Figure 13.2: Transect of piezometer nests showing standing water levels and groundwater flow paths (simplified, not to scale).
Piezometer levels illustrate that the recharge area is on the hill to the left and the discharge site in the valley to the right.
Adapted from Tuckson (1993).
 Monitoring groundwater
Groundwater monitoring bores may be used for • Detecting irrigation channel leakage. Monitoring
many different purposes in areas such as mining, bores may be located along the channel and at
urban planning and agriculture. They are located varying distances from the channel.
depending on the information required.
• To investigate the suitability of land for urban
They may be used in the following situations: subdivision for housing. Monitoring bores may
be used in a grid pattern across the landscape to
• Determining the influence of trees on the
gauge watertable depth.
watertable. Monitoring bores might be located in
a line including the different vegetation types in a • To investigate and monitor sources of
catchment. groundwater pollution or contamination, for
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example under old petrol stations and gasworks, • at least 30 m away from large trees as their
or from landfill sites. localised groundwater use will give a false view of
the watertable
• To investigate a suspected saline area in a dryland
or irrigation farm as part of initial investigations • near the plants of interest e.g. trees, perennial
and ongoing monitoring of the groundwater pastures or annual pastures under which the
situation. watertable is being measured
• At changes in slope. This is often where the saline • in areas you suspect might have high watertables
discharge is likely to occur or expand. Monitoring
• in areas where channel seepage is evident.
bores are often better upslope of a discharge
site as the site can become boggy making access Factors that may affect the accuracy of
difficult.
monitoring bores:
• At changes in rock type. Different rock types may For accurate results, consider the following issues
have different groundwater characteristics. when installing monitoring bores:
• To monitor trends in groundwater over time. • locate away from permanent bodies of water
such as rivers, lakes and irrigation supply channels
Monitoring bores in irrigation as their leakage may impact on the readings
areas (testwells) • locate away from the influence of perennial plants
e.g. lucerne or mature trees (unless you want to
Suitable locations of testwells:
monitor their effects)
• in problem drainage areas e.g. where water ponds
for extended periods of time • locate outside the influence of spearpoint
pumping systems (unless you want to monitor
• on low parts of the farm or where there is a their effects)
change in slope
• locate to avoid damage by vandals or livestock
• on different soil types over the farm as
groundwater movement is affected by different • locate to avoid dense clay soil as water can
soil properties e.g. sandy vs clay soils accumulate and be held within the testwell. This
could give a misleading impression of a shallow
• in a non-irrigated area adjacent to irrigation to or perched watertable
determine the effect of leakage from irrigation on
the watertable in non-irrigated areas • the installation standards and skill of installers.
• where signs of salting and waterlogging are
becoming evident
 How to measure groundwater level

1. Unlock the protective metal bore casing if sensor with a read out window to detect the
present. water level.
2. Remove the PVC monitoring bore cap at the 5. Lower the tape measure down the PVC pipe.
top of the pipe. The plopper, whistle or electronic readout
indicate when the end of the tape reaches the
3. When measuring groundwater levels, take
top of the water in the monitoring bore.
the reading BEFORE baling out the bore.
Low yielding bores may take several days 6. Measure the depth of the water from the top
to reach equilibrium and the reading taken of the PVC casing with the tape. Subtract the
after 24 hours may be incorrect. Baling is height of the bore above ground level from
only necessary when water quality samples the readings. (for further information see
are being taken and is described later in this ‘Determining groundwater level’ – next
chapter. section). This gives you the depth of the
watertable from the surface and is called the
4. Use a plopper (a weight tied to the end of a
Standing Water Level (SWL).
tape measure that ‘plops’ upon hitting the
watertable), fox whistle (shaped metal tied 7. Record the watertable depth and monitor bore
to the end of a tape measure which whistles number together with rainfall and irrigation
upon reaching the watertable), or electronic information date (where applicable) on a chart.
6
13
Plate 13.3: Monitoring bore.

Figure 13.3 Monitoring bore structure.

Source: Francis, Bittern & Tuckson. (1993)
Plate 13.4: Measuring watertable depth using

a monitoring bore.
7
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 Determining groundwater level

As explained above, the depth to the watertable or changes and possible causes such as seasonal
Standing Water Level (SWL) is measured from the conditions, landuse change and barometric pressure
top of the casing down to the water level (A), minus (levels can also change with atmospheric pressure4).
the measurement from the top of the casing down Groundwater salinity should be measured at the
to ground level (B). Standing Water Level = A – B (see same time.
Plates 13.3 and 13.4, Figure 13.3)
Recording SWL and groundwater salinity
The Standing Water Level should be measured measurements over many years will detect trends in
regularly throughout the year to detect water level watertable depth and salinity.
 Testing groundwater salinity

Groundwater monitoring bores allow sampling of the bore column to ensure all stagnant water is
the groundwater so that water quality, for example removed to obtain a sample.
salinity, can be tested.
• A flowing (artesian) bore can be sampled from
For an accurate and representative EC measurement, the water flowing out the top of the bore as the
the monitoring bore should generally be emptied bore is being flushed regularly.
of water and allowed to recharge from the aquifer.
Note: Prior to taking an EC measurement, the bailer,
Some methods to ensure a representative sample is
measuring container and EC metre should be rinsed
taken are as follows.
with water from the monitoring bore to avoid
• Most of the shallow monitoring bores do not contamination.
yield sufficient water to pump out. If this is the
The EC of the groundwater can be measured twice
case, bail out the groundwater collected in the
per year (summer and winter), or four times per year
pipe and allow it to refill (leave 24 hrs) before
covering all seasons, depending on the objective
collecting a sample.
of the monitoring, costs and the enthusiasm of the
• Deeper bores may refill more quickly and in operator.
this case pump out about 3–5 bore volumes of
 Maintenance
Monitoring bores should be checked regularly for • slots at the bottom of the bore may become
siltation by measuring the depth of the monitoring clogged
bore and comparing it with the measured depth • foreign objects may have been dropped down
at installation. Silt may enter the bore from soil or the bore
weathered material surrounding the well screen. If • casing may have been broken by stock
siltation is more than 0.5 metres you will need to • bailer or plopper may have fallen into the bore
desilt the bore. This is done by using a bailer to stir • bore may have become old and blocked – may
up the silt at the bottom of the piezometer, then need reinstalling
bailing out all the stirred up, silty water. • surface water may have been seeping in over the
top of the bore over time.
Other problems that may occur with the bore
include:
 Interpreting groundwater level data

Hydrologists5, hydrogeologists6 or other related Testwells
groundwater specialists should be used to interpret
If monitoring bores indicate that watertables are
groundwater data as a number of factors need to
rising excessively in irrigation areas, it could mean:
be considered e.g. geology, landuse, operator skill, if
the bores have been surveyed into position and the • drainage is poor due to poor irrigation layout
type of bore. • presence of a restriction (preventing water
draining away from the area)
8
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• water is being applied is in
excess of crop requirements.
Figure 13.4 shows the
daily rainfall over the 1998
winter and spring period
at Deniliquin, NSW and
the associated changes in
watertable depth beneath
an irrigated annual pasture
growing on a Red-Brown Earth
soil. The pasture had been
pre-irrigated twice in autumn,
causing the watertable to rise.
Despite quite wet conditions
during July and August, the Figure 13.4: Testwell shows groundwater responses to rainfall and irrigation.
Source: Armstrong and Narayan (1998)
watertable dropped at a steady rate of roughly
3 mm/day over the winter period. This could be
due to either vertical movement of water from the This gives hydrologists a better ‘visual’ on long term
‘perched’ watertable to a deeper aquifer or lateral relative ‘dryness’ or ‘wetness’ of the measurement
movement to a lower watertable area adjacent to period relative to the ‘average’. It is useful to
the paddock. This decline in watertable level ceased compare cumulative residual rainfall with watertable
with the commencement of irrigation on level to examine the effect of rainfall.
September 8 but recommenced with the onset of
The graph shows that the watertable has declined
drying conditions in November. The graph shows
over the six years largely due to lower than average
the influence of individual rainfall and irrigation
rainfall.
events on the local watertable.
Piezometers Cumulative residual rainfall is calculated from

All piezometers need to be installed by professional monthly rainfall totals:
staff with a clear purpose and a good understanding 1. From the long term record, find or
of the local landscape and groundwater features. calculate the average rainfall for each
The two figures on the next page illustrate situations month in the year.
in which piezometers are useful. 2. Calculate the difference between the
Figure 13.5 shows the effect of an extended dry actual and the average monthly rainfall for
period on watertable levels. These results were each month in the period of interest.
plotted from a piezometer between Young and 3. Add the difference values calculated for
Cowra in the Lachlan Catchment. This valley site each month (in step 2) to make a list of
has very responsive watertable levels, presumably cumulative residual (monthly) rainfall.
because of the high transmissivity7 of the sandstone
geology. The regolith8 fills and drains very quickly.
Watertables in less conductive regolith would not Note: In Figure 13.5 the term ‘Watertable depth’ on
fluctuate as readily. the vertical axis refers to depth of the groundwater
The piezometer is on a discharge site of an below the surface and is used when individual
unconfined aquifer on the valley floor. Being in bores are monitored. However, in Figure 13.6 the
an unconfined aquifer, the reading is a watertable vertical axis uses the term ‘groundwater level’. This
level and not a pressure level. It should be noted is the height of the groundwater surface above
that when the watertable falls, the site becomes sea level, the Australian Height Datum (AHD).
a recharge site following subsequent rains. The Measurements taken using the AHD are often used
groundwater system is local. when comparing multiple piezometers. These bores
are surveyed into position in a grid pattern and
Mixed farming practices, mainly growing annual measurements may indicate lateral movement of
crops and pasture, have dominated the landscape groundwater between the piezometer locations.
over the past six years. Figure 13.5 shows the
relationship between rainfall and watertable Figure 13.6 shows results plotted over a period of
elevation, using the cumulative residual rainfall 13 years from a midslope piezometer in a small
method (calculated as below). catchment between Boorowa and Cowra in the
Lachlan Catchment.
9
13
Annual pasture was grown
for 5 years from 1993–1997. In
1998 the midslope paddock
was planted to a mixed
perennial pasture of lucerne,
phalaris and chicory. Over the
last two years phalaris has
dominated.
The geology is volcanic with
a red Kandosol9 soil. The
groundwater system is a local,
unconfined aquifer with a
medium transmissivity and
shows a drop corresponding
to the change to perennial
pasture in 1998.
Figure 13.5: Effect of rainfall on watertable depth in a valley landscape in the Lachlan Catchment. The change from annual
Source: McCulloch, et al. (2006) cropping to perennial
pasture shows a continuing
and significant decline in
groundwater levels, attributed
to reduced recharge due
to the deeper-rooted
perennials. Declining rainfall
cannot be the cause, since
cumulative residual rainfall is
increasing at the same time as
groundwater levels are falling.
Figure 13.6: The effect on groundwater levels of changing from annual pasture to perennial pasture.
Sources: Crosbie et al. (2007); McCulloch et al. (2006).
 Endnotes
1
Sustainable yield: The proportion of the long-term average annual recharge that can be extracted each year without causing
unacceptable impacts on the environment and or groundwater users.
2
Watertable: The upper surface of groundwater and the level below which an unconfined groundwater system is permanently saturated
with water.
3
Artesian: An aquifer in which the water is under sufficient pressure to cause it to rise above the ground surface if there is the
opportunity.
4
In a well-confined aquifer, the water level can rise up to 1 cm for every 1 hPa fall in barometric pressure, so changes in atmospheric
pressure through a normal range of 30 hPa can have a major impact on groundwater levels.
5
Hydrologist: A scientist who specialises in the dynamics of watershed functions and landuse.
6
Hydrogeologist: Professional geologist who specialises in groundwater and related geological aspects of its interaction with surface
water.
7
Transmissivity: A measure of the capability of the entire thickness of an aquifer to transmit water. Measured as flow per unit cross-
section.
8
Regolith: The layer of loose but cohesive material that includes soil and weathered rock and which sits over solid massive bedrock and
9
Kandosol: One of the soils of the Australian Soil Classification (Isbell, 1996). Kandosols lack strong texture contrast and have massive or
only weakly structured B horizons. The B2 horizon is well developed and has a maximum clay content in some part of the B2 Horizon
exceeding 15%. They are also not calcareous throughout.
10
13


The key points to consider when monitoring Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and
groundwater are: New Zealand 1997, Minimum construction requirements for water
 Bores can be used either to extract water or for observation bores in Australia, Agriculture and Resource Management Council
purposes. of Australia and New Zealand.
 Production bores are used for stock and domestic or irrigation Marsh, S 2006, ‘Understanding farmers’ monitoring of
purposes. watertables for salinity management’, Australian Journal of
 Although production bores are not constructed primarily for Experimental Agriculture, vol. 46, (9), pp. 1113–1122.
taking samples, monitoring is important. Taylor, S 1993, Dryland Salinity: Introductory Extension Notes,
 There are two types of monitoring bores: testwells and Department of Conservation and Land Management, Sydney.
piezometers. Gill, A (ed.) 2002, ABCs of groundwater, New South Wales
 Monitoring bores can measure watertable height and salinity. Department of Water Resources.
 Piezometers monitor the pressure level in a confined aquifer, Smithson, A 2006, The rainfall–groundwater level relationship
indicating the height the water would rise if there were no in fractured rocks: case studies from central New South Wales, in
confining layers on top of the aquifer. Does the science hold water? Proceedings of the 10th
Murray–Darling Basin Groundwater Workshop, Canberra, 18-20
 Testwells monitor the freestanding water depth of a shallow, September, 2006.
local or perched watertable.
 Monitoring bores should be bailed out to ensure that all Websites
stagnant water is removed before salinity readings are taken.
Industry and Investment NSW – Agriculture, Salinity, viewed 15
 Monitoring bores should be checked regularly to ensure that June 2010,
problems such as siltation and damage have not occurred to http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/salinity
prevent their functioning.
 Groundwater level readings should be interpreted by a
groundwater specialist.
Further information
Industry and Investment NSW.
Irrigation Officers
(DECCW).
 References
Armstrong, D & Narayan, K 1998, ‘Using Groundwater Slinger, D & Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
Responses to Infer Recharge Part 5’, in Studies in catchment Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
hydrology: the basics of recharge and discharge,. (ed. Zhang, L) Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW
pp. 17, CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, VIC. Smithson, A 2001, ‘Groundwater and salinity processes’, in
Crosbie, RS, Hughes, JD, Friend, J & Baldwin, BJ 2007, Powerpoint presentation developed for the Salinity Roadshow,
‘Monitoring the hydrological impact of land use change in a small a NSW State Salinity Strategy initiative, . Department of Land and
agricultural catchment affected by dryland salinity in central NSW’, Water Conservation: Dubbo, NSW.
Australia. Agricultural Water Management., vol. 88, pp. 43–53. Tuckson, M 1993, Bore surveys, piezometers and monitoring,
Francis, J, Bittens, R & Tuckson, M 1993, Dryland salinity: Technical Report, Department of Water Resources, Murrumbidgee
Piezometers how and why, Department of Conservation and Land Region.
Management Sydney, NSW.
Gibbs, S 1997, Monitoring groundwater with testwells, NSW
Agriculture, Deniliquin, NSW.
McCulloch, C, Hughes, JD, Crosbie, RS & Mitchell, D 2006,
‘Investigation into the effects of extended dry periods on groundwater
dynamics and stream salt loads in NSW’, in Proceedings of 10th
Murray–Darling Basin Groundwater Workshop, Canberra 18-20
September, 2006.
11
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14
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Reducing recharge with vegetation ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Pasture selection......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Native pasture................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Types of native pasture .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Understanding grassland ecology ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Grazing management ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Best management practices for native pasture ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Introduced perennial pasture ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Rooting depth of perennials ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Buffering effect ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Increased waterholding capacity ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Choosing summer growing perennials ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Perennials need an annual component ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Stage of growth ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Grazing management ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Perennial pasture selection .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Best management practices for introduced perennial pastures .......................................................................................................... 10
 Introduced annual pasture .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Best management practices for annual pastures ................................................................................................................................................ 11
 Cropping (dryland) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

Response cropping/opportunity cropping ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1
14
 Introduction
Vegetation as a recharge management tool in saline areas has proven its worth in many areas of NSW. When
selecting species there are no rules to fit all situations. Species selection will depend mostly on the climate
of the area, and the soil type and limitations associated with the soil. Summer active perennial pastures are
high water users whose characteristics of year-round groundcover, reduced weed burden and reduced soil
acidification make them attractive for salinity control. Annual species are generally not capable of matching
the water use of the perennial. However, because annual species are sown on such a large scale their
management has a significant cumulative effect. Healthy well managed annual pastures can result in increased
water use, extended growing season and increased rooting depth. Although perennials are preferable from
a water use aspect for salinity control, annuals grown on lower slopes and heavier soils can be managed to
significantly reduce recharge. Considerations of which species or combination of species to grow where will be
discussed in this chapter.
 Reducing recharge with vegetation

The various vegetation options for recharge control Perennial species have other advantages over
and best management practice discussed in this annuals including:
chapter apply to both native and introduced pasture
• a longer production season, increasing livestock
species. Trees and shrubs are discussed in Chapter 18.
production
Vegetation is one of several options to control
• increased year-round groundcover, reducing
recharge and salinity. To know whether it is
erosion and run-off, and increasing soil organic
the best option or even suitable for a site, we
matter and infiltration
need to understand the soil water balance and
what happens to water as it moves through the • reduced weed burden from year-round
hydrological cycle in the landscape. These concepts competition
have been explained previously in Chapters 4 and 6.
• reduced soil acidification rate from a more active
How much water is entering the watertable organic cycle mopping up nitrate before it can be
(recharge) and leaving the watertable (discharge) leached down the profile.
should to be known. Vegetation, especially pastures,
Annual species are generally not capable of
may offer a cost-effective solution to reducing matching the water use characteristics of perennial
recharge.
species. However, annuals still have an important
Vegetation characteristics and soil structure are role in recharge control, particularly on the lower
important factors in reducing recharge. Both affect slopes and plains and on heavier soils. Annual
infiltration and run-off, which influence the amount leguminous pastures are also important to include
of water that leaks through the soil profile to in pasture mixes as they provide nitrogen to boost
contribute to groundwater recharge. the growth of favourable perennial grasses. Without
an adequate annual legume component in pasture
Minimising excess leakage through the soil profile
mixes, many perennial grasses will not persist.
and increasing plant water use for production also
make better use of water. It is therefore desirable to: Many of the farming practices across the state are
based on annual cropping and pasture species and
• encourage perennial and deep-rooted plants with
are likely to continue into the future. Therefore, any
high water use characteristics
potential improvements in reducing recharge by
• develop soil with a good structure and high annual pastures could be more easily and widely
waterholding capacity. adopted than some perennial options, which may
have higher establishment costs or longer time
Perennial species live for more than one growing
lag before they generate returns. Considering the
season and therefore generally have more extensive
large amount of land under annual pasture, a small
root systems, greater water use capability and better
improvement in reducing recharge may have a
capacity to make use of seasonal rainfall than annual
significant cumulative effect. Positive changes in
species. Moving from annual-dominated pasture
annual pasture species could include: increase
species to a well managed, perennial-based pasture
water use, extend growing seasons, maximise
species greatly alters water use in a landscape (see
health of plants or increase depth of rooting. High
Figure 13.6).
proportions of perennial species are preferred on
hilltops or midslopes where recharge is considered
to be a high risk.
2
14
 Pasture selection
Selecting the most suitable species and variety to
improve vegetative cover depends on local climate
and soil capacity including any chemical or physical
limitations (see Figure 14.1). Soil should be tested
(see Chapter 12) as part of selecting which perennial
pasture species and companion legume(s) to sow.
Advice from Agronomists, Vegetation Management
Officers and Livestock Officers is recommended.
Figure 14.1: Considerations for selecting perennial pasture.

Source: Hackney (2007)
 Native pasture
Throughout NSW, large areas of native pastures (Plates 14.2 and 14.3); whereas other options such as
(Plate 14.1) have been cleared to make way for improved pastures and woody vegetation may not
cropping and grazing systems that are often based be economical, practical or as effective. In southern
on annual plants and use less water. Native NSW many native pastures provide valuable summer
pasture often occurs as a considerable percentage grazing opportunities where perennial introduced
of the total percentage of the total species cleared species are not viable.
e.g. 100% or 50% native pasture. Due to the
In key recharge areas such as the upper slopes and
inherent difficulty in re-establishing native pastures
hill crests in metasedimentary landscapes, terrain
and the considerable expense of seed, it is often not
may be inaccessible with shallow, rocky or acid
viable to re-establish large areas of native pasture
soils. These characteristics make it difficult and
species. For this reason, management of native
expensive to establish pasture stands. Maintaining
pastures for salinity benefit involves maintaining
and encouraging remnant
stands rather than
establishing new ones.
This may mean including
non-native perennials or
annuals.
Native pastures can play an
important role in salinity
management, especially
for recharge control. They
are often summer active,
which means they can
use water and create a
dry soil buffer prior to
winter. They are usually
well-adapted to growing
in harsh conditions such
Plate 14.1: Native grasses, Red grass (Bothriochloa macra) and Weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides).
as steep, rocky sites with Inset: Weeping grass.
infertile, shallow soils Source: Watson (2004)
3
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and managing remnant native pasture stands availability often experienced in Australia (Table
may therefore be the most effective means of 14.1) Johnston et al (2004) .
maintaining water use (Garden, et al. 2000).
There are no commercially available native perennial
Plates 14.2 & 14.3: Examples of areas where native legumes. Currently several including glycines,
pastures provide the best water use option. Swainsona and Ptilotus, are being evaluated as part
of the CRC Future Farm Industries Program.
Greatest benefit is gained from native pastures when
they are healthy, actively growing and so using There is a very wide range of annual and perennial
maximal water. Best practice in managing these exotic legumes that can be sown in irrigated and
areas for salinity control is to maintain or maximise dryland farming systems. See further reading list
plant vigour and the perennial components of the (Zurbo 2006).
pasture. This may be done several ways including:
using fertilisers, controlling grazing and reducing Understanding grassland ecology
competition by use of herbicides. Compared with The key points to making the most of native
continuous grazing, strategic grazing or sowing pastures are:
of legumes into native pastures can attain a most
productive pasture that maximises the use of rainfall • the correct identification of pasture components
(Murphy 2002). • understanding the dynamics of the major species
present as contributors to the grassland ecology
Types of native pasture and the pasture composition
Native grasses fall into two broad groups, C3
• managing the pasture to ensure an appropriate
or C4, based on whether they are cool or warm level of productivity.
season active, and relates to their photosynthetic
mechanism. Red grass (Bothriochloa macra) and Producers need to know the growth, flowering
Kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) are C4 grasses, and seeding periods of both desirable and
most active in summer. They can photosynthesise undesirable species and the patterns of palatability
(fix carbon) with much lower water requirement in and digestibility. Grazing can then be targeted to
summer, compared to C3 plants which are active ensure effective use of available forage and favour
in the cooler months when evaporative demand is a balance of desirable species at the expense of
lower. The greater water use efficiency of C4 grasses undesirable species (Garden, et al. 2000). Knowing
provides a competitive advantage under conditions how the major species respond to grazing, fertilisers
of high evaporative demand and low water and drought is also essential (Johnston, et al. 2004).
See Table 14.1.
Grazing management
Grazing strategies play an important part in
maximising plant water use. For further information
see (Mason, Warn and Cahill 2003). Plants use less
water if they are continually grazed down during
early growth stages (set stocked or poor rotation), or
Plate 14.2: Steep, rocky terrain with shallow, acid soils. Plate 14.3: Rocky inaccessible eroded areas.
Source: Elizabeth Madden, NSW DPI (2004) Source: Southern Salt Team (2003)
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Tolerant of:
Common name Botanical name Drought Acid Grazing Herbage Fertility

soil response value response
Summer Kangaroo grass Themeda australis H L-M L L L

growing
(C4) Red grass Bothriochloa macra H L-M H M M
Wire grass Aristida ramosa H H L L L
Queensland Dicanthium sericeum M L M M M-H
bluegrass
Mitchell grass Astrebla lappacea H L H L-M L
Cool Spear grass Austrostipa spp M-H M-H M-H L-M L-M
season
(C3) Tussock grass Poa spp M-H M-H M-H L-M M-H
Wallaby grass, Austrodanthonia spp H M-H H M-H M-H
White top
Wheat grass Elymus scaber M M M-H M M-H
Weeping grass Microlaena stipoides H H H M-H M-H
KEY: L = Low M = Moderate H = High Note*: Microleana and Austrodanthonia can produce high quality feed all year round.
Table 14.1: Features of the major native perennial grasses in the Southern Murray–Darling Basin.
Source: Simpson and Langford (1996)
are not grazed and move into flowering or ripening In this situation, practices such as heavy grazing
stages. If pastures are grazed strategically to during late winter and spring and lighter grazing
maximise leaf production and extend their effective or resting during summer would discourage
growing season they use more available water the annual winter/spring growing species (e.g.
(Figure 14.2). This potentially reduces recharge to Patterson’s curse, Capeweed) and grasses (e.g.
groundwater. Barley and Rye grasses) and encourage summer-
active perennials to proliferate and set seed.
For example in Southern NSW: An upper slope
and hill crest area with a perennial native grass Grazing management may also be used to shift the
component (e.g. Red grass, Kangaroo grass) that species composition of native pastures based on
also has a significant annual weed component. perennial grasses to achieve higher productivity
and water use. For example, the
species composition of a pasture
dominated by wiregrass (Aristida
ramosa), which is summer growing,
can be shifted to be dominated
by wallaby grass (Austrodanthonia
spp.) to use water all year round.
Wiregrass can be crash grazed (or
slashed) in summer months and
the pasture rested in winter-spring
when wallaby grass needs to flower
and regenerate. Care needs to be
taken to maintain groundcover and
avoid run-off, erosion issues and
germination of pasture weeds.
Figure 14.2: Grazing management of native grass pastures

Source: Adapted from: FitzGerald and Lodge (1997)
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Best management
practices for native
pasture are:
• strategically graze native
pastures to encourage
species diversity, seed set,
seedling recruitment and
efficient water use
• control weeds and vermin
to prevent degradation of
existing native pastures
• provide adequate watering
points for stock to use
pasture growth effectively,
minimise overgrazing and
formation of tracks
• maintain groundcover above Plate 14.4: Stand of healthy native grasses.
75% to minimise soil erosion
(Slinger and Tenison 2005).
So in summary, the keys to getting the best from • monitor how pasture composition and plant health
native pastures are to: respond to management
• identify desirable species • use fertilisers to improve soil fertility if necessary
• understand grassland ecology • increase management effort and skill (Johnston, et
al. 2004).
• understand livestock intake and nutritional
requirements
 Introduced perennial pasture

Large areas of Australia have been cleared and used Healthy introduced perennial pastures are the
for various agricultural purposes such as cropping most widely used option for addressing salinity
and grazing. In many cases extensive revegetation of through reduced groundwater recharge. They are an
recharge sites with woody vegetation is impractical important tool in recharge control as they generally
due to the physical size of the task and financial have a higher water use potential than annual
costs of establishment and loss of production to pastures and are often the most economically viable
landholders. option.
Introduced
perennial pastures
offer a valuable
alternative to
annual pastures
for grazing and
can also be used
intermittently
with cropping
enterprises. They
are more easily
established than
woody vegetation
or native pastures,
therefore much
more practical to
use on a wide scale
where conditions Figure: 14.3: Dry soil buffer depth associated with vegetation types.
are suitable. Source: Jenkins (2004)
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Rooting depth of perennials
One of the major reasons for higher water use by
perennial species is their increased ability to develop
extensive root systems. As they live for longer,
they are able to extend their root systems deeply
into the soil profile (where soils allow), so increase
their capability to access water through a larger
volume of soil (Figure 14.3). This is very beneficial for
reducing recharge across a landscape because of the
large areas of perennial pasture involved. Perennial
species also tend to react quickly to seasonal rainfall
events as their root system is already established
and can therefore begin making use of moisture
Plate 14.5: Phalaris mixed with strawberry clover and ryegrass
as soon as it becomes available (Plate 14.5). Work helps dry out the soil profile and reduces leakage.
by Lolicato (2000) found that rooting depth of the Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
perennial species was one of the most important
factors influencing the ability of perennials to dry
the profile and prevent recharge. White et al. (2003)
reported that leakage was inversely proportional to
the rooting depth of pasture species.
Mature dryland lucerne can often extend its roots
as far as 2.5–5 m (depending on soil type) provided
there is no physical or chemical barrier to growth
(Plate 14.6). In extremely favourable conditions
lucerne roots develop to a length of 6 m. Rooting
depths of the major perennial grasses (tropical grass
species, phalaris, tall fescue, & cocksfoot) in dryland
pastures are generally 1–2 m. These large perennial
root systems greatly increase the dry soil buffer
zone and reduce groundwater recharge. Plate 14.6: Strong lucerne tap root growing to depth of 2 m in a
sandy clay loam with no hardpan to restrict growth.
Buffering effect Source: Mary-Anne Lattimore, NSW DPI (2003)
Perennial pastures use moisture

opportunistically after a rainfall event and
continue to extract it until the soil profile
reaches Permanent Wilting Point (PWP).
Depending on the soil texture and structure
there may be less than 10% moisture left
at PWP (this moisture is held too tightly
in the fine pores and crystal structure of
the soil for the plant to be able to remove
it). Drying the soil to depth creates a
dry soil buffer, so in the next rainfall the
soil can store more water for plant use
before leakage occurs. Research by Ridley
et al. (2001), found that drainage to the
watertable occurs in 55% of years under
Plate 14.7: Lucerne in crop rotations on the mid-slopes
annual pastures but only 6% of years under lucerne above wheat on the footslopes in a granitic landscape.
(Plate 14.7). Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003)
Increased waterholding capacity soil structure. A soil with better structure has an
The dry soil buffer created by using perennial increased waterholding capacity, so can store more
pastures (especially lucerne) in crop rotations water where it can be used by crops, rather than
continues to provide salinity benefits even after releasing it down to the watertable. In this way a
the perennial phase is over (Ridley, et al. 2001). soil may hold water for successive growing seasons
This occurs because the increased organic matter before it becomes ‘full’ (at Field Capacity) and
from the permanent pasture phase improves leakage occurs.
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Choosing summer-growing high evaporation rates. Warm season grasses are
also useful in these areas because they protect the
perennials soil from the high intensity summer rainfall, reduce
The season in which a pasture is active can greatly erosion and leaching of nitrate.
impact on recharge control. For example, in areas
where rainfall is winter-dominant, summer-growing
species (e.g. lucerne) are desirable as they create
Perennials need
a dry soil buffer before the onset of winter rainfall. an annual component
Warmer temperatures in spring and summer It is important for perennial pastures to contain
increase plant transpiration rates so greater volumes some annual species to maximise pasture health
of water are used. This dry soil buffer, called the and year round water use. For example, phalaris
autumn soil water deficit, stores any winter rainfall and chicory pastures are often sown with annual
that exceeds plant requirements. This reduces the clovers; these provide spring growth and water use,
chances of winter rainfall leaking through to the increase groundcover, improve feed quality and
watertable. benefit the perennial species by fixing nitrogen.
Annual grass components, such as rye grass, may
However, C3 grasses with low summer dormancy also be included to use water in winter and feed
in prolonged summer dry areas will only last one stock.
to a maximum of two years, so it is important to
select the species and cultivar. Highly summer- Stage of growth
dormant grasses such as Atlas PG phalaris and
Plant water use depends on three factors:
Kasbah cocksfoot, do not grow over summer; they
environmental demand (how dry the air is), water
shut down. This enables them to maintain adequate
availability within the root zone, and the active
density to provide strong growth in autumn, winter
green leaf area. Plants use most water when their
and spring. The disadvantage is that they are slightly
green leaf area is actively growing. Plant water use
less active in summer than species that last only 1–2
is less at the very early growth stage (because of
years before dying out.
reduced leaf area) and at the late growth stage
The highly summer-active species such as Porto (because senescent leaves are less metabolically
cocksfoot or low summer-dormancy phalaris will use active). Figure 14.4 shows the plant life cycle divided
more water over summer, but plant mortality will be into three growth stages.
very high. When these plants die they are generally
Stage 1: Plants use stored carbohydrates to develop
replaced by annuals. So, while ideally summer
the first leaf after grazing. Young plants use very
activity may be a good thing in terms of water use, it
little water because they have low green leaf area
can be highly detrimental to long-term survival. In
and root development is shallow.
the long run, the pasture will be more run down
by choosing a summer-active species, which may Stage 2: After emergence of the 2nd and 3rd leaves
ultimately use less water than a vigorously growing after grazing, plants have sufficient leaf area to
perennial grass pasture based on summer-dormant photosynthesise and replenish stored carbohydrates.
species. Therefore, in areas of low annual rainfall Plant growth, root development and water use are
and longer periods of summer moisture stress maximal.
(Wagga region and further west), it is wise to select
Stage 3: Green leaf area reduces as the plant
perennial pasture species that are more summer
senesces (Note: this happens in all plants, not just
dormant. However, east of Wagga, the slightly
annuals). Water use declines as green leaf area falls.
higher average annual rainfall enables the more
summer-active species to persist better compared to
Stage 2 in Figure 14.4 shows high active
further west, so they may be a viable option.
leaf area, which results in:
Commercially available C4 grasses have not proved
• higher water use;
very successful in field evaluations. Good moisture
levels and high soil temperatures at sowing are • improved dry soil buffer; and
required for C4 grasses. These two conditions do not
• reduced leakage to the watertable.
often coincide in winter rainfall areas.
In summer-dominant rainfall areas, warm season
grasses are essential to make use of summer rainfall
events. Summer growing perennials, including
Grazing management
tropical pastures, are grown widely across parts of Grazing management should aim to keep plants
northern NSW where the summer rainfall pattern in stage 2 of growth because it: maximises plant
can be stormy: high intensity, unpredictable and water use, soil health and fertility, plus reduces weed
interspersed with frequent dry periods and very competition. Keeping plants in stage 2 by strategic
or rotational grazing maximises plant production,
8
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feed quality and pasture use.
Grazing management can also
be used to manage groundcover
which affects water infiltration
and run-off rates. For further
information see Noad (2006) and
Mason, Warn & Cahill (2003).
Perennial pasture
selection
Perennial plants do not live
forever. These plants should be
managed to maintain production
for as long as possible and
encourage new plants to
establish. Tables 14.2 and 14.3
show the species and varieties
that are the best adapted for
various climates, stock type, soil
fertility, paddock and grazing
systems.
Figure 14.4: Simplified growth curve.
Source: Latham (1995)
Table 14.2: Table of common perennial pasture species in NSW.

Source: Adapted from Zurbo (2006)
Note: Early results indicate that these safe endophyte1 varieties of tall fescue have improved drought tolerance and
persistence, especially the winter active types in the marginal tall fescue growing areas. Safe endophyte varieties are
Advance MaxP, Jesup MaxP, Quantum MaxP (temperate types), Flecha MaxP and Resolute MaxP.
9
14
Grass Acid Al Mn Salinity Shallow Poor

tolerant tolerance tolerance tolerance soil drainage Key for table 14.3
S = sensitive
MT = moderately tolerant
Phalaris# S S T MT S-MT MT-T T = tolerant
HT = highly tolerant
Cocksfoot T T T S T S NA = not available
Salinity tolerance is based on
Perennial MT MT T MT MT-T MT these figures:
ryegrass S = sensitive (ECe <2)
MT = moderately tolerant
(ECe 2-4.5)
Tall fescue T T T MT MT-T MT-T T = tolerant (ECe 6-8)
HT = highly tolerant (ECe >8)
Tall NA NA NA T NA HT # Note some phalaris cultivars
wheatgrass have increased tolerance of
acidity and aluminium toxicity.
Puccinellia NA NA NA HT NA HT Consult a local agronomist for
further details.
Table 14.3: Tolerance of introduced perennial pasture species to various soil chemical and physical conditions.
See key to symbols at right.
Source: Hackney (2006) adapted from Shaw (1999) and Barrett-Lennard, Malcom & Bathgate (2003)
Best management practices • perform regular soil testing and fertilizer

application
for introduced perennial pastures
are to: • manage grazing according to PROGRAZE2
• use minimum tillage when establishing pasture to recommendations (Noad 2006), to maximise plant
minimise soil erosion growth and water use throughout the year. Also
see further reading: FitzGerald and Lodge (1997)
• grow species with similar grazing requirements and Mason, Warn & Cahill. (2003)
(e.g. spelling periods) together for persistence
and ease of management. If the pasture mix is • maintain groundcover above 75% to reduce soil
too diverse, grazing management and herbicide erosion
options will be limited. Use simple mixes with • control weeds and vermin to prevent pasture
few components, such as phalaris and sub clover, degradation
or cocksfoot and sub clover, or lucerne on its
own. These will be more persistent and easier to • ensure stock have adequate watering points to
manage. Longer survival in a productive perennial prevent tracking, overgrazing and make better
pasture ultimately uses more water use of pasture growth (Slinger and Tenison 2005)
• include well-managed, summer-active • select the best cultivar within the species if
vegetation, such as lucerne and tall fescue possible. For example, phalaris and cocksfoot
(where appropriate – see note below Table 14.2) are persistent pasture species suitable for
to develop an autumn soil water deficit (dry soil long-term pasture situations. However, if sown
buffer) prior to winter. (Note: summer-active tall in an area that is winter rainfall dominant
fescue cultivars show VERY poor persistence in with long summers and prolonged moisture
winter-dominant, long summer moisture stress stress, summer-dormant varieties are better.
areas, rainfall < 450 mm.) Summer-active types do not persist well in
these environments. Where rainfall is higher and
• sow acid tolerant species such as cocksfoot and summer moisture stress is shorter, intermediate
fescue where there is subsoil acidity and summer active types persist better.
 Introduced annual pasture

Pastures that are dominated by annual species levels in most years under a deep-rooted perennial
(Plate 14.8) generally use less water per year than pasture species, such as lucerne.
those dominated by perennials. This is because
Annual pastures can still be carefully managed to
annual species have shorter growing seasons and
enhance their water use, although they use less
shallower root systems, compared to perennials. water than perennial species. Different grazing
Ridley et al. (2001) found that near Rutherglen strategies have a huge impact on the water use of
(600 mm average annual rainfall), drainage losses
annual pasture species. Overgrazing reduces green
under annual pasture averaged 35 mm/year, but foliage so the plant struggles to grow, which reduces
lucerne had nil drainage. Therefore drainage to the
water use. On the other hand, ungrazed pastures
watertable can be reduced to very low or negligible
10
14
may complete their life cycle
quickly and put their energy
into seeding before dying
off, which also reduces water
use (see Figure 14.4). Grazing
management that keeps
the plant at stage 2 of its
growth for longest provides
the best opportunity for
recharge control.
Other factors for good
pasture health should be
optimised even if the factors
above cannot be changed:
• weeds should be well-
controlled
• soil should be in good
physical condition and
fertile.
These factors can help Plate 14.8: Annual pastures generally use less water per annum
than those dominated by perennial species.
increase water use by annual pastures, even when Source: NSW DPI (2001)
other options cannot be used for recharge control.
Best management practices • control weeds and vermin to prevent pasture

for annual pastures are: degradation
• strategic grazing to encourage seedling • maintain soil fertility for pasture productivity and
development and vegetative production profitability through regular fertilizer applications.
 Cropping (dryland)
Dryland cropping in southern NSW generally reduced tillage, controlled traffic and effective
involves the use of annual crop species that grow rotations to improve soil structure, biota
actively in winter and spring. As a result of the short and health (Watson 2004). A soil that is well-
growing period, paddocks are bare fallow or in structured, contains sufficient organic matter and
preparation stages for much of the year. The dryland has a healthy microbial component can retain
cropping species, such as cereals, pulses and some more water through its profile, which promotes
oilseeds, also tend to be shallow-rooted. This growth maximum plant health and water use.
habit is in direct contrast to the plant characteristics
• Improve crop agronomy such as fertility and
recommended for salinity control.
weed control to maximise crop growth and
In parts of northern NSW where the rainfall is health.
summer-dominant, warm-season annual crops
• Manipulate row spacing to maximise water
are grown in dryland systems. In some situations,
uptake and crop production per hectare.
where soil type and moisture conditions permit,
two annual crops may be grown in the one year, a • Incorporate a perennial pasture phase into
winter crop and a summer crop. These systems grow cropping rotations. This helps to dry out the soil
a summer crop (grain sorghum, sunflowers or forage profile using excess moisture that can accumulate
crops) directly following the winter crop. in soil during a fallow phase. A dry soil buffer is
developed, which can hold an increased amount
Several techniques that can greatly improve the
of moisture when the paddock is returned to
water use of existing cropping species are:
cropping therefore reducing the risk of recharge.
• Use early season crops as these have a longer (DIPNR, 2004).
growing season, therefore a greater opportunity
• Reduce or remove long fallows (15–18 months)
to use more water.
from the rotation. The practice of long fallowing
• Improve soil health by using conservation farming greatly increases the risk of recharge in any year.
principles such as stubble retention, direct or
11
14
when there is good spring
rainfall just before or after
the harvest of winter crops.
A common rotation on the
Liverpool Plains of northwest
NSW is winter wheat/cereals
with summer sorghum,
sunflowers or forage crops.
By using water (including
summer rainfall) where
and when it falls, response
cropping reduces leakage and
restricts the movement of
stored salts.
Response cropping on the
Plate 14.9: A healthy well managed crop. Note the hilltops in the background have some tree
coverage reducing the amount of potential recharge black soils of northern NSW
Source: Southern Salt Action Team (2003) can greatly reduce leakage
Species and cultivar selection can also improve and the risk of salinity and erosion on an individual
water use provided production benefit is not farm. A mix of summer and winter crops can break
compromised. For example, some cultivars have the weed and disease cycles of continuous cropping.
longer growing periods or deeper rooting habits so Leakage of soil water under response cropping
their water use potential may be greater than other systems has been shown to be less than under long
cultivars. fallowing or continuous wheat (Ringrose-Voase, et
al. 2003).
Response cropping/
opportunity cropping
Benefits of response cropping are
Response or opportunity cropping is a strategy to summarised as:
use stored soil moisture in the season that it occurs,
rather than have a set winter cropping sequence. • maximise profits by making the best use
When the soil profile is full and the season is of available rainfall and growing a higher
suitable, high water use winter or summer crops are number of crops
planted. Rotations of winter and summer crops that • make best use of soil moisture as rainfall is
take advantage of soil moisture can usefully control often wasted in wet years if you grow only
recharge in those parts of the Murray–Darling Basin one crop
with major summer rainfall. Decision making will
vary with soil type, location and rainfall. The key to • minimise crop failure by reducing the area
the success and reliability of response cropping is of crop in dry years (low moisture at planting)
to monitor the amount of stored moisture and grow • reduce potential salinity by reducing
suitable crops. leakage below the root zone (NSW
Response cropping is an effective technique for Agriculture 2001) and (Brouwer 2001).
salinity control on the black soils of northern NSW,
 Endnotes
1
Endophyte: An organism that completes its life cycle in a plant showing no external sign of the infection; one of a group of fungi
that are parasitic on grasses and are toxic to grazing animals (Holliday 1989).
2
PROGRAZE: Course run by I&I NSW to increase knowledge of participants in pasture production and livestock interface, resulting in
improved grazing management.
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The key points relevant to recharge management options using Watson, A 2004, Healthy Catchment Guide: Vegetation for salinity
crops and pastures are: management in the South West Slopes of the Murray Catchment
 establishment of plants with high water use (deep-rooted (NSW), Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural
perennials) on high recharge sites Resources, Albury.
 perennial pastures have greater rooting depth, longer growing Donaghy, D & Fulkerson, W 1997, ‘The importance of water
season and use more water compared to annual species soluble carbohydrate reserves on regrowth and root growth of
Lolium perenne (L.)’, Grass and Forage Science, vol. 52, pp. 401–407.
 pastures based on perennial native grasses have an important
role to play as they have a high perennial component, FitzGerald, R & Lodge, G 1997, Grazing management of
are often summer-active and well adapted to the local temperate pastures: literature reviews and grazing guidelines for
harsh growing conditions e.g. steep and rocky sites where major species, Technical Bulletin 47, NSW Agriculture, Orange.
introduced pastures are not viable Jenkins, J 2004, Perennial pastures – their place in the rotation,
 careful management of annual pasture maximises its water NSW Agriculture.
use, although this is still less than perennial pasture Johnston, B, Garden, D, Simon, Ellis, S & Clifton, C 2004,
 strategic grazing and species selection can help maximise Hill country native grasslands – better management for healthy
plant water use. Catchments, Murray Darling Basin Commission.
Roesner, E, Fettell, N & Honeysett, B 2004, ‘Lucerne can
Further information reduce the risk of leakage under phase farming’, Salinity Solutions
Conference Proceedings: Working with Science and Society, 2-5
Further information to assist you in measuring salinity can be August, Bendigo, Victoria, CD–Rom.
obtained from:
Sargeant, K, Warn, L & McLarty, G 2003, Winning the
Industry and Investment NSW. war against bare ground and broadleaf weeds with grazing
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) management – results from the Broadford Grazing Experiment
District Agronomists 1998–2003, Department of Primary Industries, Seymour, Victoria.
Pasture Specialists
Warn, L, McViegh, P, Semmler, A, McLarty, G, Sale, P, Frame, H,
Livestock Officers
Sargeant, K, Mclean, D, Clarke, J & Jones, L 2003, Grazing
Catchment Management Authorities management for productive hill country pasture, Department of
Community Support Officers Primary Industries, Seymour, Victoria.
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water Williams, J 2000, Managing the Bush, Land and Water Resources
(DECCW). Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors Zurbo, B 2006, Pasture varieties used in NSW 2006–2007, NSW
Department of Primary Industries and The Grassland Society of
NSW.
Websites
Industry and Investment NSW– ‘Prograze’, viewed 17 June 2010,
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/profarm/courses/
prograze/
 References
Barrett-Lennard, EG, Malcolm, CV & Bathgate, A 2003, Saltland Holliday, P 1989, A dictionary of plant pathology, Cambridge
pastures in Australia: a practical guide, Land, Water & Wool University Press, Cambridge, England.
Sustainable Grazing on Saline Lands Sub-program, Perth, WA. Jenkins, J 2004, Perennial pastures: their place in the rotation, NSW
Brouwer, DW 2001, Dryland salinity: the farmer’s guide. NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW.
Agriculture, Paterson, NSW. Johnston, B, Garden, DL, Ellis, S & Clifton, C 2004, Hill country
Fitzgerald, RD & Lodge, GM 1997, Grazing management of native grasslands: better management for healthy catchments,
temperate pastures: literature reviews and grazing guidelines for Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra, ACT.
major species, NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW. Latham, S (ed.) 1995, Prograze: profitable, sustainable grazing
Garden, DL, Lodge, GM, Friend, DA, Dowling, PM & Orchard, BA (2nd edn), NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW.
2000, ‘Effects of grazing management on botanical composition of Lolicato, SJ 2000, ‘Soil water dynamics and growth of perennial
native grass-based pastures in temperate south-east Australia’, pasture species for dryland salinity control’, Australian Journal of
Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 40, pp. Experimental Agriculture, vol. 40, pp. 37–45.
225–245.
Mason, W, Warn, LK & Cahill, G 2003, Towards sustainable
Hackney, B 2006, Table 14.4: Tolerance of introduced perennial grazing : the professional producer’s guide, Meat & Livestock
pasture species to various soil chemical and physical conditions, Australia, North Sydney, NSW.
interview with the author, 14 November 2006, Wagga Wagga.
Murphy, S 2002, Effects of grazing management on the
Hackney, B 2007, Figure 14.1: Considerations for selecting hydrological balance, University of New England, Armidale
perennial pasture, interview with the author, 15 January 2007, Australia.
Wagga Wagga.
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Noad, B 2006, Prograze: profitable, sustainable grazing, NSW Simpson, P & Langford, C 1996, Managing high rainfall native
Department of Primary Industries and Meat and Livestock pastures: on a whole farm basis, NSW Agriculture, Goulburn, NSW.
Australia, Orange. Slinger, D &Tenison, K 2005, Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
NSW Agriculture 2001, Use water where it falls: leave salt where it Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Is, Continuing Education, CB Alexander Agricultural College, Tocal, Industries, Wagga Wagga, NSW.
Paterson, NSW Watson, AJ 2004, Healthy catchment guide: vegetation for salinity
Ridley, AM, Christy, B, Dunin, FX, Haines, PJ, Wilson, KF & management in the South West slopes of the Murray Catchment,
Ellington, A 2001, ‘Lucerne in crop rotations on the Riverine Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
Plains. 1. The soil water balance’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Albury, NSW.
Research, vol. 52, pp. 263–277. White, RE, Christy, BP, Ridley, AM, Okom, AE, Murphy, SR, Johnston,
Ringrose-Voase, AJ, Young, RR, Paydar, Z, Huth, NI, Bernardi, WH, Michalk, DÂL, Sanford, P, McCaskill, MR, Johnson, IR, Garden,
AL, Cresswell, HP, Keating, BA, Scott, JF, Stauffacher, M, Banks, RG, DL, Hall, DJM & Andrew, MH 2003, ‘SGS Water Theme: influence of
Holland, JF, Johnston, RM, Green, TW, Gregory, LJ, Daniells, I, soil, pasture type and management on water use in grazing systems
Farquharson, R, Drinkwater, RJ, Heidenreich, S & Donaldson, SG across the high rainfall zone of southern Australia’, Australian
2003, Deep Drainage under Different Land Uses in the Liverpool Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol.43, pp. 907–926.
Plains Catchment. Report 3, NSW Agriculture, Tamworth, NSW. Zurbo, B 2006, Pasture varieties used in NSW 2006-2007, NSW
Shaw, R 1999, ‘Soil salinity - electrical conductivity and chloride’, Department of Primary Industries and The Grassland Society of
in Soil analysis: an interpretation manual, (eds. Peverill, KI, NSW.
Reuter, DJ & Sparrow, LA), pp. 129–144, CSIRO Publishing,
Collingwood, VIC.
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 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 What is a saline discharge site? ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
 Saline discharge site management........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
 Types of discharge sites ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Management strategies for discharge sites................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Why should we manage discharge sites? ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Approaches to managing discharge sites...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Tools to manage discharge sites............................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Fencing saline areas............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Engineering options .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Site preparation ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Salt tolerant plants................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Mulching scalded areas.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Mounding on waterlogged saline sites............................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Treatment at the discharge site perimeter ................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Fertiliser and soil amendments ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Tactical grazing management ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
 Saline pasture mixes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
 Potential productivity........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
 Monitoring discharge sites .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Why monitor discharge sites? ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Methods of monitoring discharge sites ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
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 Introduction
Saline discharge site management will vary with every site and needs to be tailored to the specific site. Not
only should the discharge site be treated but also the recharge site. Locating the source of the problem is
essential in controlling the discharge site. Some sites will require a full catchment approach while others may
be controlled locally. Soil and water testing are recommended to allow for more targeted species selection.
The treatment of the site may include combinations of the following: fencing, planting salt tolerant species,
mulching, grazing management, mounding, engineering and soil amendments. The approach used for any
particular site will depend on the goals of the landholder for the site. Are they looking to contain the site,
maintain it, bring the site back into full production or use saline species for out-of-season feed reserves? This
chapter will cover some of the treatment options possible.
 What is a saline discharge site?

A saline discharge site occurs where groundwater dams and rivers. This water varies in quality. The
is at or near the soil surface (Figure 15.1). groundwater does not have to be particularly saline
Groundwater discharges to the land surface via to create a saline site; evaporative concentration will
springs and surface seepage or through movement produce salinity. This chapter covers saline discharge
of groundwater into surface water bodies such as sites on the land surface.
Figure15.1: Groundwater discharge site.

Source: Adapted from Anderson, Britten & Francis (1993)
 Saline discharge site management

Saline discharge sites (saltland areas) may be classed the negative impacts of salinity on infrastructure
according to their cause, as: and the environment.
Primary salinity: Occurred naturally in the In salt affected areas:
landscape prior to European settlement e.g. salt
• traditional crop and pasture plants are stressed,
marshes, salt lakes, tidal swamps or natural salt
less productive and may die
scalds1. Sometimes called inherent salinity.
• environmental value is reduced through a lack of
Secondary salinity: Occurs in the landscape
diversity and species decline
post-European settlement. Secondary salinity is
salinisation of soil, surface water or groundwater • infrastructure e.g. roads or buildings can be
due to human activities such as urbanisation and damaged
agriculture (irrigated and dryland).
• offsite impacts may occur such as reduced water
The principal aim of managing discharge sites quality for downstream users (including irrigators)
is to make use of accumulated groundwater by when saline run-off enters creeks and rivers.
growing plants tolerant of salt and/or waterlogging.
Management of a discharge site becomes necessary
This provides groundcover and reduces erosion, thus
when it is difficult to control or identify the
increasing the productivity of the land and reducing recharge site. Groundwater recharge may exist
2
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on a neighbouring property or elsewhere in the Discharge site management is only dealing
catchment, restricting landholders to treating the with the symptom of salinity and not the cause.
symptoms of salinity (discharge) on their property Simultaneous, long-term total catchment
rather than the cause (recharge). approaches to control groundwater recharge
(where appropriate) are preferable to complement
associated discharge site management.
 Types of discharge sites

Saline sites vary greatly in their ECe. Also plants of sites for initial soil sampling. Most NSW sites are
growing on saline discharge sites will vary in so spatially variable that soil sampling is necessary
their tolerance to salinity. For example, samphire to supplement visual observation such as surface
(Halosarcia spp.) tends to occur on very saline sites features and vegetation. Salinity also fluctuates
that are waterlogged (Barrett-Lennard, Malcolm and seasonally as a result of leaching by rain and salt
Bathgate 2003); while toad rush (Juncus bufonius) accumulation at the soil surface through capillary
has low to moderate salinity tolerance and is rise. Therefore laboratory testing of soil samples
tolerant of waterlogging (Sainty & Associates 2006). is essential to confirm the presence of salinity, its
Also see Chapter 9: Identifying and investigating severity, extent, and variation with time and distance.
a saline site. Grouping of saline sites according to Local knowledge of saline sites and the species
plant and surface features is a useful tool for the particular to a given area should also be considered.
initial site investigation, helping in the selection
Discharge sites can be divided into four classes based on the level of salinity:
Class 1 – Slightly Saline (1.5–2 dS/m ECe)

 New wet patches/boggy areas
 Patches of reduced growth or yield in crops and pastures, slight yellowing of leaves
 Waterlogging is the primary cause for pasture decline in these areas. Waterlogging tolerant species
commonly found include: paspalum, yorkshire fog, spiny rush, curled leaf dock, barnyard grass,
cumbungi and common rush.
Class 2 – Moderately Saline (2–6 dS/m ECe)
 Scattered bare patches that can remain boggy all year
 If the bare patches dry out, some salt crystals may appear on the soil surface
 Patches of salt tolerant species are growing e.g. sea barley grass, swamp/common couch, spike rush,
paspalum, toad rush, cumbungi and common rush.
Class 3 – Highly Saline (6–15 dS/m ECe)
 Salt crystals appear on the soil surface when dry and stock will continually lick the bare patches
 Dams/watercourses below the saline area may become very clear as high salt levels cause clay
particles to flocculate (cling together) and drop out of suspension
 Species commonly found in these sites are sea barley grass, swamp/common couch, spiny rush and
annual beard grass
Class 4 – Extremely Saline ( > 15 dS/m ECe)
 Extensive areas of bare ground with salt crystals when dry. Severe sites can measure over 30 dS/m on
the soil surface.
 Bare saline soils are highly erodible, often resulting in sheet, gully and tunnel erosion
 Only extremely salt tolerant species survive such as sea barley grass and samphire.
Table 15.1: Types of discharge sites.

Source: Adapted from Fogarty, Francis and Wild (1993)
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This system of using salt levels, vegetation and soil underground pipes. The impact on infrastructure
indicators to classify discharge sites is not usually depends on the type and amount of salt present;
relevant to urban salinity. In urban areas, vegetation, the construction materials and methods; the
soil and drainage are often highly modified and ongoing maintenance and age of the building and
the impacts of the discharge site are usually the value of the infrastructure itself.
on infrastructure such as buildings, roads and
 Management strategies for discharge sites

Why should we manage native vegetation such as grasslands and remnant
woody vegetation systems that have the potential
discharge sites? to be farmed or cropped. (This refers to use of best
• reduce soil surface salinity practice management on sites at risk of salinity as
• reduce the impacts of waterlogging opposed to large scale actions addressing recharge
issues, which are discussed in other chapters).
• limit soil erosion
Recovery – Bringing saline land back into full
• maintain and improve soil structure production. This is remedial action at the first sign
• prevent or reduce off-site impacts such as saline of salinity. For example, using salt sensitive cropping
run-off to waterways or grazing systems, or rotation of species to control
early impacts such as waterlogging. Recharge
• improve aesthetic value
management and favourable climatic conditions
• enhance land capability (productivity of the site) may aid recovery.
• increase the value of the land compared to if it is Containment – Preventing the maximum extent of
saline. saline land being reached or taking action to slow
rates of watertable rise, or reduce the rate of spread.
Management of a saline discharge site needs to be
tailored to that specific site as it should consider the Containment typically involves actions such as
variability across the site, throughout the catchment increasing site water use with perennial pastures
and across various climatic and geographic regions. and woody vegetation, or engineering options to
reduce impacts on the local watertable.
Questions to consider when determining which
management strategy is the best option for a site Adaptation – Changing existing farming systems
include (Powell 2004): and landuses to use saline resources for production
and profit.
• How severe is the salinity problem?
This involves selecting systems or management
• Is it likely to get worse?
practices that are adapted to provide production,
• What is the priority of the landholder or within the parameters of the saline system e.g.
catchment group? livestock production systems with additional or
out-of-season feed reserves, such as saltbush or tall
• What options are technically feasible and cost-
wheatgrass pastures.
effective to reclaim salinised land or improve
water quality? Maintain best practice management – This
approach encourages ‘best practice’ farming and
• Will we have to live with it and if so, are there
grazing systems for the range of production and
opportunities to use saline land or water as a
conservation benefits from the saline area. It is
productive and profitable resource?
mostly applicable where the salinity of a site is such
that it is too expensive or difficult to take action
Approaches to managing compared to the benefits. It is essentially working
discharge sites with the saline site or altering the vegetation
Prevention – Where a possible salinity discharge risk system. It can include adding mulches to the surface
has been identified but no indications are currently to reduce evaporation from the soil surface. This
showing on the site. management option may also apply to small sites
that can be contained by more intensive care, for
The key assumption is that prevention of salinity
example, mulching and hand planting.
is more cost-effective than changing landuse after
salinity has developed. A mix of the above approaches can be used on a
Actions to prevent salinity include best practice property, for example, containment to protect high-
pasture and cropping agronomy; and retaining value land, and adaptation on land that has already
become salinised. Adapted from Powell, (2004).
4
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 Tools to manage discharge sites

• fencing of saline land to exclude stock grazing • adding fertiliser and soil amendments to optimise
and control vermin such as rabbits plant growth
• engineering options • tactical grazing management of the whole area.
• site preparation Each of these is discussed in more detail below.
• planting suitable salt tolerant species to increase
vegetation cover and water use Fencing saline areas
Fencing out sites to control grazing and access by
• mulching scalded soils to encourage vegetation stock is the first step and the key to the revegetation
and minimise evaporation from the soil surface of discharge areas. In many cases, grazing control
• mounding on waterlogged saline sites to improve or exclusion alone are sufficient to allow successful
local root conditions regeneration of salt affected areas.
• treatment at the perimeter of the discharge site Stock often preferentially graze and camp on saline
to prevent expansion or decrease the discharge sites (Plate 15.1). The added grazing pressure and
area compaction can destroy vegetative cover and
aggravate the loss of topsoil, reduce drainage,
degrade soil structure and fertility. Plants struggling
to establish in saline conditions are intolerant of
grazing pressure.
(left) Plate 15.1: Stock congregating on saline sites

and licking the surface.
Source: Salt Action Team (2003)
Plate 15.2: Fencing Saline Areas: Temporary electric fences are often sufficient to control stock from discharge areas.
These fences are easily moved if the need arises due to expansion of the saltland area or to allow occasional stock access for grazing.
Source: Lachlan Rowling, NSW DPI (2005)
5
15
Fencing out saline land will enable the degraded site, improving the establishment of crops such as
area to be managed as a separate entity to non- millet or barley, or improved pasture. Diverting
affected areas. For example, a paddock containing excess water away from the site will also prevent salt
healthy perennial pasture requires a high level of entering waterways.
grazing to achieve optimum production. If that
Controlling soil and salt movement from the
same paddock contains a salt affected area and
site by structural earthworks can facilitate the
is appropriately grazed for the perennial pastures
establishment of high water use plants at the
in the main part of the paddock, the salt affected
discharge site. Excess water diverted by surface
areas are heavily overgrazed. Conversely, if grazing
drains can then be used for other on-farm
is reduced to protect the sensitive area then
applications. Diversion of fresh water away
productivity is forfeited from the perennial pasture.
from saline sites using banks may be a suitable
The fenced-out saline land needs specific engineering option in dryland situations. Diversion
treatments (species, cultivation, sowing and banks can be installed to reduce the risk of fresh
grazing management). Fencing allows each area run-off moving over the site and carrying salt with it.
to be treated in an appropriate manner without Fresh run-off may be diverted into creeks and rivers
cost to the other areas (Plate 15.2). Short, high or used elsewhere. Saline run-off however must
intensity stocking to roughen the surface may not be diverted to the creek or river system. NSW
create germination niches for pasture. The aim Department of Environment and Climate Change
is to establish and maintain useful, healthy and and Water (DECCW) should be contacted for further
productive salt tolerant species. A farm plan is a information on the disposal of saline water.
sound basis for planning fences (Brouwer 2001).
It is a major priority to understand the sensitivity of
Fencing protects any additional works on a saline the landscape when diverting surface water. Issues
site, such as the establishment of woody vegetation such as the appropriate disposal of excess water
or pastures, which may take longer to establish on or saline effluent, the quality of this water and the
these sites compared with ideal conditions. possibility of encountering erosion problems must
be considered when undergoing earthworks (QDNR
Fencing alone, however, may not always improve a
1997). Otherwise the solution to one problem can
saline area.
cause another.
Defining the boundary of a discharge area In urban and irrigation areas there are facilities such
• Determine the perimeter of the discharge area. as reuse systems, evaporation basins and disposal
There is often an abrupt change in bare scalded basins, which can dispose of saline groundwater
soil or vegetation composition, such as increased legally. Alternatively, the saline water may be
sea barley grass component. shandied with fresh water and put to a useful
purpose.
• It is recommended that fence perimeters
should be placed at least 20 m outside of the Subsurface drainage and a range of groundwater
affected area or upslope in steep areas to create pumping options may be used where disposal of the
a marginal buffer. Monitoring test wells (see water is legal. These methods can lower watertables
Chapter 13) will indicate if the watertable is rising, in a specific discharge area to allow that area to
resulting in expansion of the discharge area. recover. The lowered watertable facilitates the
leaching of salt down the profile to the groundwater.
• The temporary nature of electric fences allows for
This relieves waterlogging and improves the
flexibility of management at a reduced financial
prospects of vegetation establishment, which in turn
cost. As the size and extent of a scald or discharge
provides better groundcover, improved soil structure
area alters, the position of the fence can be
and improved water use on site.
adjusted (Salt Action 1993).
Engineering options involving pumping and
Engineering options disposal of groundwater can be effective in defined
(also see Chapter 17) areas. However these are often very costly and
therefore only usually suitable for protection of high
Plant-based solutions alone may be insufficient value agricultural assets (orchards and vineyards),
to control salinity, and engineering options may infrastructure (urban areas) or areas that are
be required. Surface drains or diversion banks can ecologically important (wetlands).
divert floodwaters, irrigation tail water and other
excess water away from problem areas. This can Site preparation
help to reduce recharge, waterlogging and ponding
Preparation before implementing any actions on
of low-lying discharge sites as well as controlling
a saline site is vital. Remedial action for saline land
erosion. Reduced inundation can dry out a discharge
areas is often expensive and difficult to implement,
6
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so when it is undertaken, it is important that it is Autumn is the ideal time for sowing balansa clover,
done properly to avoid costly failures. puccinellia, tall wheatgrass and strawberry clover.
The latter has high waterlogging tolerance and
Soil tests higher salt tolerance than most other clovers but
Soil testing (see Chapter 12) is necessary to establish is not as tolerant as many grasses. Pastures will
a clear picture of the existing soil conditions across germinate and establish in the warm soil after the
the site. Some site limitations may not always be autumn break. Early winter sowing is successful in
immediately obvious including: sodicity, acidity/ drier years. Tall wheatgrass seed can lay dormant
alkalinity or nutrient deficiencies. Testing pH is in the soil for several seasons until conditions
necessary as many salt tolerant species do not favour germination. Therefore, preparing and
perform well in moderately acid conditions. High pH sowing slightly early (late summer) can still be very
(alkalinity) can also be severely limiting. successful even in dry autumns.
Understanding these constraints (see Chapter 12) Summer-growing tropical grasses include Rhodes
can identify the most suitable pasture species and grass, bambatsi panic and kikuyu. These are best
any ameliorants, such as gypsum, lime and fertiliser, sown from spring through to early summer. Aim
which may need to be added to the site before to sow tropical grasses when there is considerable
sowing saltland pastures2. For example, sites with stored soil moisture and when warm season rains
very low exchangeable calcium may respond to are most likely.
gypsum and lime.
Weed control
All scalded sites will be highly variable across the
Adequate weed control is essential to establish
paddock, at depth and over time. This may not be
grasses and forage shrubs successfully on saltland.
evident from the surface. Bulking up lots of samples
This usually means a combination of chemical
from across the whole site will mask the variability.
topping, cultivation and knockdown herbicide.
Selective sampling is required. Be sure to take a
However care must be taken to prevent saline land
soil sample from the worst affected and the least
becoming bare over summer as this will exacerbate
affected areas across the site.
soil salinity (PIRSA 2001).
Sampling is recommended when perennial saltland
Annual weed species such as sea barley grass and
pastures experience most stress e.g. late spring for
annual ryegrass (often present on saline land) have
cool-season types.
vigorous seedlings and respond rapidly to the onset
Sowing method of desirable growing conditions. If weeds are not
controlled, this strong early growth can smother
There are different recommendations for planting
sown species. In southern NSW, follow up control
salt tolerant pastures on discharge sites. Seeds of
of species such as wireweed may also be necessary
most grasses and legumes are successfully sown
as they can compete heavily with establishing
shallowly after an initial light cultivation of the soil
species over the dry summer. Sometimes, sowing an
surface to reduce the concentration of salt and to
annual crop or pasture the year before sowing the
provide a rough niche to trap the seeds. Seed should
permanent pasture may be required to help with
not be buried too deep as often the soil covering
weed control. For example, sowing strawberry clover
the seed forms a crust, reducing emergence. In small
will ensure some groundcover as well as allowing
saline areas, mulching helps to reduce surface salt
control of grasses. Similarly, if broadleaf weeds are
concentration. Salt tolerant grass mixtures can be
a problem, sowing barley the year before may allow
successfully sown through a combine or broadcast
broadleaf herbicides to be used.
through a super-spreader. Surface sowing should be
onto cultivated land after salts have been leached. Note: Some weeds can be useful forage species,
e.g. common couch and annual ryegrass, especially
Some species are more successfully established from
on areas that may be too saline for commercially
vegetative planting with seedlings or sprigs. This
available salt tolerant species.
method also applies to more saline or waterlogged
sites where the soil may be too saline for seed
germination. Couch grasses and forage shrubs such
Salt tolerant plants
as saltbush are commonly planted vegetatively. A revegetation program to establish and maintain
plant cover on saline soils should aim to require
Sowing time only minimal input (e.g. fertiliser). This is done by
Sowing time varies for different species. It is encouraging natural revegetation and introducing
preferable to have a pasture mix of both summer- other perennial/annual species adapted to saline/
and winter-dominant species to cover both growing waterlogged conditions. Select trees, shrubs and
seasons and maintain active green leaves for as long pasture with a salt tolerance suitable for the salinity
as possible through the year. of the site (PIRSA 2001). It may also be necessary to
7
15
choose plants that are tolerant
of waterlogging as well as salinity.
A major benefit of revegetating
discharge sites is that plants
protect the soil. By promoting
good plant cover, evaporation and
capillary rise are reduced, slowing
the accumulation of salts at the
soil surface. Maintaining good
groundcover reduces run-off after
rainfall, reducing soil erosion and
the amount of salt washed into
adjacent waterways. Vegetation
also reduces wind speed across
the soil surface, reducing wind
erosion.
The revegetation of saline land
can also enhance agricultural
production. A variety of palatable Plate 15.3: A ‘shotgun’ mix of salt tolerant species has been sown across this seepage scald.
and nutritious forage plants can Species including tall wheatgrass, rhodes grass, strawberry clover and balansa clover have
be established on saline soils established across the site, finding a ‘niche’ in varying soil conditions.
Source: Lachlan Rowling, NSW DPI (2005)
if the best species are selected
and managed appropriately. The most appropriate depends on the geographic region and climate of
species are those that optimise water use, provide the area.
adequate groundcover, improve soil structure and
In summer-dominant rainfall areas, pastures that
boost feed production.
maintain productivity through the summer growing
Site variability should be considered when season should be selected. This will ensure plants
revegetating a saline area. Soil properties vary use warm-season rainfall.
within and between scalds (Semple 2003). For
Stock grazing saltland pastures (mainly saltbush
example, pH values can range from low (acid) to
and bluebush) require access to good quality fresh
high (alkaline) on the one scald. Marked changes
water owing to the high salt content of vegetation.
in EC can occur across distances as short as half a
They will also drink more water than if they were
metre. Due to this variability, ‘shotgun mixtures’ of
on non-saline feed. Supplementary feeding in the
pasture species are appropriate but many species
form of high energy cereal grains e.g. barley, may
will still fail to establish on severely scalded sites. In
be necessary to increase the energy intake if an
some cases, for example where the site is wet over
understorey pasture and dry feed are lacking.
summer or pH is adverse, additional or replacement
species will be required.
Mulching scalded areas
Shotgun mixes (Plate 15.3) are a range of different In an area where the soil salinity is moderate to
species used to cater for the high degree of severe, it may be advantageous to cover the ground
variability (EC levels, pH and moisture) encountered with a mulch of old hay or slashed pasture (e.g. tall
across saltland. Plant species vary in their ability wheatgrass) (Plate 15.4). Mulch can be applied
to cope with a range of growing conditions. This before plant establishment or after the site has
method enables each species to find a niche on the been scarified. It provides an initial vegetative cover
site where it is most suited increasing the potential to the site, helps to conserve soil moisture, reduce
for saltland to support some cover. weed germination and reduce salt concentration in
Forage shrubs, such as bluebush and saltbush, the top 10 cm of soil through decreased evaporation.
can increase the available feed of mixed pastures It will also add vegetable matter (organic matter) to
on saline land. Forage shrubs are considered a the soil, which will help improve the soil structure
valuable stabilising component of pastures in more (Nichols and Victoria. Dept. of Primary 2002). Even
arid regions of Australia because of their ability to where additional vegetation establishment is not
maintain green leaf through seasonal dry spells being undertaken, mulch may provide an improved
(summer/autumn) and droughts in southern NSW. environment for any existing seed occurring on the
site to germinate and survive. Mulch should not be
A mixture of salt tolerant grasses and legumes too thick as thick mulches disadvantage some salt
will improve the forage value of pastures and tolerant species, e.g. puccinellia.
help reclaim saline land. The most suitable species
8
15
by strategically targeting specific
treatments at the margin of the
discharge site.
Planting trees directly onto
severely affected saltland is
seldom recommended because
the trees struggle to establish
and grow, so do little to lower
the watertable in the longer term.
However, the perimeter of the site
where conditions are less severe
may provide improved growing
conditions while still being close
enough to impact directly on water
use across the site.
Strategically placed tree/shrub
belts or blocks located upslope of
discharge sites play a useful role
Plate 15.4: Mulch at Inverell: Preparing to mulch a saline discharge site. A groundcover in managing saltland. They help
of old hay helps to reduce evaporation and decrease the concentration of salt at the soil to maintain the water balance on
surface, aiding in the establishment of saltland pastures.
Source: Luke Beange, NSW DPI (2005)
the site by increasing groundwater
usage, drying out surface soil and providing a better
environment for salt tolerant pastures. Tree/shrub
Mounding on waterlogged interception plantings can also provide protection
saline sites to unaffected land by acting as a buffer to water
Planting vegetation on raised soil beds or movement from saltland—both surface flows and
constructed mounds on saltland is useful to groundwater movement.
avoid the impacts of salinity and waterlogging
Tree belts and interception plantings can be
during plant establishment (Plate 15.5). Soil in
managed for multiple benefits. These may include:
the upper part of the mound is less saline and
the provision of a windbreak, shade, shelter and
less waterlogged than the original soil surface.
fodder reserves for livestock; enhancing biodiversity
The mound provides a more favourable root zone
and commercial farming for timber, honey and
environment for the establishing vegetation. The
flowers (see Chapter 18).
positive effects of building mounds can be further
enhanced by adding mulch and constructing broad
mounds (QDNR 1997). Fertiliser and soil amendments
Interpreting soil tests for saltland pastures is difficult.
Mounds need to be a certain minimum height
and width. Small mounds can have the opposite The application of soil ameliorants including
effect to that intended by drawing up moisture and fertiliser, lime or gypsum may assist in the
concentrating the salt within the mounded soil. establishment success and productivity of
Small soil mounds can also dry out quickly (PIRSA
2002) . Applying mulch to constructed mounds may
help to counter this process.
Mounds can also provide some protection from
wind and water erosion, however care must be
taken not to increase erosion risk or inhibit site
drainage with poorly planned mounds. The size and
shape of the mounds will depend on soil type and
the level of salinity and sodicity in the soil. Specialist
assistance on mound construction should be
obtained from I&I NSW staff.
Treatment at the discharge site

perimeter
It is important to control waterlogging and salinity
Plate 15.5: Soil formed into mounds can help leach salt out of the
on the margins of saline land to prevent an root zone and reduce the impact of waterlogging.
increase in the saline area. This can be achieved Source: Salt Action Team (2003)
9
15
vegetation on saltland. Soil testing along with biology occur where the pasture growth and
advice from your local agronomist will help cover improve (Brouwer 2001).
determine if amendments are required to combat
soil deficiencies that limit plant growth on saltland. Gypsum/lime
Saltland pastures are sometimes seen as low input In some circumstances the management of saltland
systems (no fertiliser). However, on potentially may require the addition of lime for acid soils or the
productive sites (relatively low EC, alkaline rather addition of gypsum for poorly structured sodic soils.
than acid pH and with year-round moisture) Calcium, in the form of gypsum or lime, can help
fertiliser can be worthwhile. Test strips (application to improve a soil’s structure if the soil is dispersible
of fertiliser in strips) after establishment can help (Daniells, Brown and Deegan 1994).
determine the effect of the fertiliser treatment. Both gypsum and lime add calcium to a soil.
Many saline sites are sodic but they do not Gypsum generally gives an immediate response
necessarily have a dispersed surface (Salinity has an (as soon as it dissolves in water), while lime gives
electrolytic affect on sodicity, except when salinity is a slower, but longer lasting response. Lime is less
temporarily reduced during rainfall - see Chapter 5). soluble than gypsum, but is preferable for acid soils
(Daniells, Brown and Deegan 1994).
Some points to consider Lime is the common name for calcium carbonate
• Sites with very low exchangeable Ca (calcium) will (CaCO3). Lime is used to reduce soil acidity (Plate
probably respond to gypsum and/or lime. Use 15.6). Lime is not strictly a fertiliser but is used to
lime if soil is acid; gypsum if neutral or alkaline. supply carbonate to counter soil acidity. In the same
way that superphosphate is used to contribute
• Waterlogged sites will need N (nitrogen).
P and S, lime can balance the acidifying effect of
• Potassium may be limiting on saline sites (test if removing plant products from the paddock.
needed).
Gypsum is the common name for calcium sulphate
• Responses to P (phosphorus) have been variable. (CaSO4). Gypsum is used as a soil ameliorant to
improve the structure of soils and counter the
• Puccinellia and tall wheatgrass tend to do better
on slightly alkaline soils so a response to lime effects of soil sodicity. Gypsum is often added to
soils that are dispersible, have a surface crust, or are
may occur on acid sites.
hard-set and compacted. Gypsum flocculates clay
Environmental benefits of fertilisers particles by replacing sodium with calcium on the
cation exchange complex of the clay particles (see
Research has indicated other significant benefits
Chapter 5). Creating better soil aggregation and
that support the use of fertilisers:
structure improves drainage, reducing waterlogging
• Improved groundcover – strong resilient and surface crusting. Gypsum has often been used
pastures improve groundcover and have a in the past to prepare saline seeps for planting, but
greater chance of maintaining cover above 70%. it is not recommended unless the watertable has
been permanently lowered (PIRSA 2002) . This is
• Reduced nutrient run-off – increased
because best results with gypsum require that the
groundcover reduces run-off of water, which
takes topsoil, nutrients and salt. This
means nutrients stay where they are
most needed (in the pasture) and do
not pollute water supplies.
• Greater water use – as organic matter
builds up under a strongly growing
pasture, the water infiltration rate
and waterholding capacity of the soil
improve, resulting in less run-off and
greater opportunity for plants to use
water for production.
• Below ground organisms – these
increase under a well-managed
pasture. This has been demonstrated
on the North West Slopes in recent
years where biological activity has
been measured in fertiliser trials.
Results indicate large increases in soil Plate 15.6: Spreading lime to assist in reducing soil acidity.
Source: Brian Dunn NSW DPI (2006)
10
15
displaced sodium is leached out of the soil profile Grazing management guidelines:
(QDNR 1997). • Stock should be excluded for at least 12 months
and for up to two years after salt tolerant
Tactical grazing management vegetation has been planted, depending on
Exclusion of stock, followed by controlled grazing is the success of pasture establishment and the
essential in revegetating saline land. Many perennial prevailing soil moisture conditions. Grazing may
pastures (e.g. tall wheatgrass, puccinellia, Rhodes be necessary before two years if grasses are
grass and tall fescue) and fodder shrubs (saltbush dominant and need to be opened up for clover
and bluebush) are inherently weak seedlings and germination.
slow to establish. • Once perennial groundcover has been
Stock should generally not be allowed to graze established, grazing should be encouraged.
discharge sites when the area is wet or waterlogged. Grazing is essential to avoid plant matter
This is to ensure that groundcover is maintained, soil becoming dry, rank and unpalatable and to
structure is not damaged through compaction or encourage plant water use.
‘pugging’ and vegetation is not disturbed. However • Saltland pastures are best grazed for short
the exception is when stock hooves assist the periods of time, then spelled. These pastures can
formation of microsites that improve germination. be managed as a valuable feed reserve when
Similarly, stock should only be allowed to graze a other pastures are in short supply.
saltland area when pastures have fully established. • Grazing pressure may be increased as pastures
Due to the slow nature of saltland pasture establish, but never overgraze a site.
establishment this may take some time. Pastures
are commonly given at least one year to establish, • Dense stands of salt tolerant vegetation can be
colonise, improve groundcover and set seed. ‘crash grazed’ during the summer/autumn feed
gap providing an excellent source of nutrition for
Grazing regimes often dictate that crash grazing stock.
(high numbers of stock for short periods of time)
is the most appropriate system. Set stocking is not • Summer/autumn grazing is often preferred when
recommended. Saltland pastures have a tendency discharge sites are dry.
to become dry, rank and unpalatable (Plate 15.7) • To reduce pugging and compaction, stock should
when locked up altogether, hence some grazing is be excluded from pastures if discharge areas
preferred. Pastures that are allowed to grow rank become waterlogged or inundated (Salt Action
are also less efficient at using rainfall which leaks 1993).
to the groundwater. Rotational or ‘tactical’ grazing
maintains palatable pastures and promotes efficient
water use.
Plate 15.7: After

establishment, tall
wheatgrass pastures have
the capacity to grow tall
and rank if not grazed
appropriately. Tactical ‘crash
grazing’ with large numbers
of stock for short periods of
time is an effective option
to manage these pastures.
Source: Lachlan Rowling
NSW DPI (2005)
11
15
 Saline pasture mixes

As explained above, the severity of salinity and option to achieve plant growth and groundcover
waterlogging commonly varies across a discharge across the site. Options include: marine couch
site, therefore it is best to sow a range of species (Sporobolus virginicus), water couch (Paspalum
(‘shot gun’ mix) so that most species will find their distichum) which has low salt tolerance but is very
niche. tolerant to waterlogging, saltwater couch (Paspalum
vaginatum) and common couch (Cynodon dactylon).
For more severely saline land, select species with
Both water couch and saltwater couch need
higher tolerance to salt and waterlogging, such as
abundant moisture to perform.
tall wheatgrass. Pasture species selection should
suit the region, climate, soil type and enterprise (see Spineless burr medic would be worth including as a
Figure 15.1). legume for certain salt sites.
On some saline scalds, vegetatively planted runners
(not seeds) of couch grasses may be the only viable
Species Comments Sowing rate in

mixture (kg/ha)
High salinity tolerance
#Puccinellia • Perennial grass 2–3
cv. Menemen • Active in autumn, winter, spring
• Highly salt tolerant
• Tolerates high levels of waterlogging
• Early growth is slow, hence is not a strong competitor at
seedling stage
• To allow puccinellia to colonise well, it is desirable to let it
set seed frequently
• In a mix, puccinellia will only colonise the most saline areas
where other species cannot establish
• Plant is generally sensitive to heavy grazing
*Tall wheatgrass • Perennial grass 4
cv. Dundas • Active in spring/autumn
(preferred cultivar) • Tolerant to salinity
cv. Tyrrell • Tolerates moderate levels of waterlogging
• Slow to establish, but once established is a strong
competitor
• If ungrazed or lightly grazed, can become ‘woody’.
Rotational grazing encourages leafiness and helps maintain
feed quality.
*Rhodes grass • Tropical perennial grass with stoloniferous growth 1–4
cv. Katambora (runners)
• Active in spring/summer
• Moderate – highly salt tolerant
• Tolerates low levels of waterlogging
• More suited to summer rainfall dominated regions of NSW
with light sandy to clay loam soils
Tall fescue • Perennial grass 4–6
• Summer and winter active cultivars
• Moderately salt tolerant
Phalaris • Perennial grass 2
• Active in autumn/winter/spring
• Tolerates waterlogging
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Species Comments Sowing rate in

mixture (kg/ha)
**Perennial ryegrass • Perennial grass 0.5
• Active in autumn/winter/spring
• Tolerates low levels of waterlogging
*Strawberry clover • Perennial legume 1–3
cv. Palestine • Active in spring/summer
cv. Onward • Slight – moderate salt tolerance
• Tolerates moderate levels of waterlogging/suited to
heavier textured soil types
• Poor seedling vigour and will not withstand heavy grazing
as a young plant. Withstands heavy continuous grazing
once plants have developed strong runners
*Bambatsi panic • Tropical perennial grass (highly palatable) 2–4
• Active in spring/summer
• Slight – moderate salt tolerance
• More suited to summer rainfall regions of NSW with heavy
textured (clay) soils
Balansa clover • Annual legume – Active in spring 0.5
• Slightly salt tolerant
• Tolerates moderate levels of waterlogging
• Slow early growth if sown in late autumn/early winter
• Continuous grazing preferred until flowering. Do not crash
graze just prior to flowering in the first year, or seed set
will be severely reduced
Persian clover • Annual legume 2
• Active in autumn, winter, spring
*White clover • Perennial legume 0.5
• Active in summer
• Will not persist under dry conditions
Sub clover • Annual legume 3
• Active in autumn, winter, spring
• Tolerates moderate levels of waterlogging
• Choose varieties suited to wetter areas, with moderate
levels of hard seed and mid and mid-late maturing e.g.
cv.Gosse, cv. Riverina
Low salinity tolerance
Figure: 15.2: Pastures species suitable for discharge sites, in order of decreasing salinity tolerance.
Source: Adapted from Leech and Slinger (2004)
* These species are summer active and will provide green feed during the warmer season. They can be highly productive due to the high
amounts of water present at discharge sites. You could think of the excess groundwater as sub-surface irrigation.
** Perennial ryegrass (suited to Tablelands regions) is a very vigorous seedling and may out-compete other species. For this reason it is often
omitted from saline pasture mixes.
# Puccinellia is a saltland pasture species with very limited application on salt sites in northern NSW.
13
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Note: Lucerne is certainly a plant capable of lowering watertables. However it has not been included in the recommended species list for the
following reasons:
• Lucerne seedlings are very susceptible to salt although mature plants are slightly tolerant.
• Lucerne as a species is more tolerant than white or subterranean clover but is less tolerant than balansa or Persian clover.
• Lucerne is not tolerant of poorly drained soils and discharge sites are usually a combination of waterlogging and salinity.
 Potential productivity
Treated saltland can become a valuable resource Where summer growing species are used, the
providing green feed during summer and autumn production potential is greater in summer rainfall
when there is usually little or no green feed on offer areas and waterlogged sites. Water use and the
in the central and southern areas of NSW. Saltland possibility of lowering watertables and reducing
pasture can provide the advantage of having green salinisation also have greater potential.
feed to finish animals, for example lambs or weaner
steers.
 Monitoring discharge sites

Why monitor discharge sites? Methods of monitoring
At some sites, the saline discharge area may increase discharge sites
rapidly, especially if the watertable rises after a In order to gauge the changes in the severity and
series of wet winters or summer storms. Although extent of salt affected land over time, it is essential
changes in cropping and pasture boundaries over to monitor a number of components. If a greater
time may indicate the rate of spread, in many cases range of methods is used to gather site information
the landowner is unclear whether the area of salt more confident conclusions can be drawn from the
affected land is increasing and if so, at what rate. data.
Monitoring discharge areas allows the effectiveness
of management options to be assessed objectively.
Using the data collected, the risk of salinity can be
related to the best solution to the problem and
the effectiveness of
site treatment can be
monitored.
Always consider
the influence of
climatic trends
when monitoring
the changes to a
saltland area over
time. An event such
as an extended
drought may have
the greatest influence
on the successes and
failures of saltland
management. Climate
change, as a result
of global warming, is
also likely to have an
effect—another reason
for monitoring the
rehabilitation of saline
areas.
Figure 15.3: The strategic location of groundwater monitoring points across a salt affected site.
Source: Brouwer (2001)
14
15
Groundwater monitoring EM should be calibrated using soil tests to gain
(also see Chapter 13 – Monitoring groundwater). accurate point information and can also be used
to validate other changes observed on site such as
When groundwater is within approximately vegetation cover and species change.
3 m of the soil surface, salinity problems can
begin to develop (PIRSA 2001). Dryland salinity It is important to understand that EM instruments
is a groundwater driven process and data on respond to soil texture, moisture and organic matter
groundwater depth, salinity and trends over time is as well as salt content. Therefore ECa readings
useful for resource management. will vary in response to seasonal conditions. EM
technology is useful for farm planners (consultants),
Monitoring bores (piezometers or testwells) resource managers and researchers. Consultants
placed across a saline site can measure any rise and researchers usually carry out the EM surveys
and fall of local watertables. This data can then be because of the specialised interpretation required
used to assess the effectiveness of recharge and (Martin and Metcalf 1998).
discharge control and any attempts to use surface
and groundwater before it contributes to saline Soil sampling
discharge. (also see Chapter 12 – Soil Testing)
Groundwater depth and quality measurements, The soil of a site is sampled for many reasons
taken from the centre of the site radially towards including to monitor current soil pH, salinity and
the perimeter, help to build a picture of the sodicity. Sampling can also check and calibrate
interaction between groundwater movement and monitoring methods such as electromagnetic
saline discharge within the landscape. A network induction surveys and vegetation surveys.
of monitoring bores across the site as shown in
Figure 15.3 is ideal. However, even data that has Periodic soil sampling can give a good indication
been taken from only a small number of sources, of change over time. However it is important to
but consistently over time, is of value. recognise that seasonal changes can impact on
soils. For example, soil salinity (ECe) may fluctuate
Vegetation assessment in response to recent application of fertiliser or
(also see Chapter 9 – Identifying and investigating a gypsum; or to rainfall due to movement of salt by
saline site). leaching and run-off. This means the results from soil
tests are only valid at the time they were taken and
Vegetation is an excellent environmental indicator should be interpreted in the light of recent weather
of the soil conditions across a site. It is very useful and management.
to record the presence, absence and composition
of salt tolerant and salt sensitive vegetation and the Soil samples may be taken from a range of depths
boundary where vegetation composition changes in and points across a site depending on the factor
response to salinity. Changes in species can indicate being monitored. Sampling for types of salts present
a change in the severity of the problem or a change may only require sampling of the surface soil, but
in the size of problem. For example, annual ryegrass monitoring changes in ECe concentration over
may die out and be replaced by sea barley grass time may require samples from a range of depths.
when a site becomes highly saline. Sampling at varying depths can build up a picture of
the movement of salt within the soil profile and the
Changes in vegetation can also indicate major presence of salt bulges3 (see Chapter 1).
variation in soil conditions across the site. These
may require different management approaches. Climate
For example, replacement of waterlogging tolerant Climate should be considered when assessing saline
rather than salt tolerant plant species may indicate sites. Reliable and accurate climatic data assist
longer duration of wet conditions. management decisions and enhance understanding
of groundwater processes. Information such as
Electromagnetic induction (EM) recent rainfall is needed to interpret accurately other
(also see Chapter 10 – Salinity assessment and data from sources such as soil tests and monitoring
management planning). bores (see Chapter 13 - Monitoring groundwater).
This method involves using an electric pulse to Climate should be considered when selecting
assess the apparent electrical conductivity of soils. saltland pasture mixes, particularly rainfall (its
EM is useful to develop a picture of where the amount and seasonality) and frosts (their timing and
ground is highly conductive, such as saline, clay or severity). A northern NSW climate that has largely
wet ground. This method can be used at regular episodic, summer-dominant rainfall means some
intervals (i.e. annually or every five years) to estimate tropical grass species can be included in a saltland
changes in the extent or severity of saltland sites. pasture mix. These pastures would probably fail in
15
15
southern NSW where the rainfall is winter-dominant (although this may take decades to appear). It may
and less supportive of warm season pasture growth. also be a guide as to what treatments may be more
suitable or which ones have failed already.
Understanding the influence of climate is useful
when deciding if waterlogging on a site is a
Visual record
result of a shallow watertable or due to poor soil
drainage. For example, if an area is wet in summer (also see Chapter 10 – Salinity assessment tools)
after an extended dry period; shallow or perched Photographs of the landscape can be taken from
groundwater is the likely cause of waterlogging set monitoring points. Repeated photography on
rather than poor drainage. subsequent visits provides a visual objective record
of progress on the site. For example ‘poor pasture
Site history/previous land management establishment’ may be interpreted differently by
(also see Chapter 10 – Salinity assessment tools) various people but a photograph shows exactly
what is meant.
Information on site history is usually collected
from the landholder at the initial visit. Compiling Visual records may be taken on a larger scale
historical data such as: previous landuse and e.g. aerial photography. Aerial photographs are
surrounding landuse changes, ameliorants added, useful for monitoring purposes as they can show
changes observed, past treatments attempted, past the extent of salinity on a site (Plate 15.8) and
soil test results or previous groundwater data sets progress towards its control. Aerial photographs
is useful in detecting possible causes of salinity can reveal problem areas that may not be obvious
and placing the outbreak in context. from the ground, due to physical restraints such
as topography or size of the area involved. Aerial
This information is required to establish a picture
photographs are often commercially available at the
of how the site has developed and if past events
NSW Government, Department of Lands.
have contributed to current processes e.g. the
development of salinity soon after broad-scale http://www.lpma.nsw.gov.au/survey_and_maps/
clearing of trees and native vegetation in the area maps_and_imagery/aerial_photography
Plate 15.8: This site on the outskirts of Forbes is a saline discharge site. The extent and effects on the surrounding land are
easily quantified.
Source: DLWC Cowra (1990)
 Endnotes
1
Salt scald: Area of land that has become bare due to salinity-induced loss of vegetation or erosion.
2
Saltland pastures: Pastures growing in saline soil e.g. saltbush, puccinellia, tall wheatgrass.
3
Salt bulge: An increased concentration of salt in the profile with depth due to an historic event e.g. cyclic, connate, aeolian or rock
weathering; or due to redistribution of salt from leaching.
16
15


The key points relevant to managing discharge sites are: Brown, N & Green, T 1999, Does my soil need gypsum? Chapter
 Discharge site management only deals with the symptom B4, NSW Agriculture Soilpak.
of salinity and not the cause. A simultaneous approach, Clements, B, Ayres, L, Langford, C, McGarva, L, Simpson, P,
long-term and across the total catchment is necessary to Hennessy, G, Keys, M, Upjohn, B & Leech, F 2003, The
control groundwater recharge and complement any discharge grazier’s guide to pastures, NSW Department of Primary Industries.
actions. Department of Primary Industries 2002, Which liming material is
 Discharge site management becomes necessary when best? Department of Primary Industries, viewed 13 October 2009,
recharge management is restricted or recharge areas are http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/soil-acid/ss592-liming-
difficult to identify. material.htm
 Saline discharge areas have high watertables and a high Masters, D, Edwards, N, Sillence, M, Avery, A, Revell, D, Friend,
concentration of salt close to the soil surface. M, Sanford, P, Saul, G, Beverly, C & Young, J 2006, ‘The role
 Management strategies on a discharge site are site specific. of livestock in the management of dryland salinity’, Australian
Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 46(7), pp. 733–741, CSIRO.
 Tools for management of discharge sites include: fencing
of saltland, engineering options, site preparation, planting Marcar, N, Crawford, D, Leppert, P, Jovanovic, T, Floyd, R & Farrow, R
suitable salt tolerant vegetation, mulching scalded soils, 1995, Trees for saltland: a guide to selecting native
mounding on waterlogged saline sites, treatment at the species for Australia, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
perimeter of the discharge site, adding fertiliser and soil NDSP 2003, Tools for improved management of dryland salinity
amendments and strategic grazing management. in the Murray-Darling Basin, Information Sheet E4, Engineering
 Severity of salinity and waterlogging will vary across a strategies, National Dryland Salinity Program MDBC.
discharge site. Using a ‘shotgun mix’ of salt tolerant species NSW Agriculture 2004, Pasture production for livestock,
will improve a species’ chances of finding its niche. establishing and managing profitable pastures in the Upper Hunter,
th
North West Slopes, and Northern Tablelands. 5 edn.
Further information Stirzaker, R, Lofroy, T, Keating, B & Williams, J 2000, A revolution in
Further information to assist you in measuring salinity can be land use: emerging land use systems for managing dryland salinity,
obtained from: CSIRO Land and Water.
nd
Industry and Investment NSW Taylor, S 1996, Dryland Salinity, Introductory Extension Notes, 2
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) edition, Department of Land and Water Conservation.
District Agronomists Walker, G, Gilfedder, M & Williams, J 1999, Effectiveness of
Pasture Specialists Current Farming Systems in the Control of Dryland salinity, CSIRO.
Catchment Management Authorities The State of QLD (Department of Natural Resources and Mines)
Community Support Officers 2001, Managing Salinity with Vegetation, NRM Facts L54, Natural
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water Resource Sciences, QLD.
(DECCW) The State of QLD (Department of Natural Resources and Mines)
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors 2001, Production from Salty Lands, NRM Facts L56, Natural
Resource Sciences, QLD.
Upjohn, B, Fenton, G & Conyers, M 2005, Soil acidity and liming,
Agfact AC.19, NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Websites
Government of Western Australia – Department of Agriculture
and Food, viewed 18 June 2010, http://www.agric.wa.gov.
au/PC_92344.html?s=1176353413
The SGSL producer network in New South Wales, viewed 18 June
2009, http://lwa.gov.au/projects/222
17
15
 References
Anderson, JD, Britten, R & Francis, J 1993, Dryland salinity— the PIRSA 2001, Saltbush for Saline Soils, Primary Industries and
causes. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Resources of South Australia: Adelaide.
Sydney. PIRSA 2002, Trees and shrubs for salint sites, Primary Industries
Barrett-Lennard, EG, Malcolm, CV & Bathgate, A 2003, Saltland and Resources of South Australia, Adelaide, SA.
pastures in Australia: a practical guide, Land, Water & Wool Powell, J 2004, Dryland salinity: on-farm decisions and catchment
Sustainable Grazing on Saline Lands Sub-program, Perth, WA. outcomes: a guide for leading producers and advisors, Land & Water
Brouwer, DW 2001, Dryland salinity: the farmer’s guide, NSW Australia, Canberra, ACT.
Agriculture, Paterson, NSW. QDNR 1997, Salinity management handbook, Queensland
Daniells, I, Brown, R & Deegan, L (eds.) 1994, Northern Wheat- Department of Natural Resources, Indooroopilly.
Belt SOILpak : a soil management package for dryland farming in the Sainty & Associates 2006, SALTdeck, Sainty & Associates Pty Ltd
summer rainfall zone, NSW Agriculture, Tamworth, NSW. and Land & Water Australia: Sydney, NSW.
Fogarty, P, Francis, J Wild, B 1993, Dryland salinity – 2: How Salt Action 1993, Dryland salinity series, Department of
severe is your discharge area? Department of Conservation and Conservation and Land Management, Sydney, NSW.
Land Management.
Semple, B 2003, Review of saline seepage scalds and their
Leech, F & Slinger, D 2004, Pasture establishment and management revegation in central western NSW, Department of Infrastructure,
of saline affected areas in the Tablelands and Slopes of New South Planning and Natural Resources, Central Western Region, Orange,
Wales (unpublished). In. NSW Department of Primary Industries. NSW.
Martin, L & Metcalf, J 1998, Assessing the causes, impacts cost
and management of dryland salinity, Land and Water Resources
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, ACT.
Nichols, C, 1998, Establishing and managing tall wheat grass in
saline soils for productivity, Agnote AG0707, Victorian
Department of Primary Industries, viewed 7 February 2012,
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~millcar/images/Establishing%20and%2
0managing%20tall%20wheat.pdf
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16
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Considerations when increasing perenniality............................................................................................................................................................ 2
 Managing granite geology.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Opportunities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Limitations .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Hill crests and upper slopes......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Midslopes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Lower slopes and plains .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
 Managing metasedimentary geology ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

Opportunities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Limitations .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Midslopes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Managing basalt geology ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Opportunities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Limitations .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Midslopes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
 Managing unconsolidated sedimentary (alluvial) geology.......................................................................................................................................................... 8

Opportunities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Limitations .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Dryland areas ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Irrigation areas .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
 Managing consolidated sedimentary geology ..................................................................................................................................................... 10

Opportunities .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Limitations ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Hill crests and upper slopes...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Midslopes .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Lower slopes and plains ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
 General best management for agricultural landscapes ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
 Managing urban landscapes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Urban development considerations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Managing existing urban salinity ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1
16
 Introduction
This chapter looks at how vegetation can reduce recharge and where best to place vegetation in the
landscape. It considers how to reduce recharge in saline, but not non-saline, environments. Biological recharge
reduction is not recommended in non-saline areas where the groundwater and surface water are of good
quality and therefore better used replenishing rivers, dams and groundwater systems (see Chapter 3 – The
Hydrological Cycle).
The type of vegetation selected for recharge control depends on climate, geology, groundwater quality, soil
type, livestock requirements, aspect and landscape position (whether hill crest; upper, mid, or lower slope, or
plain).
The type of groundwater flow system (see Chapter 4) is a factor in choosing the method for salinity
management whether it be: biological recharge reduction, engineering options for managing shallow
watertables (see Chapter 17), or adapting to saline agriculture (see Chapter 15) (NDSP 2007).
The effectiveness of biological salinity control depends on both the level of recharge reduction required for
sustainability and the delay before results occur (NDSP 2007).
Considerations when Robustness: Is it capable of expanding to fill gaps in

feed to take advantage of favourable conditions as
increasing perenniality well as coping with changes in the climate cycle.
Vegetation actions in saline areas should be aimed
at mimicking pre-European characteristics of the Diversity: Providing a wide range of vegetation
landscape by promoting perennial and diverse types over the landscape ensures that it is most
species. Factors that should be well thought- adaptable to varying conditions such as soil and
out when considering perennial vegetation for a geology, and changes in production requirements.
landscape are: A range of water-use characteristics across seasons
and climatic cycles is best.
Resilience: How well the vegetation can cope with
the extremes of climate, and even of soil. Can it Revegetation of non-agricultural land: Re-
survive in sub-optimal conditions such as prolonged establishment of woodlands, grasslands and forest
dry periods? For example, lucerne is more resilient to areas with appropriate species to reduce recharge
low rainfall than fescue. may be an option.
 Managing granite geology

Opportunities Granite example:
• Groundwater systems are local from Southern NSW in the Wagga/Albury Region.
• Management of discharge in local groundwater The break-of-slope is the highest priority for the
systems is often quite successful implementation of control works as most of the
water falling on the upper slopes will move laterally
• Target tree belts and perennial pastures e.g. through this point either as lateral groundwater
lucerne, can intercept shallow lateral flow flow or run-off. Soils at the break-of-slope in
• Can use water at source where it is still fresh as granite landscapes are often deeper and have
granite generally has low salt stores. more developed profiles, which provide a better
opportunity for deep-rooted perennial vegetation
Limitation (Figure 16.1) to intercept flows from the upper
slopes. Limited water use capacity due to shallow,
The interception zone (where the targeted tree belt
skeletal soil conditions (present on the upper slope)
can be planted) is not always at a consistent point
does not apply at the break-of-slope, so deep-rooted
in the landscape. In most granite landscapes the
species can develop more fully to maximise water
interception zone is at the bottom of the slope or at
use. In this way maximum water use is achieved at
the break-of-slope. Whereas in colluvial1 slopes the
minimal cost.
interception zone may be at the top of the slope
where discharge occurs because of soil texture
change.
Hill crests and upper slopes
It is highly desirable to maintain any existing healthy
stands of remnant native vegetation on the upper
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Break-of-slope
Figure 16.1: Targeting vegetation systems on granite landscapes for optimum recharge control.
Source: Adapted from Walker, Gilfedder & Williams (1999)
Midslopes
The convex break-of-slope (Figure 16.1) is the
highest priority area for managing recharge in
granite landscapes.
Water that has entered the soil profile on the
hillcrests and has exceeded the storage capacity
of the shallow soil and plant requirements, flows
through this area and often banks up when it
reaches the heavier textured soils downslope.
Sometimes it builds up to the point of discharging
at the ground surface. Soils tend to be deeper, more
developed and well structured at the midslope so an
opportunity exists to intercept the lateral flows with
parts of the landscape. They are significant from a high water use species such as trees and shrubs.
biodiversity perspective, plus from a salinity point Well-targeted plantings of native woody vegetation
of view they are often the most effective water or forestry species (where viable) on midslopes can
use option for that area to intercept rainfall before intercept water from upslope and are also more
it leaks. Due to the shallow soils, underlying hard likely to reach their growth and water use potential
rock, and difficulties with terrain, options such as as growing conditions are much more favourable.
extensive revegetation or pasture establishment are Root depth and soil waterholding capacity are
often not practical or viable. Established vegetation greatly increased as soils deepen and contain more
of local provenance is best adapted to the harsh clay.
growing conditions, is valuable and should be
maintained.
In some cases where conditions allow, enhancement
of remnant stands or complete revegetation may
improve water use. This may involve supplementing
existing vegetation with understorey species or
other suitable species or planting a new stand.
Vegetation on the hill crests and upper slopes has
only a limited opportunity to use water as the water
generally moves rapidly through this landscape
and the shallow soils have a low waterholding
capacity. The excess water moves laterally above the
underlying rock down to the midslope and break-of-
slope.
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Species selected for midslope planting should be
based on water use characteristics in conjunction
with other desirable traits such as commercial
value (agroforestry), production, provenance2 and
biodiversity benefits.
The midslope areas are often more arable and
have a greater productivity potential so perennial
pastures also become an option. Perennial pasture
species should be used to increase water use,
especially around break-of-slope areas, but also
across the midlopes as a whole.
Perennial pastures are a good option for
intercepting water where it falls across the
midslopes and not just for targeted interception
of lateral flows. Perennial pastures can be used means that woody vegetation for recharge control
on a much larger scale as they are cheaper and is not popular. Perennial pastures are a good high
easier to establish than trees and shrubs. Perennial water use alternative either in a grazing system or
pastures have productivity gains and often lower in rotation with cropping. Changing from annual-
opportunity costs, which supports their establishment based systems to perennials increases water use and
on a larger scale. Although they do not use as much reduces the amount of recharge that occurs on
water as tree and shrub species, perennial pastures these areas.
can result in significant cumulative benefits in areas
Where cropping or pasture systems are based on
that are treated (see Chapter 14).
annual species, extending the rooting depth and
growing season length will also increase water use.
Lower slopes and plains Salt tolerant species and controlled grazing are
Lower slopes and plains areas in granite landscapes advisable on saline discharge sites (see Chapter 15).
are often productive agricultural areas. Water
tends to move more slowly due to heavier, deeper Engineering options such as diverting water around
soils. There is less influence from slope, therefore saline sites or groundwater pumping to protect high
water must be used where it falls to prevent direct value assets may be applicable at this point in the
recharge. Woody vegetation is still the highest water landscape. However many issues should be taken
use option for this area. However; the suitability of into account before any option is implemented (see
the lower slopes and plains for agriculture often Chapter 17).
 Managing metasedimentary geology

Opportunities • There is only weak correlation between salt load
and stream salinity e.g. low amounts of total in-
• Groundwater systems are local, so are easier to
stream salt come from surface run-off.
control than intermediate and regional.
• A lot of salt comes from baseflow3.
• Recharge usually occurs over a large percentage
of the landscape. However sometimes there are • Metasedimentary landscapes generally have
small areas with a high percentage recharge. The medium to high salt stores.
more targeted the action the more assessment
• Soil limitations e.g. some parts of the landscape
that is required.
have very shallow soils in which it is difficult to
• Usually discharge is a small percentage over the establish deep-rooted perennial vegetation.
total landscape.
Metasedimentary/metavolcanic
• Recharge should be tackled over the entire
(fractured) rock example:
landscape.
from central NSW in the Wellington/Cowra Region.
Limitations The priority for addressing recharge on
• Strong geological structures e.g. fault zones can metasedimentary landscapes (Figure 16.2) is to use
direct a lot of water in a concentrated area, water where it falls. In most cases this involves using
which may run through very productive land. deep-rooted perennial vegetation, which is effective
at using water and drying out the soil profile. On
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Figure 16.2: Targeting vegetation systems on metasedimentary landscapes for optimum recharge control.
Source: Walker, Gilfedder & Williams (1999)
high relief landscapes this becomes more difficult. than laterally, so once it has moved past the root
However, if conditions allow, it is important that zone the opportunity for use by plants further down
recharge should be controlled on hillcrests and the watershed is mostly lost. Deep-rooted woody
upper slopes as well at the break-of-slope. This is vegetation (either locally native or forestry species)
because the opportunity that exists with granite is the best option for maximising water use. Woody
landscapes to intercept water fallen higher in the vegetation has a greater ability to extract moisture
catchment as run-off and lateral flow does not exist in metasedimentary landscapes than in granite
to the same extent in a metasedimentary landscape landscapes as the plants can get their roots down
due to higher leakage rates into the fractured parent into the fractures in the rock and can therefore
material. potentially draw from a larger area and a greater
depth. Where possible, remnant woody vegetation
Hill crests and upper slopes and native pastures should be maintained and
This is the highest priority area for addressing revegetation should be undertaken to maximise
recharge on metasedimentary landscapes. Soils water use in these landscapes.
are shallow so parent rock is close to the surface
and often exposed, meaning soil waterholding Midslopes
capacity is low. Due to the highly fractured nature Some water will still move laterally down slopes
of the rock, water can easily penetrate and leak with steeper gradients and therefore interception
past plant root zones and down into watertables. plantings of woody vegetation can be used around
Therefore, there is only a limited opportunity to the break-of-slope. However, the opportunity
capture it where it falls. Unlike granite landscapes, to intercept lateral flows is less than in granite
the water moves in a downwards direction rather landscapes, so broadscale recharge interception
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is more appropriate than targeting specific areas.
Many other aspects of management for this section
of the landscape are similar to the midslopes of
granitic landscapes. As with granite landscapes, the
midslopes are often more arable and have a greater
productivity potential than upper slopes and hill
crests so perennial pastures become important.
Perennial pasture species should be used to increase
water use where it falls. As with granite landscapes,
perennial pastures can be used on a much larger
scale as they are cheaper and easier to establish
than trees and shrubs. They also have productivity
gains and lower opportunity costs so are more likely
to be implemented on a larger scale. Although they in a grazing system or in rotation with a cropping
do not use as much water as tree and shrub species, system. Changing from annual-based systems to
the larger areas that can be treated can result in perennials increases water use and reduces the
significant cumulative benefits. amount of recharge occurring on these areas.
Lower slopes and plains On lower slopes and plains in granite and
metasedimentary landscapes, the emphasis is on
The lower slopes and plains in metasedimentary
extending the rooting depth and growing season
landscapes are often highly productive agricultural
length to improve water use. Salt tolerant species
areas. Water tends to move more slowly due to
and controlled grazing are advisable on saline
heavier, deeper soils and less influence from slope.
discharge sites (see Chapter 15).
Water must again be used where it falls to prevent
recharge. Woody vegetation is still the highest water Again, engineering options such as diverting
use option for this area but the suitability of the water around saline sites or groundwater pumping
lower slopes and plains for agriculture often means to protect high value assets may be applicable
that woody vegetation is not popular. Perennial at this point in the landscape. However, many
pastures are a good high water use option either considerations should be taken into account before
they are implemented (see Chapter 17).
 Managing basalt geology

Opportunities The depth of soil covering basalt landscapes will
increase as you move from hill crests to plains
• The discharge site at the interface between basalt
on colluvial slopes. As a consequence of the
cap and underlying geology is usually easily
permeable nature of some basalt geology, recharge
located and, due to its local nature, is relatively
management is vital (Figure 16.3). The use of deep-
easily managed.
rooted perennial vegetation in high relief and break-
• Water within a basalt landscape is usually of good of-slope areas assist in the use of water as it enters
quality. the system or moves laterally. Using more water
on the hill crests and upper slopes can minimise
• Groundwater is often a valuable asset used for
water supply and irrigation. the chances of discharge on the lower slopes by
reducing the amount of water moving through the
landscape.
Limitations
• The best and most highly productive soils are From an agronomic point of view, it is important to
usually on the top of the cap, unlike granites and identify where water moves rapidly in the landscape
fractured metasedimentary rock where the more (Ringrose-Voase, et al. 2003). Areas such as shallow
productive soils are usually in the lower parts of soils, rocky outcrops, poor vegetation cover and
the landscape. light-textured soils are high risk areas for rapid water
movement. These areas can be targeted to use more
• Many discharge sites are waterlogged. water, resulting in less recharge to the groundwater
system.
Basalt example:
from the eastern half of central NSW e.g. Orange/ Most of the management options outlined in the
Crookwell/Dubbo Regions. metasedimentary landscapes section of this chapter
apply equally to basalt landscape management.
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Figure 16.3: Targeting vegetation systems on basalt landscapes for optimum recharge control.
Hill crests and upper slopes Midslopes

Like metasedimentary systems, basalt landscapes Groundwater discharge is common in this part
tend to be highly fractured and permeable systems of the landscape and is often fresh. When high
where water moves through joints and fractures. concentrations of salt are mobilised, barren
For this reason it is a priority to use water where saline areas of land often appear downslope. It is
it falls to limit leakage past the plant root zone. important to continue to use available moisture
Groundwater recharge in hill crests may be reduced in the midslopes to reduce rising groundwater
by returning this part of the landscape to deep pressure and the potential for discharge further
rooted perennial pastures and woodland. Using down slope. Saline seeps should be fenced off to
plantation forestry for production is another worthy promote groundcover (Chapter 15). Drainage lines
option. These vegetation systems are the most should be kept well vegetated to avoid soil erosion.
efficient at utilising rainfall and reducing leakage,
especially where soils are shallow and lighter
textured or where parent material is close to or
exposed at the land surface.
Research indicates that well-managed diverse
pastures can also use available rainfall efficiently,
hence reducing the amount of water recharging
groundwater stores.
It is also important to avoid extended annual

crop phases in this zone. Vegetation types that
achieve year round green leaf and efficient water
use will enhance groundcover and organic matter
accumulation, which in turn reduce run-off, erosion
and soil nutrient loss. Options may include a
combination of tree belts and well-managed
perennial pasture (native or introduced, see Chapter
14) and intermittent crop phases.
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16
Lower slopes and plains
Within the lower parts of a landscape, efficient use
of soil moisture is essential to prevent leakage.
Suitable crop and pasture phases should be used.
Perennial pastures may be incorporated into
cropping rotations. For example, perennial grass or
legume pastures can be sown (legumes provide the
added benefit of nitrogen fixation). If deep-rooted
pasture species such as lucerne are used, moisture
in the soil profile below the general rooting depth
of crops can be accessed. This will provide a deeper
soil moisture buffer. For example, lucerne may
have a rooting depth of up to 400 cm in these good
soils compared to 160 cm for a wheat crop. This is a recharge (see Chapter 14 for additional perennials).
difference of 240 cm of stored soil moisture that can Note that these rooting depths can only be reached
be used by lucerne in a rotation. This also provides in deeper soils and where there are no subsoil
an additional buffer of 240 cm of dry soil, which constraints.
during wet years may help reduce groundwater
 Managing unconsolidated sedimentary

(alluvial) geology
Opportunities Dryland areas
• Eastern NSW has small local groundwater systems Management practices for dryland areas in
with fast response times so are relatively easy to unconsolidated landscapes are very similar to
control. those for lower slopes and plains of granitic,
metasedimentary and basaltic landscapes. Lack
• There is potential for groundwater pumping.
of significant gradient means water penetrates
• Raised beds may be useful where perched vertically, so any options to use more water where
watertables occur. it falls is recommended. The focus is on increased
water use through:
• There is potential to plant saltbush (saline
agriculture) on the Riverine plain. This is not a • increased perenniality
suitable option east of the 360 mm rainfall area
• maximising length of plant growing seasons
i.e. if rainfall is greater than 360mm.
• maximising root depth and plant growth
Limitation • improved land management strategies to
• Large regional systems in western NSW have a maximise soil structure and health.
long response time so it is harder to control the
effectsof salinity. Unconsolidated landscapes are productive and
arable broadscale agricultural areas. Woody
Unconsolidated sedimentary example: vegetation is still the highest water use option for
from the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area in south this area however the suitability of these areas for
western NSW between Narrandera and Balranald. agriculture often means that the land is used for
other purposes. Perennial pastures are a good high
Management of unconsolidated landscapes for water use option, either in a grazing system or in
recharge control can be separated into dryland and rotation with a cropping system. Changing from
irrigated systems. Priority for both systems is still to annual-based systems to perennials increases water
minimise the amount of water leaking below the use and reduces the amount of recharge
plant root zone. However, dryland control focuses on occurring on these areas.
maximising use of rainfall through species selection
and management practices, while irrigation control Where cropping is based on annual species or
focuses on improving efficiency of irrigation where annual pastures dominate, water use can be
practices and infrastructure. increased by maximising growth, rooting depth and
growing season length.
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Irrigation areas
In irrigation areas the focus is on more efficient use
of the water that is being added to the landscape
for agricultural purposes (Figure 16.4). The objective
is to only use as much water as is required to grow
a particular crop/pasture (optimise water use) and
to not let excess water leak past the root zone to the
groundwater. This involves maximising efficiencies
in transferring water to the area to be irrigated
(reducing seepage from channels and storages) as
well as in the irrigation practices themselves. Land and
water management plans (LWMPs) were developed
in many irrigation areas to increase the efficiency of
water use. Plate 16.1 Large open irrigation channels.
Source: Kathy Tenison, I&I NSW (2010)
LWMPs provided individual landholders with
a practical property management tool to plan
and review an irrigation enterprise, and identify
and manage risks to land and water associated
with irrigation practices. They also recorded and
measured continuous improvement, demonstrating
to third parties that risks associated with the farming
operation are being managed (Cowan 2007).
I&I NSW provide information on Irrigation Drainage
Management Plans (IDMP). An IDMP identifies the
works and practices that will improve irrigation and
drainage management and water use efficiency
for an irrigation farm. Details of these plans can be
viewed at: <http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/
resources/water/irrigation/idmp/prepare> Plate 16.2 Recycling and storage dam.
Source: Saud Akbar, NSW DPI (2005)
Channels and storages (see Plates 16.1 and 16.2)
need to be constructed to minimise the water
Best management practice should ensure that
lost from them through leakage. This may involve
recharge under irrigation is minimised. This includes
locating them only on suitably impermeable soils
a combination of monitoring and best practice to
(suitable clays), lining them with suitable clays
make sure water is matched to plant requirements.
to provide a barrier between the water and the
Examples are:
permeable soils below, or in the case of channels,
possibly piping to prevent leakage altogether. • Soil surveying and soil moisture sampling to
determine soil types and waterholding properties
Figure 16.4: Recharge management in an irrigated unconsolidated sedimentary landscape.

9
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so that appropriate irrigation methods can • Designing a reticulation system to catch any
be used. For example, on sandy soils with low excess water from irrigation and store it to be
waterholding capacity where water penetrates used again. Alternatively, blocks of high water
rapidly, flood irrigation would be inappropriate use trees and shrubs can be planted at the end of
since much of the water would leak before plants bays to use up any excess water.
have had an opportunity to use it. On sandy
• Irrigate using existing groundwater where quality
soils, irrigation by sprays or drip might be more
allows. This can lower watertables and avoids
efficient.
adding new water, and therefore salt, to the
• Laser levelling and adjusting size of bays when system.
flood irrigating to optimise availability of water to
• Engineering options such as surface and
plants whilst minimising the water required and
subsurface drainage or groundwater pumping
the length of time water needs to be on each bay.
to protect high value assets may be applicable
This avoids water lying on areas, giving it less
in this landscape. However, many other
time to infiltrate and leak past plant root zones.
considerations such as disposal of drainage
• Scheduling irrigation when plants require water water must be taken into account before
rather than at set intervals to make sure that engineering options are implemented (see
water being added to the soil will be used rather Chapter 17).
than being lost as leakage.
 Managing consolidated sedimentary geology
Figure 16.5: Targeting vegetation systems on a Consolidated Sedimentary Rock landscapes for optimum recharge control.
Opportunities flat-lying structure (e.g. in the Saxa area near

4 Wellington there maybe up to seven discharges
• In massive units, recharge occurs only at specific
down a landscape).
points in the landscape with discharge at the
break-of-slope, in flow lines, and at specific points • Water often recharges quickly and remains fresh
in landscape. in massive sandstone units. However lithological5
units including coal seams or shale layers
• In horizontally bedded consolidated sedimentary
contain high salt stores that can lead to highly
landscapes, discharge sites occur at various
saline discharge.
places down the slope, often determined
by the permeability of the bedding planes. • Discharge areas in these landscapes require
Targeted interception plantings are required specific treatment or targeted work (e.g.
in this situation. The more targeted the action, interception tree belts). These specific treatments
the more assessment that is required. There are are often high value investments. They are most
often many discharge sequences in a usually likely to be used where geology is well known
10
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and therefore where investment of funds is of Midslopes
most value.
In consolidated sedimentary landscapes, discharge
(often saline) occurs in midslopes at sudden changes
Limitations in the permeability of the bedding planes. Available
• Terrain can be rugged in escarpment country. moisture should be used and vertical recharge
Salty systems are often large and difficult to reduced in order to prevent salt transfer to flow
manage. lines via overland flow. These are usually local
• In higher rainfall districts, water moves through groundwater flow systems and have shown good
the system much faster than it can be used by response to targeted treatment.
vegetation. Interception plantings are a useful tool to reduce
• Often these landscapes are intensively cropped overland flows. Perennial pastures and forestry
(e.g. Saxa north of Wellington) with little perennial planting between outbreak sites assist in limiting
pasture. vertical recharge. If discharge sites are saline, some
form of saline pasture or forestry may be used to
• Sodic soils are a major issue in some landscapes make use of the salty water.
and pH in some soils (Pilliga landscapes are
highly acid). Lower slopes and plains
• Poor soil health often limits effectiveness of water
use by vegetation. Similar methods used on midslope discharge areas
can also be applied to the lower slopes and plains.
Central West examples: The emphasis is to minimise saline run-off into
flowlines. Discharge management options including
Pilliga sandstone units of the Central West; Permian
saltbush and saline agroforestry (see Chapter 18)
sediments around Rylstone; and horizontally bedded
have been used effectively in these areas. Salt
sequences to the north of Wellington (Purlewaugh,
tolerant species and controlled grazing are advisable
Napperby and Ballimore units)
on saline discharge sites (see Chapter 15).
Hill crests and upper slopes Some of these areas have exceptionally large EC
In hill crests and upper slopes, recharge control is contribution in wet times. For example, four small
important. Existing stands of remnant vegetation catchments in the Central West contribute 25% of
should be preserved and farm forestry options the total salt load to the Macquarie River.
may be applicable. In grazed areas, well managed
perennial pastures should be established.
 General best management for

agricultural landscapes
Grazing management is important on all sections grazing of native pastures (see Chapter 14) can help
of the landscape. Where pasture improvements and reduce weed competition and encourage desirable
renovation are not possible, such as on hill crests, perennial species by targeting undesirable species at
grazing management is critical as it is the only vulnerable stages and avoiding desirable species at
real management technique available. Strategic important times such as establishment and seed set.
Plate 16.3: Applying lime. Plate16.4: Overgrazing a saline paddock is not recommended.
Source: Brian Dunn, NSW DPI (2006) Source: Nicole Gammie, CMA (2006)
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Strategic grazing of introduced perennial pastures Cropping best management techniques should be
should be used to maintain pasture health and used on all landscapes to maintain soil structure
retain perennial composition. and plant health. Fertility and constraints such as
acidity and sodicity should be addressed to ensure
Grazing is a useful tool to optimise pasture growth
plant growth and rooting depth are maximised.
by keeping plants in their high water use stage for
Maintaining good soil structure is very important
longer. This means avoiding overgrazing but making
as it increases the waterholding capacity of soil,
sure plants are grazed before they die or become
allows easier plant establishment, improves the
dormant.
growth of desirable plant species and helps to
Pasture requirements such as fertility and constraints prevent land degradation such as erosion. Excessive
such as acidity (Plate 16.3) and sodicity should cultivation and overgrazing (Plate 16.4) should
be addressed to ensure pastures can perform to be avoided to minimise structure decline and
their full potential from water use and productivity compaction. Practices such as stubble incorporation,
perspectives. High water use species become less stubble retention and minimum tillage should be
effective if growing conditions are limited by any of encouraged to increase soil organic matter.
these factors.
 Managing urban landscapes

As with dryland salinity, urban salinity is caused by a • improve the design of stormwater drainage to
combination of excess water and salt. Salt is soluble balance flooding, salinity and water quality issues.
in water and can be carried with it as water gains
access to infrastructure or buildings. When water Urban development considerations
evaporates, salt crystallises and can cause physical The design, construction and management of
stress in the material as the crystals expand (McGhie stormwater, town water sewerage systems, road
2003). networks, buildings, parks and gardens may affect
Recommended management practices that reduce salinity and watertables. Examples are:
urban recharge include: • the soil profile is altered by cut, fill and
• practise water conservation techniques by compaction in new developments (see Plate 16.6
matching water application and Figures 16.6 and 16.7)
to plant needs
• mulch to reduce
evaporation from the soil
surface and improve soil
structure
• identify and repair leaky
water and sewerage
systems
• reduce the need for
irrigation by using water-
wise plants and reducing
lawn areas
• remove stormwater
infiltration devices such as
rubble/soakage pits
• select suitable plant
species matched to
the local environment
(endemic natives) (Plate
16.5)
• fix leaking structures such
as swimming pools, tanks
and dams Plate16.5: A demonstration waterwise nature strip is part of
urban salinity management in Wagga Wagga.
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Figure 16.7: Groundwater flow is obstructed by retaining walls and

Plate 16.6: Water flow is obstructed by urban development. The is closer to the surface in areas where soil has been removed to
retaining wall shows signs of seepage and salinity. make a flat surface for building construction.
Source: DLWC (2002) Source: McGhie (2003)
• the water cycle is affected by increased recharge 2. Decrease recharge

rates and changes to lateral and vertical Any imported or contained water may add to
permeability of soil profile. recharge and raise watertables.
These changes affect the volumes, movement and Management actions include:
stores of water and salt in the landscape. Careful
urban planning and development should minimise • avoiding over watering gardens and sports fields
the impact of development on salinity processes • identification and repair of leaking water, sewer and
and the impact of salinity on development. stormwater pipes
Recommended management practices prior to • removal of obstructions to run-off that cause large
urban development include: volumes of water to pool (e.g. where roads cross
• investigating the site to understand salinity valleys and poorly maintained drains).
processes
3. Protect infrastructure through use of
• strategic landuse planning that considers land damage-resistant construction techniques
and water issues including salinity Where assets are due for replacement anyway, or
• minimising landscape changes that may develop where it is the cheaper or more effective option,
salinity such as cut and fill (see Figures 16.6 and assets can be (re)constructed with salinity-resistant
16.7) and clearing of perennial vegetation. materials. For example:
• Road reconstruction by adding a drainage
Managing existing urban salinity blanket, base compaction and raising the surface
Principles to consider from Buckland and McGhie may protect a road from a high watertable.
(2005) are: However, if the watertable keeps rising or there is
lateral movement of water into or onto the road,
1. Actively lower watertables these may not be effective.
By lowering watertables the risk of salt mobilisation • Replacing the damp proof course in older
and concentration is decreased. buildings can protect the area above the
This can be achieved via: new damp proof course if salts have not yet
concentrated within the structure.
• broad scale recharge control with vegetation
(long timeframe till effective) • Use of plastic membranes, additives, compaction,
curing and higher strength concrete can protect
• targeted revegetation in discharge areas with
concrete structures and pavements from water
trees/woody species to protect specific assets
entry and salt attack.
• engineering solutions (see Chapter 17) including • Replacement of damaged bricks with exposure
groundwater pumping (high cost), surface or class bricks which are more resistant to salt attack.
subsurface drainage to remove excess water
(disposal can be a problem). Strategies need to be
completed before works begin.
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4. Use alternative (fresh) water supplies 5. Abandonment or relocation
Using alternative water supplies that are less saline Although this may seem an extreme measure,
decreases the amount of salts in contact with urban in some cases it may be more cost-effective to
infrastructure and the costs to water users. Fresh abandon or relocate infrastructure, or change
water may be piped from adjacent catchments, landuses. For example: grassed sports fields may be
found in different aquifers through drilling, relocated to a less saline or waterlogged area and
manufactured or collected and treated from the the discharge site converted to parkland; salinity
stormwater system. Care must be taken to ensure affected toilet blocks and change rooms associated
these actions do not increase the amount of water with the sporting club may be demolished and
available to mobilise existing salts—for example rebuilt in salt resistant materials.
through increased recharge. Desalination of saline
If the costs of remediation are greater than the
water is also an alternative. Large community
damage, then other factors may be called upon to
desalination plants are expensive. However there are
balance the equation and justify action. For
household-sized desalination units now available example:
(but their energy requirements are usually high).
• the environmental and/or social benefits may
outweigh any negative financial benefits
• downstream water users who receive a benefit by
the remediation may subsidise it.
 Endnotes
1
Colluvial: Sediment transported and deposited by gravity, usually found at the base of hill slopes.
2
Provenance: A geographical area and environment to which parent trees and other vegetation are native. Seedlings will generally grow
best in environments similar to their native locality.
3
4
Massive: An adjective describing a very thick rock unit without stratification, jointing, foliation or cleavage; solid with no pores.
5
Lithological: The gross physical character of a rock or rock formation.
14
16

Key points
The key points relevant to recharge management for different Unconsolidated sedimentary (alluvial)
landscapes are listed below:  Recharge control on unconsolidated sedimentary landscapes
 Biological recharge reduction by the placement of higher is separated into dryland and irrigated systems.
water using vegetation in the landscape is a management  Big regional systems have a long response time and therefore
technique used to reduce recharge in saline environments. it is harder to control the effects of salinity.
 Recharge reduction is not recommended in non-saline  Eastern NSW has smaller local systems with quicker response
areas where the groundwater and surface water are a useful times.
resource of good quality and will therefore positively replenish  Dryland actions involve maximising the use of rainfall through
rivers, dams and groundwater systems. However, recharge plant species selection and best management practices.
reduction (or drainage) may be necessary where waterlogging
(non-saline) is causing problems.  Irrigation options focus on improving efficiency of irrigation
practices and infrastructure.
 The type of vegetation selected for recharge management
varies throughout NSW according to climate, geology, Consolidated sediment
groundwater quality, soil type, landform, aspect and livestock
 In massive units, recharge occurs over the landscape with
requirements.
discharge occurring at the break-of-slope, in flow lines, and at
specific points in the landscape.
Granite
 In granite landscapes the break-of-slope is the highest priority  In horizontally bedded consolidated sedimentary landscapes,
for implementing control works as most of the water that falls discharge sites occur at various places down the slope
in the upper slopes will move laterally through this point. depending on sudden changes in the permeability of the
bedding planes.
 The interception zone (where a targeted tree belt can be
planted) is not always at a consistent point in the landscape.  Water often recharges quickly and remains fresh in massive
sandstone units.
 Healthy stands of remnant native vegetation on the hill crests
of granite landscapes should be maintained as the underlying  Discharge areas in these landscapes require specific treatment
soil is often shallow and difficult to revegetate. or target work (such as interception tree belts).
 The midslopes of granite landscapes usually have high  Terrain can be rugged in escarpment country.
water use potential as they are deeper and have more clay,  Salty systems are often large and difficult to manage.
increasing the waterholding capacity.
 Lower slopes and plains are often productive agricultural areas Urban
where water moves more slowly due to increased clay. Water  Urban salinity, like dryland salinity, is caused by a combination
must therefore be used where it falls. of excess water and salt.
 Landuse planning should consider land and water issues,
Metasedimentary including salinity.
 Recharge usually occurs over a large percentage of the  Careful urban planning and development should minimise the
landscape, however sometimes there are small zones with a impact of development on salinity processes and the impact
high percentage recharge. The more targeted the action the of salinity on development e.g. limit landuse changes that
more assessment that is required. may contribute to salinity development such as cut and fill,
 Priority in this landscape is to use water where it falls. In most and changes to natural drainage patterns.
cases this involves using deep-rooted perennial vegetation  Solutions to urban salinity include: actively lowering the
that can use water and dry out the profile. watertable, decreasing recharge, protecting infrastructure
 There is less opportunity to intercept the lateral movement through use of damage-resistant construction techniques,
of water (compared to a granite landscape) due to the high using alternate water supplies and abandonment or
leakage into the fractured parent material. relocation.
Basalt Further information

 Best and most highly productive soils are usually on the Industry and Investment NSW.
top of the cap, unlike granites and fractured rock where the Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity)
more productive soils are usually in the lower parts of the Irrigation Officers
landscape. District Agronomists
 Basalt geology is very permeable. Returning hill crests and District Horticulturists
upper-slopes to woodland or using plantation species for Pasture Specialists
production are two solutions. Another option is well managed Catchment Management Authorities
diverse pasture that uses available rainfall and reduces Community Support Officers
groundwater recharge.
 In the midslopes of basalt landscapes, management options (DECCW).
include a combination of tree belts and well managed
perennial pasture. Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors.
 In the lower slopes and plains a greater use of rainfall
and stored moisture are essential to prevent leakage, e.g.
practising response cropping or reducing fallow rotations and
incorporating perennial pastures into cropping rotations.
15
16
Further reading Websites
Barrett-Lennard, E, George, R, Hamilton, H, Norman, C & Wagga Wagga City Council, Urban Salinity. Viewed 13 October
Masters, D (2005), ‘Multi-disciplinary approaches suggest 2009, http://www.wagga.nsw.gov.au/www/html/4099-salinity.
profitable and sustainable farming systems for valley floors at asp
risk of salinity’, Aust. J. Exper. Agric, vol. 45, pp. 1415–1424, CSIRO NSW Environment, Climate Change and Water. Salinity. Viewed 21
Publishing. June 2010, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/salinity/index.
DIPNR (2003), Local Government Salinity Initiative series, htm
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources. National Dryland Salinity Program – ‘Know how to tackle salinity’.
Passioura, J (2005), ‘Epilogue: from propaganda to practicalities Viewed 13 October 2009, http://www.ndsp.gov.au
– the progressive evolution of the salinity debate’, Aust. J. Exper. Industry and Investment NSW – IDMP: Why prepare and irrigation
Agric, vol. 45, pp. 1503-1506, CSIRO Publishing. and drainage management plan? Viewed 10th August 2010
Smithson, A, Muller, R, Nicholson, A & Wooldridge, A (2004), http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/water/
Groundwater Flow Systems: a Technical Framework for Salinity irrigation/idmp/prepare
Management in the Central West Region, NSW. DIPNR, Orange.
 References
Buckland, D & McGhie, S (2005), Costs of urban salinity, Ringrose-Voase, AJ, Young, RR, Paydar, Z, Huth, NI, Bernardi,
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources: AL, Cresswell, HP, Keating, BA, Scott, JF, Stauffacher, M,
Sydney, NSW. Banks, RG, Holland, JF, Johnston, RM, Green, TW, Gregory,
Cowan, D (2007), ‘Land and water management plans’. Available LJ, Daniells, I, Farquharson, R, Drinkwater, RJ, Heidenreich, S &
at http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/factsheets/pdf/water/w56.pdf Donaldson, SG (2003), Deep Drainage under Different Land
Viewed 12 December 2007. Uses in the Liverpool Plains Catchment. Report 3, NSW Agriculture:
Tamworth, NSW.
DLWC (2002, Best Practices Guidelines for Greener Subdivisions –
Western Sydney, An outcome of Keeping the soil on the site: Greener Slinger, D & Tenison, K (2005), Salinity Glove Box Guide: NSW
subdivisions project, Department of Land and Water Conservation: Murray & Murrumbidgee catchments, NSW Department of Primary
Windsor. Industries: Wagga Wagga, NSW
McGhie, S (2003) Building in Saline Environment, Department of Walker, G, Gilfedder, M & Williams, J (1999), Effectiveness of
Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources: Sydney. current farming systems in the control of dryland salinity, CSIRO
Land and Water: Canberra, ACT.
NDSP (2007), Catchment Classification. Available at http://www.
ndsp.gov.au/catchclass/whatis.htm
16
17
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Reduce the risks associated with engineering options ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Groundwater pumping requirements ............................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Groundwater pumping options................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Single well ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Multiple independent wells......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Spear points................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Groundwater disposal ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Surface drainage options.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Diversion banks........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Deep open drain ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Contour drains .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
 Sub-surface drainage options ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Tile drains ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Mole drains ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
 Environmental considerations .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
 Salt interception schemes ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

What are they? .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Market opportunities ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Salinity debits and credits .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
 Desalination .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1
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 Introduction
Engineering options for salinity management include works or structures that directly impact on surface water
and/or groundwater processes. Engineering options remove or divert surface or groundwater through pumps,
drains or earthworks.
There are several different engineering options for addressing salinity. The options covered in this chapter
are: • groundwater pumping
• surface drainage
• sub-surface drainage.
Not all engineering options will be practical or have the desired effect in every case so it is important
that, before any action is undertaken, local natural resource management staff or qualified consultants are
approached for more information.
 Reduce the risks associated with

engineering options
Catchment planners and land managers should • Plan all milestones, cost-sharing arrangements
adopt the following principles to optimise the and expected outcomes. They must be agreed to
benefits and reduce the risks from using engineering by all stakeholders. Future generations will have
options: to live with the outcome.
• Ensure, before embarking on any project, that • Investigate and understand the groundwater
all legal requirements have been acknowledged system and surrounding landscape e.g. the
and satisfied e.g. NSW Acts (e.g. Development presence of sulphides in soil and rocks, the type
Application lodged with the local Council). of salts, groundwater quality, aquifer conductivity,
topography-suitable outfalls, current and
• Incorporate engineering with other catchment
potential landuses.
management plans. Engineering is one tool
for salinity control that results in multiple • Minimise the disposal of water, salt and
impacts including social, economic and contaminants where possible. Export safely and
environmental. All plans must be incorporated. responsibly. Water may be reused in desalination
Engineering solutions will have relatively rapid projects such as salt harvesting, aquaculture and
response for salinity control if selected as an solar ponds. These options will have to be built
option. However, due to ongoing operation into the cost of the project.
& maintenance costs, it is advisable that other
• Follow best practice guidelines when designing
land and water management options are
and managing the sites. Information on
considered/implemented concurrently so that
engineering options is being developed and
when alternative (slow response) options are
refined continually and therefore needs to be
responding, engineering structures can be
sourced regularly.
phased out.
• Minimise damage to native vegetation and
• Quantify economic, environmental and social
aquatic ecosystems. Plan appropriate flow
benefits. Benefits should be weighed up against
regimes to minimise the transmission of
any negative costs before any works are carried
weeds and allow for the movement of stock.
out.
Providing water of a suitable quality and quantity
• Consult with the relevant institutions to agree on at appropriate times must not compromise the
cost-sharing arrangements and communication surrounding environment.
pathways that allow for sufficient planning, long
term accountability and maintenance.
 Groundwater pumping requirements

In NSW, licenses and approvals for the extraction and Bores, spearpoints, dug wells and drains may be
disposal of groundwater are required from the NSW used for extraction and subsurface drainage of
Department of Environment, Climate Change and shallow groundwater. To extract groundwater a
Water (DECCW) – NSW Office of Water. licence is required from DECCW. In water sources
2
17
(groundwater management areas) where water Act, 2000. Procedures and requirements for issuing
sharing plans have not been gazetted and licenses under the new Act are different from the
commenced, the Water Act 1912, still governs the previous Act.
issue of new groundwater licences. Most Water It is therefore important to consult your local
Act licences also have to be renewed every five DECCW offices to clarify the requirements in your
years. Where water sharing plans have commenced, local area.
licenses are issued under the Water Management
 Groundwater pumping options

Single well • generally low relief or flat terrain
Single well pumps remove water from a shallow • areas easily accessible by drilling rig (NDSP 2002).
aquifer at a specific site and are designed to lower
Note: Drawdown is the difference between the
the watertable over an area directly around the
observed waterlevel during pumping and the water-
well (NDSP 2002). This option is very targeted and
level before pumping commenced.
localised in its effect and might be used to manage
groundwater discharge to land or waterways in
smaller sensitive areas and protect high value assets
Multiple independent wells
such as residential areas. Multiple independent wells (Figure 17.2) are an
extension of the single well option using several
Single well pumping (Figure 17.1) is most effective wells to increase the volume of water removed from
in: an aquifer or aquifers. ‘Groundwater pumping using
• medium to high permeability aquifers that are multiple independent wells is aimed at reversing
easily pumped rising groundwater trends and lowering watertables
Figure 17.1: Single well pump showing drawdown.

Source: Adapted from NDSP (2002)
Figure 17.2: Multiple single well pumps.

Source: Adapted from the NDSP (2002)
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17
Figure 17.3: Spear point system pumping.

in areas of shallow watertables or high recharge’ Spear point systems are most effective in:
(NDSP 2002). Spacing between wells is sufficient for
• formations with low transmissivity such as fine
the drawdown created by each well just to overlap.
sand and silt
This configuration has been used to widen the area
of drawdown in local, intermediate and regional • shallow formations overlying impervious
aquifers. formations
Multiple independent well pumping is most • in general where short term yields depend on the
effective in: number of well points (NDSP 2002).
• low to medium permeability aquifers that are
easily pumped
Groundwater disposal
Groundwater pumping should be considered as
• generally low relief terrain an option only when groundwater quality, volume
• areas easily accessible by a drilling rig (NDSP and end use or disposal has been clearly defined.
2002). Good quality groundwater (see Table 17.1 for water
quality benchmarks) is used for town water supply
Spear points and irrigation. Groundwater of lesser quality can
be mixed with good quality water and used for
Spear point systems (Figure 17.3) are closely spaced
irrigation. Whether this is a suitable option and
wells connected to a header pipe and usually
what the mixing ratio should be is determined from
pumped by a collective suction lift pump (NDSP
a laboratory analysis and consideration of plant
2002). It is generally a shallow bore, drilled by simple
salinity tolerance, soil type, stage of plant growth,
methods (self jetted, lowered in augered holes or
salt type, climate and irrigation methods.
driven) in unconsolidated sediments. This option is
used in shallow aquifers where several well points
are required close together e.g. broad but shallow
aquifers with low transmissivity1 .
General water quality benchmarks (in dS/m)
Distilled Water 0 MIA channel water 0.1–0.2
Desirable limit for people 0.83 MIA tile drainage 1.0–10.0
Absolute limit for people 2.5 Murray Valley channel water Up to 0.1
Tastes salty 1.7 Lower Murray Darling supply water Up to 0.6
Limit for mixing herbicides 4.7 Macquarie Valley Scheme supply water 0.3–0.6
Seawater 55.0+ Namoi Valley supply water 0.2–0.4
Table 17.1: General water quality benchmarks (dS/m). MIA = Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas.
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Methods of groundwater disposal include on-farm The conversion of bore drains to pipelines, and the
evaporation basins, community drainage schemes, rehabilitation of artesian bores in the Cap and Pipe
disposal to waterways and wetlands, and aquifer the Bores project (DNR 2006) is:
injection. Market opportunities from interception
• reducing waste and salinity
schemes and evaporation basins also exist for the
sale of salt (see section on interception schemes). • reducing artesian pressure decline
The groundwater engineering options being • improving water use efficiency
considered by a landholder should be discussed
• conserving biodiversity
with their neighbours. Local groundwater mounds
often occur beneath several farms in a district and • controlling feral animals
may have an impact on the community and the • encouraging sustainable land and stock
environment outside the farm boundaries. The effect management practices.
of groundwater pumping and disposal needs to be
considered on a catchment basis. The conversion from bore drains to pipelines also
presents landholders with an opportunity to review
Groundwater pumping from the Great Artesian their property infrastructure and management.
Basin in Northern NSW is used for stock and
domestic purposes and less for irrigation of large This engineering solution is best prepared in
bays as is the case in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation consultation with the local Catchment Management
Areas (MIA) in southern NSW. Recycling and reuse Authority in Northern NSW to align them with
of irrigation water is therefore less of an issue, broader catchment goals, objectives and funding
however open drains are still used to transport (DNR 2006).
water. As discussed in Chapter 1, the open drains are
a major source of water wastage, which adds to the
sodicity and salinity problems of Northern NSW.
 Surface drainage options

Diversion banks
Shallow drains (Figure 17.4) are designed to Deep open drain
intercept surface water run-off and lateral
Deep open drains (Figure 17.5) are designed
movement of groundwater along the top of the clay
to intercept shallow watertables and control
B horizons of duplex soils2. Shallow drains are useful
groundwater levels. They can be used to drain saline
in reducing winter waterlogging of sites, protecting
groundwater away from a problem site to a basin or
down slope areas from seepage associated with
disposal area. They can also remove excess surface
saline lateral flows and protecting sensitive areas
water, which helps reduce waterlogging and local
from erosion (NDSP 2002). They also help divert run-
groundwater recharge. They are usually constructed
on, which may otherwise collect salt from the surface
at a depth of 3–5 m.
of a site and deposit it further downstream or into a
waterway. Deep open drains are most effective in:
• break-of-slope areas
Shallow drains and banks are most effective in areas
• areas with aquifers or soils of high transmissivity
that have:
(NDSP 2002).
• duplex soils
• significant soil interflow that occurs along the A-B
horizon interface, which contributes to down-slope
saline discharge
• an A-B horizon interface that occurs within 1–1.5 m
of the surface to enable ready interception by the
drain (NDSP 2002).
5
17
Figure 17.4: Shallow drains and banks.

6
17
Figure 17.5: Deep open drains.

Contour drains
Contour drains (Figure 17.6) are designed to reduce • in areas of low soil permeability or poor
recharge and waterlogging by collecting and infiltration
diverting surface run-off away from recharge points, • around depressions that hold water
such as areas where water may pond (NDSP 2002). • in areas where natural drainage lines are
ill-defined or discontinuous.
Contour drains are most effective:
• in flat areas without sufficient natural grades
Figure 17.6: Contour drains.

7
17
 Sub-surface drainage options
Figure 17.7: Tile drainage system used in irrigated agriculture. Generally drains are spaced 20–40 m apart depending on the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil and at a 2 m depth.
Source: Christen and Hornbuckle (2004)
Tile drains • areas with aquifers of low transmissivity

Tile drains (Figure 17.7) generally consist of buried • heavy textured soils; however subsurface
pipes, which are slotted to allow groundwater to drainage is often expensive due to high cost of
enter and drain away from a selected site. They are many drains per unit area because of the low
used in various situations to: hydraulic conductivity of heavier textured soil.
• reduce waterlogging and to intercept and divert • areas with high watertables
shallow groundwater away from seepage areas
• areas with high watertables and high
• protect high value crops such as horticulture groundwater salinity levels (NDSP 2002).
• lower the watertable to allow leaching of salts
away from the plant root zone. Mole drains
Mole drains (Figure 17.8) work on the same principle
Sub-surface tile drainage is most effective in: as tile drains except a mole drain is effectively an
• flat areas underground furrow and does not use pipes. A mole
drain is an underground tunnel formed when an
• break-of-slope areas
implement (called a torpedo) mounted on the back
of a tractor is ripped (pulled) through the soil. Mole
drains are generally a closely spaced series of drains
and are only practical in heavier clay soils. This
option is generally used to drain waterlogged areas.
Mole drains are most effective in:
• areas of heavy clay soils requiring closely spaced
drainage
• areas with aquifers of low transmissivity
• areas of high waterlogging (NDSP 2002).
Fig 17.8: Mole drain formation and associated soil cracking.

Source: Christen (1997)
8
17
 Environmental considerations
In choosing engineering options, the disposal of are left unmanaged and produce large quantities of
water and the environmental impact should be water requiring disposal. Drainage water is often of
evaluated on the property being investigated as well poor quality and may contain elevated levels of
as neighbouring properties and those downstream. salts, nutrients and pesticides. This has the potential
The following checklist (Table 17.2) summarises the to cause environmental problems.
issues that need to be considered. (For each ‘Yes’, For ‘Best Management Practices’ for the design and
you are recommended to consult with your local management of subsurface drainage systems in
DECCW office). irrigated agriculture, see Christen and Ayars (2001).
All drainage installations should aim to remove the They detail how subsurface drainage systems should
least amount of drainage water required to protect be designed and operated, and the key issues to
the plant root system from salinity and to prevent be considered when planning and designing the
over draining. There is no advantage in removing system.
more water than necessary. Many drainage systems
Answer ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to each of the following questions

Possible impact Yes No
Will drawing down the watertable have adverse effect on the flow in creeks, rivers,
wetlands lakes or springs? (Only relevant for groundwater pumping, subsurface
drainage and interception schemes).
Will disposal of the water cause waterlogging or salinisation elsewhere?
Will the control or disposal options have a detrimental effect on the water quality in
creeks, rivers, wetlands or lakes?
Will the control or disposal options create unpleasant odours or unsightly visual
impacts?
Will construction affect the movement of native animals within the area?
Will the control or disposal options introduce nutrients or other contaminants (e.g.
pesticides) into the waterways?
Will the control or disposal options create additional erosion through channelling
water flow or by other means?
Are there any pest plants that may colonise the waterways, wetlands and swamps due
to the salinity control option?
Has the water quality been analysed?
Have recommendations been given on the suitability of the water for its intended use?
Are soils – saline, sodic, acid or acid sulphate?
Table 17.2: Environmental impact checklist for engineering options for salinity control.
Source: NDSP (2002)
 Salt interception schemes

What are they? Salt interception is an inescapable component
of maintenance of some of our urban and rural
Salt interception works are large-scale groundwater
societies. Nine interception schemes have been built
pumping and drainage projects that intercept saline
in the Murray Darling Basin and more are proposed.
water flows and dispose of them, generally by
Salt Interception Schemes can achieve:
evaporation (MDBC 2006).
• reductions in river salinity
Salt interception schemes are aimed primarily
at reducing the impact of salinisation on rivers. • improvements in environmental health
9
17
• protection against land salinisation/waterlogging. Salinity debits and credits
Before interception works can be built, a (DWLBC SA 2007)
comprehensive investigation program has to be
Salinity trading is based on a system of salt credits
undertaken to understand the mechanism whereby
and debits for salt pollution. Each state in the
salt (contained in saline groundwater) moves from
Murray Darling Basin (South Australia, Queensland,
the surrounding land into the river. The investigation
Victoria and NSW) must maintain a salinity register
process may require two conceptual models
of all actions that impact on salinity levels in the
(optional): a physical hydrogeological model; and
River Murray. Typical actions include irrigation
a groundwater flow model (Telfer 2001). Disposal
development and land clearing. The salinity register
(evaporation) of groundwater will require suitable
is like a financial statement made up of debits and
land size and characteristics.
credits; however, the salinity register uses ECs as the
The investigation process begins with an ‘currency’ for credits and debits. Each State has to
initial understanding of the local and regional keep the salinity credits and debits in balance.
hydrogeology. Then a conceptual model is
The impact is assessed against the baseline date,
developed to understand the mechanism of salt
which is 1st January 1988 for South Australia, New
water movement to the river. Detailed investigations
South Wales and Victoria (and 1st January 2000 for
then follow including drilling and gathering
Queensland), and the baseline conditions which are
data to test the conceptual model. Various models
defined as of 1st January 2000 for all states.
may then be used to estimate the groundwater,
hydrologic and economic parameters and determine
Salinity debits
the viability of the scheme. Contact the NSW
Salinity debits arise from actions that increase salt
Department of Environment, Climate Change and
loads in the River Murray. All States are accountable
Water (DECCW) for advice, information and legal
when an action (or group of similar actions) results
requirements.
in a change in average daily salinity at Morgan of at
least 0.1 EC within 100 years.
Market opportunities
(MDBC 2008) Examples of actions that may cause salinity debits
are:
In many areas where evaporation basins are
used, commercial operators harvest and sell the • water trade, where the water trade leads to
crystallised salt remaining after the water has expansion of irrigation
evaporated. The salt is usually crystallised from • land clearing
the drainage water in stages so that different
components of the salt precipitate separately. Each • increases in irrigation drainage
salt can then be sold to different markets for specific • saline discharges from industry (e.g. paper mills)
uses.
• flooding and drainage of saline wetlands.
• Calcium salts – used for gypsum.
• Sodium chloride – used for agriculture, swimming
Salinity credits
pools, tanning industry and as a de-icing agent. Salinity credits are actions that reduce the amount
of salinity entering the River Murray. These include
• Bitterns – a mixture of magnesium, calcium and any action that reduces salt loads to the River such
sodium chlorides (left over from the above two as:
extractions) used for dust suppression (e.g. on dirt
roads as it is highly hygroscopic3). • ceasing irrigation
• Magnesium sulphate from the bitterns – used as • salt interception schemes

a fertiliser. It is much more expensive to extract • groundwater control schemes
than other salts, but it has a high value.
• improved irrigation practice
• rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure.
These credits allow States to trade via the Murray-
Darling Basin Commission by offsetting salinity
debits against credits arising from actions such as
those listed above.
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 Desalination
Desalination plants are used in the USA and the Desalination plants require large amounts of water
Middle East where water is scarce and where the and energy to turn salty water into drinking water.
threat of drought is continuing. In Australia, small- They use reverse osmosis, which forces water under
scale operations have been used on island resorts high pressure through a membrane fine enough to
and Navy ships. Currently, a desalination plant is let clean water through but stops salts, viruses and
being used in Broken Hill to safeguard against the micro-organisms. This is an expensive exercise, so is
increasing salinity of the Darling River. Levels of rarely an economically attractive option.
2400 EC have been monitored in the drinking water
Other methods that can produce water suitable for
while the recommended level of salinity of drinking
household use, such as waste water recycling, are
water salinity should be no more than 800 EC. Others
often cheaper.
are being discussed for major cities in south-eastern
Australia as a result of drought and climate change.
 Endnotes
1
Transmissivity: the capability of the entire thickness of an aquifer to transmit water. Measured as flow per unit cross-section.
2
Duplex soil: soil where there is a sharp texture contrast between the A (topsoil) and B (subsoil) horizons. A duplex soil often has a sandy
or loamy topsoil with a sharp to abrupt boundary to a clay subsoil.
3
Hygroscopic: absorbs water from the atmosphere
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The key points canvassed in this chapter are summarised below. Additional information is also provided
suggesting further reading, relevant websites and a selection of useful references.

The key points for engineering options are: CSIRO (1998), Evaporation Basins: A Salt Management Tool, Sheet
 Groundwater systems and landscape characteristics should be Number 7, CSIRO Land and Water.
well understood before carrying out engineering options. Cummins, T (1998), MIA & District Community Land and Water
 Ongoing maintenance and operating costs limit engineering Management Plan, created for MIA & District Land and Water
options to protecting high value assets. Management Plan Task Force, Griffith.
 Local natural resource management staff or consultants DLWC (2003), Managing groundwater in the Lower Murray Darling
should be approached before engineering works are carried close to the streams, Information Paper No 7, Department of Land
out. and Water Conservation.
 Disposal of drainage water should be carefully considered MIL (2006), Wakool Tullakool Sub Surface Drainage Scheme, Murray
before engineering options are designed and constructed. Irrigation Limited.
DECCW should be contacted for further information on the Moll, J (1995), Financial evaluation of four sub-surface drainage
disposal of saline water. schemes for vegetable growing, Technical Memorandum 95.7,
 The Murray Darling Basin Commission hosts a salinity trading CSIRO.
scheme for EC units in the River Murray. Rahman, M & Joseph, S (2003), Managing groundwater in the
 The cost/benefit of engineering solutions need to be lower Murray Darling close to the streams, Information Paper No 7.
shared by the community e.g. those land managers who are DIPNR.
affected by the symptoms are not necessarily those who are Skelt, K, Ife, D & Waschka, M (2005), Murray-Darling basin
responsible for the problem. Cost/benefit is difficult to share Groundwater Status: An overview, Murray Darling Basin
fairly. Commission.
Telfer, A, Hopkins, B & Woods, J (2004), Principles of Borefield
Further information Design for Salt interception Schemes, 1st National Salinity
Industry and Investment NSW. Engineering Conference 9–12 November, Perth, Western Australia.
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) Wagga Wagga City Council (2001), Wagga Wagga Urban Salinity
Irrigation Officers Tour, Wagga Wagga City Council.
District Agronomists Walker, G, Christian, E, Jolly, I & Leaney, F (2000), On-farm and
District Horticulturists community scale salt disposal basins on the Riverine plain. CSIRO
Catchment Management Authorities Land and Water, Technical report 25/00, CRC for Catchment
Community Support Officers Hydrology Report 00/18. Murray Darling Basin Commission.
(DECCW). Websites
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors National Dryland Salinity Program – Know how to tackle salinity .
Viewed 13 October 2009. http://www.ndsp.gov.au
National Dryland Salinity Program (2002), Engineering Fact Sheets.
Viewed 13 October 2009. http://www.ndsp.gov.au/engineering/
fact_sheets.html
 References
Christen, E (1997), ‘Using mole drains in horticulture’ in Horticulture MDBC (2006), Joint program of salt interception schemes
Downunder: proceedings of a conference on sustainable factsheet. Available at http://www.mdbc.gov.au/salinity/basin_
soil & water management for commercial horticulture in south salinity_management_strategy_20012015/salt_interception_
eastern Australia, pp. 89–94, NSW Agriculture, Barooga. scheme. Viewed 13 December 2007.
Christen, E & Ayars, J (2001), Subsurface drainage system MDBC (2008), Salt interception - What happens to collected salt?
design and management in irrigated agriculture: Best management Available at http://www2.mdbc.gov.au/naturalresources/salinity/
practices for reducing drainage volume and salt load, Land and salt_interception/CollectedSalt.htm. Viewed 4 of April 2008.
Water, Griffith, NSW. NDSP (2002), Fact Sheets. Available at http://www.ndsp.gov.
Christen, E &Hornbuckle, J (eds) (2004), Irrigation Insights No 2, au/engineering/fact_sheets.html. Vi ew ed 13 December 2007.
Subsurface Drainage and Management Practices in Irrigated Areas of Telfer, A (2001), ‘Salt interception – how and why’, in Proceedings of
Australia, Land & Water Australia, Canberra, ACT. 8th Murray Darling Basin Groundwater Workshop, MDBC, Victor
DNR (2006), Cap and Pipe the Bores, Department of Natural Harbour, SA.
Resources, Sydney, NSW.
DWLBC SA (2007), Salinity Debits and Credits. Available at http://
www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/murray/salinity/debits_credits.html
Viewed 29 November 2007.
Evans, L (1999), Water salinity guidelines, NSW Agriculture:
Deniliquin, NSW.
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 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Afforestation for salinity management ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2
 Salinity benefits of afforestation.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
 Groundwater flow systems.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Local systems (in catchments with a high discharge capacity) ................................................................................................................ 3
Local systems (in catchments with a low discharge capacity) .................................................................................................................. 4
Intermediate systems ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Regional systems .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Catchments > 900 mm rainfall .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
 Catchments < 900 mm rainfall .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
 Key diagnostic properties for afforestation (salinity control) ................................................................................................................................................. 5
 General principles – how to use this knowledge ................................................................................................................................................... 5
 Options for locating afforestation for dryland salinity management...................................................................................................................... 6

Recharge ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Break-of-slope ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Discharge........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
 Factors for the farm forester to consider ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9

Species selection..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Site conditions........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Provenance ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Final product............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Resources (time and financial) ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Financial objectives ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Other factors (pests, diseases, fire)..................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Site preparation and establishment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Thinning for commercial outcomes.................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Pruning .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Forest health ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Harvesting .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
 Biodiversity and reducing salinity ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1
18
 Introduction
Trees can play an important role in combating salinity by reducing groundwater recharge and/or lowering
watertables. As a biological option and when strategically sited in the rural landscape, trees have many positive
attributes for effective watertable control including:
• relatively deep roots enabling trees to reduce leakage
• use of water and release of water to atmosphere through transpiration all year round whenever soil water is
available
• interception of some rainfall on the canopy before it reaches the soil.
Estimated response time to revegetation with trees depends on the type of groundwater system. Features of
a groundwater system vary depending on whether it is local, intermediate or regional. Other features to be
considered are whether the discharge capacity of the aquifer is high or low and what the recharge process is.
Salinity of the groundwater will also determine whether tree plantings can successfully reduce recharge. High
water use plants such as trees are not recommended on land that produces relatively fresh (low EC) flows that
dilute salinity of rivers and streams as this will exacerbate a salinity problem further downstream. Sound site
preparation and ongoing management of trees will increase the viability of tree plantings.
 Afforestation for salinity management

Trees intercept more rainfall and have higher Trees with high water use generally grow quickly,
transpiration rates compared to crops and pastures. although species’ differences in water use (per unit
For example, in areas with average rainfall of of leaf area or stem diameter) are important. The
800 mm, forests would use around 700 mm water main determinants of tree water use are:
whereas pasture is more likely to transpire slightly
• Sapwood cross-sectional area. The sapwood is the
less than 600 mm water (Figure 18.1). Differences
lighter-coloured outer layer of wood under the
between transpiration of forests and pastures
bark which is made up of living cells that carry
increase with increasing rainfall.
water and nutrients from the roots to the shoots.
Figure 18.1: Evapotranspiration rates for forests, grasses and mixed vegetation canopies across landscapes with increasing rainfall.
Source: Zhang, Dawes and Walker 2001
2
18
• Leaf area (transpiration area) silvicultural management, through initial spacing
and later thinning will ensure tree stocking rates
• Rooting depth and spread.
best suited to reducing drought risk, lowering
It is important to choose the most appropriate watertables, allowing leaching of the soil profile and
tree species, forestry system1 and silvicultural2 adequate growth rates.
practices to maximise growth and water use.
Note: High water use by plants on land that
Faster-growing trees use more water so are likely
produces fresh (low EC) run-off, which can dilute
to lower watertables faster. A bonus of the fast
the salt in rivers and streams, will only exacerbate a
growth is increased carbon sequestration3. However,
salinity problem further down the catchment. See
fast-growing trees may be more sensitive to water
Chapter 3: The hydrological cycle section on ‘Managing
stress as they dry the soil profile out more rapidly.
catchment scale water balance’ regarding the
Therefore a species should be selected that is suited
appropriate positioning of trees in the landscape.
to the local environment and climate. Appropriate
 Salinity benefits of afforestation

Trees can reduce salinity of land and water minimise recharge even if their roots do not reach
considerably when established and well managed in to the watertable.
strategic landscape positions. Direct salinity benefits
• Reduced salt movement to streams. Trees can
can be achieved from the deep-rooted nature and
reduce saline run-off into rivers and streams.
growth of trees via:
• Protection to threatened and potentially
• Lowering of watertables. Trees can use water
threatened remnant native flora and fauna. For
directly from the watertable if it is shallow
example, trees may enable the growing of more
enough and not too saline.
salt sensitive crops or native vegetation.
• Soil drying. Trees create a large dry soil buffer
(see Chapter 6) to absorb subsequent rainfall and
 Groundwater flow systems

Adapted from Hatton, Reggiani & Hodgson (2002) Local systems (in catchments
In this section the term ‘trees’ has been used with a high discharge capacity)
instead of reference to a specific forestry system. These typically have:
However, trees on farms will generally take
the form of farm forestry, often in blocks or belts and • high relief landscapes on the edges of plateaux
varying according to landholder requirements and and ranges, or perched groundwater systems
available resources. operating independently of deeper regional
systems
Trees can offer a cost effective, productive and
potentially large-scale plant-based option for salinity • discharge sites immediately above relatively
management in both ‘recharge’ and ‘discharge’ areas impermeable rock. There can be several discharge
of the landscape. sites down a hill slope depending on the relative
permeabilities of the strata. Hillside seeps tend to
An understanding of the response times of local, be fresher and smaller than discharge sites lower
intermediate and regional groundwater systems to in the catchment.
changes in landuse and the subsequent changes
in recharge rates is important for successfully • good responses to revegetation due to the
managing salinity using trees or any other groundwater having relatively low salinity, high
vegetation type (see Chapter 4). Response times of transmissivity4 and gradient5.
the different revegetation and groundwater systems These groundwater systems are well suited to
should be considered in setting realistic salinity reducing recharge by reafforestation and retaining
objectives and targets. native vegetation.
Estimated response time to revegetation with trees
depends on the type of groundwater system, as
follows:
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Local systems (in catchments because of their lower permeability and reduced
hydraulic gradients. Extensive afforestation, at levels
with a low discharge capacity) approaching the original tree cover, is required to
These typically have: control watertables in catchments with intermediate
• discharge sites at the ‘break-of-slope’ groundwater systems. Where watertables are still
deep, afforestation at lower levels will gain some
• high salt stores in the regolith6, very saline time but ultimately will not avert widespread
groundwater, slow response time to revegetation, salinisation.
and a relatively larger proportion of the
catchment salinised.
Regional systems
In these catchments extensive recharge control Catchments with regional groundwater systems are
is required to limit waterlogging and salinisation. typically:
Reafforestation would need to approach the
equilibrium Leaf Area Index (LAI) of the original (pre- • broad riverine plains on depositional basins with
European settlement) native vegetation cover. On deep interbedded marine, alluvial and aeolian
an economic basis, forestry is most suited to local sedimentary sequences often hundreds of metres
systems in low relief terrain with an annual rainfall deep
of approximately 600–800 mm. Discharge plantings • showing structural deformation or aquifer
face a significant risk of poor growth and tree death thinning which may restrict groundwater
due to salt accumulation in the root-zone, especially recharge and lateral movement.
if there is limited opportunity for leaching of salts;
success can be increased by the use of more salt- In regional groundwater systems there is little
tolerant species and good management. opportunity to intercept groundwater before it
reaches the regional aquifer because the recharge
Intermediate systems is mainly at the source, vertically downwards to
considerable depth. Recharge control in these
Catchments with intermediate groundwater systems catchments requires extensive reafforestation of
typically have: recharge areas to levels approaching the original
• alluvial fill (unconsolidated sediment) in foothills LAI. Plantings are not recommended on saline
and valleys. The aquifers of these systems arise discharge areas.
in either fractured rock or shallow (< 50 m) To summarise: Responses of catchments to tree
sediments. planting vary greatly. Tree planting in discharge
• restrictions on groundwater r discharge due to: areas of local groundwater systems (1–5 km2) is
• reduced hydraulic conductivity7 down- likely to be more effective in managing land and
gradient (due to sediments high in silt and clay) stream salinity, especially if they have high discharge
• a reduction of gradient or transmissivity capacity compared to intermediate and regional
with aquifer thinning (due to decreased cross- groundwater catchments.
sectional area for water flow) To reduce recharge in local and intermediate
• subsurface features like bedrock highs or groundwater systems, strategic tree planting is
dykes (remnant of the eroded rock surface of the required in target areas or broadscale catchment
early valley). planting. Due to their scale, tree planting on
• groundwater discharge and associated salinity in discharge zones rarely controls watertables in
low lying areas of the catchment. intermediate groundwater systems. Regional
groundwater systems occur on a scale that is so
These catchments are generally less responsive to large it makes farm-based control impractical.
the use of trees in controlling groundwater recharge
 Catchments > 900 mm

Catchments receiving > 900 mm annual rainfall do the reduction in overall water yield and stream flow
not generally salinise upon clearing; the main (Hatton,Reggiani and Hodgson 2002).
hydrological concerns related to tree planting are
4
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 Catchments < 900 mm

Adapted from Hatton, Reggiani & Hodgson (2002) The extent to which groundwater recharge must
be controlled to limit the area of (saline) discharge
The main focus of tree planting for recharge control
depends on the discharge capacity of the aquifer(s),
are those catchments where annual rainfall is
< 900 mm, where salinisation is a real or potential the geometry of the discharge zone and the spatial
problem and where tree planting is aimed at arrangement of the afforestation. The time it takes
recharge control. Afforestation design in to achieve a reduction in discharge and the area of
catchments prone to salinisation upon clearing salinisation depends on the gradient, transmissivity
must be addressed in terms of groundwater (related to hydraulic conductivity) of an aquifer,
management, either through recharge control or, in salinity and the length of the groundwater flow
limited cases, interception of water by vegetation. paths of a catchment. All of these properties can
vary enormously between catchments.
 Key diagnostic properties for afforestation

(salinity control)
Adapted from Hatton, Reggiani & Hodgson (2002) • whether recharge is diffuse or localised (does
water leak into the aquifer everywhere or only
Recharge control using trees is aimed at having
in the local area)
sufficient impact on groundwater resulting in
minimising the chance of salinisation. The key the size of the groundwater system (local,
properties of a catchment that determine whether • intermediate or regional catchment)
tree planting will successfully reduce recharge are:
the salinity of the groundwater.
• the discharge capacity of the aquifer •
• the nature of the recharge processes e.g. episodic
or not
 General principles – how to use this knowledge

Adapted from Hatton, Reggiani & Hodgson (2002) • Revegetation will reduce the groundwater level
faster if the hydraulic gradient is steeper and the
The following general principles describe how
transmissivity is higher. Also the groundwater is
well farm forestry can control groundwater in
more likely to be relatively fresh.
catchments receiving rainfall < 900 mm:
• The low discharge capacity of most intermediate
• Revegetation reduces discharge faster if the
and regional groundwater systems reduces the
groundwater system is more local.
short-term benefits of revegetation for extensive
• Tree belts intercept groundwater recharged from recharge control. In such cases, large areas of
upslope better if the groundwater is fresher and the landscape would need to be planted to trees
the watertable is shallower. However, interception to control saline discharge effectively and the
of fresh groundwater may not be a wise choice reclamation of land already salinised could be
and should be carefully considered in view of very slow.
larger environmental issues such as dilution of
• It is important to understand how water moves
saline flows further down the catchment and
through a particular landscape in addition
downstream water security.
to knowing the salinity of groundwater. This
• Lateral movement of groundwater is intercepted information will assist in designing effective
and discharge reduced more effectively if the afforestation, and indicate achievable targets and
regolith is thinner (< 5–10 m). timeframes.
5
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 Options for locating afforestation for dryland

salinity management
Adapted from Marcar and Crawford (2004) scale predictions of the productivity, carbon
sequestration, stream flow and salinity impacts
Strategic tree planting (e.g as farm forestry) in both
of tree plantings with improved assessment of
recharge and discharge areas can greatly control
biodiversity values and water quality outcomes.
rising groundwater. Figure 18.2 outlines some of the
potential options for location of tree planting.
Recharge
Identifying the most effective location in the Generally, tree planting is best targeted to prime
landscape to plant trees for recharge control is fairly recharge areas in order to intercept and use as much
complex in lower rainfall areas. Several approaches water as possible before it enters the groundwater
can determine exactly where the salt is coming system. This will give most benefit for the input
from within a catchment. Data on in-stream water cost. The best locations for tree planting to control
quality identifies which streams have high salinity recharge on individual properties are catchment
levels (concentrations) and/or are contributing specific and require careful discussion and
high salt loads. This can be supplemented with assessment with local specialists and advisors and/or
air photo interpretation (API) and landscape use of a modelling approach. Recharge control is
mapping, airborne electromagnetics, magnetics likely to be a long term proposition.
and radiometrics. These are used to map the
spatial distribution of soils, regolith and deep salt
stores, and assess the salinity hazard (see Chapter
10). However most salt stores become a
problem (risk) only when mobilised by rising
groundwater or perched watertables, so this
data should be combined with information on
the hydrology (water movement and storage)
of the catchment.
Modelling of groundwater flow systems
(and near surface hydrology to some extent)
can test the effects of hypothetical landuse
changes at the catchment, sub-catchment
and property scales. Computer models can
incorporate suitable water balance and/or
plant growth equations at a simple or detailed
level. Simple models and frameworks (called
rapid assessment tools) are suitable for
assessing the broad scale impacts of landuse
change on salinity and catchment water yields.
Investment in detailed modelling should be
confined to catchments where:
(i) multiple aquifers interact
(ii) the reliability of simple frameworks is
doubtful
(iii) previous use of the simple model
shows that further detailed assessment
is necessary.
One example of an integrated landuse
planning tool is the Scenario Planning
Investment Tool (SPIF) framework developed
through the Commercial Environmental
Forestry (CEF) program. The SPIF uses
predicted tree, crop and pasture growth and
water balance data linked to hydrological Figure 18.2: Options for the location of tree planting for dryland salinity
information to enable catchment and farm management
Source: Marcar and Crawford (2004)
6
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Break-of-slope Discharge
Where break-of-slope situations do exist, tree Tree planting in discharge areas also has the
plantings can be sited to intercept surface and potential to reduce salt loads to streams by
sub-surface lateral flows in soil horizons. In these reducing the volume of saline subsurface flows as
landscape positions, there are good opportunities well as run-off (see Table 18.1 for species suitable
for trees to use water that would otherwise become for planting in saline areas). Impacts on stream
recharge. Instead of being wasted, the water is used salinity will be greatest where local groundwater
to improved growth rates in trees. systems predominate and where both recharge and
discharge control measures are implemented.
SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME
Trees Shrubs
Slight salinity ECe8 2–4 dS/m Slight salinity ECe 2–4 dS/m
A. mearnsii a,c,d,e,f,g,i,j,k Black wattle A. implexa b,c,f,g,j,k Lightwood
A. melanoxylon Blackwood A. iteaphylla g,j,k Flinders Ranges wattle
a,b,c,d,f,g,i,j,k
Cor. citriodora c,e,f,g,j,k Spotted gum A. longifolia a,b,g,j, Sydney golden wattle
Cor. maculata c,e,f,g,j,k Spotted gum
E. aggregata a,j,k Black gum
E. botryoides a,c,d,f,g,j,k Southern mahogany
E. camphora a,g,j,k Mountain swamp gum
E. cinerea g,h,j,k Argyle apple
subsp. cinerea
E. cladocalyx c,e,f,g,j,k,N Sugar gum
E. coolabah g,j,k Coolabah
E. crenulata a,g,j,k Victorian silver gum
E. bicostata c,d,g,j,k Southern blue gum
E. globulus c,d,e,g,h,j,k Tasmanian blue gum
E. grandis a,c,d,e,f,g,j,k Rose gum
E. microcarpa a,c,g,j,k Grey box
E. ovata a,d,e,g,j,k Swamp gum
subsp. ovata
E. saligna a,c,e,g,j,k Sydney blue gum
E. sideroxylon c,e,g,j,k Red ironbark
E. tricarpa c,e,f,g,j,k Red ironbark
E. viminalis subsp. Manna gum
viminalis c,g,j,k
P. brutia a,c,e,g,j,k Brutian pine
Table 18.1: Trees tolerant of salinity and waterlogging for NSW. (continued on next page)
Source: Marcar (1995); Marcar and Crawford (2004)
7
18
Trees Shrubs
Moderate salinity ECe 4–8 dS/m Moderate salinity ECe 4–8 dS/m
A. pendula a,g,i,j,k Boree A. retinodes a,d,g,j,k Swamp wattle
All. luehmannii a,e,g,j,k Bull oak A. saligna* a,b,d,g,i,j.k Orange wattle
a,e,g,i,j,k a g,j
All. verticillata Drooping sheoak A.victoriae , Prickly wattle
C. cristata a,c,g,j,k Belah M. acuminata a Mallee honey myrtle
C. cunninghamiana River sheoak M. armillaris ab,g,j,k Giant honey myrtle
a,c,d,g,i,j,k
E. camaldulensis* River red gum M. bracteata ab,e,h,j,k River tea-tree

a,c,d,f,g,h,j
E. campaspe e,g,j,k Silver-topped gimlet M. decussata a,g,j,k Cross-leaf honey myrtle

E. largiflorens a,e,g,j,k Black box M. ericifolia a,b,g,j,k Swamp tea-tree
E. leucoxylon subsp. Yellow gum M. linariifolia a,g,h,j,k Narrow-leaved tea-tree
leucoxylon a,c,e,g,j,k
E. melliodora a,c,e,g,j,k Yellow box M. squarrosa a,j,k Scented paperbark
E. moluccana a,c,e,f,g,j Gum-topped box M. uncinata a,j,k Broombush

E. polybractea g,h,j,k Blue mallee
E. robusta a,c,e,f,g,j,k Swamp mahogany
E. salicola g Salt gum
E. tereticornis a,c,d,e,g,j,k Forest red gum
M. styphelioides a,j,k Prickly-leaf Paperbark
P. pinaster a,c,d,g,j,k Maritime pine
P. radiata a,c,d,e,f,g,i,j,k Radiata pine

Trees Shrubs
Severe salinity ECe 8-16 dS/m Severe salinity ECe 8-16 dS/m
A. salicina a,b,e,g,j,k Cooba M. lanceolata a,g,j,k Moonah
C. glauca* a,b,c,e,g,i,j,k Swamp oak
E. occidentalis* a,c,d,e,g,j,k Flat-topped yate
E. sargentii a,g,j,k Salt river mallet
E. spathulata a,e,g,j,k Swamp mallet
subsp. spathulata
M. leucadendra a,b,e,g,j,k Long-leaved paperbark
Extreme salinity ECe >16 dS/m Extreme salinity ECe >16 dS/m
A. stenophylla* a,e,f,g,i,j,k River cooba M. halmaturorum a,g,j,k Swamp paperbark
C. obesa a,e,g,i,j,k Swamp sheoak M. thyoides a,j,k Scale-leaf honey myrtle
Table 18.1: Trees tolerant of salinity and waterlogging for NSW.
Source: Marcar (1995); Marcar and Crawford (2004)
8
18
For further information on suitability of trees and survival, growth and/or form on saline soils and in some
shrubs to the local climate and soil type contact I & I cases clones have been developed from selected individual
plants.
NSW Forests.
IV. Superscripted letters next to a species name indicate
I. Species listed under one category will perform in the suitability for the following products: a: At least moderately
categories below. The above rankings are conservative, i.e. tolerant of waterlogging; b: weed potential; c: sawn timber;
it might be worth trying a species or certain provenance d: pulp; e: poles/posts; f: furniture; g: firewood; h: oils;
of a species in the next category of saline soil. It would i: fodder; j: windbreak; k: ornamental/amenity, N = Not
be expected that in their present grouping these species suitable.
would have good survival and might grow up to 25%
V. Tree (> 5 metres); Shrub (< 5 metres); A. = Acacia, All.
slower than if they were planted on non-saline land. In
= Allocasuarina, C. = Casuarina, Cor. = Corymbia, E. =
the case of the ‘extreme’ classification, performance will
Eucalyptus, M. = Melaleuca, P. = Pinus.
depend on how much greater than 16 dS/m the salinity
level is. VI. ECe – refers to the electical conductivity of the water
extract from a saturated soil paste and represents soil
II. The above rankings do not allow for the combined effects
salinity as sensed by plants more accurately than a 1:5 soil
of salinity and waterlogging. If the saline site is periodically
water extract .
waterlogged, trees will suffer more problems than if the
soil was well-drained.
III. Provenances within a species may grow very differently
on saline and other soils. Those species marked with an
* are known to exhibit marked provenance variation for
 Factors for the farm forester to consider

Species selection Regardless of the approach, numerous
environmental factors may affect the survival
Productive and profitable farm forests depend on
and growth performance of a species. Climate
correct species selection. Many factors should be
considerations are likely to include annual rainfall,
considered when selecting a suitable farm forestry
temperature, frosts and aspect. Soil and site
species. Farm forestry is a long term enterprise
considerations are likely to include soil type, pH,
requiring significant capital input early in the life of nutrient availability, drainage, rooting depth,
the rotation. Incorrect species selection can result access to groundwater, salinity and soil pathogens.
in a plantation not achieving growth rates, recharge There are many more climate and soil factors to
control or projected returns to the grower. be considered, and further information is available
Species selection depends on the objectives of the from the contacts and reading list at the end of this
planting. For example, mixed species can enhance chapter.
biodiversity, intercept some sub-surface water and
some trees will produce high value timber. Species Provenance
selection also depends on local site conditions such Within a population of any species, there is
as climate, landscape and soil. Species selection for much variation between individuals. A species
long rotations (> 30 years) should also consider the of tree growing in a particular locality is known as a
potential impact of climate change—species that are provenance. A provenance is genetically adapted
in a marginal zone for their rainfall requirements to the unique conditions of that particular
now may not be viable if rainfall decreases. location. Seed of different provenances (or seed
The intending farm forester should give sources) of the one species will often show specific
consideration to the following factors: characteristics (such as leaf size) adapted to that
location’s environment. Different provenances of the
same species can perform differently at the one site.
Site conditions
Optimum tree growth will be achieved by matching Choice of provenance can often be as important
climate and soil conditions of the site to those as species. Provenances may be selected from
required by the species in its natural environment. provenance performance trials, particularly if they
Individual species should be researched to identify are undertaken within the local region. For some
particular species’ growth requirements and any commercially-recognised species, a considerable
growth inhibitors (such as frost, high temperature or amount of selection and breeding has been
low rainfall). There are two approaches to species/ undertaken to identify and reproduce superior
site selection: genetic lines within provenances.
• a species is selected and then suitable land is As with species, provenance selection should
sourced on which to grow that species also relate to the objectives of the planting. For
example, if biodiversity is an important factor, local
• a site is identified and then a species is selected provenances may be preferred even if they do
to match the prevailing site conditions. not grow as straight, as quickly, or be as robust as
provenances that have been tested and developed
9
18
via genetic selection. The intending farm forester • What taxation advantages can be gained during
should discuss options with local experienced the project?
foresters and nurseries.
• What is the current and longer term market
demand for this nominated end product?
Final product
Selecting species with good market potential • What is the current and longer term market value
increases the chances of high product value at for this nominated end product?
both the point of stumpage and final processing. Transport costs incurred between plantation and
Plantation forestry can produce a variety of potential mill can be as high as 10c/km/tonne, reducing the
wood products including speciality timbers; sawn payment to the grower by $10/m3 for logs travelling
timber for structural, flooring and furniture uses; further than 100 km to a mill.
roundwood for slicing or peeling of veneers; and
Different products will vary in the time they take to
pulpwood for papermaking.
produce, the inputs they require and the price they
Most species are suitable for producing only achieve in the market place. All these factors need
some of these products. There is also a marked to be considered when determining an end product
preference within the market for particular products to produce and subsequently what species to grow.
from certain species e.g. Tasmanian blue gum for
pulpwood. Furthermore, some products require Other factors (pests, diseases, fire)
specialised processing (veneering) or proximity to Vermin control can be important for successful
ports (pulpwood) to be sold profitably. The grower plantation establishment. Often, once a plantation
needs to identify clearly the final product(s) and has sustained damage from an infestation of vermin
their markets before considering species that are
(e.g. beetles, rabbits, wallabies or possums) the full
suitable for a specific location. If no species are
productive potential of the plantation is limited
suitable, then other timber products should be
and irretrievable damage incurred. Small numbers
considered.
of vermin can do substantial damage to young
trees. Vermin infestations should be anticipated
Resources (time and financial) or detected at an early stage and appropriate
Prospective plantation growers should consider preventative or control measures taken, otherwise
whether they have the physical and financial the plantation resource will be uneconomic.
resources at their disposal to carry out site
In fire-prone regions, plantations should be
preparations such as deep ripping, planting,
surrounded by trafficable fire breaks, laid out to
fertilising, weed control (initially) and pruning,
facilitate effective fire fighting activities and located
thinning and harvesting (later in the life of the
within a reasonable distance of a reliable water
plantation). Successful plantations require prompt
supply. Sites prone to flooding, erosion and landslips
silvicultural inputs once established. A grower
should be avoided.
should carefully consider whether they could pay for
contract services or do these activities themselves.
Resource availability will directly affect the range of Site preparation and establishment
species and end products that can be considered. Seed selection, supply and propagation
Selection of seed sources for producing
Financial objectives tree seedlings is one of the most important
In considering a farm forestry venture, the considerations in plantation establishment. Species,
prospective grower should carefully consider their provenance and clonal hybrid recommendations
financial objectives for the project and the likely should be reviewed regularly according to
financial returns to be achieved by producing any recommendations from tree breeders and tree
one nominated end product. Potential farm foresters improvement programs. Seedlings should be grown
should draw up a financial budget, consult a suitable from the best of the recommended and available
accountant and/or consider advice drawn from seed for each season’s new plantings.
modelling and planning tools from advisors and
agencies, before embarking on a long-term financial Once the seed has been selected and sourced,
venture such as agroforestry. seed should be supplied to a reputable nursery
for growing. Growers should arrange propagation
Questions a grower should ask: of seedlings through a direct grow-and-supply
• Is this a suitable vehicle for superannuation arrangement from a production nursery (specialising
generation? in annual production of millions of seedlings). Use of
production nurseries enables the grower to obtain
• What internal rate of return is desired from the seedlings of known genetics at a highly competitive
project? What timeframes? price per unit.
10
18
Planting time and stocking density any hardpans. Deep ripping improves tree seedling
Plantations in southern NSW are generally root development, moisture infiltration and the
established in late winter to early spring, minimising breaking of any hardpans.
plant losses from late frosts. The advantages of Deep ripping should use a bulldozer with a winged
planting during the winter-spring period are as tyne ripper. Good results can be achieved to a
follows: depth of 500–700 mm. Using a winged tyne ripper
• seedlings are placed into a moist and warming ensures both vertical and horizontal shattering of
soil profile, whereas autumn-planted seedlings the soil profile. Avoid ripping when soils are wet
grow more slowly over the cooler winter months. as the ripper is likely to smear the soil without
shattering, resulting in the potential problem of
• maximum use of available soil moisture; tree roots being later confined within a the narrow
• allows six months growth before the incidence of rip line, reducing root growth and increasing the
frost the following year; and likelihood of wind throw (trees being knocked over
in the wind). Single rip lines are not recommended,
• autumn-planted seedlings are less able to as the tree roots tend to follow the rip lines and the
compete with any winter weeds. trees are likely to fall over in the wind. Triple rip lines
For a plantation with a focus on wood production, fracture the soil more effectively in the root zone
trees should be planted in rows 3.5 or 4 m apart and and facilitate lateral root growth between the rows,
at 2.5 to 3 m spacing along the row. However, access so the trees are less likely to fall over.
requirements and ease of management operations
usually dictate designs. These spacings will provide Mounding
an initial stocking rate of 830–1143 stems/ha. Initial Planting into mounds over the rip lines enhances
stocking depends on the: tree establishment and is standard practice on
most sites. Mounding provides improved drainage
• species planted (branching and stem straightness
for young seedlings, important on wet sites. It also
varies between species)
provides increased topsoil volume and access to
• intended management regime nutrients. However, mounding is not required nor
suited to all soil types or situations. For example,
• intended end product. Trees planted close
mounding is not suited for light textured soil (e.g.
together encourage smaller branches (therefore
sands) and is not necessary where waterlogging is
smaller knots in timber and less pruning) and
not a problem.
straighter stems as the trees compete to reach
the available light. Mounds should be at least 30–40 cm in height
and the soil friable9 in tilth10, producing a solid
Weed control mound, free of clods. A cloddy mound will create
Weed control in plantations is crucial, especially in problems with moisture loss, weed control, plant
the first season. Without adequate weed control, installation and inevitably seedling survival. Mounds
competition for water, nutrients and light can lead should be installed across slope rather than down
to high early mortality of trees. Good weed control slope, improving moisture capture on hillsides and
leads to fast early growth with young trees rapidly reducing the erosion risk. Site drainage lines should
dominating the site and providing their own weed not be obstructed by the alignment of mounds.
control by shading out competition after the first
2–3 years along the cultivated planting mounds. Hand planting
Planting technique is one of the most critical
Perennial weeds should be eradicated from the
aspects to successful plantation establishment. In
site in the previous spring by cultivation and/or
commercial forestry; hand planting by experienced
appropriate knockdown herbicides before planting.
contract teams is still common. The advantage of
A second weed control should occur after the site
contract planting teams is that they are able to
has been ripped and mounded. Use of a suitable
carry out the work quickly and efficiently according
knockdown and residual herbicide will provide a
to well developed planting specifications. For
2 m weed-free strip over the planting mound, which
medium and large plantations, contract planters
will ensure a completely weed free strip for the
are recommended using purpose-made planting
following spring and summer.
spades. Hand planting with spades ensures
Deep ripping consistency of planting specifications from site to
site.
In establishing plantations for timber products,
deep ripping is generally recommended for most Critical aspects of planting are to ensure good
soils except sands. Any ripping should occur in late contact of the seedling roots with the soil by placing
summer to early autumn when the soil profile is dry the seedling deep into the seedbed and pressing
allowing maximum fracturing of the soil profile and the soil around it. During the planting process it is
11
18
important that the roots of the seedlings are ‘teased area is easily measured over time to determine stand
out’ from the root ball to encourage the rapid growth.
establishment of a large root zone.
Pruning
Fertilising Stem pruning is the removal of branches from
Sites that are already fertile or have a history the main tree stem. It aims to confine knots and
of previous fertiliser application may not require any associated wood defects to a cylindrical core
fertilising after planting. Strategic soil sampling and within the centre of the pruned log. Stem pruning
testing of the site before planting is recommended produces ‘clearwood’, that is, knot-free (defect-free)
in formulating post-planting fertiliser applications. timber as the tree grows in diameter beyond the
For the majority of sites, however, fertiliser pruned knotty core.
application will promote vigorous growth of trees
and increase their resistance to pests and diseases. The presence of knots in plantation timber is
Generally a fertiliser with nitrogen (N), phosphorous the greatest single cause of downgrade in sawn
(P) and potassium (K) should be used. products. Knots are branches that become
incorporated into the trunk as it grows. They
An application of 50–100 g of a nitrogen-based interfere with the grain of the timber and
fertiliser buried 30 cm away from the base of the subsequently the growth of clearwood timber,
tree is common practice. Once the plantation is reducing timber strength and ultimately lowering
established it should be regularly observed for the value of the timber.
signs of any nutrient deficiencies. If deficiencies are
suspected, foliage can be sampled and analysed for The removal of branches by pruning maximises the
nutrient composition. amount of clearwood produced by a tree. It allows
all new timber to grow as higher value clearwood
Thinning for commercial outcomes sawlogs for the production of high-grade sawn
timber for furniture, flooring and veneers. Pruning
Thinning is the selective removal of trees from assists in producing a more uniform crop of logs
within a stand to reduce competition between likely to result in lower processing cost and higher
trees and promote the growth of the best growing returns to the grower.
and most well formed trees for harvest. Trees
actively compete for the basic resources of light, There are two main types of pruning: ‘form’ pruning
soil moisture and nutrients, but need competition and ‘lift’ pruning. Form pruning is undertaken in
in the early stages of growth to reduce the relative the first year after establishment to encourage the
amount of branching and improve the form. Trees growth of one single straight stem into a single
within a stand that compete with one another straight log. Form pruning removes any competing
for resources, if not thinned, will ultimately incur double leaders or large branches growing at a steep
a loss in overall stand productivity. Eucalypts are angle that may compete with the main stem or be
particularly susceptible to the effects of competition. a point of weakness. Form pruning results in a high
number of well-formed trees from which to select
Thinnings can be either commercial or non- for lift pruning.
commercial. Early thinning removes slow growing,
shaded and often poorly formed trees, which have Lift pruning is undertaken to a height of 6.5 m
little potential for a commercial value, ‘releasing’ to produce a 6 m clearwood log. Pruning usually
larger, better formed trees to continue growing. involves several staged lifts with each one done to
Thinning increases quality and value of the stand. a variable height based on the nominated pruning
Higher growth rates will enable both earlier diameter. A handheld calliper corresponding to
commercial thinning and final harvest. the nominated pruning diameter is used on each
tree ensuring all trees are pruned to the same stem
The timing of thinning is determined by the diameter (e.g. 10 cm), maintaining similar leaf area
products being grown. Thinning regimes can be retention on all trees regardless of height.
developed to produce predetermined log sizes.
If the grower’s objective is to produce a few large
diameter logs, thinning will be more intensive than
Forest health
for the production of a high number of smaller logs. Trees can be affected by many factors both biotic
(e.g. pests or diseases) and abiotic (e.g. nutrient
The total number of trees present in a stand can be deficiency, drought). Historically, management
used as a measure of the level of competition and response to poor health in plantations has been
is commonly described as tree stocking rate (stems/ characteristically reactive rather than proactive.
ha). This approach is limited as it does not account In some instances, this has resulted in serious
for the size of trees. Therefore the tree basal area productivity and economic losses. In undertaking a
(m2) is a more useful measure of competition. Basal proactive approach to forest health management a
six step sequential forest health cycle can be used:
12
18
1. Monitor regularly Harvesting
Regular monitoring of the forest to check on Harvesting of commercial plantations in Australia
indicators of tree health can be done by air, road or is highly developed and demonstrates ‘world’s
on foot. Wardlaw (2003) provides a good summary best practice’. However, efficient and cost
of points to consider when conducting forest health effective harvesting systems for smaller, private
surveillance, and Stone et al. (2003) provide detailed (non-industrial) farm forestry plantations still
instructions on how to survey young eucalypt remain largely in formative stages. In contrast, in
plantations. Scandinavia large volumes of wood are drawn from
small, privately owned forests, by highly developed
2. Recognise symptoms harvesting, transport and marketing systems. Many
Detection of the symptoms of health disorders of these systems have potential application to
requires a sound knowledge of the tree species and Australian farm forests.
provenance in a healthy state and good observation
skills. A ‘symptom’ is a case when the tree exhibits To summarise, the key points to be considered by
anything other than good tree health, and includes the farm forester when planning the longer term
foliage discolouration (yellowing, purpling and harvesting of their plantations are:
browning). Leaves can be partially or completed • Investment in mechanised logging equipment
eaten by insects or destroyed by disease. See Stone by the harvesting contractor is highly capital
et al. (2003) for examples symptoms on young intensive and contractors often prefer larger
eucalypt trees. forest areas with higher efficiencies of scale and
higher returns to their harvesting operations.
3. Diagnose disorders
Field guides on pests and diseases provide a • Low tree value and high costs of access,
good starting point for the tree grower/forester to harvesting, loading and transport may make
diagnose tree disorders (Carnegie 2002), but often a plantation uneconomical for harvest. The
expert advice is required if something appears to economics of harvesting dictate that where logs
be impacting on the health and productivity of the are low in value, the operation must be highly
stand, even though the specific cause may not be mechanised in order to be viable.
understood. • Large, pruned, well spaced trees are easier
to harvest than small, branchy trees growing
4. Measure severity and extent of disorders in dense plantations. Sound silvicultural
The severity of a disorder is a combination of the management of plantations will increase the
intensity of the symptom and the potential damage/ value of the plantations from clearwood thinning
impact (e.g. tree totally defoliated = extreme and final clearfell product. It will also reduce the
severity; a quarter of lower crown defoliated = low cost involved in delimbing with wider spaced
severity). The extent of a disorder is the geographic trees making felling and access easier.
distribution of the disorder within a plantation,
• Large, pruned, well spaced trees will allow
district or region (localised in a small patch to
for more viable harvesting and a choice of
widespread across the plantation). See Stone et al.
manual or mechanical methods. A trained
(2003) for sampling protocol in eucalypt plantations.
operator harvesting manually with a chainsaw,
farm tractor, loader and log trailer can be
5. Monitor significant disorders
cost competitive with specialised mechanical
Monitoring of the progress of pest and disease harvesting equipment.
outbreaks at critical times will determine whether
action is required, and optimise the timing of any • It is important that the logs are well segregated
action. Once a symptom has been identified and the following harvest to ensure that the highest value
severity and extent determined, follow-up surveys products are obtained.
can monitor whether the problem is getting worse
and if control is required. In the foreseeable future, as increasing wood
volumes reach maturity, many of the specialised
6. Manage significant disorders harvesting machines developed for small, privately
This can vary from drastic actions such as removal owned forests in Scandinavia will likely be imported
of trees, through to actions such as fertilising and and used highly effectively in the Australian farm
spraying, to an informed decision not to intervene. forestry sector.
In some cases intervention will not be possible
because a feasible solution does not exist, or it is Small private plantations with year round access for
not economically viable or warranted. See ‘Further harvesting via good roads and loading areas on well
Reading’ at the end of this chapter for advice on drained soils are more likely to attract harvesting
management of disorders. contractors otherwise idle during wet periods.
13
18
 Biodiversity and reducing salinity

Adapted from Kavanagh et al. (2005) Proximity of plantings to remnants: Eucalypt/shrub
plantings are more effective in providing habitat
Trees can be planted for wood and non-wood
for wildlife if they are near to remnant forest/
products. The selection and management for wood
woodland. Ideally plantings should link remnant
products (e.g., sawlogs, woodchips) is reasonably
forest areas, increasing the habitat connectivity for
well understood. However, with some planning,
fauna.
trees can also be planted to deliver non-wood
products such as: animal shelter, biodiversity, Managing eucalypt plantings correctly to enhance
riparian protection and potentially carbon credits. biodiversity: Management strategies include:
Planting mixtures of native trees and shrubs for
• leaving fallen timber;
‘environmental’ (i.e. non-commercial) purposes can
provide the same benefits for salinity control, but is • leaving old remnant trees within the plantation;
likely to provide much greater benefits for wildlife. and
Planning will be important to select a mix of suitable
• fencing revegetated sites to keep out stock.
species and then locate the trees to optimise their
environmental benefits (e.g. plant trees to link Mix of native trees and shrubs: New plantings
remnant vegetation). should contain a mix of native tree species and
importantly, shrub species to increase their use by
Points to consider: wildlife.
Large numbers and types of wildlife: Native fauna Species selection: Select species that are
species are known to occupy young (10–25 year appropriate to the site, which are locally endemic
old) eucalypt/shrub plantings. This wildlife probably and which have complementary patterns of
would not be found in farming landscapes (in the flowering.
absence of remnant forest and woodland) without
re-vegetation. There are a number of different approaches to
scoring the biodiversity value of different types
Size of plantings: Significant improvements in of tree plantings by state and other agencies.
wildlife numbers and species occur when plantings For example, the Commercial and Environmental
are larger than 5 ha in size; although narrower strips Forestry (CEF) program has recently produced a
can provide habitat for many species (Kinross 2004). Plantation Biodiversity Scorecard which is available
from http://www.csiro.au/org/CEFoverview.html.
 Endnotes
1
Forestry system can include plantation forestry (large blocks), farm forestry (smaller blocks and/or belts on farm) and agro-forestry (e.g.
tree belts and windbreaks on farm)
2
Silviculture: The science and technology of managing forest establishment, composition and growth. Growing trees as a commercial
venture.
3
Carbon sequestration: The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and other plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the
oxygen and store the carbon.
4
Transmissivity: A measure of the capability of the entire thickness of an aquifer to transmit water.
5
Groundwater gradient: The slope of the watertable or piezometric surface; synonymous with hydraulic gradient.
6
Regolith: The layer of loose but cohesive material that includes soil and weathered rock that sits over solid massive bedrock and
7
Hydraulic conductivity: The rate at which water (solvent) moves through a medium (in this case soil). It is determined primarily by the
particle size (texture) and the arrangement of the soil particles (structure), and to a lesser extent, factors such as soil compaction and
chemistry. For example, sodic soil generally has a low saturated hydraulic conductivity.
8
ECe refers to the electrical conductivity of the water extracted from a saturated soil paste and represents soil salinity as sensed by plants
better than a 1:5 soil:water extract
9
Friable: Refers to a soil property of consistence, describing the resistance of a material to deformation or rupture. Consistence refers to
the degree of cohesion or adhesion of the soil mass and is strongly affected by the moisture content of the soil.
10
Tilth: The physical condition of the soil as related to its ease of tillage, fitness as a seedbed, and impedance to seedling emergence and
root penetration.
14
18


The key points relevant to farm forestry and groundwater are: Industry and Investment NSW.
 Trees have many positive attributes for effective watertable Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity)
control in areas prone to salinisation when strategically Private Forestry
located in the rural landscape. Catchment Management Authorities
 Trees offer a cost effective, productive and potentially large- Community Support Officers
scale plant based option for the management of saline areas. NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
 Understanding the responses of local, intermediate and (DECCW).
regional groundwater systems and their recharge rates to Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors
changes in landuse are important to the success of tree
plantings for salinity management. Further reading
 Reafforestation of local groundwater systems can often Archibald, R, Harper R, Fox, J & Silberstein, R 2005, ‘Tree
control recharge sufficiently at lower levels of Leaf Area Index performance and root-zone salt accumulation in three dryland
(LAI) than that of the original vegetation. Australian plantations’, Agroforestry Systems, 65.
 Local groundwater systems in catchments with high discharge RIRDC 1997, Design Principles for Farm Forestry, Joint
capacity often have low levels of salt accumulation. Farm Venture Agroforestry Program, Rural Industries Research
forestry plantings can offer quick, short-term control of stream and Development Corporation/Land and Water Resources
salinisation in these catchments. Development Corporation/Forest and Wood Products Research
 Local groundwater systems in catchments with low discharge and Development Corporation/Joint Venture Agroforestry
capacity are associated with high salt stores in the regolith Program.
and very saline groundwater. They have slow response times Elliot, R, Ohmart, C & Wylie, F 1998, Insect pests of Australian
to revegetation. In these catchments, extensive recharge forests: ecology and management, Inkata Press, Melbourne.
control is required to limit waterlogging and salinisation.
Reafforestation would need to reach an LAI similar to that ENSIS 2006, Commercial environmental forestry: Integrating trees
of the original vegetation and is therefore unlikely to be into landscapes for multiple benefits, Summary Technical Report
employed on a large scale. June 2006, ENSIS (joint forces of CSIRO and Scion), Canberra.
Viewed 13 October 2009 http://www.ensisjv.com/cef
 Catchments with intermediate groundwater systems typically
have low permeability and reduced hydraulic gradients. They Flugge, F & Abadi, A 2006, ‘Farming carbon: an economic
are generally less responsive to the use of trees in controlling analysis of agroforestry for carbon sequestration and dryland
groundwater recharge. salinity reduction in Western Australia’, Agroforestry systems, 68,
(3) 181–192.
 In regional groundwater systems there is little opportunity to
intercept groundwater before it reaches the regional aquifer. Johnston, I, Coburn, R & Burton, C 2009, Tree planting to
Recharge in these catchments requires recharge areas to be control salinity, NSW Industry and Investment, West Pennant Hills,
reforested to levels approaching original LAI, which is unlikely NSW.
to be viable. Where groundwater is saline, plantings on Keane, P, Kile, G, Podger, F & Brown, B 2000, Diseases and
discharge sites are not recommended. pathogens of Eucalypts, CSIRO, Melbourne.
 Tree planting should be aimed at recharge control in Harper, R, Smettem, K & Tomlinson, R 2005, ‘Using soil and
catchments where rainfall is < 900mm only where salinisation climatic data to estimate the performance of trees, carbon
is a real or potential problem. sequestration and recharge potential at the catchment scale’,
 The options for sighting farm forestry are: recharge, break-of- Australian journal of experimental agriculture, 45 (11) 1389–
slope and discharge areas. The locations of the plantings will 1401, CSIRO publishing.
be specific to the catchment and landscape. Lewis, N & Ferguson, I 1993, Management of Radiata pine,
 Factors to be considered by the farm forester are: species Inkata Press, Melbourne.
selection, site conditions, provenance, final product, resources, Robins, L & Marcar, NE 2007, Integrated forestry on farmland—
financial objectives, plantation size, access to processing prospects for tackling salinity in the 450–750 mm rainfall zone, CRC
facilities, site preparation, thinning, pruning, forest health and for Plant Based Management of Dryland Salinity, University of
harvesting. Western Australia, Perth.
 Sound site preparation and ongoing management increase Washusen, R & Reid, R 1996, Agroforestry and Farm Forestry—
the viability of the final forestry product. Productive trees for shelter and land protection, Benalla Landcare
 Plantations should be managed with a long-term, clearly Farm Forestry Group.
identified goal and silvicultural operations suited to achieve
this. Trees should be well managed to achieve competitive
commercial returns.
 Planting mixtures of native trees and shrubs for
‘environmental purposes’ (i.e. non-commercial) are likely to
provide similar benefits for salinity control, yet provide much
greater benefits for wildlife.
) 15
18
Websites Industry and Investment NSW – NSW Primary Industry – Factsheet
finder. Viewed 26 June 2010. <http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/
Industry and Investment NSW – NSW Primary Industry – Forests. aboutus/resources/factsheets/forests>
Viewed 26 June 2010. <http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/forests>
Scenario planning and investment framework tool (SPIF), CSIRO,
Industry and Investment NSW – NSW Primary Industry – Farm Viewed 25 June 2010. <http://www.csiro.au/resources/SPIF.html>
Forestry, Plantations, Private Native Forestry. Viewed 26 June
Plantation Biodiversity Scorecard, CSIRO, Viewed 25 June 2010.
2010. <http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/private-
<http://www.csiro.au/resources/PlantationBiodiversityScorecard.
forestry>
html>
 References
Carnegie, AJ 2002, Field guide to common pests and diseases in Marcar, NE & Crawford, DF 2004, Trees for saline landscapes,
eucalypt plantations in NSW, State Forests of NSW, Beecroft, NSW. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation,
Hatton, T, Reggiani, P & Hodgson, G 2002, ‘The role of trees in Publication number 03/108: Canberra, ACT.
the water and salt balances of catchment’, in Trees, water and salt: Stone, C, Parsons, M, Matsuki, M & Carnegie, AJ 2003, Pest
an Australian guide to using trees for healthy catchments and and disease assessment in young eucalypt plantations: field manual
productive farms , (eds. Stirzaker, R, Vertessy, RA & Sarre, A), for using the crown damage index, Bureau of Rural Sciences,
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Barton, Canberra, ACT.
ACT. Wardlaw, T 2003, What is forest surveillance health? Available
Kavanagh, R, Law, B, Lemckert, F, Stanton, M, Chidel, M, Brassil, at http://www.spc.int/pps/ACIAR/what_is_forest_health_
T, Towerton, A & Herring, M 2005, Biodiversity in eucalypt surveillance.htm. Viewed 28 November 2007.
plantings established to reduce salinity : a report for the RIRDC, Rural Zhang, L, Dawes, WR & Walker, G 2001, ‘Response of mean
Industries Research and Development Corporation, Barton, ACT. annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes at catchment
Kinross, C 2004, ‘Avian use of farm habitats, including windbreaks, scale’, Water Resources Research 37, pp.701–708.
on the New South Wales Tablelands’, Pacific Conservation Biology
10, pp.180–192.
Marcar, NE 1995, Trees for saltland: a guide to selecting native
species for Australia, CSIRO Australia Division of Forestry, Canberra,
ACT.
16
19
 Contents
 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
 Economics as a decision-making tool ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
 What makes salinity unique?........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2

Duty of care.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Resources for future generations ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Externalities.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Time lags (response times) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
 Who needs to consider salinity economics?................................................................................................................................................................ 3

The individual landholder.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Downstream users ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Community................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Government agencies........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Catchment Management Authorities................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
 Tools for economic assessment.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Assessing costs and benefits ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Gross margin analysis......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Partial budget ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Benefit cost analysis (BCA) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Optimisation models .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
 Areas of salinity management to be monitored economically ............................................................................................................. 8
 Factors that influence the adoption of salinity control measures ..................................................................................................... 9

Scale and level of adoption.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Barriers to change.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Market demand........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Landscape constraints....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Social change ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
 What have we found so far? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Farm level.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Catchment level .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Urban salinity .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
 Endnotes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12

Key points ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Further reading ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
 References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
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 Introduction
As salinity is better understood, the range of management options has grown. Which option do we choose?
Which offers the best ‘value for money’? Economics provides tools to analyse the various options available. Is it
cheaper and easier just to fence off the whole area, or is it economic to reclaim it? Are there any environmental
benefits on or off the land in question? Salinity affects two of our most vital resources, soil and water. Both are
foundation requirements for the well being of rural and urban communities. Duty of care for both of these
communities means reasonable and practical steps should be taken to prevent harm to the environment.
This care often requires large financial inputs. Individual landholders, downstream users, whole communities,
government agencies and Catchment Management Authorities all have a role to play in this duty of care. This
chapter will discuss the basic tools for economic assessment, factors that influence the adoption of salinity
control measures and case studies where salinity measures have been put in place.
 Economics as a decision-making tool

Economics is an essential tool for comparing and Economics can help select the best course of action
selecting suitable options. Long time frames, impact to:
lags and budget constraints support the use of
• prevent the salinity developing or worsening
economic analysis for calculating the:
• remediate the salinity.
• cost of salinity management options which can
require a high level of external assistance Economists aim to maximise the net benefits, both
where funding is needed to society (public and private) in the application of
funds used to address resource issues. To do this
• benefits e.g. on– and off–farm
they must weigh up the size and distribution of
• scale e.g. of the investment, farm or catchment these benefits/costs and the potential for trade-offs
or compensation to parties or sectors adversely
• financial viability of the selected project and
affected. This information is required at the farm,
comparison with alternatives
catchment and national levels for NRM managers to
• sustainability of resource use in the long term. make investment decisions.
 What makes salinity unique?

Duty of care Resources for future generations
Duty of care is the concept that everyone who Intergenerational equity concerns the transfer
manages or influences the management of natural and redistribution of wealth to and within future
resources should take all ‘reasonable and practical generations. This concept is commonly interpreted
steps’ to prevent harm to the environment. as: the current generation should not make
This principle forms the centrepiece of the decisions that compromise (limit) the options for
Industry Commission’s inquiry into the ecological future generations. In terms of natural resources,
sustainability of land management (Industry this means that the present generation should
Commission 1998). It forms the basis of voluntary avoid depleting natural resources and should pass
standards to guide duty holders in the application on these resources in a similar condition to future
of inputs, processes and management of natural generations. There is much debate surrounding this
resources. concept and how it impacts on present day resource
management decisions (Mullen 2001).
Many environmental issues involve a duty of care.
Salinity, like weeds and disease, has far-reaching
impacts on and off the farm. It may involve whole Externalities
communities, states and nations. Salinity differs from An externality is when an activity or decision by an
weeds and disease however, in that it directly affects individual, company or community has unintended
two of the essential resources for communities— side-effects on others that are not within the
soil and water. Good quality soil and water are immediate realm of the decision or activity (Pannell
foundation requirements for the continued 2005). Examples are illustrated in Figure 19.1.
existence of communities in both rural and urban The consequences of an externality may be both
areas. negative (costs) and positive (benefits).
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Figure 19.1: Catchment Externalities.

Source: Reynolds and Tenison (2005a)
An example of externalities economic evaluation. For the purpose of economic

A landholder ploughs a paddock with the intention assessment, these time frames can be grouped by
of establishing a crop or pasture. This action may the size of the groundwater system:
contribute to the producer’s income and whole • local systems, which respond rapidly to change in
farm profitability. However, it may also lead to water input
erosion contributing sediment, nutrients and salt
to waterways, clogging rivers and reduction of the • intermediate systems, with intermediate rates of
water quality for towns, fisheries and other water response
users downstream; and deterioration in air quality • regional systems, which respond very slowly to
downwind. Some of these can be costed; others are change in water input.
difficult to put a value on.
Economic efficiency1 favours salinity remediation
works with short catchment response times and
Time lags (response times) where investors receive benefits as soon as possible.
The length of time a catchment takes to respond
to salinity control measures influences any
 Who needs to consider salinity economics?

The individual landholder Downstream users
When investing in projects for salinity control, Downstream water users need economic evaluations
landholders should consider the: of salinity abatement programs to determine
whether they should invest in salinity projects of
• costs of establishment
their own or offset against projects in the upper
• risks associated with project works or changing reaches of a catchment such as tree planting. If a
management strategies project decreases water quality then the impact on
crop yields would be a negative externality (offsite
• future returns from their investment including
debt serving and cashflow consequences cost) which should be included in any economic
analysis. Conversely, if the investment improves
• costs of doing nothing, for comparison. water quality, it creates external benefits to the
public. In such a case, supporting investment from
both private and public sectors may follow.
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Community investment in abatement works should include the
costs of salinity to roads, public buildings and the
The whole community should be included in any
environment.
economic analysis as they depend on acceptable
water quality for domestic and industry purposes.
There may be flow-on impacts on employment. Catchment Management
Community and social interests in water quality Authorities
include: the visual amenity of watercourses, native Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) carry
vegetation and the health and abundance of out or fund catchment activities, in accordance with
biodiversity reliant upon the water. Impact on these the Catchment Management Authorities Act (2003),
qualitative measures should be part of the broad such as:
economic analysis of any investment that changes
• developing catchment management plans
water quality.
• providing loans, grants, subsidies or other
Government agencies financial assistance
Governments are affected in many ways by • providing education and training courses related
salinity externalities (Table 19.1). Therefore any to natural resource management.
Very Slight Impact Slight Impact Moderate Impact Severe Impact

Households $/household/yr $75 $250 $2,135
Industrial / Commercial /
$/building/yr $450 $1,500 $3,750 $6,000
Retail buildings
Local Councils
Rural minor sealed
Increased R&M $100 $300 $700 $1,200
roads $/km/yr
Rural non-sealed
$75 $200 $500 $800
roads $/km/yr
Urban sealed roads
$150 $375 $1,150 $2,400
$/km/yr
Rural minor sealed
Cost of shortened lifespan $296 $1,333
roads $/km/yr
Rural non-sealed
$222 $1,000
roads $/km/yr
Urban sealed roads
$407 $1,833
$/km/yr
State Government
Agencies & Utilities
National & State
Increased R&M $2,000 $6,930 $17,325 $31,105
highways $/km/yr
Major sealed roads
$200 $450 $1,600 $3,600
$/km/yr
Railway infrastructure
$11,723 $24,971 $59,456
$/km single track/yr
National & State
Cost of shortened lifespan $2,407 $10,833
highways $/km/yr
Major sealed roads
$481 $2,167
$/km/yr
Table 19.1: Examples of costs for various stakeholders for different levels of salinity impact. Note: R&M = Repairs and Maintenance.
Source: Wilson and Laurie (2002)
 Tools for economic assessment

Many budgeting techniques can be used to assess Assessing costs and benefits
salinity management options. These range from
Many of the options for the control of salinity
simple gross margins at farm enterprise level,
directly affect the landholder. The planting
to whole farm analyses, to complex dynamic
of perennial pastures is expensive for many
catchment scale optimisation models using linear
landholders. Therefore before deciding to sow
programming techniques. A few examples are
perennial pasture, landholders often want to
discussed below.
balance the financial costs and returns. In economic
terms, this is the variable costs and projected
returns.
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Pasture Establishment Budget - Saltland Pasture
NB: Capital costs to be apportioned over the life of the pasture

Operation Machinery costs Inputs
Total
cost Total Cost
hrs/ha $/hour $/ha Rate/ha Cost $ Total $/ha $/ha
Establishment
Scarify 0.42 $14.22 $5.97 $5.97

Scarify 0.35 $14.22 $4.98 $4.98
Combine 0.29 $23.00 $6.53 $6.53
Seed Type kg/ha $/kg

Tall Wheat Grass 2.5 $10.30 $25.75 $25.75
Puccinellia 2.5 $ 6.05 $15.13 $15.13
Strawberry Clover 2.5 $ 6.27 $15.68 $15.68
Insect control - red mite contract

$27.50 $27.50
Insect control - Le-mat aerial $ 4.60 $4.60
Fertiliser - single super 125 $0.59 $73.75 $73.75

Lime 2500 $0.06 $150.00 $150.00
Spreading $25.00 $25.00 $25.00
TOTAL (Establishment) $354.87
Table 19.2: Pasture Budget – Establishment of saltland pasture.

Source: Reynolds (2005b)
Effect of lamb prices and stocking rates on gross margin per hectare
DSE/ha $20/head $40/head $60/head $80/head $100/head
2 -$4 $13 $30 $48 $65
4 $28 $63 $97 $132 $166
6 $56 $108 $159 $211 $262
8 $68 $137 $206 $274 $343
10 $75 $161 $246 $332 $418
12 $80 $183 $286 $389 $492
14 $76 $196 $316 $436 $556
16 $48 $185 $323 $460 $597
Table 19.3: Effect of lamb prices and stocking rates on Gross Margin per hectare. Data is used in scenario 1 below.
Source: Reynolds (2005c)
Table 19.2 above, shows the typical costs of saltland with carrying the additional stock, such as drench
pasture establishment. Table 19.3 is a matrix of and vaccination costs, will also double.
potential gross margin returns that may result from
Gross margin = Gross Income – Variable Costs
an increase in the number of ‘Prime lambs’ that
could be carried on the new pasture. They do not include capital, overhead or finance
costs and should only be treated as an initial
Gross margin analysis measure of enterprise profitability.
A gross margin is the gross income from an
enterprise less the variable costs. Variable costs
Scenario 1
are those costs directly attributable to an enterprise In order for the landholder to break even in two
and which vary in proportion to the size of the years (income to cover establishment costs) he/she
enterprise. For example, if the number of breeding would have to achieve a return of $60 per head at
ewes doubles, then the variable costs associated an average stocking rate of 8 DSE/ha. See example
below.
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Pasture establishment cost = – $354.87 (from Table 19.2) However, the investment would normally need to
Year 1 income = + $206.00 (from Table 19.3) return twice the cost of capital (>20%) to be adopted.
Year 2 income = + $206.00 (from Table 19.3) In the example above the interest rate on borrowings
Income over 2 years = + $412.00 would need to be at approximately 5% for the project
to proceed.
Pasture establishment cost = – $354.87 (from Table 19.2)
Return = + $ 57.13 per ha Factors influencing investment
Note: Although this enterprise recoups the funds Bathgate (2002); Makeham and Malcolm (1993); and
invested in the pasture establishment within 2 years, Patton (2001)
the calculation does not include any contribution In addition to the above partial budget, the
towards meeting overhead, finance or living following factors should be considered before
expenses during this period. Therefore the cashflow
committing to a large investment such as pasture
consequences and likely future returns (increased
improvement:
carrying capacity) from this project would need to be
weighed up against other alternatives such as buying in • the scale and size of the project in relation to the
fodder or investing funds off-farm. earning potential of the individual enterprises
conducted on the property
Partial budget • crop and pasture rotations used on the farm
A partial budget examines only the marginal effects
of an enterprise change or investment project, such • cash flow implications for the property including
as the difference in enterprise returns and the capital debt serving requirements and allowance for
required to implement the change (Patton 2001) , for living expenses
example: • alternative investments which may provide
greater returns than pasture establishment, for
Gross returns example cropping
Saltland pasture example:
• the peak timing of pasture production and
Present Proposed whether this pasture covers feed gaps. The value
gross return gross return of additional pasture for grazing during periods
of feed scarcity may have a greater marginal value
Current carrying 1 DSE 3 DSE than extra feed grown when feed is plentiful.
capacity
• additional infrastructure requirements such as
Return per DSE $20.00 $20.00 fencing, stock handling facilities and alternative
watering points or supplementary feeding
Total return $20.00 $60.00
• implications for stock health
Expected change in return = proposed return (GM) - Present return (GM)
• whether the pasture alone reduces or halts
= $60 - $ 20
further degradation at the site or whether
= $40 additional funds or works e.g. earthworks or
Capital outlay for pasture establishment tree planting are necessary to complement this
investment
of saltland pasture
Capital outflow • the time frame for the implementation of the
Cost of pasture establishment per ha $354.87 project and longevity of the investment
(from Table 19.2)
• the risk associated with failure or need for re-
Capital inflow = Nil establishment
Expected extra capital required = capital outflow - capital inflow
• the skills, knowledge and preference of the
= $354.87 - $0 operator undertaking the investment.
= $354.87
Return on Marginal capital Benefit cost analysis (BCA)

The BCA technique compares the flow of income
Return on Marginal capital = Change in returns × 100
and expenditures into the future (Figure 19.2). It
Extra capital 1
collects and compares the expected benefits and
= $40 × 100
costs of any particular project or investment over a
$354.87
defined timeframe.
= 11.3%
A process of discounting2 is then applied to these
Note: Where an investment returns greater than 10% income and expenditure flows, which reduces
the project is usually worthy of further investigation. them to a present day value known as Net Present
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Value (NPV). BCA also highlights issues that cannot These models allow a much wider range of
be valued in monetary terms and which may be responses by farmers in their choice of inputs and
amenable to alternative methods of assessment. outputs and they can select the combination of
enterprises that maximise profits (or minimise costs)
Therefore:
(Pannell 1997).
Investments with a positive There are many levels of complexities associated
Net Present Value increase NPV>0 with LP modelling. Examples are given below:
social resources and are
generally preferred. • static models provide an optimal or preferred
combination of resources given a set of resource
constraints, such as land, labour and capital. They
Investments with a negative provide a snapshot of an enterprise at a certain
Net Present Value should NPV<0 point in time
generally be avoided.
• dynamic optimisation models provide an
interactive sequence of preferred combinations of
Table 19.2, shows the discounting of the incomes resources, as resource constraints are imposed or
and expenditures using a 7% interest rate, which resource stocks are exhausted. As a consequence,
yields the following results: the results of a dynamic model must be analysed
with reference to the change in combination of
Discount Rate 7% resources and management decisions imposed
during the analysis. There could be multiple
Assessment 7 years
Period changes occurring in a dynamic model at the one
time and each is identified in the analysis.
NPV $1026.29
• stochastic optimisation models combine
Equivalent $190 elements of risk and uncertainty in assessing best
Annual Return solutions or preferred courses of action. They
Area (ha) 1 include mathematical models whose inputs are
expressed as random variables, and whose output
Peak debt $ -$354.87 is a distribution of possible results. A model is said
Time of peak 0.5 to be statistical, stochastic, or random, if random
debt (year) variation is allowed to enter the picture (Last and
Brandt 1995).
Benefit 1.77
Cost Ratio • deterministic models are mathematical
models that contain no random (stochastic)
Figure 19.2: Accumulated returns from saltland pasture compared components; consequently, each component and
to annual pasture.
Source: Reynolds (2005b) input is determined exactly
This analysis is based on an initial investment in • or a combination of both stochastic and

saltland pasture of $354 per hectare. deterministic models.
It assumes that in the first year of production there Model results are validated by comparing the
will be: results with existing research results or other known
benchmarks. Sensitivity analysis like that shown
• 1 tonne/ha of dry matter cut from the area below (Figure 19.3) helps economists measure
• an average of 6 tonnes/ha of dry matter per year changing situations by varying one input in the
cut for the next 6 years valued at $190 per tonne. model whilst holding all others constant.
The analysis shows a positive NPV of $1026.29 per The example, Figure 19.3a, shows the impact on
hectare, which means saltland pasture would be a farm cash flow as the carrying capacity (DSE/ha) of
worthwhile investment. a farm increases or decreases in response to pasture
improvement. Line A shows the average returns
The Benefit/Cost ratio of 1.77 means that for every expected from investing in an improved pasture by
$1 invested there is a potential return from this increasing the farm’s carrying capacity by 1DSE/ha.
project of $1.77. Break even for the investment would take 3 years.
Optimisation models In Figure 19.3b, if the investment in pasture

improvement did not increase the carrying capacity
Optimisation such as a Linear programming (LP) of the farm then returns would be similar to that of
model is designed to identify the optimal or best line B. If the carrying capacity increased by 2DSE/ha
combination of resources or courses of actions. then returns would be similar to line C.
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Figure 19.3a Figure 19.3b
C
A A
B
Figure 19.3: Sensitivity analysis showing increasing cash flow with increased carrying capacity.
Source: Reynolds (2005a)
Sensitivity analysis provides economists with a tool benchmarks so they can analyse their own risk when
to analyse the risks associated with undertaking establishing pastures. Sensitivity is performed for LP
projects. In this case it gives farmers some models as well as basic budgets.
 Areas of salinity management to be

monitored economically
Table 19.4 provides a summary of the economic tools that can be used to monitor salinity management.
The tools generally increase in complexity from the farm scale to the catchment level. Note that optimisation
modelling or linear programming may be undertaken at a variety of scales from farm to catchment level.
Area of assessment Tools used to assess Example

FARM SCALE
Landholder strategies • discharge control • pasture analysis
• recharge control • soil analysis
• enterprise change Spreadsheet • DSE analysis
• government grants Analysis • cropping analysis
• whole farm analysis
Gross Margin
Analysis
CATCHMENT SCALE
Recharge • revegetation • soil analysis
management at • perennial pasture • land management
Partial Budget
catchment level units
• farm forestry
• oil mallee • whole farm analysis
• stream salinity analysis
Discharge • planting of salt tolerant
• vegetation analysis
management at species on discharge site
catchment level • climatic data
• engineering Benefit/Cost Analysis
• water balance
• geology data
River management • environmental flow • whole farm economic
allocations analysis
• water quality Optimisation Models • river flow and height
requirements data
• water sharing plans • salt loads
• farm dams policy • climatic data
• environmental
economic analysis
• socio-economic
analysis
Table 19.4: Areas of salinity management to be monitored economically.
Source: Reynolds and Tenison (2005b)
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 Factors that influence the adoption of salinity

control measures
Scale and level of adoption Landscape constraints
Computer modelling of catchment hydrology gives Some landscapes in saline environments can prove
information on how extensive the management of difficult to manage and may not be economic to
a salinity problem needs to be to achieve results. reclaim or change e.g:
Targets for salinity control may require large scale
• recharge areas in granite landscapes are often
adoption across the whole catchment, whereas the
very rocky with shallow soils making it hard to
immediate benefits may come to only a few in the
establish vegetation
community. Economic analysis may show in some
situations that salinity control may be impractical or • discharge sites caused by restricted groundwater
less profitable than current systems at a farm scale. movement, i.e. closed drainage systems or dyke
In a free market profit is a key driver to change and intrusions.
will influence the adoption of salinity mitigation
In such landscapes, salinity control or mitigation
measures as well as the achievement of targets.
is difficult to justify from a purely economic
Economics and the profit motive are major perspective.
economic dilemmas of dryland salinity. ‘Too often
things are demanded or expected of farmers in Social change
the public interest, without a comprehensive In some communities, small area (rural residential)
appreciation of just what is being asked in practical landholders dominate the land ownership. This can
terms. From a farm business perspective, the have mixed advantages and disadvantages. Some
conservation option most often involves a real cost small area landholders whose properties may not
to the farmer that is not outweighed by on-farm be economically viable and have been pursued
returns’ (Crosthwaite and Malcolm 2000). for lifestyle reasons may not wish to spend much
money for environmental benefits. The intensity of
Barriers to change land ownership in a rural residential area can make
Factors that affect a farmer’s capacity to change for complexities in communication. However other
include: age, knowledge, willingness and the small area farmers may have substantial second
availability of time, support and financial resources. incomes and see taxation, goodwill or amenity
These factors may be particularly critical during the benefits from investing in the environment and be
transition phase of pasture establishment when willing to cross-subsidise the cost of salinity control.
carrying capacity could be reduced. In many cases, rural residential landholders are well-
educated and capable of taking a leading role in
In saline environments, farmers’ main barriers to
salinity control.
change have been reported as being the lack of
financial resources and a lack of time. Age or poor CMAs will consider group applications for funding.
health, insufficient or inadequate information and Groups can apply for government funding. The
doubts about likely success were considered to value of labour contributed by the community can
be either not a factor or not very limiting to land be factored into the balance sheet and improve the
management change (Sincock and Vardon 2002). viability of a revegetation option.
Market demand
Revegetation of recharge areas is a salinity
management option that improves the water
balance and has a major impact on the amount
of leakage to watertables. Examples of vegetation
systems that improve the perenniality of the
landscape are: perennial pastures (e.g. lucerne and
phalaris), oil mallee and farm forestry. The market
demand for products from these enterprises will
determine their feasibility and implementation.
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 What have we found so far?

Farm level This is true for most areas of salinity in NSW,
including Central NSW.
Central NSW
Buckland and Kelly (2004) Southern NSW
Farming systems in southern NSW are traditionally
Benefits are expected from the adoption of best
based on crops in phased rotation with annual
management practice in the areas of perennial
pastures. The pastures have been largely based
pastures, ameliorants and saltland agronomy. In
on annual pastures, mainly subterranean clover
many cases these benefits will be largely private
(Trifolium subterraneum L.) or annual medics
in nature with the major beneficiary being the
(Medicago spp). The rotations in southern NSW
individual farmer.
have been broadly 3–5 years of pastures followed
Returns from the establishment of perennial by 3–4 years of crops. The use of pastures in phased
pastures and saltland agronomy start to diminish rotations with wheat is known to improve soil
once they occupy more than a certain percentage structure, increase the level of soil nitrogen and
of the farm (the critical percentage depends on to break weed and disease cycles in the cropping
individual cases). The level of perennials needed and phase.
benefits returned are site-specific depending on
However, it is believed that the use of annual
soil types, farming systems, climatic and biological
pastures in the rotation is one of the major
factors.
contributors to increased groundwater recharge
The options of reducing fallow length and rates, higher watertables and increased discharge
increasing the pasture phase are expected to result areas of salinity. Therefore the search for deeper-
in a financial loss if adopted, albeit a small one. rooted species to reduce water leakage into
Although these options were found to be relatively groundwater for dryland salinity control has led to
unprofitable compared to current practice at further interest in perennial pastures.
assumed prices, the result is very sensitive to small
Landholders may be more willing to introduce
changes in the relative profitability of cropping and
perennial pastures into a rotation if it increases a
livestock.
farm’s gross margin. This economic bottom line
Forestry in the Little River Catchment, while claimed is seen as critical to the success of deep-rooted
to have substantial non-market environmental perennials in reducing the extent of dryland salinity
benefits such as improved water use, has a number in Australia. The less profitable the perennials are
of hurdles to overcome before it should be compared to annuals, the more likely it is that their
promoted as a viable option. Until profitable species adoption will be inhibited by other complexities and
or new systems are developed, the development difficulties (Reynolds, Brennan and Dear 2004).
of a forestry industry in this region would require
generous government incentives that may not be in
the best interests of society.
Therefore a targeted approach to resource allocation
that addresses the on-farm implications as well as
the downstream impacts of any change, is likely to
be the most cost-effective approach to the salinity
problem.
Northern NSW
Opportunity cropping with minimum till
and conservation farming techniques is the
recommended farming practice for summer-
dominant rainfall areas of northern NSW. This
returns a greater crop frequency and increased
profit compared to other farming systems. However,
this strategy involves greater risk and requires astute
farm management.
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Highly productive livestock enterprises in the north to have significant financial and environmental
use tropical and temperate pasture species to take benefits to the farm though the level varied
advantage of non-seasonal and summer-dominant considerably between farms. Returns were very
rainfall. This also provides increased perenniality, sensitive to the increased stocking rate achieved
water use efficiency and eliminates feed gaps. on saline areas after establishment of saltland
pastures. Table 19.5 shows a large increase in net
present value (NPV) of 82% over 10 years from the
investment for Farm A. Whereas achieving a modest
gain in stocking rate of just 2 DSE per hectare for
Farm B results in an NPV that is 12% less than the
NPV from doing nothing. On Farm B, the returns
would not justify the costs of the investment.
Farm A Farm B
Increase in stocking 7 DSE/ha 2 DSE/ha
rate
Year investment is 4th year 5th year
Catchment level paid back
Boorowa Catchment, Central West NSW, Change in NPV from 82% - 12%
South of Cowra investment compared
to taking no action
Boorowa model
Economic analysis of catchment level salinity Table 19.5: Key results from analysis at farm level in the Boorowa
Catchment.
projects in the Boorowa Catchment has shown Source: Welsh (2006)
that the off site benefits of an increase in the area
of perennials may reduce recharge by 20%. They This analysis concluded that investing in saltland
also show that if the planting of perennial pastures pastures is beneficial provided that the increased
is not targeted to areas linked to highly saline net cashflow from improved stocking rate and cost
groundwater then a broad scale reduction of low savings from using out of season feed can cover the
salinity water in the Boorowa Catchment will occur, capital costs of pasture establishment, extra water
leading to a decline in economic welfare of water and fencing infrastructure; and the purchase of
users downstream. Economic welfare declined by additional livestock. The increased risk of failure of
$6.5 million net present value (NPV) over 50 years pasture establishment on saline soils also needs to
when excess water was reduced by 22 per cent be considered.
of the total. In the Boorowa Catchment, for each
hectare of newly established perennials that reduces Little River Catchment, Central West NSW,
excess water the net cost to the Boorowa Catchment South of Dubbo
is $2.50 per annum (Bathgate, et al. 2004). Little River model
Welsh (Welsh 2006) analysed the likely financial In the slopes region of New South Wales, the
outcome for typical farms in the Boorowa planting of perennial vegetation is promoted
Catchment if saltland pastures were established for salinity management. Recent modelling has
to combat dryland salinity, associated erosion and highlighted the need for judicious placement of
reductions in groundcover and biodiversity. Results perennial vegetation in the landscape. Poorly-sited
showed that investment in saltland pasture is likely perennials can cause major economic costs to
landholders, losses of freshwater additions to rivers,
and increased salinity downstream. On the other
hand, well-sited perennials can substantially reduce
salt concentrations without excessive costs in terms
of farm production or river flows.
Analysis can estimate the trade-offs among
profitability, water yield and salt concentrations by
integrating information on landuse, plant water
use, rainfall, soils, groundwater salinity, catchment
hydrology and economics.
Finding the ‘best’ option is a balance of the
agricultural costs against downstream demands of
11
19
water quantity and quality for towns, irrigation and without-plan (do nothing) scenario over the next
the environment. In regions such as the Little River 30 years was $183 million. The resulting NPV of
catchment where flows of fresh water into rivers are implementing the plan was found to be $2 913 363
significant, use of a scientific framework is crucial to which was a benefit to cost ratio of 1:11 (Hill 2000).
avoid the risk of aggravating river salinity as well as
Costs to local councils of additional repairs and
reducing profits and water flow (Nordbloom, et al.
maintenance attributable to salinity were estimated.
2005).
This included roads, footpaths and bicycle paths,
municipal parks, gardens and sportsgrounds,
sewerage pipes and disposal systems (Hill 2000).
The average cost of severe salinity to a residential
house was estimated as a one-off cost of
$10 000 for remedial work. Other one-off capital
replacement costs were estimated from information
obtained by various agencies. One major cost
was the reconstruction of one kilometre of the
Sturt Highway by the Local Council in a manner to
withstand future damage by rising groundwater
in 1992/93 at a cost of $700 000. Half of this cost
was attributed to the presence of rising saline
Urban salinity groundwater as the reconstruction would have been
only $350 000 under non-saline conditions (Hill
Revision of the causes 2000).
As with dryland salinity, urban salinity is caused by a
combination of excess water and salt. Salt is soluble The main with-plan activities were: revegetation,
in water and as water gains access to infrastructure rubble pit removal, dewatering bore fields,
or buildings the salt can be carried with it. When maintenance of an existing evaporation basin,
water evaporates, the salt crystallises and can cause replacement of water mains, relining of sewer pipes,
physical stress in the material as the crystals expand, implementation of building controls, septic tank
(DIPNR 2003) . removal, and an education program (Hill 2000).
Water from sources such as rain, leaking pipes and Impacts that were not valued included: loss of
pools and the over-watering of gardens can add property values, damage to heritage properties,
to the natural water cycle in urban environments, replacement of street side vegetation, damage to
raise the watertable and transport salt into buildings railways, biodiversity and environmental impacts.
and other infrastructure. Some building methods Neither downstream costs nor saline water supply
may also contribute to the development of salinity. costs were considered significant, (Hill 2000).
Compacted surfaces can restrict groundwater flow
and concentrate water and salt in one area. By
cutting into slopes when building, groundwater or
saline soil may be intercepted and exposed (DIPNR
2003). For more information on the causes of urban
salinity see Chapter 1.
Case Study – Wagga Wagga

The Department of Land and Water Conservation
studied the economic viability of the Wagga Wagga
City Urban Salinity Plan (WWCUSP). Both with-
plan and without-plan scenarios were valued at
2000 prices. The present value of the cost of the
 Endnotes
1
Economic efficiency: when the cost of producing a given output is as low as possible.
2
Discounting: a means of bringing present and future costs and benefits into units that are comparable and allow valid conclusions to
be made.
12
19


 Economics is an essential discipline in the assessment, Barr, N & Wilkinson, R 2005, ‘Social persistence of plant-based
comparison, development and adoption of suitable natural management of dryland salinity’, Aust. J. Exper. Agric, 45 (11)
resource management options. 1495–1501, CSIRO.
 Long time frames, impact lags and budget constraints support Coram, J, Dyson, P & Evans, R 2001, An evaluation framework
the use of economic analysis. for dryland salinity, report for the National Land and Water
 Duty of care is the concept that everyone who manages or Resources Audit Dryland Salinity Project, Bureau of Rural Sciences,
influences the management of natural resources should take Canberra.
all ‘reasonable and practical’ steps to prevent harm to the Dear, B, Moore, G, Hughes, S 2003, ‘Adaptation and potential
environment. contribution of temperate perennial legumes to the southern
 Externalities occur when an activity undertaken or decision Australian wheatbelt: a review’, Aust. J. Exper. Agric., 43, 1–18. CSIRO.
made by an individual, company or community has Dillon, B & Lewis, S 2001, Implications of salinity for
unintended side effects. Externalities may have both negative biodiversity conservation and management, r eport of a taskforce
and positive consequences. established by the Standing Committee on Conservation,
 Individual farmers, downstream users, the community, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation
government agencies and Catchment Management Council.
Authorities should consider economics. Graham, T, Pannell, D & White, B (eds.) 2004, Dryland salinity:
 Tools for economic assessment include: spreadsheet analysis, Economic issues at farm, catchment and policy levels, Cooperative
gross margin analysis, partial budget, benefit cost analysis, Research Centre for Plant-Based Management of Dryland Salinity,
sensitivity analysis and optimisation models. University of Western Australia, Perth.
 Factors that influence the economic feasibility of options Kingwell, R, Hajkowicz, S, Young, J, Patton, D, Trapnell, L,
include: scale and level of adoption, barriers to change, Edward, A, Krause, M, & Bathgate, A 2003, Economic
market demand, landscape constraints and social change. evaluation of salinity management options in cropping regions
of Australia. Ross Kingwell (ed.) report prepared for the Grains
Further information Research & Development Corporation and the National Dryland
Industry and Investment NSW Salinity Program.
Advisory Officers (Soils and Salinity) New South Wales Government 2000, NSW Salinity Strategy,.
Economists Department of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney.
District Horticulturists Pannell, D 2001, ‘Dryland salinity: Economic, scientific, social and
Pasture Specialists policy dimensions’, Australian Journal of Agricultural and
Resource Economics, 45(4), 517–546.
Community Support Officers Weersink, A & Wossink, A 2005, ‘Lessons from agri-
environmental policies in other countries for dealing with salinity in
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water Australia’, Aust. J. Exper. Agric, 45 (11) 1481–1493.
(DECCW).
Walker, G, Gilfedder, M & Williams, J 1999, Effectiveness of
Appropriately qualified consultants and contractors current farming systems in the control of dryland salinity, CSIRO
Land & Water, Canberra.
Wilson, S 1999, Dryland Salinity: What are the impacts and
how do you value them? Ivey ATP and Wilson Land Management
Services report for the Murray–Darling Basin Commission and the
NDSP, Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra.
Wilson, S 2004, Dryland and urban salinity costs across the
Murray–Darling basin. An overview & guidelines for identifying and
valuing the impacts, Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra.
Websites
Industry and Investment NSW – Farm budget and costs, Viewed
30 June 2010. http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/budget
NSW Government – Office of Water, Salinity’. Viewed 30 June
2010. http://www.water.nsw.gov.au/Water-Management/Water-
quality/Salinity/default.aspx
Australian Government, National Action Plan for Salinity and
Water Quality. Viewed 14 September 2009. http://www.napswq.
gov.au/
Nordblom, T, Hume, I, Bathgate, A, Hean, R & Reynolds, M
2005, Economics and Environmental Network (EEN) National
workshop, The Australian National University, Canberra. Viewed 14
September 2009. http://een.anu.edu.au/e05prpap/nordblom.
pdf
13
19
 References
Bathgate, A 2002, ‘Economic and physical attributes of dryland Pannell, DJ 2005, ‘Farm, food and resource issues: politics and
salinity in NSW: a review’, in Annual Conference of the Australian dryland salinity’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture,
Agricultural and Resource Economics , Australian Agricultural and 45, pp.1471–1480.
Resource Economics, Canberra. Patton, D 2001, Evaluating enterprise change and capital
Buckland, D & Kelly, J 2004, Farm level evaluation of salinity investment: partial and break-even budgets. Viewed 1 June 2010.
management options in the Little River Catchment, NSW http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/208243/
Agriculture, Orange, NSW. evaluating-enterprise-change.pdf
Crosthwaite, J & Malcolm, LR 2000, Looking to the farm Reynolds, M 2005a, Figure 19.3: Sensitivity analysis showing
business: approaches to managing native grassland in south- increasing cash flow with increased carrying capacity (personal
eastern Australia, Land and Water Resources Research and communication).
Development Corporation Canberra, ACT. Reynolds, M 2005b. Table 19.2: Pasture Budget – Establishment of
DIPNR 2003, Local Government Salinity Kit, Department of saltland pasture, (personal communication)
Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, Sydney, NSW. Reynolds, M 2005c, Table 19.3: Effect of lamb prices and stocking
Hill, CM 2000, The Wagga Wagga City Natural Resource rates on Gross Margin per hectare, (personal communication).
Management Plan: urban salinity economic study, Socio-Economic Reynolds, M, Brennan, J & Dear, B 2004, ‘Effects of pasture
Services Unit, Dept. of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney, species on sustainability of rotations in Southern NSW’, in 48th
NSW. Annual Conference of the Australian Agricultural and Resource
Industry Commission 1998, A full repairing lease: inquiry into Economics Society, Australian Agricultural and Resource
ecologically sustainable land management, The Commission, Economics Society, Melbourne, VIC.
Belconnen, ACT. Reynolds, M & Tenison, K 2005a, Figure 19.1: Catchment
Last, G & Brandt, A 1995, Marked point processes on the real Externalities, (personal communication, 8 May 2005).
line: the dynamic approach, Springer-Verlag, New York. Reynolds, M & Tenison, K 2005b, Table 19.4: Areas of
Makeham, JP & Malcolm, LR 1993, The farming game now, salinity management to be monitored economically, (personal
Cambridge University Press, Melbourne. communication).
Mullen, JD 2001, An economic perspective on land degradation Sincock, A & Vardon, V 2002, ‘Salinity and land management in
Issues, NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW Australia – a snapshot from the ABS’, in Dryland salinity: economic
Nordbloom, T, Hume, I, Bathgate, A, Hean, R & Reynolds, M 2005, issues at farm, catchment and policy levels’, (eds. Graham,
‘Towards a market: geophysical-bioeconomic targeting of T, Pannell, D & White, B), pp. 19–28, CRC for Plant-Based
plant-based land use change for management of stream water yield Management of Dryland Salinity, Perth, WA.
salinity’ in 2nd Economics and Environment Network National Welsh, R 2006, Case study financial analysis, saltland pastures
Workshop , Australian National University, Canberra. Boorowa River Catchment’, NSW Department of Primary Industries,
Pannell, DJ 1997, Introduction to practical linear programming. Gunnedah, NSW.
Wiley, New York. Wilson, S & Laurie, I 2002, Costs funtions to assess the cost of
saline town water supplies to households, commerce and industry,
Murray–Darling Basin Commission, Canberra, ACT.
14
 Glossary of terms
The glossary of terms has been written and adapted for the target audience and may not
always follow strict hydrogeological definitions.
Aesthetic value Aquifuge

The value of a location, place or landscape in terms An impermeable bed or rock e.g. solid granite that
of its visual desirability or beauty. does not contain or transmit water.
Aeolian salt Aquitard

In situ salt deposits including salt attached to Geological semi-permeable formation retarding
particles of dune sand and aggregated clay parna, water: It may contain groundwater but is incapable
which have been transported by the wind. of transferring that water to the surface.
DAFF Artesian
A commonwealth Department of Agriculture, An aquifer in which the water is under sufficient
Fisheries and Forestry. pressure to cause it to rise above the ground surface
if there is the opportunity.
Aggregated clay parna
Aeolian deposited clay particles whose source is Batter
believed to be the rivers and lakes of the Murray– A sloping section of exposed soil usually created
Darling Basin, for example Lake Eyre. through earthmoving and construction operations.
May be a cut batter or fill batter.
Agro-forestry
Landuse in which farmers grow trees in addition to Baseflow
other agricultural activities. Groundwater that discharges into surface waterways
such as streams and lakes.
Alluvial
Sediment transported by running water (for Basement rock
example, rivers) and deposited in low lying areas The rock located under the oldest stratified rocks in
and on flood plains. Slope of alluvial landscapes is a region.
typically 1%–2% or less.
Biodiversity
Ameliorant Many different species of plants, animals and other
A substance used to improve the chemical or living organisms.
physical qualities of the soil. For example, the
addition of lime to increase pH to the desired Biota
level for optimum plant growth; or the addition of The animals, plants and microbes that live in a
gypsum to improve structure. particular location or region.
Anion Bore
A negative ion such as carbonate (CO32-). A pipe placed into a groundwater system. Bores
may be used for different purposes e.g. to pump
Annuals groundwater, monitor watertable levels, collect
Plants that live for one growing season. groundwater samples.
Aquifer Bore drain salinity

Sediment or rocks porous enough to store water and Salinity occurring in small, open, gravity fed earthen
permeable enough to allow water to flow through channels.
them in quantities that yield usable amounts of
water. Borehole logging
Down-hole electromagnetic conductivity logging.
Aquiclude Measures conductivity versus depth in-situ to
An impermeable but saturated confining layer indicate salt store versus depth. Applicable below
unable to transmit viable amounts of water e.g. a the root zone.
clay layer.
Break-of-slope
The zone down a slope at which the gradient of the
slope changes (it flattens out from the steeper slope
above it).
1
Buffer Colloid
The property of a soil profile that moderates or Any substance that occurs in minute particles and
prevents infiltration from becoming leakage. The is dispersed throughout a second substance. The
capacity of a soil profile to act as a buffer against size of the particles is larger than the ions in a true
leakage is a product of its soil waterholding capacity solution, but small enough to stay in suspension
and its dryness prior to a wet episode. See also ‘dry almost indefinitely against gravity trying to settle
soil buffer’. them out. For example, dispersed clay in water.
Cainozoic Colluvial
The last of the geological eras, includes the Tertiary Sediments transported and deposited by gravity,
and Quaternary Periods. Extending from about 65 usually found at the base of hill slopes.
million years ago to the present.
Concave
Calibrate/Calibration Slope with a hollow, inward appearance.
The process carried out on measuring equipment
to ensure that all readings taken are aligned to a Confined aquifer
predetermined standard, so that the instrument is A fully saturated aquifer confined between two
reading correctly. impermeable layers (aquiclude or an aquifuge).
Capillary rise Connate/fossil salt

Upward movement of water (and all salt that is Salt trapped in the pore space of sediment at the
dissolved in it) in the soil due to surface tension in time of its deposition.
soil pores.—similar to the way water moves up into a
dry sponge. Consolidated sedimentary rock
Sediments that are consolidated or bound together
Carbon sequestration by processes such as compaction or deposition of
The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and other cementing material into pore spaces by physical
plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release and/or chemical change.
the oxygen and store the carbon.
Convex
Catchment Slope with a rounded, outward bulging appearance.
An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
Country rock
Catchment target The existing rock through which the molten material
A precise definition of an acceptable condition of (magma) intrudes and solidifies.
a natural resource or a combination of resources
at a given point, providing a broad indicator of Cyclic salt
catchment health and progress in remediation of Ocean spray that contains salt in fine droplets of
any land degradation. An objective, testable, result water.
in land rehabilitation.
DECCW
Cation A NSW state government department called the
A positive ion such as sodium (Na+). Department of Environment, Climate Change and
Water.
Cation Exchange Capacity
Cation exchange is the exchange of a cation Deep drainage
(positively charged ion such as sodium) in solution Water that leaks through the soil profile beyond
with another cation on the surface of any surface- the root zone of annual crops and pastures. This
active material such as clay or organic matter. water is lost from the annual crop production
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is a measurement cycle and is therefore not available for extraction
of this value in a laboratory. For example calcium in by plant roots. When deep drainage water adds to
solution exchanges with sodium on the clay when the watertable, it is then known as groundwater
gypsum is used to ameliorate a sodic soil. recharge.
Not to be confused with the deep drains of Western
Central West CMA
Australia where excavated channels with sloping
A NSW state government department called the floor and sides drain and remove surface and
Central West Catchment Management Authority. subsurface water from agricultural land.
2
Deformation Economic efficiency
Folding, faulting shearing, compression and When the cost of producing a given output is as low
extension of the rock mass. as possible.
Deionised water Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Water that has had all ions or impurities removed. The ability of a substance to conduct electricity.
No dissolved salt present (similar to distilled The most widely used and convenient method
water). of measuring the salinity of water is by electrical
conductivity. The reading depends on concentration
Discharge and composition of the dissolved salts present. More
Flow of groundwater from the saturated zone to salt increases the reading.
the unsaturated zone, land surface, or surface water
body. This can happen via springs, seepage or EC1:5
through evaporation or transpiration. The salinity of a soil-water suspension made
by mixing 1 part soil to 5 parts water by weight
Discharge area (when carrying out an EC1:5 measurement in field,
The area from which the groundwater is discharged. mixing 1 part soil to 5 parts water by volume is
more convenient). This result is then multiplied by a
Discounting conversion factor based on soil texture to estimate
A means of bringing present and future costs and actual soil salinity (ECe). This test can be performed
benefits into units that are comparable and allow in the field or a laboratory.
valid conclusions to be made.
ECa
Dispersion/Disperse The apparent electrical conductivity of soil
The process in which soil aggregates (crumbs) break measured (or determined) using electromagnetic
down into their component parts (sand, silt and (EM) induction technology. Electromagnetic
clay) when they become wet. induction instruments include an EM 31, EM 34 or
EM 38. Consultants or researchers survey land by
Diversion banks this method for rapid assessment of apparent soil
Small banks to divert water from one area to salinity over a large area. The EM instruments require
another. Used to intercept surface run-off to protect trained operators and interpretation of results by
drainage lines and earthworks from erosion, and experts as factors other than salinity can influence
to prevent water running across saline sites and test results. In particular, soil texture and moisture
moving salt. content can affect the reading.
Drainage line End-of-valley salinity target
Lowest point in the landscape down which run- End-of-valley salinity targets established by
off and surface drainage will flow. Can be natural catchment management plans. These targets
or man made. Larger drainage lines are visible on describe the quality of water, at the point where
topographic maps. a river leaves a catchment, which the relevant
Catchment Management Board (CMB) is seeking to
Dryland salinity
achieve.
Salinity occurring in dryland agricultural areas and
caused by this landuse. Endophyte
An organism that completes its life cycle in a plant
Dry soil buffer
which shows no external sign of the infection; one
A dry soil has a greater ability to store water and
of a group of fungi which are parasitic on grasses
reduce leakage to the watertable.
and are toxic to grazing animals (Holliday, 1989).
Dynamic equilibrium Episodic rainfall
A system in dynamic equilibrium is in a steady state
Infrequent heavy rainfall.
with the rate of inputs equalling the rate of outputs,
so there is no overall change to the system. Escarpment
A long cliff or steep slope separating two
Duplex soil
comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces
A soil with a sharp texture contrast between the A
and resulting from erosion or faulting.
(topsoil) and B (subsoil) horizons. A duplex soil often
has a sandy or loamy topsoil with a sharp to abrupt Evaporation
boundary to a clay subsoil. The process by which water moves into the air by
changing from a liquid to a vapour (gas).
3
Evapotranspiration Gleyed
Evapotranspiration = transpiration + evaporation Soil that develops under anaerobic, reducing
conditions. These soils are generally greyish, bluish,
The movement of water to the atmosphere from
or greenish in colour.
combined sources of vegetation (transpiration), soil
and water bodies (evaporation). Granitic rocks
Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) Course-grained igneous intrusive rocks (such as
diorites and granodiorites) that are generally
Commonly used as a measure of soil sodicity, ESP
massive.
is the proportion of sodium adsorbed onto the
clay mineral surfaces as a proportion of total cation Granitic landscapes
exchange capacity, expressed as a percentage. A landscape predominantly consisting of granite
Externality material.
The impact/s (either positive or negative) of an Ground-truthing
activity on a party not directly involved in the
Field work to verify that modelling or the collection
activity.
of data through aerial photography or remote
Fallowing sensing is correct.
The practice of leaving land without vegetative Groundwater
cover for a period of time before sowing a crop. Subsurface water in the saturated zone, including
Its purpose is to allow moisture and nutrients to
water occupying pores, cracks and voids in soil and
accumulate in the soil. rock material.
Faulting Groundwater discharge
When tensional forces act in opposite directions and Removal of water from the saturated zone. Water
cause one slab of rock to move upwards and the
exits the groundwater by surface seepage, baseflow
other down.
and lateral flow in streams, evaporation and
Flux evapotranspiration.
The amount flowing per unit time. Groundwater gradient
Fractured rock aquifers The slope of the watertable, or pieziometric surface;
synonymous with hydraulic gradient.
These develop as the porosity and permeability
of rock increases through rock weathering and Groundwater mounding
fracturing.
Watertable bulge caused by excessive leakage over
Fractured rocks time from a confined area. For example, from a lake
or irrigation.
Rocks that have deformed by cracking. The resulting
fractures and joints provide space for groundwater Groundwater recharge
storage and movement.
Water that infiltrates the ground surface, leaks
Friable through the unsaturated zone and enters the
saturated zone. This addition of water to the
Refers to a soil property of consistence, describing
saturated zone influences watertable height.
the resistance of a material to deformation or
rupture. Consistence refers to the degree of Groundwater restrictions
cohesion or adhesion of the soil mass and is strongly Landscape characteristics that restrict groundwater
affected by the moisture content of the soil. movement such as catchment shape and size;
A friable soil tends naturally to produce a suitable changes in soil type and depth; rock type and
aggregate size distribution by the single pass of an geological intrusions.
implement.
Groundwater system
Gaining streams The term groundwater system refers to the
The watertable is situated above the stream such underground section of a hydrological system,
that the watertable will flow into the stream. including places where water enters, is transmitted,
stored and departs.
Geophysical features
The physical properties of the earth. Halophyte
A terrestrial plant adapted to grow in saline
environments.
4
Hardness I&I NSW
Hardness is a measure of the total concentration of A state government department called the
dissolved calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions Department of Industry and Investment NSW.
expressed as Mg CaCO3/L.
Infrastructure
Hydraulic conductivity Built structures such as roads, bridges, railway lines,
The rate at which water (solvent) moves through a playing fields, houses, underground pipes and
medium (in this case soil). It is determined primarily cables.
by the particle size (texture) and the arrangement of
the soil particles (structure), and to a lesser extent, Incident light
factors such as soil compaction and chemistry. For The direct light that falls on a surface.
example sodic soil generally has a low hydraulic
conductivity. Impermeable
Not allowing fluid to pass through. Layers of soil or
Hydraulic flux rock that do not allow water to penetrate are
impermeable.
The amount flowing per unit time. Flow rate.
Indicator plants
Hydraulic head
Plants that are adapted to growing in saline
The sum of the elevation head and the pressure
environments and often replace existing species as
head. Same as piezometric head.
the salinity level of a site increases. Their presence
Hydrogeological province can be one of the early indications of salinity
Part of the landscape where the physical processes problems.
contributing to dryland salinity are similar and Infiltration
where the salinity management options are also
Surface water entering the soil profile and soaking
similar.
downwards.
Hydrogeologists
In situ
Professional geologist, who specialises in
Items are said to be ‘in situ’ when they are found in
groundwater and related geological aspects of its
the location where they were last deposited.
interaction with surface water.
Intermediate groundwater systems
Hydrogeology
These systems are 5–50 km in size i.e. between the
The science that deals with subsurface water
local and regional groundwater systems in size.
including the geology of water-bearing rocks,
and the chemistry physics and movement of Irrigation salinity
groundwater. Salinity occurring on irrigated land and caused by
irrigation practices.
Hydrological cycle
Collection of processes by which water moves from Joint
the atmosphere to the earth and back again. A fracture in a rock. One that exhibits no
differential movement, in contrast to a fault.
Hydrological unit
Any soil or rock unit or zone which, due to its L&WA
hydraulic features (porosity or permeability), A federal government department called Land &
influences groundwater storage or movement. Water Australia.
Hydrologist Landscape
A scientist who specialises in the dynamics of An area of land and its physical features. A term
watershed functions and landuse. that we use to describe an area that has common
features. For example, Albury may be in a range of
Hydrology
landscapes, depending on whether we are looking
The study of surface water and groundwater
at the type of agricultural production, vegetation or
movement.
landforms.
Hydroscopic
Lateral flow (through-flow)
Absorbs water from the atmosphere.
Movement of groundwater laterally in the soil profile
rather than the vertical movement that results in rise
and fall of watertables. It is usually associated with
slope or changes in hydraulic head.
5
Leaching Mesa
The process by which soluble materials in the soil, An elevated area of land with a flat top and sides
such as salts, nutrients, pesticide chemicals or that are usually steep cliffs (characteristic table-top
contaminants are washed into a lower layer of soil shape).
or are dissolved and carried away by water.
Metasedimentary landscape
Leaching fraction A landscape primarily composed of
A percentage of infiltrated irrigation water that metasedimentary rocks.
percolates below the root zone. This water is
not used by plants and ends up adding to the Metasedimentary rocks
watertable. Sedimentary rock that has undergone partial
change in composition, texture or internal structure
Leaching requirement in response to pronounced changes in temperature
The irrigation water quantity in excess of the plant or pressure. For example, slate, phyllite, marble and
water requirement (PWR) needed to achieve a given quartzite.
leaching fraction. It is necessary to keep the soil
salinity from exceeding the tolerance level of the Metavolcanic rock
crop in question. Volcanic rock that has undergone partial
change in composition, texture or internal
Leakage structure in response to pronounced changes
The movement of water downwards through the soil in temperature, pressure and/or chemical
and past the plant root zone or from below water environments. For example, greenstone, schist and
bodies. amphibolite.
Lithological (adjective) Micropores

Lithology: The gross physical character of a rock or Pore holes (diameter < 0.05 mm) that are not
rock formation. drained at ‘Field Capacity’. They hold water in the soil
against gravity, similar to a sponge. Most of this
Local groundwater systems water is available for plant use.
These systems are shallow and have short flow paths
with their discharge areas close to their recharge
Monitoring bore
areas. A pipe placed into a groundwater system to
measure the level of the groundwater, and to allow
Losing streams collection of groundwater samples and geophysical
The watertable is below the stream bed surface, data.
so the water flows from the stream to the watertable.
Native vegetation
Macropores Plant species that are indigenous to the subject
Pore holes (diameter > 0. 5 mm) that are drained at location.
‘Field Capacity’ (percentage of moisture remaining
in a soil horizon 2–3 days after being saturated by
Necrotic
rainfall or irrigation). They are transmission channels Dead skin or tissue, often the result of burns or
in the soil profile that are created by cracking, old Infection.
plant roots and soil fauna (e.g. earthworms). As a
NLWRA
rough guide, macropores are visible to the naked
National Land and Water Resources Audit.
eye; micropores are not. You need at least a hand
lens to see micropores. Osmotic (adjective)
Massive Salt of any sort in large enough proportions will
prevent plants getting enough water to function
An adjective describing a very thick rock unit
properly. The process of osmosis occurs if the salt
without stratification, jointing, foliation or cleavage
content of the soil is higher than that of the plant.
(solid, with no pores).
In order to balance the concentration of salt,
Matrix water from the plant cells move out into the soil,
The fine-grained material of a rock in which the effectively leaving the plant suffering from lack of
coarser components are embedded. water. It takes energy to resist or reverse the natural
flow of osmosis – as in reverse osmosis to obtain
drinking quality water from saline water.
6
Organic matter Potable
The remains of dead and decayed plants and Water that is safe for human consumption.
animals. Organic matter is important in both the
physical and the chemical properties of the soil. Provenance
It helps bond soil particles together, creating and A geographical area and environment to which
maintaining soil structure; and is a source of plant parent trees and other vegetation are native.
nutrients. Seedlings will generally grow best in environments
similar to their native locality.
Parna
Aeolian fine clayey material that has been Primary salinity
transported and deposited by wind across much of Occurred naturally in the landscape prior to
southern NSW. European settlement e.g. salt marshes, salt lakes,
tidal swamps or natural salt scalds. Sometimes called
Perched watertable inherent salinity.
A local watertable that sits above a low permeability
layer of very limited extent, such as clay shale or PROGRAZE
unfractured rock, that separates it from a deeper Course run by Industry & Investment NSW to
regional watertable. increase knowledge of participants in pasture
production and livestock interface resulting in
Perennial improved grazing management.
A plant that lives for several growing seasons.
Rainfall salt = Aeolian + Cyclic salt
Perenniality In the Riverina area of NSW, rainfall delivers around
The degree to which a vegetation community 30 kg /ha of salt each year. Obviously there is more
or geographical area is composed of perennial salt in the rain in coastal regions.
vegetation.
Recharge
Permanent Wilting Point Flow of water into the saturated zone and entering
The moisture content of the soil, expressed as a the groundwater system.
percentage of the soil volume or as a percentage of
dry weight, at the time when the plant will be under Recharge area
permanent stress as a result of the deficiency in the The area where water can enter and move
soil moisture. Permanent stress means that it will not downward to the groundwater.
recover overnight from wilting.
Regional groundwater systems
Permeability (also called transmissivity) These systems are deep, have long flow paths and
The ease with which a porous medium can transmit are generally composed of confined aquifers.
water. This is a measure of the ability of the material
to drain and is dependent on how well the pores or Regolith
fractures are connected. The layer of loose but cohesive material that
includes soil and weathered rock and which sits over
Piezometer solid massive bedrock and forms the surface of the
A pipe in which the elevation of the water level land.
or potentiometric surface (pressure level) can be
determined in relation to the ground surface. Remnant vegetation
Native vegetation remaining after an area has been
Plateau (partially) cleared.
Tableland: a relatively flat highland.
River salinity
Pore space Salinity in rivers systems.
The total space not occupied by soil particles or
rock. Root zone
The area below the ground surface occupied by
Porosity plant roots.
The capacity of soil or rock to hold water. This is
defined by the percentage of the bulk volume of Rubble pit
the soil or rock that is occupied by openings such as A hole in the backyard of suburban blocks where
pores and fractures. roof water is drained as a means of disposal.
7
Run-off Salt tolerance
The proportion of precipitation that flows across the The amount of salt a plant or animal can be exposed
ground surface, generally to enter drainage lines. to before its function is affected. Tolerance varies
greatly from species to species and can also be
Salinisation affected by other factors such as growth stage and
The process by which land and water becomes salt- plant/animal health.
affected or increasingly saline.
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
Salinity/Saline Measures the sodicity (sodium hazard) of water. SAR
Salinity is the excessive accumulation of salts provides a measure of the imbalance of sodium ions
(usually sodium chloride) in land and water to relative to calcium and magnesium ions.
sufficient levels to impact on human and natural
assets (e.g. plants, animals, aquatic ecosystems, Saturated zone
water supplies, agriculture or infrastructure). The area below the watertable where all spaces in
soil, sediment and rock are filled with water, and
Salinity hazard none contain air.
The extent to which the natural physical
characteristics predispose a landscape to Secondary salinity
salinisation. Occurs in the landscape post-European settlement.
Secondary salinity is salinisation of soil, surface
Salinity risk water or groundwater due to human activity such as
The likelihood of salinity occurring due to landuse urbanisation and agriculture (irrigated and dryland).
and other activities, and the severity of the impact.
Sediment
Salt bulge Sand, gravel, silt or clay that has been transported
An increased concentration of salt in the profile with by water.
depth due to an historic event e.g. cyclic, connate,
aeolian or rock weathering; or due to redistribution Sedimentary aquifers
of salt from leaching. Aquifers made up of unconsolidated alluvial and
colluvial sediments such as sand and gravel.
Salinity credits
Landholders can be paid if they plant forest where Seepage
there is a demonstrated salinity control benefit. Groundwater flowing or ‘oozing’ out of the soil
surface. Creates an area of seasonal or permanent
Salt interception schemes waterlogging.
Large-scale groundwater pumping and drainage
projects that intercept saline water flows and Self-mulching
dispose of them, generally by evaporation. A soil with a naturally formed well-aggregated
surface that does not crust and seal under the
Saltland pastures impact of raindrops.
Pastures growing in saline soil e.g. saltbush,
puccinellia and tall wheat grass. Siliceous
A mineral that is high in silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2).
Salt concentration A common silicate mineral is quartz. A common
The amount of salt in a given volume of water and product made principally of silica is glass.
is expressed in terms of mass per unit volume hence
the units mg/l or parts per million. Silviculture
The science and technology of managing forest
Salt load establishment, composition and growth. Growing
The amount of salt carried in water flow in rivers, trees as a commercial venture.
groundwater, or off the soil surface in a given time
period expressed in kg/day, t/day or t/year. Social adjustment
The human or social consequences of adapting to
Salt scald environmental change.
An area of land that has become bare due to
salinity-induced loss of vegetation or erosion. Sodicity/Sodic
The presence of a high proportion of sodium ions
relative to other cations in water or soil.
8
Soil profile Standing water level (SWL)
A vertical section of earth from the soil surface to The depth to groundwater in a non-pumping bore.
parent rock material that shows the different soil
horizons. Stratigraphic profiles
Describes the vertical position and distribution of
Soil structure soil/rock material.
Refers to the way that sand, silt, clay and organic
matter are arranged into crumbs (or aggregates). Summer-active perennial
Perennial plants that grow most actively in the
Soil texture summer period.
Texture is the term used to describe the relative
abundance of different sizes of mineral particles Temporal
that make up a soil e.g. sand, silt and clay in the Lasting only for a time.
soil. Texture is essentially a fixed property of a soil.
It is determined by the parent rock material and Temporary
the soil’s transportational (wind or water) history. It Lasting only for a short time.
is not changed merely by cultivation or by adding
gypsum. Texture
Texture is the term used to describe the relative
Soil waterholding capacity (SWHC) abundance of different sizes of mineral particles that
The amount of water a soil profile is capable of make up a soil. Texture is essentially a fixed property
holding after leakage of free water has occurred. of a soil. It is determined by the parent rock material
The amount of water held in a soil between Field and the soil’s transportational (wind or water)
Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point. history. It is not changed merely by cultivation or by
adding gypsum.
Spacial arrangement
The property possessed by an array of things that Turbidity
have space between them. Arrangement of items in Decreased transparency of a substance (e.g.water)
three dimensions. due to suspended and dissolved substances
(e.g. sediment) reducing the transmission of light.
Subcatchment
Catchments often contain a number of smaller Tilth
subcatchments that drain to the same point in the The physical condition of the soil as related to its
landscape. ease of tillage, fitness as a seedbed, and impedance
to seedling emergence and root penetration.
Sub samples
Several samples representing one area that are Topsoil
collected and mixed to make the bulked sample for The surface or upper level of soil. Technically the A
laboratory testing. horizon.
Subsoil Total Hydraulic head

The layers of soil below the topsoil. Technically the B The energy contained in a water mass due to
horizon. elevation, pressure and velocity. Elevation head and
pressure head are most important in groundwater
Subsurface water studies and their sum is equal to the total hydraulic
Water found below the ground surface. head. It can be determined by measuring the
elevation of the water level in a bore or piezometer.
Sustainable yield
The proportion of the long-term average annual Topography
recharge that can be extracted each year without The relief, elevation or shape of a landscape.
causing unacceptable impacts on the environment
and or groundwater users. Toxicity
The poisonous effect of specific ions on plants,
Stakeholder/s for example, high levels of salts such as chlorides,
An individual, group or organisation with direct sulphates and carbonates can be toxic to some
or indirect interests in a particular issue such as species. Tolerance levels differ with species and
which salinity management options are adopted in types of salts.
a catchment.
9
Transient salinity Unsaturated zone
The term ‘transient salinity’ describes the temporal The area between the ground surface and the
(lasting only for a time) variation of the salt content watertable that is not fully saturated with water.
of the root zone. This may be due to the rise and
fall of saline watertables or a combination of soil Urban salinity
properties and rainfall conditions causing perched Salinity occurring in urban landscapes and caused
watertables. Transient salinity is extensive in dryland by urban land management.
regions and occurs mainly in landscapes dominated
by sodic subsoils. Water balance
A state of equilibrium when rainfall or irrigation
Transmissivity water in a landscape is accounted for by the sum of
A measure of the capability of the entire thickness run-off, plant water use (transpiration), evaporation,
of an aquifer to transmit water. Measured as flow per recharge and changes in soil moisture content.
unit cross-section.
Waterlogging
Transpiration (also see ‘evapotranspiration’) Where the surface soil is saturated with water from
Where water taken up by plants is released through rising groundwater or from surface run-off collecting
their leaves to the atmosphere. in low areas.
Transpiration credits Watertable

Where a mechanism is in place linking the The upper surface of groundwater and the level
transpiration of a known volume of water through a below which an unconfined groundwater system is
vegetated area, the volume can then be accounted permanently saturated with water.
for in the hydrological balance and a payment for the
service can be made. This system is still being Woody vegetation
developed. Plants with a woody stem that livestock do not eat.
Generally perennials.
Unconfined aquifer
An aquifer with no confining layer above it and may Viscosity
not be fully saturated. The thickness or resistance to flow of a liquid.
Unconsolidated landscape
A landscape primarily composed of unconsolidated
sediments; alluvium.
Unconsolidated sediment
Sand, clay, silt or gravel that is not held together by
compaction or a cementing agent.; also known
as alluvium. For example river sand, gravel beds, soft
clays and silt.
y 10

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P 17 Zone Hoffman Salinity-Training-Manual

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Salinity Training Manual

Published by NSW Department of Primary Industries, June 2014

Authors and contributing departments acknowledged in the ‘List of Contributors’.

ISBN 978 1 74256 076 2

Part 2 – Identification and monitoring

Part 1 – Processes and extent

Chapter 1: Salinity basics

Chapter 2: Extent and impact of salinity

Chapter 3: Hydrological cycle

Chapter 4: Groundwater systems

Chapter 5: Soils and geology

Chapter 6: Vegetation systems and the water balance

Chapter 7: Landscape features

Chapter 8: Measuring salinity

Chapter 9: Identifying and investigating a saline site

Chapter 10: Salinity assessment and management planning

Chapter 11: Testing water

Chapter 12: Testing soil

Chapter 13: Monitoring groundwater

Chapter 14: Recharge management options (pasture/crop)

Chapter 15: Effective management of saline discharge sites

Chapter 16: Recharge management for different landscapes

Chapter 17: Engineering options

Chapter 18: Recharge management options (farm forestry)

Chapter 19: Salinity economics

 Definition of salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

 Salt in the soil profile ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

 Salinity origin ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

 What is salt? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

 Plants and salt .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

 Plant mechanisms to cope with excess salt ................................................................................................................................................................. 9

 The effect of salt on soil ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

 Types of salinity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

 Key points and further information................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Sources of salt Rock weathering salt

 Salt in the soil profile

Figure 1.4 How salt moves to the soil surface.

Cations +ve Anions -ve SALT

magnesium Mg2+ chloride Clˉ magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

calcium Ca2+ chloride Clˉ calcium chloride (CaCl2)

Table 1.1: Types of salt

Table 1.2: Solubility of ions that make up salts

(left) Table 1.3: The risk to plants and soil from

(below) Figure 1.5: Relative salt tolerance ratings

 Plants and salt

 Plant mechanisms to cope with excess salt – DIPNR (2004)

 The effect of salt on soil

Plate 1.5: Balanced catchment Plate 1.6: Unbalanced catchment

Figure 1.7: Causes of irrigation salinity.

Figure 1.8: Groundwater mounds.

Figure 1.9: Causes of urban salinity.

Vegetation type and composition The hydrological cycle

 Key points and further information

Key points Further reading

 Salinity in Australia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

 Salinity in NSW .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

 NSW response to salinity................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

 States and Territories salinity extent................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

 Impact of salinity in NSW ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

 Key points and additional information.......................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Asset area in Australia Year 2000

Figure 2.6: Estimated average salt load

Note: The salt load